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Unreal Engine 5
Game Development
with C++ Scripting

Become a professional game developer

and create fully functional, high-quality games

Zhenyu George Li

BIRMINGHAM—MUMBAI
Unreal Engine 5 Game Development with C++ Scripting
Copyright © 2023 Packt Publishing
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case
of brief quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.
Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the information
presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold without warranty, either express
or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt Publishing or its dealers and distributors, will be held liable
for any damages caused or alleged to have been caused directly or indirectly by this book.
Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the companies and
products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot
guarantee the accuracy of this information.

Group Product Manager: Rohit Rajkumar

Publishing Product Manager: Vaideeshwari Muralikrishnan
Senior Editor: Hayden Edwards
Technical Editor: Simran Udasi
Copy Editor: Safis Editing
Project Coordinator: Aishwarya Mohan
Proofreader: Safis Editing
Indexer: Manju Arasan
Production Designer: Ponraj Dhandapani
Marketing Coordinators: Namita Velgekar & Nivedita Pandey

First published: August 2023

Production reference: 1110823

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Grosvenor House
11 St Paul’s Square
Birmingham
B3 1R

ISBN 978-1-80461-393-1

www.packtpub.com
 Foreword
I have known and worked with George Li in various capacities for more than 20 years.
We met first as colleagues at a private college of interactive arts in downtown Vancouver, Canada. I
was a full professor of linguistics at a university in the area, with extensive experience in developing
a cognitive science program at the university. Establishing a curriculum for such a program involved
familiarizing myself with areas well beyond the area of my specific academic position and collaborating
closely with colleagues – particularly in computing science (cognitive), psychology, and philosophy
(particularly concerning socio-epistemological issues such as AI). It was in this spirit that I was happy
to associate myself with a private college, focusing on language study and teaching, together with
preparing students to handle 3D computer applications (e.g., 3ds Max, 3D GameStudio, and Unreal)
and showing them how to generate animation materials for film, TV, and games.
George Li was in charge of all the technical requirements of the college. I very quickly realized that he
was not merely extremely competent and forthcoming (he had already occupied high-level computing-
related positions, software engineering for instance, in China prior to emigrating to Canada) but
also computationally competent and brilliantly innovative. He also had a particular interest in the
development of game engines and was already collaborating with his colleague, Charles Yeh, on a
practical reference book, XNA PC & Xbox360 C# Game Programming, with proprietary-produced
text and games to his credit.
As colleagues in the college, George and I found common, mutually strengthening interests. Eventually,
he and I found ourselves in charge of creating a two-year interactive-arts program curriculum for
the college.
My whole career, at universities in the UK and Canada, and as a member of the editorial boards of
a major academic journal and a very influential series, has closely involved the evaluation of the
intellectual quality of people’s capabilities and work, and in my opinion, George Li’s innate talents
shine out clearly throughout his work and will continue to do so in the future. His ability to express
his knowledge of the subject at hand is outstandingly demonstrated in all his work, performance,
expressions, and character.
This book, like the one co-authored with Yeh, is designed for independent developers and company
training, plus for reference after post-secondary education. The knowledge presented herein is most
intelligently, clearly, and effectively presented so as to be as efficiently applicable and pedagogically
effective as possible on any device or platform, producing high-quality games, accessories, and edits.
This volume will certainly stand the test of time and fulfill the majority of the needs of those working
in the field of gaming. However, I am certain that George will make further, very crucial contributions
to this topic.
Until then, this volume will serve you excellently, helping you enjoy and prosper with your future
activities and products.

Dr. E. Wyn Roberts (M.A. Ph.D (Cantab.))

