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Contents
1 An Introduction to Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 History of Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Particle Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Wave Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.4 Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.5 Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1 The Ultraviolet Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.2 The Visible Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.3 The Infrared Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.4 The Microwave Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Energy–Matter Interactions in the Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1.1 Rayleigh Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.1.2 Mie Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.1.3 Non selective Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5.2 Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5.3 Emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Atmospheric Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.1 Atmospheric Windows in Optical Range . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6.2 Atmospheric Windows in Thermal IR Region . . . . . . 14
1.6.3 Atmospheric Windows in Microwave Region . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Energy–Matter Interactions with the Terrain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7.1 Reflection Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.7.2 Transmission Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.7.3 Absorption Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
xv
xvi Contents
1.7.4 Emission Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8 Electromagnetic Radiation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8.1 Planck’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8.2 Stefan–Boltzmann Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8.3 Wein’s Radiation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8.4 Rayleigh–Jeans Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8.5 Kirchhoff’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.9 Spectral Response Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.10 Imaging Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.11 Geographical Information System (GIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.11.1 Components of a GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.11.2 GIS Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.11.3 Location Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.11.4 Attribute Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.11.5 Data Representation in GIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.11.5.1 Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.11.5.2 Layers and Coverages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.11.6 Spatial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.11.7 Map Projections and Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.11.7.1 Conformal Projection:
Shape Preserving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
1.11.7.2 Equal Area Projection:
Area Preserving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
1.11.7.3 Equidistant Projection: Distance
Preserving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
1.11.7.4 True-Direction Projection: Direction
Preserving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.12 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.12.1 Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.12.2 GNSS Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.12.3 Positioning Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.13 Remote Sensing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.13.1 The Source of Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.13.2 The Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.13.3 Platforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.13.4 Data Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.13.5 Data Product Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.13.6 Data Analysis/Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.13.7 Data/Information Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.13.8 Archival and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.14 Resolution Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.14.1 Spatial Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.14.2 Spectral Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Contents xvii
1.14.3 Radiometric Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.14.4 Temporal Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.14.5 Angular Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.15 Organization of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2 Earth Observation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2 Sensing Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.1 Airborne Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2.2 Spaceborne Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.2.1 Near-Polar Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.2.2 Geosynchronous Orbits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.1 Optical Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.1.1 Photographic Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.1.2 Digital Aerial Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.1.3 Video Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.1.4 Radiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.1.5 Electro-Optical Scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3.2 Microwave Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.3.2.1 Passive Microwave Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.3.2.2 Active Microwave Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3.3 LiDAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.4 The Ground Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.5 Earth-Observing Systems (EOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.5.1 The Landsat System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.5.1.1 The First Landsat Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.5.1.2 The Second Landsat Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.5.1.3 The Third Landsat Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.5.1.4 Multi-sensor Formation Concept . . . . . . . . . 70
2.5.2 Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) . . . . . 71
2.5.2.1 The First SPOT Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.5.2.2 The Second SPOT Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.5.2.3 The Third SPOT Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.3 PLÉIADES Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.5.4 The Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS)
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.5.4.1 The IRS Series of Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.5.4.2 Resourcesat-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.5.4.3 Resourcesat-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.5.5 China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS)
Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
xviii Contents
2.5.5.1 CBERS-1 and -2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.5.5.2 CBERS-2B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.5.5.3 CBERS-3 and CBERS-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.5.6 Formosat Satellite Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.5.6.1 Formosat-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.5.6.2 Formosat-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.5.7 The Earth Observing System Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.5.7.1 Terra (EOS-AM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.5.7.2 Aqua (EOS PM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.5.8 Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.5.9 RapidEye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.5.10 High Spatial Resolution Remote Sensing
