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Computer and Information Security Handbook
This page intentionally left blank
Computer and Information
Security Handbook
Third Edition

Edited by
John R. Vacca
Morgan Kaufmann is an imprint of Elsevier
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with
organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be
noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,
methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their
own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury
and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of
any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 978-0-12-803843-7

For information on all Morgan Kaufmann publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Todd Green

Acquisition Editor: Brian Romer
Editorial Project Manager: Charlie Kent
Production Project Manager: Priya Kumaraguruparan
Designer: Maria Inês Cruz

Typeset by TNQ Books and Journals

This book is dedicated to my wife, Bee.
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

Contributors xxvii 3. A Cryptography Primer 35

About the Editor xxxi
Foreword xxxiii Scott R. Ellis
Preface xxxv 1. What Is Cryptography? What Is
Acknowledgments xli Encryption? 36
2. Famous Cryptographic Devices 36
3. Ciphers 37
Part I 4. Modern Cryptography 44
Overview of System and Network 5. The Computer Age 49
Security: A Comprehensive 6. How Advanced Encryption Standard
Works 52
Introduction 1 7. Selecting Cryptography: the Process 55
8. Summary 56
1. Information Security in the Modern Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 57
Enterprise 3 Exercise 57
James Pooley
1. Introduction 3 4. Verifying User and Host Identity 59
2. Challenges Facing Information Keith Lewis
Security 4
3. Assessment and Planning 5 1. Introduction: Verifying the User 59
4. Policies and Procedures 8 2. Identity Access Management:
5. Training 9 Authentication and Authorization 59
6. Summary 10 3. Synthetic or Real User Logging 61
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 10 4. Verifying a User in Cloud
Exercise 11 Environments 62
5. Verifying Hosts 63
6. Verifying Host Domain Name System and
2. Building a Secure Organization 13
Internet Protocol Information 63
John R. Mallery 7. Summary 64
8. Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 64
1. Obstacles to Security 13
Exercise 65
2. Computers Are Powerful and
References 65
Complex 13
3. Current Trend Is to Share, Not
Protect 14 5. Detecting System Intrusions 67
4. Security Is Not About Hardware and
Scott R. Ellis
Software 16
5. Ten Steps to Building a Secure 1. Introduction 67
Organization 18 2. Developing Threat Models 69
6. Preparing for the Building of Security 3. Securing Communications 70
Control Assessments 31 4. Network Security Monitoring and
7. Summary 31 Intrusion Detection Systems 74
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 33 5. Installing Security Onion to a
Exercise 33 Bare-Metal Server 83

vii
viii Contents

6. Putting It All Together 86 4. Motives 134

7. Securing Your Installation 87 5. The Crackers’ Tools of the Trade 134
8. Managing an Intrusion Detection System 6. Bots 136
in a Network Security Monitoring 7. Symptoms of Intrusions 136
Framework 87 8. What Can You Do? 137
9. Setting the Stage 93 9. Security Policies 139
10. Alerts and Events 93 10. Risk Analysis 140
11. Sguil: Tuning Graphics Processing Unit 11. Tools of Your Trade 141
Rules, Alerts, and Responses 95 12. Controlling User Access 143
12. Developing Process 99 13. Intrusion Prevention Capabilities 145
13. Understanding, Exploring, and Managing 14. Summary 145
Alerts 100 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 146
14. Summary 106 Exercise 146
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 107
Exercise 107 8. Guarding Against Network
Intrusions 149
6. Intrusion Detection in Contemporary
Environments 109 Thomas M. Chen

Tarfa Hamed, Rozita Dara, Stefan C. Kremer 1. Introduction 149

2. Traditional Reconnaissance and
1. Introduction 109 Attacks 149
2. Mobile Operating Systems 110 3. Malicious Software 152
3. Mobile Device Malware Risks 111 4. Defense in Depth 154
4. Cloud Computing Models 112 5. Preventive Measures 155
5. Cloud Computing Attack Risks 112 6. Intrusion Monitoring and Detection 159
6. Source of Attacks on Mobile 7. Reactive Measures 160
Devices 113 8. Network-Based Intrusion Protection 161
7. Source or Origin of Intrusions in Cloud 9. Summary 162
Computing 113 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 162
8. Classes of Mobile Malware 114 Exercise 163
9. Types of Cloud Computing Attacks 114
10. Malware Techniques in Android 115
11. Cloud Computing Intrusions 9. Fault Tolerance and Resilience
Techniques 117 in Cloud Computing
12. Examples of Smartphone Malware 118 Environments 165
13. Examples of Cloud Attacks 119
Ravi Jhawar, Vincenzo Piuri
14. Types of Intrusion Detection Systems for
Mobile Devices 121 1. Introduction 165
15. Types of Intrusion Detection Systems for 2. Cloud Computing Fault
Cloud Computing 123 Model 166
16. Intrusion Detection System Performance 3. Basic Concepts of Fault Tolerance 168
Metrics 126 4. Different Levels of Fault Tolerance in
17. Summary 127 Cloud Computing 170
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 128 5. Fault Tolerance Against Crash Failures in
Exercise 128 Cloud Computing 171
References 128 6. Fault Tolerance Against Byzantine Failures
in Cloud Computing 173
7. Preventing System Intrusions 131 7. Fault Tolerance as a Service in Cloud
Computing 175
Michael A. West 8. Summary 179
1. So, What Is an Intrusion? 132 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 180
2. Sobering Numbers 133 Exercise 180
3. Know Your Enemy: Hackers Versus Acknowledgments 180
Crackers 133 References 180
 Contents ix

10. Securing Web Applications, 13. Internet Security 239

Services, and Servers 183 Jesse Walker
Gerald Beuchelt
1. Internet Protocol Architecture 239
1. Setting the Stage 183 2. An Internet Threat Model 246
2. Basic Security for HTTP Applications and 3. Defending Against Attacks on the
Services 184 Internet 251
3. Basic Security for SOAP Services 187 4. Internet Security Checklist 262
4. Identity Management and Web 5. Summary 262
Services 189 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 263
5. Authorization Patterns 195 Exercise 263
6. Security Considerations 196
7. Challenges 201 14. The Botnet Problem 265
8. Summary 202
Nailah Mims
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 202
Exercise 203 1. Introduction 265
Resources 203 2. What Is a Botnet? 265
3. Building a Botnet 265
11. UNIX and Linux Security 205 4. The Problem With Botnets 268
5. Botnet Case Studies and Known
Gerald Beuchelt
Botnets 270
1. Introduction 205 6. Summary 272
2. UNIX and Security 205 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 272
3. Basic UNIX Security Overview 206 Exercise 273
4. Achieving UNIX Security 209 References 274
5. Protecting User Accounts and
Strengthening Authentication 211 15. Intranet Security 275
6. Limiting Superuser Privileges 215
7. Securing Local and Network File Bill Mansoor
Systems 217 1. Smartphones and Tablets in the
8. Network Configuration 219 Intranet 277
9. Improving the Security of Linux and 2. Security Considerations 281
UNIX Systems 221 3. Plugging the Gaps: Network Access
10. Additional Resources 222 Control and Access Control 283
11. Summary 223 4. Measuring Risk: Audits 284
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 223 5. Guardian at the Gate: Authentication
Exercise 224 and Encryption 286
6. Wireless Network Security 286
12. Eliminating the Security Weakness 7. Shielding the Wire: Network
of Linux and UNIX Operating Protection 287
Systems 225 8. Weakest Link in Security: User
Training 289
Mario Santana
9. Documenting the Network: Change
1. Introduction to Linux and UNIX 225 Management 289
2. Hardening Linux and UNIX 229 10. Rehearse the Inevitable: Disaster
3. Proactive Defense for Linux and Recovery 290
UNIX 236 11. Controlling Hazards: Physical and
4. Summary 237 Environmental Protection 292
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 238 12. Know Your Users: Personnel
Exercise 238 Security 293
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x Contents

13. Protecting Data Flow: Information and Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 334
System Integrity 293 Exercise 335
14. Security Assessments 294 References 335
15. Risk Assessments 294
16. Intranet Security Implementation 19. Security for the Internet of
Process Checklist 295 Things 339
17. Summary 295
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 296 William Stallings
Exercise 296 1. Introduction 339
2. ITU-T Internet of Things (IoT) Reference
Model 340
16. Local Area Network Security
3. Internet of Things (IoT) Security 344
(online chapter) 299 4. Summary 347
Pramod Pandya Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 347
Exercise 348
17. Wireless Network Security 301 References 348

Chunming Rong, Gansen Zhao, 20. Cellular Network Security 349

Liang Yan, Erdal Cayirci,
Hongbing Cheng Peng Liu, Thomas F. LaPorta,
Kameswari Kotapati
1. Cellular Networks 301
2. Wireless Ad Hoc Networks 303 1. Introduction 349
3. Security Protocols 304 2. Overview of Cellular Networks 349
4. Wired Equivalent Privacy 305 3. The State of the Art of Cellular Network
5. Secure Routing 307 Security 352
6. Authenticated Routing for Ad Hoc 4. Cellular Network Attack
Networks 309 Taxonomy 354
7. Secure Link State Routing 5. Cellular Network Vulnerability
Protocol 309 Analysis 359
8. Key Establishment 310 6. Summary 366
9. Ingemarsson, Tang, and Wong 311 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 367
10. Management Countermeasures 313 Exercise 367
11. Summary 314 References 368
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 314
Exercise 315 21. Radio Frequency Identification
References 315 Security 369
Chunming Rong, Gansen Zhao, Liang Yan,
18. Wireless Sensor Network Security: Erdal Cayirci, Hongbing Cheng
The Internet of Things 317
1. Radio Frequency Identification
Harsh Kupwade Patil, Thomas M. Chen Introduction 369
2. Radio Frequency Identification
1. Introduction to Wireless Sensor
Challenges 372
Networks 317
3. Radio Frequency Identification
2. Threats to Privacy 319
Protections 376
3. Cryptographic Security in Wireless
4. Summary 382
Sensor Networks 323
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 383
4. Secure Routing in Wireless Sensor
Exercise 383
Networks 329
References 384
5. Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor
Networks 330
22. Optical Network Security
6. Wireless Sensor Networks and Internet
(online chapter) 387
of Things 332
7. Summary 334 Lauren Collins
 Contents xi

23. Optical Wireless Security 26. Policy-Driven System

(online chapter) 389 Management 427
Scott R. Ellis Henrik Plate, Cataldo Basile,
Stefano Paraboschi
1. Introduction 427
Part II 2. Security and Policy-Based
Managing Information Security 391 Management 427
3. Classification and Languages 439
24. Information Security Essentials for 4. Controls for Enforcing Security Policies
Information Technology Managers: in Distributed Systems 442
Protecting Mission-Critical 5. Products and Technologies 447
6. Research Projects 452
Systems 393
7. Summary 457
Albert Caballero Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 458
Exercise 458
1. Introduction 393
Acknowledgments 458
2. Protecting Mission-Critical
References 459
Systems 394
3. Information Security Essentials for
Information Technology 27. Information Technology Security
Managers 396 Management (online chapter) 461
4. Systems and Network Security 399
Rahul Bhaskar, Bhushan Kapoor
5. Application Security 402
6. Cloud Security 404
7. Data Protection 407 28. The Enemy (The Intruder’s
8. Wireless and Mobile Security 408 Genesis) (online chapter) 463
9. Identity and Access Management 409
Pramod Pandya
10. Security Operations 410
11. Policies, Plans, and Programs 413
12. Summary 417 29. Social Engineering Deceptions
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 417 and Defenses 465
Exercise 418 Scott R. Ellis
References 418
1. Introduction 465
25. Security Management Systems 421 2. Counter-Social Engineering 465
3. Vulnerabilities 466
Jim Harmening 4. Using a Layered Defense
1. Security Management System Approach 467
Standards 421 5. Attack Scenarios 469
2. Training Requirements 422 6. Suspect Everyone: Network Vector 469
3. Principles of Information Security 422 7. Policy and Training 471
4. Roles and Responsibilities of 8. Physical Access 472
Personnel 422 9. Summary 472
5. Security Policies 422 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 473
6. Security Controls 423 Exercise 473
7. Network Access 423
8. Risk Assessment 424 30. Ethical Hacking 475
9. Incident Response 425
Scott R. Ellis
10. Summary 425
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 426 1. Introduction 475
Exercise 426 2. Hacker’s Toolbox 476
xii Contents

3. Attack Vectors 478 33. Security Education, Training, and

4. Physical Penetrations 480 Awareness 497
5. Summary 481
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 481 Albert Caballero
Exercise 481 1. Security Education, Training, and
Awareness (SETA) Programs 497
31. What Is Vulnerability 2. Users, Behavior, and Roles 499
Assessment? 483 3. Security Education, Training, and
Awareness (SETA) Program Design 500
Almantas Kakareka
4. Security Education, Training, and
1. Introduction 483 Awareness (SETA) Program
2. Reporting 483 Development 501
3. The “It Will Not Happen to Us” 5. Implementation and Delivery 501
Factor 484 6. Technologies and Platforms 502
4. Why Vulnerability Assessment? 484 7. Summary 503
5. Penetration Testing Versus Vulnerability Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 504
Assessment 484 Exercise 505
6. Vulnerability Assessment Goal 485 References 505
7. Mapping the Network 485
8. Selecting the Right Scanners 485 34. Risk Management 507
9. Central Scans Versus Local Scans 487
10. Defense in Depth Strategy 488 Sokratis K. Katsikas
11. Vulnerability Assessment Tools 488 1. The Concept of Risk 508
12. Security Auditor’s Research 2. Expressing and Measuring Risk 508
Assistant 489 3. The Risk Management
13. Security Administrator’s Integrated Methodology 510
Network Tool 489 4. Risk Management Laws and
14. Microsoft Baseline Security Regulations 522
Analyzer 489 5. Risk Management Standards 524
15. Scanner Performance 489 6. Summary 526
16. Scan Verification 490 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 526
17. Scanning Cornerstones 490 Exercise 527
18. Network Scanning
Countermeasures 490 35. Insider Threat 529
19. Vulnerability Disclosure
Date 490 William F. Gross
20. Proactive Security Versus Reactive 1. Introduction 529
Security 491 2. Defining Insider Threat 529
21. Vulnerability Causes 492 3. Motivations of the Insider Threat
22. Do It Yourself Vulnerability Actors 530
Assessment 493 4. Insider Threat Indicators 531
23. Summary 493 5. Examples of Insider Threats 531
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 493 6. Impacts 532
Exercise 494 7. Analysis: Relevance 532
8. Manage and Mitigate the Insider
32. Security Metrics: An Introduction Threat 532
and Literature Review 9. Summary 534
(online chapter) 495 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 535
Exercise 535
George O.M. Yee
References 535
 Contents xiii

Part III 39. Security Policies and Plans

Disaster Recovery Security 537 Development 565
Keith Lewis
36. Disaster Recovery 539
1. Introduction: Policies and Planning:
Scott R. Ellis, Lauren Collins Security Framework Foundation 565
1. Introduction 539 2. CIA: Not the Central Intelligence
2. Measuring Risk and Avoiding Agency 567
Disaster 539 3. Security Policy Structure 567
3. The Business Impact Assessment 541 4. Security Policy: Sign Off Approval 569
4. Summary 546 5. Summary 569
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 546 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 569
Exercise 547 Exercise 570
References 570
37. Disaster Recovery Plans for
Small and Medium Businesses
(SMBs) 549 Part V
Cyber, Network, and Systems
William F. Gross, Jr.
Forensics Security and
1. Introduction 549 Assurance 571
2. Identifying the Need for a Disaster
Recovery Plan 549
40. Cyber Forensics 573
3. Recovery 549
4. Threat Analysis 550 Scott R. Ellis
5. Methodology 550
1. What Is Cyber Forensics? 573
6. Train and Test the Plan 551
2. Analysis of Data 574
7. Communication 551
3. Cyber Forensics in the Court
8. Recovery 552
System 576
9. Summary 552
4. Understanding Internet History 577
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 552
5. Temporary Restraining Orders and
Exercise 553
Labor Disputes 578
References 553
6. First Principles 589
7. Hacking a Windows XP Password 589
8. Network Analysis 592
Part IV 9. Cyber Forensics Applied 593
Security Standards and Policies 555 10. Tracking, Inventory, Location of Files,
Paperwork, Backups, and So on 593
38. Security Certification and Standards 11. Testifying as an Expert 595
Implementation 557 12. Beginning to End in Court 598
13. Summary 601
Keith Lewis Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 601
1. Introduction: The Security Compliance Exercise 602
Puzzle 557
2. The Age of Digital Regulations 557 41. Cyber Forensics and Incidence
3. Security Regulations and Laws: Response 603
Technology Challenges 558
Cem Gurkok
4. Implementation: The Compliance
Foundation 560 1. Introduction to Cyber Forensics 603
5. Summary 562 2. Handling Preliminary
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 562 Investigations 604
Exercise 563 3. Controlling an Investigation 606
References 563 4. Conducting Disc-Based Analysis 607
xiv Contents

5. Investigating Information-Hiding Part VI

Techniques 610
6. Scrutinizing Email 614
Encryption Technology 673
7. Validating Email Header
Information 615
46. Data Encryption
8. Tracing Internet Access 616 (online chapter) 675
9. Searching Memory in Real Time 619 Bhushan Kapoor, Pramod Pandya
10. Summary 625
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 627
Exercise 627 47. Satellite Encryption 677
References 628 Daniel S. Soper

42. Securing e-Discovery 629 1. Introduction 677

2. The Need for Satellite Encryption 678
Scott R. Ellis 3. Implementing Satellite Encryption 679
1. Information Management 631 4. Pirate Decryption of Satellite
2. Legal and Regulatory Obligation 631 Transmissions 683
3. Summary 654 5. Satellite Encryption Policy 685
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 654 6. Satellite Encryption Service (SES) 686
Exercise 655 7. The Future of Satellite Encryption 686
8. Summary 686
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 688
43. Network Forensics
Exercise 688
(online chapter) 657
Yong Guan 48. Public Key Infrastructure 691
Terence Spies
44. Microsoft Office and Metadata 1. Cryptographic Background 691
Forensics: A Deeper Dive 659 2. Overview of Public Key
Rich Hoffman Infrastructure 693
3. The X.509 Model 694
1. Introduction 659
4. X.509 Implementation
2. In a Perfect World 659
Architectures 695
3. Microsoft Excel 660
5. X.509 Certificate Validation 695
4. Exams! 661
6. X.509 Certificate Revocation 698
5. Items Outside of Office
7. Server-Based Certificate Validity
Metadata 663
Protocol 699
6. Summary 666
8. X.509 Bridge Certification
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 666
Systems 700
Exercise 667
9. X.509 Certificate Format 702
10. Public Key Infrastructure Policy
45. Hard Drive Imaging 669 Description 704
John Benjamin Khan 11. Public Key Infrastructure Standards
Organizations 705
1. Introduction 669 12. Pretty Good Privacy Certificate
2. Hard Disc Drives 669 Formats 706
3. Solid State Drives 669 13. Pretty Good Privacy Public Key
4. Hardware Tools 670 Infrastructure Implementations 706
5. Software Tools 670 14. World Wide Web Consortium 707
6. Techniques 670 15. Is Public Key Infrastructure
7. Summary 671 Secure? 707
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 671 16. Alternative Public Key Infrastructure
Exercise 672 Architectures 707
References 672 17. Modified X.509 Architectures 708
 Contents xv

18. Alternative Key Management Part VII

Models 708
19. Summary 709
Privacy and Access
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 710 Management 741
Exercise 710
References 710 52. Online Privacy 743
Chiara Braghin, Marco Cremonini
49. Password-Based Authenticated
Key Establishment Protocols 1. The Quest for Privacy 743
2. Trading Personal Data 746
(online chapter) 713
3. Control of Personal Data 747
Jean Lancrenon, Dalia Khader, 4. Privacy and Technologies 749
Peter Y.A. Ryan, Feng Hao 5. Summary 755
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 755
Exercise 756
50. Context-Aware Multifactor References 756
Authentication Survey 715
Emin Huseynov, Jean-Marc Seigneur 53. Privacy-Enhancing
1. Introduction 715
Technologies 759
2. Classic Approach to Multifactor Simone Fischer-Hbner, Stefan Berthold
Authentication 715
1. The Concept of Privacy 759
3. Modern Approaches to Multifactor
2. Legal Privacy Principles 759
Authentication 718
3. Classification of Privacy-Enhancing
4. Comparative Summary 722
Technologies (PETs) 761
5. Summary 723
4. Traditional Privacy Goals of
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 724
Privacy-Enhancing Technologies
Exercise 726
(PETs) 761
References 726
5. Privacy Metrics 762
6. Data Minimization Technologies 764
51. Instant-Messaging Security 727 7. Transparency-Enhancing
Samuel J.J. Curry Tools 772
8. Summary 775
1. Why Should I Care About Instant
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 775
Messaging? 727
Exercise 776
2. What Is Instant Messaging? 727
References 776
3. The Evolution of Networking
Technologies 728
4. Game Theory and Instant
54. Personal Privacy Policies
Messaging 728 (online chapter) 779
5. The Nature of the Threat 731 George O.M. Yee, Larry Korba
6. Common Instant Messaging
Applications 734
7. Defensive Strategies 735 55. Detection of Conflicts in Security
8. Instant-Messaging Security Maturity Policies 781
and Solutions 736 Cataldo Basile, Matteo Maria Casalino,
9. Processes 737 Simone Mutti, Stefano Paraboschi
10. Summary 738
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 740 1. Introduction 781
Exercise 740 2. Conflicts in Security Policies 781
xvi Contents

3. Conflicts in Executable Security 58. Virtual Private Networks 843

Policies 785
4. Conflicts in Network Security James T. Harmening
Policies 788 1. History 844
5. Query-Based Conflict 2. Who Is in Charge? 847
Detection 789 3. Virtual Private Network Types 848
6. Semantic Web Technology for Conflict 4. Authentication Methods 851
Detection 795 5. Symmetric Encryption 851
7. Summary 798 6. Asymmetric Cryptography 852
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 798 7. Edge Devices 852
Exercise 799 8. Passwords 852
Acknowledgments 799 9. Hackers and Crackers 853
References 799 10. Mobile Virtual Private Network 853
11. Virtual Private Network
56. Supporting User Privacy Deployments 854
Preferences in Digital 12. Summary 854
Interactions 801 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 854
Exercise 855
Sara Foresti, Pierangela Samarati References 856
1. Introduction 801 Resources 856
2. Basic Concepts and Desiderata 802
3. Cost-Sensitive Trust Negotiation 805 59. Identity Theft (online chapter) 857
4. Point-Based Trust Management 808 Markus Jakobsson, Alex Tsow
5. Logical-Based Minimal Credential
Disclosure 810
6. Privacy Preferences in Credential-Based 60. VoIP Security 859
Interactions 812 Harsh Kupwade Patil, Dan Wing,
7. Fine-Grained Disclosure of Sensitive Thomas M. Chen
Access Policies 817
8. Open Issues 819 1. Introduction 859
9. Summary 819 2. Overview of Threats 861
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 820 3. Security in Voice Over Internet
Exercise 820 Protocol 866
Acknowledgments 820 4. Future Trends 868
References 821 5. Summary 871
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 872
Exercise 873
57. Privacy and Security in
Environmental Monitoring
Systems: Issues and Solutions 823 Part VIII
Sabrina De Capitani di Vimercati, Storage Security 875
Angelo Genovese, Giovanni Livraga,
Vincenzo Piuri, Fabio Scotti 61. SAN Security (online chapter) 877
1. Introduction 823 John McGowan, Jeffrey S. Bardin,
2. System Architectures 824 John McDonald
3. Environmental Data 826
4. Security and Privacy Issues in 62. Storage Area Networking Security
Environmental Monitoring 827 Devices 879
5. Countermeasures 829
Robert Rounsavall
6. Summary 838
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 838 1. What Is Storage Area Networking
Exercise 838 (SAN)? 879
Acknowledgments 839 2. Storage Area Networking (SAN)
References 839 Deployment Justifications 879
 Contents xvii