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.5.10.1 Earlybird and QuickBird. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.5.10.2 Ikonos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.5.10.3 Orbview-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.5.10.4 Cartosat Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.5.10.5 GeoEye-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2.5.10.6 WorldView Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.6 The NOAA Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.6.1 JPSS Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.7 Spaceborne Imaging Microwave Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.7.1 Seasat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.7.2 European Remote Sensing Satellite
(ERS-1 and -2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.7.3 Sentinel-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2.7.4 Japanese Earth Resources Satellite (JERS-1) . . . . . . . . 101
2.7.5 Advanced Land Observation Satellite (ALOS-1) . . . . . 101
2.7.6 Radarsat Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.7.6.1 Radarsat-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.7.6.2 Radarsat-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.7.6.3 RADARSAT Constellation Mission
(RCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.7.7 Envisat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.7.8 Radar Imaging Satellite (RISAT) Missions . . . . . . . . . 107
2.7.8.1 Radar Imaging Satellite (RISAT-2). . . . . . . 108
2.7.8.2 Radar Imaging Satellite (RISAT-1). . . . . . . 109
2.7.9 Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity
Mission (SMOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.7.9.1 Measurement Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.7.10 Soil Moisture Active Passive Mission (SMAP) . . . . . . 112
2.8 Conlusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Contents xix
3 Digital Image Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.2 Data Storage Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.2.1 Compact Disc (CDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.2.2 Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.2.3 Memory Sticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.3 Digital Data Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.3.1 Generic Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.3.2 GIF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.3.3 JPEG. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.3.4 TIFF and GeoTIFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.4 Image Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.4.1 Geometric Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.4.1.1 Correction for Systemic Distortions . . . . . . 123
3.4.1.2 Correction of Nonsystemic Errors. . . . . . . . 124
3.4.2 Radiometric Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.4.3 Corrections for Solar Illumination Variation . . . . . . . . 128
3.4.4 Noise Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.5 Image Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.5.1 Contrast Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.5.2 Density Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.5.3 Linear Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.5.3.1 Piece-wise Linear Enhancement . . . . . . . . . 136
3.5.4 Look-up Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.5.5 Nonlinear Stretching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.5.6 Histogram Equalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.5.7 Histogram Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.5.8 Spatial Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.5.9 Image Smoothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.5.10 Edge Enhancement and Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.6 Multiple Image Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
3.6.1 Band Ratioing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.6.2 Vegetation Index (Components) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.6.3 Image Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.6.3.1 Principal Component Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.6.3.2 Tasseled Cap Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.6.3.3 Digital Image Fusion Techniques . . . . . . . . 148
3.7 Image Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.7.1 Unsupervised Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.7.1.1 Moving Cluster Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.7.1.2 Iterative Self-organizing Data Analysis
(ISODATA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152
3.7.1.3 Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering . . .. 152
xx Contents
3.7.1.4 Histogram-Based Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.7.1.5 AMOEBA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.7.2 Supervised Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.7.2.1 Parallelepiped Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
3.7.2.2 Minimum Distance Classification . . . . . . . . 154
3.7.2.3 Maximum Likelihood Classification . . . . . . 154
3.7.2.4 Classification and Regression Tree
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.7.2.5 Fuzzy Clustering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.7.2.6 Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.7.2.7 Contextual Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.7.2.8 Object-Oriented Classification . . . . . . . . . . 158
3.7.2.9 Iterative Guided Spectral Class
Rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.7.2.10 Other Classifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.8 Accuracy Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4 Image Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.3 Selection of Remote Sensing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.4 Elements of Image Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.4.1 First-Order Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.4.1.1 Image Tone/Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.4.1.2 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.4.2 Second Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.4.2.1 Geometric Arrangements of Objects . . . . . . 174
4.4.2.2 Spatial Arrangement of Tone/Colour . . . . . 176
4.4.3 Third Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.4.3.1 Locational or Positional Elements. . . . . . . . 178
4.4.3.2 Interpreted from Lower
Order Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.5 Collateral Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.6 Convergence of Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.7 The Multi-concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.8 Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.9 Geotechnical Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.10 The Image Interpretation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.10.1 Image Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.10.2 Interpretation Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.10.3 Development of Interpretation Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.10.4 Field Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Contents xxi
4.10.5 Interpretive Overlays/Data Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.10.6 Data Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.10.7 Digital Image/Photo-Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.10.8 Creation of Digital Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.11 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5 Introduction to Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.2 Soil Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.2.1 Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.2.1.1 Mechanical Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.2.1.2 Chemical Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.2.2 Models of Soil Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.2.2.1 Passive Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.2.2.2 Active Soil-Forming Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5.2.3 Other Soil Formation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.2.3.1 Simonson’s Process Systems Based