3. The Critical Reasons for Storage Area 65. Private Cloud Security 931
Networking (SAN) Security 880
4. Storage Area Networking (SAN) Keith Lewis
Architecture and Components 880 1. Introduction: Private Cloud System
5. Storage Area Networking (SAN) General Management 931
Threats and Issues 882 2. From Physical to Network Security Base
6. Summary 893 Focus 931
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 893 3. Benefits of Private Cloud Security
Exercise 894 Infrastructures 933
4. Private Cloud Security Standards and
Best Practices 933
Part IX 5. “As-a-Service” Universe: Service
Cloud Security 895 Models 934
6. Private Cloud Service Model: Layer
Considerations 935
63. Securing Cloud Computing
7. Privacy or Public: The Cloud Security
Systems 897 Challenges 935
Cem Gurkok 8. Summary 935
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 936
1. Cloud Computing Essentials: Examining
Exercise 936
the Cloud Layers 897
References 936
2. Software as a Service: Managing Risks in
the Cloud 903
3. Platform as a Service: Securing the
66. Virtual Private Cloud Security 937
Platform 904 Keith Lewis
4. Infrastructure as a Service 907
1. Introduction: Virtual Networking in a
5. Leveraging Provider-Specific Security
Private Cloud 937
Options 911
2. Security Console: Centralized Control
6. Achieving Security in a Private
Dashboard Management 937
Cloud 912
3. Security Designs: Virtual Private Cloud
7. Meeting Compliance
Setups 938
Requirements 916
4. Security Object Group Allocations:
8. Preparing for Disaster Recovery 919
Functional Control Management
9. Summary 921
Practices 939
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 921
5. Virtual Private Cloud Performance
Exercise 922
Versus Security 940
References 922
6. Summary 941
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 941
64. Cloud Security 923 Exercise 942
Edward G. Amoroso References 942
1. Cloud Overview: Public, Private,
Hybrid 923
2. Cloud Security Threats 924 Part X
3. Internet Service Provider Cloud Virtual Virtual Security 943
Private Network Peering Services 924
4. Cloud Access Security Brokers 925 67. Protecting Virtual
5. Cloud Encryption 925 Infrastructure 945
6. Cloud Security Microsegmentation 926
7. Cloud Security Compliance 927 Edward G. Amoroso
8. Summary 929 1. Virtualization in Computing 945
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 929 2. Virtual Data Center Security 946
Exercise 929 3. Hypervisor Security 947
References 930 4. Enterprise Segmentation 947
xviii Contents

5. Active Containerized Security 948 5. Threat Assessment, Planning, and Plan

6. Virtual Absorption of Volume Implementation 971
Attacks 948 6. Example: A Corporate Physical Security
7. Open Source Versus Proprietary Policy 972
Security Capabilities 949 7. Integration of Physical and Logical
8. Summary 950 Security 973
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 950 8. Physical Security Checklist 976
Exercise 951 9. Summary 976
Reference 951 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 977
Exercise 979
References 979
68. Software-Defined Networking and
Network Function Virtualization
70. Biometrics (online chapter) 981
Security 953
Luther Martin
Edward G. Amoroso
1. Introduction to Software-Defined
Networking 953
2. Software-Defined Networking and Part XII
Network Function Virtualization Practical Security 983
Overview 954
3. Software-Defined Networking and 71. Online Identity and User
Network Function Virtualization for Management Services 985
Internet Service Providers 956
Tewfiq El Maliki, Jean-Marc Seigneur
4. Software-Defined Networking
Controller Security 956 1. Introduction 985
5. Improved Patching With 2. Evolution of Identity Management
Software-Defined Networking 957 Requirements 985
6. Dynamic Security Service Chaining in 3. The Requirements Fulfilled by Identity
Software-Defined Networking 957 Management Technologies 989
7. Future Virtualized Management Security 4. Identity Management 1.0 989
Support in Software-Defined 5. Social Login and User
Networking 959 Management 1001
8. Summary 959 6. Identity 2.0 for Mobile Users 1002
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 960 7. Summary 1007
Exercise 961 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1007
References 961 Exercise 1008
References 1008

Part XI 72. Intrusion Prevention and Detection

Systems 1011
Cyber Physical Security 963
Christopher Day
69. Physical Security Essentials 965 1. What Is an “Intrusion” Anyway? 1011
William Stallings 2. Physical Theft 1011
3. Abuse of Privileges (the Insider
1. Overview 965 Threat) 1011
2. Physical Security Threats 966 4. Unauthorized Access by
3. Physical Security Prevention and Outsider 1012
Mitigation Measures 970 5. Malicious Software Infection 1012
4. Recovery From Physical Security 6. Role of the “Zero-Day” 1013
Breaches 971
 Contents xix

7. The Rogue’s Gallery: Attackers and 76. System Security

Motives 1014 (online chapter) 1039
8. A Brief Introduction to Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Lauren Collins
Protocol 1014
9. Transmission Control Protocol/ 77. Access Controls 1041
Internet Protocol Data Architecture
and Data Encapsulation 1015 Lauren Collins
10. Survey of Intrusion Detection and 1. Infrastructure Weaknesses:
Prevention Technologies 1019 Discretionary Access Control (DAC),
11. Antimalicious Software 1019 Mandatory Access Control (MAC),
12. Network-Based Intrusion Detection and Role-Based Access Control
Systems 1019 (RBAC) 1041
13. Network-Based Intrusion Prevention 2. Strengthening the Infrastructure:
Systems 1021 Authentication Systems 1044
14. Host-Based Intrusion Prevention 3. Summary 1046
Systems 1021 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1047
15. Security Information Management Exercise 1047
Systems 1021
16. Network Session Analysis 1022
17. Digital Forensics 1023 78. Endpoint Security 1049
18. System Integrity Validation 1023 Keith Lewis
19. Summary 1023
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1023 1. Introduction: Endpoint Security
Exercise 1024 Defined 1049
References 1024 2. Endpoint Solution: Options 1049
3. Standard Requirements: Security
73. Transmission Control Protocol/ Decisions 1049
Internet Protocol Packet Analysis 4. Endpoint Architecture: Functional
Challenges 1050
(online chapter) 1027
5. Endpoint Intrusion Security:
Pramod Pandya Management Systems 1052
6. Intrusion Prevention System (IPS)
74. Firewalls (online chapter) 1029 Network Logging Tools: Seek and Target
(the Offender) 1053
Errin W. Fulp 7. Endpoint Unification: Network
Access Control (NAC) Design
75. Penetration Testing 1031 Approach (From the Ground-Up) 1053
Roman Zabicki, Scott R. Ellis 8. Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) Endpoint
Security 1053
1. What Is Penetration Testing? 1031 9. Summary 1054
2. Why Would You Do It? 1031 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1054
3. How Do You Do It? 1032 Exercise 1055
4. Examples of Penetration Test References 1055
Scenarios 1035
5. Summary 1037
79. Assessments and Audits
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1037
Exercise 1038
(online chapter) 1057
References 1038 Lauren Collins
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xx Contents

80. Fundamentals of 7. Advanced Persistent Threat 1113

Cryptography 1059 8. Additional Considerations 1114
9. Summary 1114
Scott R. Ellis Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1115
1. Assuring Privacy With Encryption 1059 Exercise 1115
2. Summary 1065 References 1116
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1065
Exercise 1066
Part XIV
Advanced Security 1117
Part XIII
Critical Infrastructure Security 1067 85. Security Through Diversity 1119
Kevin Noble
81. Securing the Infrastructure 1069
1. Ubiquity 1120
Lauren Collins 2. Example Attacks Against
1. Communication Security Goals 1069 Uniformity 1121
2. Attacks and Countermeasures 1076 3. Attacking Ubiquity With Antivirus
3. Summary 1080 Tools 1122
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1081 4. The Threat of Worms 1122
Exercise 1081 5. Automated Network Defense 1124
6. Diversity and the Browser 1125
7. Sandboxing and Virtualization 1126
82. Homeland Security 8. Domain Name Server Example of
(online chapter) 1083 Diversity Through Security 1126
Rahul Bhaskar, Bhushan Kapoor 9. Recovery From Disaster Is
Survival 1127
10. Summary 1127
83. Cyber Warfare 1085 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1128
Anna Granova, Marco Slaviero Exercise 1129

1. Cyber Warfare Model 1085 86. e-Reputation and Online

2. Cyber Warfare Defined 1086
Reputation Management
3. Cyber Warfare: Myth or Reality? 1086
4. Participants, Roles, Attribution, and
Survey 1131
Asymmetry 1088 Jean-Marc Seigneur
5. Making Cyber Warfare Possible 1092
1. Introduction 1131
6. Legal Aspects of Cyber Warfare 1099
2. The Human Notion of Reputation 1132
7. Holistic View of Cyber Warfare 1103
3. Reputation Applied to the Computing
8. Summary 1103
World 1134
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1103
4. State of the Art of Attack-Resistant
Exercise 1104
Reputation Computation 1137
5. Overview of Past and Current Online
84. Cyber-Attack Process 1105 Reputation Services 1141
Nailah Mims 6. Summary 1149
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1150
1. What Is a Cyber-Attack? 1105
Exercise 1150
2. Cyber-Attack Adversaries 1106
References 1150
3. Cyber-Attack Targets 1106
4. Cyber-Attack Process 1106
5. Tools and Tactics of a
87. Content Filtering
Cyber-Attack 1107 (online chapter) 1153
6. Cyber-Attack Case Studies 1110 Pete F. Nicoletti
 Contents xxi

88. Data Loss Protection 1155 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1180

Exercise 1181
Ken Perkins References 1181
1. Precursors of DLP 1156
2. What Is Data Loss Protection 90. Verifiable Voting Systems
(DLP)? 1157 (online chapter) 1183
3. Where to Begin? 1162
Thea Peacock, Peter Y.A. Ryan,
4. Data Is Like Water 1162
Steve Schneider, Zhe Xia
5. You Don’t Know What You Don’t
Know 1164
6. How Do Data Loss Protection (DLP) 91. Advanced Data Encryption 1185
Applications Work? 1165
7. Eat Your Vegetables 1166 Pramod Pandya
8. IT’s a Family Affair, Not Just IT 1. Mathematical Concepts
Security’s Problem 1169 Reviewed 1185
9. Vendors, Vendors Everywhere! 2. The Rivest, Shamir, and Adelman
Who Do You Believe? 1169 Cryptosystem 1189
10. Summary 1170 3. Summary 1194
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1171 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises 1195
Exercise 1171 Exercise 1195
References 1195
89. Satellite Cyber Attack Search and
Destroy 1173 Index 1197
Jeffrey Bardin
1. Hacks, Interference, and
Jamming 1173
2. Summary 1180

Online Chapters and Appendices 13. Dynamic Network Address Translation

Configuration e11
14. The Perimeter e11
16. Local Area Network Security e1 15. Access List Details e13
Pramod Pandya 16. Types of Firewalls e14
17. Packet Filtering: Internet Protocol
1. Identify Network Threats e1 Filtering Routers e14
2. Establish Network Access 18. Application-Layer Firewalls: Proxy
Controls e2 Servers e14
3. Risk Assessment e3 19. Stateful Inspection Firewalls e14
4. Listing Network Resources e3 20. Network Intrusion Detection System
5. Threats e3 Complements Firewalls e14
6. Security Policies e4 21. Monitor and Analyze System
7. The Incident-Handling Process e4 Activities e15
8. Secure Design Through Network 22. Signature Analysis e15
Access Controls e4 23. Statistical Analysis e15
9. Intrusion Detection System 24. Signature Algorithms e16
Defined e5 25. Local Area Network Security
10. Network Intrusion Detection System: Countermeasures Implementation
Scope and Limitations e5 Checklist e19
11. A Practical Illustration of Network 26. Summary e19
Intrusion Detection System e5 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e19
12. Firewalls e7 Exercise e20
xxii Contents

22. Optical Network Security e21 32. Security Metrics: An Introduction

Lauren Collins
and Literature Review e57
George O.M. Yee
1. Optical Networks e21
2. Securing Optical Networks e23 1. Introduction e57
3. Identifying Vulnerabilities e25 2. Why Security Metrics? e58
4. Corrective Actions e26 3. The Nature of Security Metrics e59
5. Summary e26 4. Getting Started With Security
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e27 Metrics e62
Exercise e27 5. Metrics in Action: Toward an Intelligent
References e27 Security Dashboard e63
6. Security Metrics in the Literature e63
23. Optical Wireless Security e29 7. Summary e68
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e69
Scott R. Ellis
Exercise e69
1. Optical Wireless Systems Overview e29 References e69
2. Deployment Architectures e30
3. High Bandwidth e31 43. Network Forensics e71
4. Low Cost e31
Yong Guan
5. Implementation e31
6. Surface Area e31 1. Scientific Overview e71
7. Summary e33 2. The Principles of Network
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e33 Forensics e71
Exercise e34 3. Attack Trace-Back and Attribution e72
4. Critical Needs Analysis e78
27. Information Technology Security 5. Research Directions e78
Management e35 6. Summary e79
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e81
Rahul Bhaskar, Bhushan Kapoor
Exercise e82
1. Information Security Management
Standards e35 46. Data Encryption e83
2. Other Organizations Involved in
Bhushan Kapoor, Pramod Pandya
Standards e36
3. Information Technology Security 1. Need for Cryptography e83
Aspects e36 2. Mathematical Prelude to
4. Summary e43 Cryptography e84
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e43 3. Classical Cryptography e84
Exercise e44 4. Modern Symmetric Ciphers e87
5. Algebraic Structure e89
28. The Enemy (The Intruder’s 6. The Internal Functions of Rijndael in
Genesis) e45 Advanced Encryption Standard
Implementation e93
Pramod Pandya 7. Use of Modern Block Ciphers e97
1. Introduction e45 8. Public-Key Cryptography e98
2. Active Reconnaissance e46 9. Cryptanalysis of
3. Enumeration e50 RivesteShamireAdleman e101
4. Penetration and Gain Access e51 10. DiffieeHellman Algorithm e102
5. Maintain Access e53 11. Elliptic Curve Cryptosystems e102
6. Defend Network Against Unauthorized 12. Message Integrity and
Access e54 Authentication e104
7. Summary e55 13. Triple Data Encryption Algorithm Block
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e55 Cipher e105
Exercise e56 14. Summary e106
 Contents xxiii

Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e106 4. Change Management e168

Exercise e107 5. Password Policies e168
References e107 6. Defense-in-Depth e169
7. Vendor Security Review e169
49. Password-Based Authenticated Key 8. Data Classification e169
Establishment Protocols e109 9. Security Management e169
10. Auditing e169
Jean Lancrenon, Dalia Khader, Peter Y.A. Ryan, 11. Security Maintenance e170
Feng Hao 12. Host Access: Partitioning e171
1. Introduction to Key Exchange e109 13. Data Protection: Replicas e172
2. Password-Authenticated Key 14. Encryption in Storage e174
Exchange e112 15. Application of Encryption e177
3. Concrete Protocols e114 16. Summary e185
4. Summary e121 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e185
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e121 Exercise e187
Exercise e122 Reference e187
References e122
70. Biometrics e189
54. Personal Privacy Policies e125 Luther Martin
George O.M. Yee, Larry Korba 1. Relevant Standards e190
1. Introduction e125 2. Biometric System Architecture e191
2. Content of Personal Privacy 3. Using Biometric Systems e197
Policies e126 4. Security Considerations e199
3. Semiautomated Derivation of Personal 5. Summary e203
Privacy Policies e127 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e203
4. Specifying Well-Formed Personal Exercise e204
Privacy Policies e131
5. Preventing Unexpected Negative 73. Transmission Control Protocol/
Outcomes e134 Internet Protocol Packet
6. The Privacy Management Model e135 Analysis e205
7. Discussion and Related Work e140
Pramod Pandya
8. Summary e142
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e143 1. The Internet Model e205
Exercise e143 2. Summary e218
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e218
59. Identity Theft e145 Exercise e218
Markus Jakobsson, Alex Tsow
74. Firewalls e219
1. Experimental Design e145
Errin W. Fulp
2. Results and Analysis e152
3. Implications for Crimeware e160 1. Introduction e219
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e162 2. Network Firewalls e219
Exercise e163 3. Firewall Security Policies e220
References e163 4. A Simple Mathematical Model for
Policies, Rules, and Packets e221
61. SAN Security e165 5. First-Match Firewall Policy
Anomalies e222
John McGowan, Jeffrey S. Bardin,
6. Policy Optimization e222
John McDonald
7. Firewall Types e223
1. Organizational Structure e165 8. Host and Network Firewalls e225
2. Access Control Lists and Policies e167 9. Software and Hardware Firewall
3. Physical Access e168 Implementations e225
xxiv Contents

10. Choosing the Correct Firewall e225 87. Content Filtering e271
11. Firewall Placement and Network
Topology e226 Pete F. Nicoletti
12. Firewall Installation and 1. Defining the Problem e271
Configuration e228 2. Why Content Filtering Is
13. Supporting Outgoing Services Through Important e272
Firewall Configuration e228 3. Content Categorization
14. Secure External Services Technologies e274
Provisioning e230 4. Perimeter Hardware and Software
15. Network Firewalls for Voice and Video Solutions e276
Applications e230 5. Categories e279
16. Firewalls and Important Administrative 6. Legal Issues e280
Service Protocols e231 7. Circumventing Content Filtering e284
17. Internal IP Services Protection e232 8. Additional Items to Consider:
18. Firewall Remote Access Overblocking and
Configuration e233 Underblocking e286
19. Load Balancing and Firewall 9. Related Products e289
Arrays e234 10. Summary e289
20. Highly Available Firewalls e235 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e291
21. Firewall Management e236 Exercise e291
22. Summary e236
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e237 90. Verifiable Voting Systems e293
Exercise e237
Thea Peacock, Peter Y.A. Ryan,
76. System Security e239 Steve Schneider, Zhe Xia

Lauren Collins 1. Introduction e293

2. Security Requirements e293
1. Foundations of Security e239 3. Verifiable Voting Schemes e295
2. Basic Countermeasures e243 4. Building Blocks e296
3. Summary e245 5. Survey of Noteworthy Schemes e304
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e246 6. Threats to Verifiable Voting
Exercise e246 Systems e311
7. Summary e312
79. Assessments and Audits e247 Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e312
Exercise e313
Lauren Collins
References e313
1. Assessing Vulnerabilities and Risk:
Penetration Testing and Vulnerability
Assessments e247 Part XV
2. Risk Management: Quantitative Risk
Measurements e251
Appendices e317
3. Summary e252
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e254 Appendix A Configuring Authentication Service
Exercise e254 On Microsoft
Windows 10 e319
82. Homeland Security e255 Appendix B Security Management and
Resiliency e323
Rahul Bhaskar, Bhushan Kapoor
Appendix C List of Top Information
1. Statutory Authorities e255 and Network Security
2. Homeland Security Presidential Implementation and Deployment
Directives e261 Companies e325
3. Organizational Actions e262 Appendix D List of Security Products e329
4. Summary e267 Appendix E List of Security Standards e343
Chapter Review Questions/Exercises e268 Appendix F List of Miscellaneous
Exercise e269 Security Resources e345
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 CHAPTER V.
PROGRESS IN METHODS OF SHIPYARD WORK.

Since the early days of iron shipbuilding, when hand labour entered
largely into almost all the operations of the shipyard, the field of its
application has been gradually narrowed by the employment of
machinery. The past few years have been uncommonly fruitful of
changes in this direction, and many things point to the likelihood of
manual work being still more largely superseded by machine power
in the immediate future. Such changes, however, have not, as might
be assumed, had any very sensible effect in diminishing the number
of operatives generally employed. The influence has rather been
absorbed in the greatly increased rate of production, and the
elaboration and enhanced refinement of detail demanded by the
much more exacting standard of modern times. The need for skilled
handicraftsmen may not now be so general, but the skill which is still
indispensable is of a higher character, and has called into existence
several almost entirely new classes of shipyard operatives.
The extended employment of machinery has given impetus to,
and received impetus from, the system of “piece-work” now so much
in vogue in shipyards. In several of the operations, such as riveting
and smithing, the nature of the work peculiarly lends itself to the
system, and piece-work has consequently been in force, as regards
these operations, for many years. In several other departments,
however, such as plate and bar fitting, joinery, and carpentry, piece-
work is only contemporaneous with and largely the consequence of
improved modern machinery. Reference to “piece-work” here is not
made with the intention of discussing its effects on the labour
question—concerned as this is with such large issues—but simply of
showing what effect the system has had on the character of
shipyard workmanship. It was a favourite argument some years ago,
when piece-work was being rapidly extended, that the system was
bad because it would lead to and foster scamp-work and bad
workmanship. The results of the past dozen years’ experience
disprove this completely, and for reasons which, as early as 1877,
were pointed out by Mr William Denny—to whose spirited advocacy
and adoption of the system its present degree of acceptance with
workmen is in no small measure owing. In his admirably written
pamphlet on “The Worth of Wages,” published in the year named, Mr
Denny says:—

“As to piece-work leading to bad workmanship, this would certainly

be the result were no special arrangements made to prevent it. These
special arrangements include a rigid system of inspecting the work,
and the rejection, at the workman’s cost, of all bad and inferior work.
There is no difficulty in carrying out such a system, for foremen,
freed from the necessity of watching the quantity of the work—which
is looked after by a special clerk—and of checking the laziness of
their men, can give their whole attention to the matter of quality. In
fact, piece-work compels so thorough an inspection, that we find the
work done under it in our iron department much superior to what
used to be done some years ago on time. It is very curious that
trades’ unionists never have been very anxious as to the quality of
their work till they had piece-work to contend with, and I have never
known workmen produce such good work, as after a few experiences
of having their workmanship condemned for its bad quality, and the
cost taken out of their pockets. Under the old time wages no such
effective stimulus urged a man on to make his piece of work up to a
proper standard.”