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209
5.2.3.2 Runge’s Energy Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 209
5.2.3.3 Johnsons’s Soil Thickness Model . . . . . . .. 210
5.2.3.4 Johnson and Watson-Stegner’s Soil
Evolution Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.2.4 Soil-Forming Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.3 Soil Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.3.1 Soil Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.3.1.1 Soil Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.3.1.2 Soil Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.3.1.3 Soil Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.3.1.4 Soil Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.3.1.5 Soil Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.3.1.6 Soil Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5.3.1.7 Bulk Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.3.2 Soil Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.3.2.1 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) . . . . . . . . 225
5.3.2.2 Soil Reaction (pH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.4 Soil Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.4.1 Solid Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.4.2 Liquid and Gaseous Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.5 Physical Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.6 Parent Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.6.1 Residual Parent Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.6.2 Colluvial Debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.6.3 Alluvial Stream Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
xxii Contents
5.6.3.1 Fluvial Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.6.3.2 Alluvial Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.6.3.3 Delta Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.6.4 Marine Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.6.5 Glacial Till and Associated Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.6.6 Outwash Plains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.6.7 Glacial Lake (Lacustrine) Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.6.8 Glacial Aeolian Deposits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.6.9 Loess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.7 Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.7.1 Tectonic Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.7.2 Volcanic Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.7.3 Fluvial Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.7.4 Coastal and Deltaic Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.7.5 Aeolian Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
5.7.6 Glacial Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.8 Soil Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.8.1 USDA Soil Classification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.8.1.1 Structure of Soil Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.8.2 The FAO-UNESCO Soil Classification System . . . . . 253
5.8.3 The World Reference Base (WRB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.8.3.1 Historical Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5.9 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6 Spectral Reflectance of Soils. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.2.1 Energy—Matter Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.2.1.1 Vibrational Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.2.1.2 Electron Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.2.1.3 Radiation Interactions with a Volume
of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.2.1.4 Refractive Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.3 Models of Radiation Scattered by Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.4 Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.4.1 Infrared Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.4.1.1 Infrared Transmission Spectroscopy . . . . . . 273
6.4.1.2 Infrared Diffuse Reflectance
Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 274
6.4.1.3 Infrared Attenuated Total Reflectance
Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 275
6.4.1.4 Infrared Photoacoustic Spectroscopy. . . . .. 275
6.4.1.5 Emission Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 276
Contents xxiii
6.4.2 Fluorescence Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 277
6.4.3 Preprocessing and Analysis of Spectroscopic
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.5 Spectral Reflectance Pattern of Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.5.1 Factors Affecting Soil Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.5.1.1 Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.5.1.2 Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
6.5.1.3 Soil Colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
6.5.1.4 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
6.5.1.5 Surface Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
6.5.1.6 Soil Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
6.5.1.7 Iron Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.5.1.8 Calcium Carbonate Content . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.5.1.9 Soil Salinity and/or Alkalinity . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.5.1.10 Direction of Illumination
and Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 295
6.6 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 297
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 298
7 Soil Resources Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
7.2 Soil Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
7.2.1 Detailed Soil Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
7.2.2 Detailed Reconnaissance Soil Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
7.2.3 Generalized Soil Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.2.4 Reconnaissance Soil Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.2.5 Schematic Soil Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.3 Soil Map Unit (SMU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.3.1 Conventions for Establishing Soil Map Units . . . . . . . 308
7.3.2 Nomenclature of SMU Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
7.3.3 Soil Mapping Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
7.4 Soil Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
7.4.1 Soil Survey Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
7.4.1.1 Defining the Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
7.4.1.2 The Selection of Mapping Scales and
Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
7.4.1.3 Base Map Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
7.4.1.4 Collateral Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7.4.1.5 Field Work/Ground Truth Collection . . . . . 315
7.4.1.6 Development of Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
7.4.1.7 Soil Analysis and Classification . . . . . . . . . 316
7.4.1.8 Delineation of Soilscape Boundaries. . . . . . 316
7.4.1.9 Area Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
7.4.1.10 Accuracy Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
xxiv Contents
7.5 The Usage of Aerial Photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.5.1 Aspect/Elemental Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.5.2 Physiographic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
7.5.3 Morphogenetic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
7.6 Airborne Multispectral Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
7.7 Spaceborne Multispectral Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
7.7.1 Visual Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
7.7.1.1 Selection of Remote Sensing Data . . . . . . . 321
7.7.1.2 Preparation of Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.7.1.3 Preliminary Visual Interpretation . . . . . . . . 322
7.7.1.4 Ground Truth Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.7.1.5 Soil Chemical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