What was true of the system as exemplified in Messrs Denny’s

experience previous to 1877, holds equally good for all the yards in
which piece-work is now the rule. Under it work is done quicker and
better than by the old system, and so popular is it amongst
workmen that a deep-rooted dislike for “time-work” prevails where
piece-work has once been instituted and efficiently managed.
The machines in use at the present day for preparing the separate
and multitudinous pieces of material which go to form the hull
structure of iron and steel vessels are both numerous and highly
efficient. This work of preparing material, it may be shortly stated,
mainly consists of shearing and planing the edges of plates and bars
—these as supplied by the manufacturers being, of course, only
approximately near the final form and dimensions—rolling and
flattening or giving uniform curvature to plates; bending angle or
other bars, such as are used for deck beams; and punching the
holes through plates and bars for the reception of rivets. In this list
regard is not had to the operations concerned with material in the
heated state, the features requiring to be thus manipulated being
mainly the frames of the vessel; the work being effected without the
aid of any special machine tools. A small proportion of the plating
also requires to be operated upon in this state, and for this purpose
machine tools are sometimes brought into requisition, some notice
of which will be taken further on.
While most of the machines have been introduced for a period
exceeding that with which our review is more directly concerned,
improved types have been made, and entirely new machines
brought into requisition during recent times. The universal adoption
of piece-work in almost all the departments of construction has
demanded a more economical type of machine than formerly. In this
way punching machines, which play so important a part in shipyards,
have risen from a working speed of about fourteen rivet holes per
minute to thirty and even—in the case of frame punching—to as
high as forty per minute. Other machines have had a corresponding
increase in speed; in several of the best appointed yards the general
increase being about sixty per cent.
The introduction of the double bottom for water ballast in ships,
brought about a great increase in the amount of necessary punching
caused by the numerous man-holes required through the floors and
longitudinals. These man-holes, oval in shape as shown by Fig. 1—of
say 18-ins. by 12-ins.—had to be punched all round by the rivet-
punch, and the edges afterwards dressed by hand with a chisel. To
economise work in this connection, need was felt for a machine
which would be capable of punching a man-hole of the ordinary size
out of the thickest plate at one operation. In 1879, at the request of
one of the prominent Clyde firms, Messrs Craig & Donald, the well-
known machine-tool makers of Johnstone, introduced a man-hole
punching machine which cut holes 18-ins. by 12-ins. at the rate of
seven per minute, in such a way that no after-dressing with chisels
was required. This machine, an ordinary eccentric motion one driven
by its own engine, although tested and found capable of cutting an
18-in. by 12-in. hole through a plate 1-in. thick, was superseded in
the yard for which it was made, by another, designed to meet the
requirements of the heaviest type of vessels built on the cellular
principle. This machine—also made by Messrs Craig & Donald, and
five or six of which are now at work in yards on the Clyde and at
Barrow—was capable of piercing a hole 30-ins. by 21-ins. through a
plate ¾-ins. thick, at one operation, and was actuated by hydraulic
power. The ordinary eccentric machine, driven by engine attached, is
still in favour for lighter work, and machines of this type are at work
in several of the East Coast yards capable of punching holes up to
21-ins. by 15-ins. through plates ¾-ins. thick.
Reverting to the subject of the proportion of material requiring to
be heated before manipulation, it is noteworthy that the
employment of mild steel is a source of economy in this connection
as well as in the many others already noticed. The superior
homogeneity and great ductility of the material favours cold-bending
when such an operation would be fatal to iron. Not only does an
economy in labour result, but incidentally there is a further
advantage. Cold-bending distresses steel less than hot-bending, and
the special precautions so often taken, in the way of annealing, to
toughen steel which has been operated upon when hot, are thus
obviated.
A certain proportion of the bottom plates in a ship—e.g., those
adjoining the keel—and a few at the stern and elsewhere, have
quick bends and twists which are much more difficult to treat than
the easy and generally uniform curvatures on the plates of the bilge.
The latter are effected in great measure by the “bending rolls” with
the plates perfectly cold, but the former have to be made with the
plate in the heated state. Hydraulic presses have been used for this
purpose for some years, a certain proportion of the work done being
the manipulation of plates while cold. With steel as the material to
be operated upon, these machines are being more and more utilised
in this direction, and their presence in the shipyard, as in boiler
works, is sure to become more and more prevalent. The operations
of the shipyard, in short, have been gaining in exactitude every year,
and have borrowed both in the matters of methods and of
appliances from the marine boiler works, where machine tools are
more conspicuously a feature. Machine tools for riveting, now
playing so important a part in shipyards, first had their utility
approved in boiler shops, and the introduction of improved types of
drilling machines is largely the reflected successes attending them
there.
From the foregoing imperfect sketch of the principal directions in
which machine tools used in preparing material for the constructive
stage have been improved or recently introduced, it will be gathered
that hydraulic power in lieu of steam has taken a prominent place in
shipyards. That this is so to a remarkable extent will sufficiently
appear from what follows regarding the appliances used in the work
of binding the structure of vessels. It may, however, be premised
that in several establishments hydraulic pressure has now displaced
steam power in almost all the machine-tools used in the iron
departments. This is so in the case of the Naval Dockyards of Toulon
and Brest, in France, and of the Spanish naval establishments at
Ferrol, Cadiz, &c.; the machinery in the former of which was fully
described in June, 1878, before the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, by M. Marc Berrier-Fontaine, of the French Navy. The
plant and machinery are by Mr Ralph H. Tweddell, C.E., of Delahay
Street, London, whose numerous inventions and great experience in
this special branch of engineering are well worthy of recognition.
The machines comprise those for punching, shearing, angle cutting,
plate bending, and riveting, and the author referred to is high in his
praise of the superior efficiency and economy of the hydraulic
system, as exemplified in practice. One or two of the leading
advantages of the system may be here summarised. Hydraulic
machines do not consume any power at all during the interval
between employment, and the power can be applied at any moment
without preparatory consumption, and stopped equally quick. No
shafting or belting is required, and the wear and tear of continuous
motion, as in steam machines, is thus obviated. The power exerted
is much more gradual than that of steam, performing the work more
thoroughly, and with less liability to strain or otherwise damage the
material operated upon, or the tool itself.

Although hydraulic machinery was successfully introduced by Sir

William Armstrong so long ago as 1836, and has since been applied
by him and others in almost every direction the application of
hydraulic power to machines for constructive purposes is of
comparatively modern date. Its early employment as the motive
power for machine-tools was in the case of machines which were
“stationary” or “fixed” in position when in use. Machines for riveting
purposes in boiler shops and locomotive works were the first tools of
any note to which hydraulic power transmitted from a distance was
applied, but even this dates back only to about 1865. In that year Mr
R. H. Tweddell, already referred to, designed hydraulic plant,
consisting of pumps, an accumulator, and a riveting machine, which
were first used by Messrs Thompson, Boyd & Co., Newcastle-on-
Tyne, with satisfactory results. The work was done perfectly, and at
about one-seventh of the cost of hand work, and the same power
was utilized in actuating hydraulic presses for such purposes as
setting or “joggling” angle or tee irons. Excellence and economy of
work were thus secured; and in a comparatively short time above
100 machines were at work in various dockyards and large works.
Although patent designs for portable hydraulic riveters existed
before 1871, it was not till that year that any form of portable
riveters was applied in practice with any degree of success. Previous
to that year the frames of ships had been riveted by Mr Tweddell’s
stationary hydraulic machines, but a portable riveter invented by that
gentleman in 1871 was then tried, when it was thoroughly
demonstrated that during a working day of 10 hours the machine
was capable of closing 1,000 rivets. Not much encouragement,
however, was received from shipbuilders at the time, owing chiefly to
the fact that the wages for riveting labour was not then a very
urgent question. On a modification of the general plan of working,
these machines being proposed by their inventor in 1876, they
received more cordial recognition from shipbuilders thereafter. It is
only, however, within the past five years or so that portable riveters
have been so extensively introduced into shipbuilding yards. The
success which has attended them during the period leaves no
reasonable doubt as to their ultimate place in every well-appointed
shipbuilding establishment. Already the majority of Clyde shipyards—
including all the larger ones—and most of the yards in the Tyne and
Wear districts, are furnished with hydraulic riveting machines and
plant, overtaking work constantly, efficiently, and with greatly
reduced expense, that is matter of envy in yards not similarly
favoured. In most of the larger Clyde yards the Tweddell machinery
and plant are employed; but in some cases machines introduced by
Mr William Arrol, Dalmarnock Ironworks, Glasgow—chiefly for
riveting the frames, beams, &c.—are used. The Arrol machines work
on a similar principle to those of Mr Tweddell, whose system is
practically the only one in use on the Tyne and the Wear, and at
Barrow.
The prime cost of furnishing a complete hydraulic plant is of
course considerable, and such as might perhaps appear an outlay
not speedily enough recouped. In view, however, of the uncertain
and oftentimes harassing conditions—not to speak of the pecuniary
loss—under which the riveting department of shipbuilding work is
conducted in the ordinary way, shipbuilders are constrained to
acknowledge the economic advantages of the hydraulic system.
Neither expense nor trouble have been spared in several yards to
extend the hydraulic system into every feature where hydraulic work
is practicable. The only feature now for which the machines
presently in use are not available is the shell plating, and perhaps
the decks, where such are entirely laid with plates. Indeed, it may
fairly be said that hydraulic riveters have virtually supplanted manual
riveting in nine-tenths of the structural features of a vessel. The
percentage of rivets closed by machinery to the total number of
rivets employed in a vessel’s structure has been computed to be
about fifty per cent. In one of the yards fitted with the Tweddell
system the following comprise the list of structural features for
which the hydraulic riveters are daily employed:—Double bottom,
including the thousands of detached pieces of plates and angles of
which the bracket floor style of bottom is composed; side bars
attaching frames to double bottom, frames and reverse frames,
beams, stiffening bars, gunwale bars, keelsons, and keels.
The shell plating, as has already been said, is about the only
feature for which inventors and manufacturers of hydraulic riveters
have now any serious difficulty in making provision. But many minds
are exercised with the problem, and doubtless at no very distant
date the present obstacles will be surmounted. One aspect of the
question—and one which certain classes are apt to overlook—is that
which regards the mutual adaptation of means to the end desired.
Shipbuilders have often under consideration the practicability of so
modifying structural features and methods of work as that inventors
of mechanical riveters will be met half-way in supplying the much-
felt desideratum. Referring to this subject, Mr Henry H. West, chief
surveyor to the Underwriters Registry for Iron Vessels, in a paper on
“Riveting of Iron Ships,” read before the Institution of Naval
Architects at its last meeting, said:—

“May I urge upon shipbuilders the importance of endeavouring to

extend the application of power riveting to the shell plating of iron
vessels. By this means we shall both increase the frictional
resistance, and also, by more completely filling the rivet holes, vastly
improve the rigidity of the riveted joints. The difficulty of completely
and exactly filling the counter-sink of a counter-sunk hole with a
machine-closed rivet suggested to my friend Mr Kirk the idea of
entering the rivet from the outside, both the rivet and the counter-
sink being made to gauge, and then closing up with a machine snap-
point on the inside of the ship. What progress he has made in this
direction I do not know, but the difficulty does not appear to be an
 insuperable one. If however, we are prepared to sacrifice a fair
appearance to utilitarian simplicity, there seems no sufficient reason
why, above water, all the rivets should not be closed up with snap
heads and points, both inside and outside. In whatever way it is
accomplished, I look to the use of machine riveting as one very great
step in advance in the future improvement of the riveted joints of
iron ships; and if the weight of iron vessels is to be reduced in any
important degree, or if the dimensions and proportions of large
merchant steamers are to increase in the future as they have done in
the past, I feel sure that one of the first steps must be the
reconsideration of our butt fastenings.”

The increased engine power now demanded in steamships

undoubtedly points to the further adoption of mechanical riveting—if
vessels are to successfully withstand the enormous strain and
vibrations to which they are thereby subject. While several have
already shown drawings of the shell difficulty having been met, Mr
Tweddell, whose experience in common with that of his
manufacturers and co-patentees, Messrs Fielding & Platt, of
Gloucester, may justly be considered greatest in this branch of
engineering, has never illustrated this. It may be mentioned,
however, that excellent flush riveting is constantly done by the
Tweddell hydraulic riveters, and that the same plan suggested by Mr
Kirk of entering rivets with prepared counter-sunk heads from one
side, and snap pointing them by machine on the other has been long
in use by Messrs Fielding & Platt. In conjunction with Mr Tweddell,
this firm have also designed several efficient arrangements to ensure
the machine being kept in position until the unfinished head of the
rivet is formed. Judging from these facts, there seems good reason
to hope that the production of riveting machines required to
overtake the remaining features will not be very long delayed.
To show that where the exigencies of the times necessitate them,
expedients involving inventive skill and industrial intrepidity are
never quite wanting, it may be related that several years ago, during
a prolonged strike of riveters, the principal of the firm of Messrs A.
M‘Millan & Son, Dumbarton, introduced a portable riveting machine
for the shells of ships. The machine, although improvised, as it were,
to meet an emergency, fulfilled all that was expected of it, and won
the approval of Lloyd’s Surveyors for the Clyde district, as well as of
a special deputation selected by the Committee of Lloyd’s in London
from among the chief surveyors of the United Kingdom. Their verdict
on the performances of the machine after due inspection was that it
“thoroughly fills the holes and countersinks, and produces a
smoother and better clench than can usually be obtained by hand
labour.” From this it will be seen that in the yard of Messrs M‘Millan
the matter of machine riveting has received early and earnest
consideration. Indeed, the extent to which hydraulic riveting is
presently employed by this firm so well represents the development
and progress made in this direction throughout other yards that the
system adopted in their establishment may be described somewhat
in detail.
The hydraulic plant and numerous different classes of portable
riveters are on the Tweddell system. The hydraulic power required to
work the various machines is furnished by a pair of vertical steam
engines, geared to a set of two-throw pumps, which force the water
at a pressure of 1,500-lb. per square inch into an accumulator. This
latter feature, as is well known, serves to store up the power in a
considerable amount ready to meet the sudden demands of one or
more of the riveters without calling on the pumps. As is the case in
all machinery on this system, the accumulator is loaded to a
pressure of 1,500-lb. per square inch. The means employed for the
transmission of the water-power, from the service of main pipes laid
as required throughout the yard, are flexible copper pipes, admitting
of being led almost in any direction, however irregular, without being
impaired or rendered inefficient. When the plant was laid down
about four years ago, Messrs M‘Millan determined to err if anything
on the side of prudence, and they laid all their mains of double the
required size, so that they could, if the high pressure was found
objectionable, return to the lower pressures sometimes employed;
they have, however, never found it advisable to do so.
In this yard can be seen portable riveters suspended over a
vessel’s deck between 40 and 50 feet above ground, capable of
reaching and clenching rivets in stringers at a distance of 4 feet 6
inches from edge of plate. The power brought into play in closing
some of these rivets is very great—from 20 to 30 tons—and yet this
is conveyed by a small tube of only half-inch outside diameter in
some cases through a distance of many hundred feet. The portable
riveter here indicated is suspended on a light and handy carriage,
which can travel the upper deck from stem to stern, being made
purposely low so as to clear poop and bridge deck beams if such
should be fitted. With this machine Messrs M‘Millan have closed from
400 to 450 rivets per day of nine hours in stringers 3 feet 6 inches
wide. They have also effected some very heavy work in attaching
the sheer strake to the gunwale bar, the rate of progress being
correspondingly satisfactory. The same features in the Alaska, built
by Messrs John Elder & Co., were similarly operated upon by another
of Mr Tweddell’s riveters, whose complete system has been adopted
in this large establishment also. By an elongation of the suspending
arm Messrs M‘Millan hope to execute, besides the stringers, most of
the deck work, such as ties, diagonals, hatch coamings, &c., in one
traverse of the carriage. Moreover, a second carriage with riveter
may be doing simultaneously the same work on the other side of the
vessel. Indeed, it only requires a further development of such work
to make the riveting of complete iron decks practicable, and—with
the rate of wages, for hand riveted work, usually prevailing—
profitable also.
 FIG. 22.

TWEDDELL PORTABLE FRAME AND BEAM RIVETER.

The riveting of the frames and beams is the simplest of all the
work overtaken by the hydraulic riveters, and it is here the system is
seen to most advantage. In any yard furnished with these machines
rivets are closed at a greatly accelerated rate compared with work
done by hand. Tweddell machines have been known to close, in
beams, 1,800 to 1,900 rivets per machine per day of 9½ hours. In
frames the average rate at which rivets are closed is about 1,400 per
day. The cost for this section of riveted work has been computed to
be about one-half of that by hand, and the quality of the work is
everywhere acknowledged to be better. With the same number of
men the work is accomplished in something like one-third of the
time. The modus operandi in overtaking this feature of the work may
be briefly described. For the riveting of the frames, in almost every
case, two cranes of any convenient construction are fixed at the
head of the berth in which the vessel is to be built; the frames are
laid across the keel as in hand work, and rest on trestles, where the
portable riveter, carried on the before-mentioned cranes, rivets them
up. As the riveting in each frame is completed it is drawn down the
keel by steam or hand power, and set up in place. The riveting of the
beams is a still more simple operation, the beam to be riveted being
placed under a gantry somewhat longer than the beam itself, and
upon which the portable riveter travels. The suspending gear in this
and other of the Tweddell machines combines the functions of
hydraulic lifts for raising or lowering the riveter, and of conveying the
necessary hydraulic pressure to the riveter. The beam is supported
on trestles, and the riveter, having the facilities for travel and exact
adjustment just described, accomplishes the surprising work before
mentioned.
The conditions under which the riveting in cellular and bracket
bottoms is accomplished are less favourable to expeditious work.
This system of ship’s bottom is greatly more complex in its
constructive features than the ordinary bottom. The separate plates
and angles which go to form the bracket floor system are to be
numbered—in vessels of the average size—by thousands. The
frames in such vessels are formed of three parts; one part stretches
across the bottom and abuts against the plates forming the sides of
the cellular bottom; the other two parts form the sides of the vessel,
but are not erected until the bottom portions of the frames have
been laid and all the bracket and longitudinal girders are erected and
fitted upon them. On the bottom, as thus described, the portable
riveters are required to operate, in many instances having to reach
the rivets at a distance of 4 feet 6 inches from the edge of the
plates, and in confined spaces of 24 inches. When the frames and
beams are completely riveted and beginning to be erected, a
travelling-crane (in Messrs M‘Millan’s two travelling cranes are
employed working from separate ends of the vessel) carrying a large
portable riveter, is placed on the top of the floors, with short lengths
of planking laid to act as tramways. The perfect control thus
obtained is somewhat extraordinary. The crane jib has sufficient rake
to command the whole floor of the ship, and every rivet can be
closed in the confined spaces already described. Some 800 rivets per
day can be put in, many of them at a distance of 4 feet 6 ins. from
the edge of the plate. The quality of the work is all that could be
desired; in some parts, indeed, the use of the felt-packing necessary
in hand work has been found to be unnecessary owing to the tight
work obtained by hydraulic riveting. One crane with its riveting
machine can, in a vessel of moderate size, say 3,000 to 4,000 tons,
fully keep pace with the up-ending of the frames, provided it has
something of a start. As it advances the lower deck beams are put in
place behind it, and the other work follows in order. In ships of the
more ordinary construction, longitudinal keelsons are fitted, which
are readily reached by special portable riveters, suspended by means
of neat devices, some of them the ideas or suggestions of workmen
in Messrs M‘Millan’s service.
The only machine of the series of portable riveters employed by
Messrs M‘Millan which remains to be noticed is that which overtakes
the riveting of keels. This machine is perhaps one of the most
perfect of the series, performing its functions satisfactorily, viewed
from whatever standpoint. The riveting required on the keel of large
vessels is very heavy, especially if the through-keelson and side-bar
system is adopted, when five thicknesses of plate have to be
connected, the rivets employed being 1⅛-inch or 1¼-inch in
diameter. The situation is not favourable for getting at the work to
be done, the head-room available not often exceeding 2½ or 3 feet.
These conditions render great compactness, together with
portableness, necessary in the machine. The keel itself was utilised
for the attachment of the Tweddell riveter as first tried, then again a
sort of light trestle was employed, the riveter being at one end of a
lever racking on this. These plans were abandoned, however, in
favour of the machine as now used in various yards throughout the
country, an illustration of which is given by Fig. 23. A low carriage is
travelled down alongside the keel. This carriage supports a balanced
lever, carrying at one end the riveter, capable of exerting about 50
tons on the rivet head, and at the other a balance weight. This lever
can in its turn revolve horizontally about a short pillar fixed on a
turn-table, thus affording unlimited control over the riveter by the
man in charge; enabling him, indeed, to adjust the riveter to every
irregularity of position or direction of the rivets in keel. As many as
420 1¼-inch rivets per day have been put in by this machine, an
amount which is fully equal to the work of two squads of riveters,
and in one yard 70 rivets have been closed in as many consecutive
minutes.
 FIG. 23.

TWEDDELL HYDRAULIC KEEL RIVETER.

It may be stated generally that the several hydraulic riveters

require two men to work them, and the rivets are heated in portable
furnaces and dealt out in any quantities required, by a boy in
attendance. The quality of the work done is superior to hand work,
chiefly in that when rivets are well heated the pressure is equalised,
and affects the rivets throughout their entire length, filling the holes
to their utmost. This advantage tells more in the case of keel
riveting, and that it is so is evidenced by the fact, as communicated
by a foreman having great experience, that rivets ¼-inch longer
than rivets closed by hand have even less superfluous surface
material when closed by the machine.
From the facts above detailed, taken in conjunction with the
opinions of such authorities as Mr West, it can fairly be claimed for
Mr Tweddell as the inventor of the earliest of the hydraulic riveters
now so extensively employed in shipyards, that he has greatly
improved the character of work in ship construction. Not only so, but
he has relieved the shipyard artizan from a species of work which
requires little or no skill in its execution—work, indeed, which may
properly be relegated to, as it certainly in course of time will be
included in, that vast domain in which water, steam, electricity, and
the other natural powers are so wondrously made to play their part.