7.7.1.6 Post-Field Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
7.7.2 Digital Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
7.7.2.1 Database Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.7.2.2 Preliminary Digital Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.7.2.3 Ground Truth Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.7.2.4 Final Digital Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.7.2.5 Accuracy Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.8 Deriving Information on Vegetation-Covered Soils . . . . . . . . . . 336
7.9 Land Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.9.1 Generation of Derivative Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
7.9.1.1 Slope Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
7.9.1.2 Land Capability Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
7.9.1.3 Land Irrigability Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.10 Digital Soil Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
7.10.1 Role of Remote and Proximal Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
7.11 Monitoring Soil Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
7.12 Soil Mapping: World-Wide Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
7.13 Global SoilMap.net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
7.14 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8 Soil Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
8.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
8.2.1 Components of Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
8.3 Soil Information System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
8.3.1 Historical Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
8.4 Soil Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
8.4.1 Structural Components of the Database . . . . . . . . . . . 365
8.4.1.1 Parent Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
8.4.1.2 Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
8.4.1.3 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Contents xxv
8.4.2 Soil Database Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
8.4.2.1 Conceptual Design of Database . . . . . . . . . 372
8.4.2.2 Database Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
8.5 Global Soil Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
8.5.1 SOil and TERrain Database (SOTER) . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
8.5.1.1 Input Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
8.5.1.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
8.5.1.3 Database Harmonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
8.5.1.4 Harmonized World Soil Database v 1.0 . . . 380
8.5.1.5 Harmonized World Soil Database v 1.1 . . . 381
8.5.1.6 Harmonized World Soil Database v 1.2 . . . 382
8.5.2 e-SOTER-GEOSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
8.5.3 World Inventory of Soil Emission
Potential (WISE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 383
8.5.4 World Soil Information Service (WoSIS) . . . . . . . . .. 384
8.6 Soil Information Systems: Global Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 385
8.6.1 The National Soils Information System (NASIS)
of USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 385
8.6.2 Canadian Soil Information Service (CanSIS) . . . . . .. 387
8.6.3 The European Soil Information (EUSIS) . . . . . . . . . .. 389
8.6.4 Australian Soil Resource Information System
(ASRIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 391
8.6.5 Integrated National Agricultural Resource
Information System (INARIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
8.6.6 ISRIC Soil Information System (ISIS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
8.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
9 Soil Moisture Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.3 Conventional and Proximal Sensing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
9.3.1 Gravimetric Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
9.3.2 Nuclear Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
9.3.2.1 Neutron Scattering Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
9.3.2.2 Gamma-Ray Attenuation Method . . . . . . . . 404
9.3.3 Electromagnetic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
9.3.3.1 Time-Domain Reflectometry Method . . . . . 405
9.3.3.2 Frequency-Domain Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
9.3.4 Global Positioning System’s Signals Method . . . . . . . 407
9.3.5 Ground Penetrating Radar Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
9.3.6 Distributed Temperature Sensing Method . . . . . . . . . . 410
9.3.7 Tensiometric Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
9.3.8 Hygrometric Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
xxvi Contents
9.4 Remote Sensing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
9.4.1 Gamma Radiation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
9.4.2 Visible/Near Infrared Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
9.4.3 Thermal Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
9.4.3.1 Models for Interpretation of Thermal
Infrared Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
9.4.4 Microwave Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
9.4.4.1 Passive Microwave Techniques . . . . . . . . . 415
9.4.4.2 Active Microwave Techniques . . . . . . . . . . 422
9.4.4.3 Integrated Active and Passive Remote
Sensing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
9.5 Profile Soil Moisture Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
9.5.1 Regression Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
9.5.2 Knowledge-Based Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
9.5.3 Inversion Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
9.6 Microwave Remote Sensing of Soil Moisture from Space . . . . . 440
9.6.1 Dedicated Microwave Soil Moisture Missions . . . . . . 441
9.6.1.1 Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity
(SMOS) Mission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 441
9.6.1.2 Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP)
Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 441
9.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 445
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 448
10 Soil Fertility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
10.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
10.3 Conventional Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
10.4 Proximal Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
10.4.1 Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
10.4.2 In-Field Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
10.4.2.1 Electrical and Electromagnetic Sensors . . . . 465
10.4.2.2 Optical and Radiometric Sensors . . . . . . . . 465
10.4.3 Acoustic and Pneumatic Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
10.4.4 Electrochemical Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
10.4.5 Imaging Spectrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
10.4.6 Remote Sensing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
10.5 Soil Fertility Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
10.5.1 Qualitative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
10.5.1.1 Clay Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
10.5.1.2 Carbonats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
10.5.1.3 Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
10.5.2 Quantitative Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
Contents xxvii
10.5.2.1 Soil Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
10.5.2.2 Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
10.5.2.3 Phosphorus and Potassium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
10.5.2.4 Sodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
10.5.2.5 Multiple Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
10.6 Soil Fertility Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
10.6.1 Homogenous Management Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
10.7 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
http://www.springer.com/978-3-662-53738-1
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