While the extended use of improved machinery has brought about

changes in the iron-working departments of shipyards that are
structurally of the greatest importance, it is nevertheless true that
the largest acquisition to shipyard machinery of late has been made
in the wood-working departments. It is here, beyond question,
where the equipment of modern shipyards is seen to be so much an
advance on the former order of things, when handicraft was
indispensable and paramount; and it is also here, probably, where
the greatest labour-saving advances have been made. The artistic
perfection which is evinced in the palatial saloons and state-rooms of
many modern steamships would not have been possible—
commercially so, at least—to the shipbuilders of twenty years ago,
whose appliances, regarded from present-day standpoints, seem to
have been woefully crude and meagre. Still, it is not by any means
to be understood that all the shipyards of to-day are alike
commentaries on the former state of things, because even now
there are not wanting yards in which the necessary wood-work for
ships is accomplished with singularly few machines. The need for
accessions in this direction, however, is being more keenly felt every
day, and in many yards quite recently the entire joinery department
has been thoroughly re-organised and equipped. The chapter which
follows will be devoted to descriptions of some representative
establishments in the several districts, and as special references may
therein be made to the machinery equipment of the wood-working
departments, the present remarks will only be of a general nature.
 The conversion of wood from the absolutely rough state into
finished and finely-surfaced material, ready for immediate use in the
interior of vessels, forms at the present time not an uncommon
portion of the daily work in shipyards well equipped with modern
machinery. This is not only concerned with the commoner woods
employed in large quantities for structural purposes, but also to a
considerable extent with those various ornamental hardwoods
entering into the decorative features. The change of which this is
indicative is one of increased self-dependence and economy formerly
not dreamed of in shipyards, and of improvements at every stage in
the machinery for wood conversion, which are simply wonderful. In
circular and straight saws, planing, moulding, and shaping machines,
band and fret-saw machines, mortising, tenoning, and dove-tailing
machines, and in machines for scraping, sand-papering, and
miscellaneous purposes, not a few modern shipyards reflect the
fullest engineering progress as concerned with wood-working
machinery. In planing machines especially are the labour-saving
advantages made apparent. As illustrating this it may be explained
that machines of this kind in daily use are able to plane a greatly
increased breadth of surface, to work several sides of the wood at
one operation, and at a marvellously accelerated speed as compared
with hand work. Similarly, as regards the formation of mouldings, it
may be stated that a moulding which would take a competent
workman some hours to produce can be completed on a good
machine in less than one minute. Many patterns of mouldings and
other decorative items now largely used are thus only possible—
commercially if not otherwise—through the extended employment of
machinery. The degree of “finish” now put upon the plainest features
—rendered pecuniarly possible by the use of machinery—is nowhere
so striking as in the scraping of panels and the sand-papering of
large surfaces. In one shipyard the author has witnessed the
scraping of hardwood panels as broad as 30-ins., the shaving taken
off being of marvellous thinness and perfectly uniform and entire
throughout the length and breadth of panel. The surface left on the
panel is beautifully smooth, rendering any after-dressing with sand
paper superfluous, and the shavings have all the appearance and
much of the flexibility of fine paper. In many other ways that might
be instanced, the improvement in machinery is not less striking, but
what has already been given may sufficiently illustrate the general
advance.
The sources from which modern wood-working machinery is
obtained are various. Notable firms of machinists throughout this
country, in America, and on the Continent, are drawn upon, each of
whom, although not furnishing complete installations of wood-
working machinery, are distinguished for some “special make” of one
or other of the machines necessary. In the plentitude of firms whose
names suggest themselves in this connection, it may be invidious to
single out any for special mention, yet, of firms in this country,
Messrs M‘Dowall & Sons, of Johnstone, and Messrs T. Robinson &
Son, Rochdale; and of firms in America, Messrs J. A. Fay & Co., of
Cincinnati, may be noticed as having furnished many machines
which are highly valued in shipyards.
Notwithstanding the recent advancement in this direction, there is
still scope for improved wood-working machinery, and for machines
to overtake additional work in shipyards. A single, though perhaps
not particularly striking, instance may be given. While attempts have
been made to supply it, there is not yet, so far as the author knows,
a machine for planing decks after the planking has been laid, and
the seams caulked and payed. Those acquaint with the laborious
and unskilled nature of the work to be done, will readily concede the
fitness of applying, if possible, mechanical means to achieve it.
Attention may here be directed to the subject of improvements in
shipyard machines and methods of work, directly due to the careful
study of results from every-day practice. Workmen themselves have
too seldom been instrumental in effecting such improvements,
although in many respects the most fitting mediums through which
improvements could come. A lingering antipathy to new machinery
on the score of its supplanting hand work, and perhaps the want of
proper knowledge of scientific principles, have prevented many from
taking part in this way. To encourage the exercise of the inventive
faculty amongst workmen, as well as to reap personal advantage,
Messrs Denny & Brothers instituted in 1880 a scheme of rewards for
invention in their establishment, which has been attended with
gratifying success, and has since been copied in other quarters.
Particulars of this scheme will be given in the following chapter, thus
making detailed reference here unnecessary. It may be said briefly,
however, that awards ranging from £12 to £3 are paid to workmen
who submit inventions, and when any one has been successful in
obtaining five awards he receives a premium of £20, and when he
has obtained ten awards he is paid a further premium of £25—the
premiums increasing by £5 for every additional five awards received.
During the time it has been in vogue as many as 200 claims have
been entered, over 110 of which have received awards, representing
in all the disbursement by the firm of about £500. The majority of
the awards made have been concerned with improvements in the
joinery departments. Some of the machines there have been
modified or altered so as to do twice the quantity of work previously
possible, some to do a new class of work, and others to do the same
work with greater safety, and with less wear and tear.

In several other sections of shipyard work, progress is strikingly

evinced. Of these it may suffice to instance the work of transport
between one shop and another, and between workshops and
building berths, also that of lifting heavy weights either by stationery
or locomotive cranes. Means of effecting such work are now
employed in many yards, which, viewed in the light of former things,
are truly prodigious.
The increasing propulsive power with which steamships are being
fitted necessitates ponderous weights in connection with the engines
and boilers. The means available for lifting such weights have not
until within recent years been possessed by private shipbuilders, but
have been the property of public bodies, such as Harbour Trusts.
The majority of shipbuilders have still to depend on such outside aid,
but within the past few years several large firms—particularly on the
Clyde—who have the necessary dock accommodation, have erected
in connection with their works enormous “sheer-legs;” the modern
equivalent for cranes, which are now somewhat out of fashion for
ponderous work. Some of these are amongst the most powerful ever
erected, being capable of lifting 80, 100, and even 120 tons weight.
Such enormous appliances, it may readily be understood, enables
the firm possessing them to be independent of extraneous
assistance, and to complete in every respect within their own
establishments vessels of the largest class.
The means of transporting material in shipyards by systems of
railways laid alongside the principal workshops, and traversing the
yard in all directions, have been amplified and improved in many
yards within recent times. Connection is made in most instances with
sidings from main lines of railway, whereby materials and goods can
be at once brought into the yards from whatever part of the
kingdom; and in the largest yards special locomotives are constantly
employed doing this work. In well arranged establishments the
railway first enters a store-yard, and the material is lifted from the
trucks by travelling-crane or other means, and deposited on either
side of the railway, plates being set on edge in special racks, from
which they can be easily removed by the workmen. Leaving this, the
lines of railway traverse the building yard throughout, and are
designed to permit of the material being conveyed without
retrocession, but with the necessary stoppages for its being put
through the various courses of manipulation, to the vessel in which it
is to be used. A recent and very serviceable amplification of the
system of railway transport has been fitted in one of the largest
Clyde yards which enables material to be conveyed with greatly
increased ease and despatch in directions and to situations wholly
inaccessible to the main lines of rails. This is the narrow gauge
portable system, patented by M. Decauville, of Petit-Bourg, Paris,
which consists of short lengths of very light steel rails, permanently
riveted to cross sleepers, and with end connections so formed as to
make joint while being pressed into contact. Each section, of 4, 6, 8,
12, or 16 feet long, being complete in itself, the tramway can be laid
down in any new situation very rapidly. Where divergences of route
take place, curves, crossings, and light turntables are supplied,
sufficiently strong to carry working loads, and at the same time light
enough to be easily handled. Special waggons and trollies are also
supplied by the makers, which, combined with the system of
portable rails described, not only worthily take the place of, but far
excel in handiness and efficiency, the ordinary wheel-barrows of the
shipyard.

List of Papers, &c., bearing on modern shipyard machine-tools,

appliances, and methods of work, to which readers desiring fuller
acquaintance with the technique and details of the subject are
referred:—

On the H ydraulic D epartment in the I ron S hipbuilding D epartment of the

N aval D ockyard at T oulon , by M. Marc Berrier-Fontaine:
Proceedings Inst. Mech. Engineers, 1878.
On A pplication of H ydraulic P ressure to M achine T ools , by Mr Ralph
the
Hart Tweddell: Trans. Inst. Engineers and Shipbuilders, vol. xxiv.,
1880-81.
O n M achine -T ools and other L abour -S aving A ppliances W orked by
H ydraulic P ressure , by R. H. Tweddell: Proceedings Inst. Civil
Engineers, vol. lxxiii., 1882-83.
W ood -W orking M achinery , its R ise , P rogress , and C onstruction , by M.
Powis Bale: London, Crosby, Lockwood & Co., 1880.
O n S tamping and W elding under the S team H ammer , by Alex. M‘Donnell:
Proceedings Inst. Civil Engineers, vol. lxxiii., 1882-83.
On D ecauville P ortable R ailway , by M. Decauville: Proceedings Inst.
the
Mech. Engineers, 1884.
 CHAPTER VI.
DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME NOTABLE SHIPYARDS.

Although in the preceding chapter the main directions in which

progress with respect to shipyard appliances and methods of work
have been outlined, the record necessarily fails to cover many minor
matters which are still essential to an appreciative view of modern
shipbuilding. This want cannot better be supplied than by giving
detailed descriptions of some representative shipyards and
engineering works throughout the principal centres. The
establishments which will be selected for notice are amongst the
largest in the several districts, and on the whole represent almost all
that is advanced in the shipbuilding industry, while to most of them a
special interest attaches through the many high-class vessels
produced from their stocks for the better-known shipping lines. On
such grounds it is hoped the intelligent reader will find the choice of
yards—where there was no alternative but to choose—justified and
fitting. Three Clyde shipyards, two on the Tyne, one on the Wear,
and one at Barrow-in-Furness, will be described. The accounts are
written from authoritative information specially supplied, aided and
verified by personal knowledge of the works dealt with, and are
chiefly concerned with the capability and arrangement of the several
yards. Other matters of a more technical nature, such as the
comparison of methods of work in the several districts,[31] are not
dealt with. To some extent this still differs in individual yards, but
modern practice is being more assimilated throughout the districts
as time goes on. The first establishment dealt with will be:—
MESSRS JOHN ELDER & CO.’S
SHIPBUILDING AND MARINE ENGINEERING WORKS,
FAIRFIELD, GOVAN, NEAR GLASGOW.
 The progress of shipbuilding and marine engineering on the Clyde
may be said to include several more or less well-defined periods or
stages, and the student of industrial progress must feel bound to
connect with these the name of the late John Elder, a distinguished
leader in these important industries, and an engineer whose
improvements in the marine engine deserve to rank alongside those
improvements which James Watt effected in his day. In 1852 Mr Elder
joined his friend, Mr Randolph, in an established business, and
shortly afterwards made preparations to add marine engineering to
the mill-wright and other businesses of the firm. The new firm
speedily established itself through a series of improvements, having
for their object the reduction of fuel consumption on board steam
vessels. In 1860 the firm commenced to build ships, and as
shipbuilders and marine engineers they laboured successfully for
sixteen years, building during that period 106 vessels, with an
aggregate tonnage of 81,326 tons, and constructing 111 sets of
marine engines, showing a nominal power of 20,145 horses. At this
time the co-partnery contract expired, and Mr John Elder took over
the entire works, carrying them on with great success until his death,
which occurred in London in September, 1869, when at the early age
of 45 years. After his death the business of the firm was taken up by
Mr John F. Ure, Mr J. L. K. Jamieson, and Mr William Pearce, all of
whom had previously achieved distinction in shipbuilding and
engineering, and the efforts of these gentlemen far exceeded the
success of Mr John Elder’s first firm. In 16 years, as above stated, the
latter launched 106 vessels of an aggregate tonnage of 81,326 tons,
and constructed 111 sets of marine engines of 20,145 nominal horse-
power, whereas the new firm launched in nine years 97 vessels of an
aggregate tonnage of 192,355 tons, and constructed 90 sets of
marine engines of 31,193 nominal horse-power. About six years ago
Mr Ure and Mr Jamieson retired from the firm, leaving Mr Pearce sole
partner, and during these six years the activity and enterprise
formerly characterising the firm have been worthily sustained, and
the firm has kept in the very front rank. In maintaining this position,
and achieving unprecedented results in the matter of swift
steamships, not a little credit is due to Mr A. D. Bryce-Douglas, an
engineer of well-attested skill, who wields the sceptre of authority in
the engineering section.
The works, which are situated on the south bank of the Clyde at
Fairfield, near Govan, occupy an area of about 70 acres, and
comprise shipyard, boiler shop, engine works, and tidal basin. The
disposition of the various workshops is admirable, and as these are
connected with each other by a broad gauge line of rails
communicating with all parts of the yard and the terminus of the
Govan railway, the conveyance of raw material in the first instance,
its location in whatever section of the works it may be specially
designed for, and its transmission in the form of finished items of
structure or outfit to the vessels of which it is to form part, are all
accomplished with ease.
Entering by the south-east gate, the visitor proceeds in the
direction of the business offices, his first impression probably being
one of wonder at the immense quantities of iron and steel in plates
and bars covering every available piece of ground, as well as the
great quantity of timber of all dimensions stacked and in racks,
maturing for after use. Arriving at the offices of the firm, the visitor is
probably first ushered into the draughtsmen’s rooms, which, as well
as a large reception-room, contain an extensive collection of models
of the vessels that have been constructed by the firm. In these
apartments a large staff of draughtsmen are employed in the work of
designing new vessels, and making working drawings of ships already
contracted for.
Following the routine of practical operations the visitor is conducted
to the moulding loft, which is 320 feet long by 50 feet wide. Here the
drawings of the vessels are put down full size. The term “laying off”
is applied to the operation of transferring to the mould loft-floor
those designs and general proportions of a ship which have been
drawn on paper, and from which all the preliminary calculations have
been made and the form decided. The lines of the ship and exact
representations of many of the parts of which it is composed are
delineated here to their actual or real dimensions, in order that
moulds or skeleton outlines may be made from them for the guidance
of the workmen. These lines, when completed and carefully verified,
are afterwards transferred to scrieve boards, from which the frames,
floors, &c., are bent. In connection with the moulding loft is a pattern
shop, in which the various moulds required in “laying off” are made.
Descending to the iron-work machine shop, which measures about
1000 feet long by 150 feet wide, a scene of great activity meets the
eye. Proceeding to that section where the bending blocks are
situated, the operation of forming the frames of a vessel may be
noticed. The bending blocks are massive iron plates weighing several
tons, on which the form of the frame is marked from the scrieve
boards. All over the blocks are round holes, closely spaced and
equidistant, in which iron pins are placed to give the form of the
frame to be bent. Long bars of angle-iron, properly heated in
adjacent furnaces, are brought by the workmen to the blocks, and
there the bars are bent round the pins to the form required. The half
frame of a ship is thus fashioned to the proper form in little more
time than it takes to describe the process. It is now allowed to cool,
and it is then returned to the scrieve boards to be set or adjusted
with the reverse frame, which with the floor plate go to make the
frame in its finished form. While this is going on, the keel blocks are
being laid in the usual manner on the building slip, and the keel,
stem, and stern-posts are being forged and drilled. The keel is laid,
and the frames are then set up in their places, and are kept in
position by shores and ribbon pieces. The stem and stern-posts are
then set up, and the work now becomes general all over the vessel.
The beams previously made are put up, the bulkheads, stringer
plates, and keelsons are added in due succession, and the outside
shell is being fitted and riveted. Thus the full and perfect form of the
vessel is gradually developed, and exhibits one of the most
interesting and useful productions of man’s labour. In the bending
shop alluded to are several large Gorman furnaces, 25 smithy fires for
heating angle irons, several sets of plate-bending rolls, five stands of
vertical drilling machines with several spindles each, a huge punching
machine capable of producing ten rivet holes at each operation,
squeezers, boring, planing, counter-sinking, plate-bending, plate
planing, numerous punching and shearing machines, and other
appliances. The motive power of this section is supplied by a
powerful set of engines lately erected by the firm.
Immediately to the front of this building are the slips, which extend
1,200 feet along the Clyde, and admit of 12 to 14 vessels being
proceeded with at one time. While proceeding among the slips
hydraulic riveters may be observed at work on several structural
features. The attention given to such machines in the preceding
chapter makes further notice here unnecessary.
When a steamship leaves the ways she is towed into the firm’s tidal
dock to receive the boilers and machinery. With the assistance of a
pair of 80-ton sheer-legs, Messrs Elder & Co. are able to complete
this part of the construction of a vessel with wonderful despatch. In
connection with this section is a smithy and small mechanics’ shop,
which are alongside of the wharf. Space will not permit a description
of the smiths’ shop, the paint shop, riggers’ loft, plumbers’ shop, belt-
makers’ shop, boat-builders’ shop, block and pattern-makers’ shop,
pattern store, general store, &c., about each of which much of
interest might be written.
 The wood-working department, though stocked with the most
approved labour-saving appliances, still affords employment to
several hundreds of hands. In the saw mill, which is about 100 feet
square, there are several sets of steam saw frames, circular saws,
planing machines for operating on deck planks, and other tools, the
producing capacity of which is very large. Adjacent to this is the spar
shed, where all the spars required on board the vessels are made.
In the joiners’ shops are numerous wood-working machines, which
are placed advantageously all through this department, comprising
planing, morticing, and moulding machines, circular and fret saws,
surface planing and jointing machines, general joiners, lathes, and a
variety of other tools from the most noted makers of this class of
mechanism. The cabinetmaker’s shop is a spacious one, and here the
finer class of interior fittings are seen in all stages of progress.
Nothing in this section seems omitted in the way of mechanical
appliances to afford the utmost facility for rapid production and
excellence of workmanship.
The marine engineering department of the business is conducted in
an imposing pile of buildings about 300 feet square. This immense
shop is 50 feet high, and is divided into four bays, or compartments,
by three spacious galleries of two floors, each 30 feet wide, and
extending the entire length of the building. These galleries serve the
double purpose of supporting powerful travelling cranes (two of
which are capable of lifting loads of 40 tons, and the other two lesser
weights), and providing convenient retreats where boilermaking,
copperwork, and other operations are conducted. It is doubtful if a
similar collection of ponderous tools is to be found anywhere else in
Great Britain. Notable among the heavy tools seen here in operation
is one of enormous proportions for planing and trimming armour
plates, being capable of smoothing a surface 20 feet by 6 feet. There
are three self-acting screw-cutting lathes, two slotting machines of
great power, a universal radial drilling machine, with a radius of 18
feet, capable of boring a hole 4 inches in diameter, through a 9 inch
plate in half-an-hour; a turning lathe having a 10-ft. spindle with a
diameter of 20-ins.; a planing machine which cuts either horizontally
or vertically, and has a traverse of 15 feet by 12 feet; two vertical
boring machines, each with a travel of 5 feet; a turning lathe 8½ feet
in diameter, with a 34 feet shaft; and a terrible and mysterious-
looking machine, with a metallic disc 18 feet in diameter, armed with
powerful steel cutters fixed round its circumference, which takes a
shaving of 2½ inches off the mass of iron upon which it is operating.
This machine was the invention of the late Mr Elder’s father, and is
one of the most wonderful tools in existence. Adjoining this engine
shop is the forge, which, with its 50 fires, 16 steam hammers, and all
the necessary appurtenances to produce forgings with despatch, is an
exceedingly busy section of the works. It is 300 feet long and 100
feet wide; and being lofty, excellent ventilation is obtained.
There are three smithies of large dimensions—one being retained
for heavy work, and the others for light work. In connection with the
engine shop is a pattern shop which, like all the other wood-working
departments of the premises, is fully provided with tools having the
most modern improvements. The brass foundry is well appointed, and
is arranged in two sections—one for light, and the other for heavy
work. Manganese bronze propellers, of which the firm make a
speciality, are made here in great numbers; the monthly output of
this department amounts to 45 tons, all of which is used up in the
yard, with the exception of a number of propellers which the firm
supply to other shipbuilders.
The capabilities of the Fairfield establishment, it may readily be
believed, are of the highest order. Scarcely anything need be said in
substantiation of this, as the past few years have witnessed the
continuous production from its stocks of very many steamships of the
highest class, whose names have already become “household words.”
Of these it may be sufficient to instance the Arizona , the Alaska , the
Austral, the Stirling Castle, and the Oregon. Apart from these, and
perhaps no less worthy examples of Fairfield work, vessels of war
have been turned out to a goodly extent, as well as vessels for a
great variety of trades, but it is for the fast mail and passenger
steamships that the establishment is chiefly famed. Its reputation in
this respect bids fair to be augmented by the production of the two
powerful Cunard steamers already referred to in this work, and which
are now nearing completion.
The following tabulated form shows the amount of tonnage built,
and the horse-power of engines fitted, by Messrs Elder & Co. during
the past fourteen years:—

Tonnage. H.P. Tonnage. H.P.

Years. Years.
Gross. Indicated. Gross. Indicated.

1870 22,795 18,139 1877 7,704 9,550

1871 31,889 29,000 1878 18,247 11,750
1872 24,510 22,450 1879 16,895 15,510
 1873 24,829 18,300 1880 32,775 38,024
1874 31,016 16,110 1881 26,575 43,728
1875 17,818 12,040 1882 31,686 41,192
1876 13,533 16,550 1883 40,115 56,995

During ordinarily busy periods the number of operatives employed

by Messrs Elder & Co. reaches six thousand. The united earnings of
this great army of workmen amount to over £33,000 per month. As a
further indication of the stupendousness of the works, it may be
mentioned that on board a single vessel—the Umbria —as many as
1,200 workmen have been employed at one time. The supervision of
affairs in this great establishment is, as may readily be understood, a
matter necessitating numerous “heads,” “sub-heads,” and
departments. The general manager in the shipyard is Mr J. W.
Shepherd, a naval architect of well-approved ability.

The second of the three Clyde establishments selected for notice,

and one in many ways specially noteworthy is:—
MESSRS WILLIAM DENNY & BROTHERS’ LEVEN SHIPYARD,
DUMBARTON.

The firm of William Denny & Brothers, Dumbarton, began the

business of iron shipbuilding in the year 1844, in a small yard
situated on the east bank of the river Leven. To this they
subsequently added the “Woodyard” on the opposite side of the river,
which had been occupied for a considerable period by William Denny
the elder, builder of the “Marjory,” “Rob Roy,” and many other notable
craft, during the infancy of steam navigation. The composition of the
firm at the outset comprised William, Alexander, and Peter, sons of
the builder of the “Marjory,” but it was augmented after a time by the
assumption of two other brothers, James and Archibald. The co-
partnery some time after again underwent change when the two
brothers Alexander and Archibald seceded, and formed small yards of
their own. In 1854 the firm sustained an almost irreparable loss in
the death of William, the original promoter of the concern, to whose
energy and surpassing skill most of the success then attained was
due. His decease was deeply lamented, not only as an irreparable
family bereavement, but as a public loss. When he first devoted his
energies to the formation of an iron shipbuilding concern, it was at a
time of great industrial gloom in the community. With its successful
establishment began a brighter era in the industrial and social history
of the burgh—one which has never once been seriously interrupted,
and seems only now to be approaching the “high noon” of its
prosperity. Sometime subsequent to the decease of William, the co-
partnery was further reduced through the death of James. For a
considerable time thereafter the business was carried on by Peter
alone, until in 1868 he was joined by his eldest son William, and 1871
by Mr Walter Brock—co-partner in the firm of Denny & Coy.: a distinct
marine engineering business established by Peter Denny and others
in 1851. Within the past three years farther accessions to the firm
have been made in Mr James Denny, son of James of the original
firm, and in Messrs Peter Denny, John M. Denny, and Archibald
Denny, sons of Peter, and younger brothers of William, who for some
time has been managing partner of the shipbuilding firm, as Mr Brock
is of the engine works.
In 1867 the firm transferred their establishment to the present site
on the east bank of the river Leven near its confluence with the
Clyde, and under the shadow of the Castle-rock, which figures
largely, alike in the scenic renown and the historic annals of Scotland.
Through a most elaborate series of extensions and improvements
carried out within the past two-and-a-half years, the works have been
enlarged to more than double their previous dimensions, and
correspondingly increased in working capability. They occupy a total
area of forty-three acres, over five acres of which are taken up with
wet dock accommodation, and as much as seven-and-a-half acres
with workshops, sheds, and roofed spaces of various kinds. The yard
has a most advantageous and extensive frontage to the Leven,
which, under the provisions of a recently obtained Harbour Act, is
being greatly improved as regards width and deepening. The principal
launching berths, eight in number, are ranged about the centre
portion of the yard’s length, and their projections into the river
Leven, favoured by a bend at this part, are almost in the direct line of
its course. Through the recent improvements, these berths are
capable of receiving vessels of dimensions and tonnage such as the
present race for big ships has not even approached. The arrangement
permits of eight vessels being built of lengths ranging gradually from
a maximum of 750 feet downwards. Besides these principal berths,
there are spaces near the south end of the yard, where light-draught
paddle-steamers and the smaller class of screw vessels are
constructed and launched, or taken to pieces and shipped abroad. All
the work of construction, fitting out, and putting machinery on board
ship, is accomplished within the yard gates. Contributing to this result