Emeritus Professor of Linguistics, Simon Fraser University
 Contributors

About the author

Zhenyu George Li is a passionate video game developer with over 20 years of experience in the field.
As a seasoned software engineer, George has contributed significantly to the development of numerous
games throughout his career and currently serves as a senior development consultant at Unity.
George’s fascination with video games was sparked during his college studies, igniting a passion that
would shape his professional journey. During the early stages of his game development endeavors,
George immersed himself in technologies such as Visual Basic, C/C++, DirectX, OpenGL, and Windows
GUI. These foundational experiences laid the groundwork for his subsequent success in the industry.
Throughout his career, George has made substantial contributions to various commercial games.
Notable titles in his portfolio include Halo Infinite, Magic: The Gathering Arena, Stela, Dead Rising 2,
The Bigs 2, and so on. His involvement in these projects has allowed him to gain extensive knowledge
and practical experience in a wide range of domains, including programming, game engines, gameplay
and AI, graphics, animation, multiplayer games, multiplayform games, and game physics. In practical
applications, George has used both the Unreal and Unity engines in the development of real game projects.
In addition to his achievements as a game developer, George has also honed his teaching abilities during
his eight years of college-level instruction. He has shared his knowledge and expertise with aspiring
developers, serving as a lecturer at the Vancouver Film School (VFS), the College of Interactive Arts,
and Hefei Union University. During his teaching at VFS, George instructed students in the intricacies
of Unreal Engine.

I express my gratitude to my wife, Alison Guo, for her support in handling family responsibilities and
for enabling me to dedicate time to completing this book. I also extend my thanks to Sarah Beck and
Willy Campos for their encouragement and support throughout the writing process.
About the reviewers
Aditya Dutta holds a game programming advanced diploma from Humber College and is a highly
accomplished senior software engineer at Archiact Interactive, bringing expertise in Unreal Engine
and C++ system design and implementation.
With a strong collaborative spirit, Aditya leads feature development and takes ownership of tools
while actively improving team processes. These leadership skills were evident during his tenure
as lead programmer at Humber College, where he successfully guided and mentored a team of
programmers, overseeing the technical aspects of significant projects in the virtual production and
architecture industries.
His contributions at UP360 Inc. as a programmer included shipping numerous training VR simulations,
developing iterative tools, and implementing gameplay mechanics using Unreal Engine.

Michael Oakes is a senior software consultant for Unity and has over 27 years of experience in the
IT industry. He has worked with real-time 3D and games for over eight years, specializing in mixed
reality design and development, shader programming, and AI and multiplayer systems.
He has worked as a technical consultant on other titles, including Packt Publishing’s Learn ML-Agents
– Fundamentals of Unity Machine Learning, written by Micheal Lanham.
 Table of Contents
Part 1 – Getting Started with Unreal C++
Scripting
1
Creating Your First Unreal C++ Game 3
Technical requirements 3 Ensuring your UE has the source code installed 9
Understanding C++ scripting in Unreal 4 Launching the UE5 editor through the Epic
Games Launcher 10
What is the difference between C++ and
Creating the MyShooter C++ project 10
Blueprint?4
Associating VS with UE5 as the default source
When do you use C++? 5
code editor 12
What is the difference between C++
Opening the C++ source code in VS (optional) 13
programming and C++ scripting? 5

Creating your C++ Shooter project Converting an existing Blueprint

from a template 6 project to a C++ project 15
Installing Visual Studio 2022 6 Summary20

2
Editing C++ Code in Visual Studio 21
Technical requirements 21 Solution Explorer 26
Launching VS 22 Output window 27
Error List window 28
Walking through the VS IDE’s UI 24
Code editor 25 Editing code in VS 29
Menus26 Controlling the caret (input cursor) 30
Search box 26 The text editing keys 30
Toolbar26 Code selection 30
viii Table of Contents

IntelliSense31 Creating the main.cpp file 35

Useful editing hotkeys 31 Changing the editor theme 37
Writing the initial code for main.cpp 38
Practicing C++ coding 32
Adding the Calculator class 40
Creating a new C++ solution in VS 33
Summary42

3
Learning C++ and Object-Oriented Programming 43
Technical requirements 44 Working on the improved calculator
What is C++? 44 program66
Exploring the C++ program structure 45 Creating references and pointers 72
Defining C++ functions 46 References73
Pointers74
Defining functions with or without parameters 47
Calling functions 47 Understanding OOP 74
Writing the main() function 47 What is OOP? 75
Working with a basic calculator What are classes and objects? 75
program48 Creating classes in C++ 76
Creating objects in C++ 77
Learning the C++ syntax 49
Using the C++ data types 50 Working on an OOP calculator
Defining variables 51 program78
Using C++ arrays 52 Adding constructor and getter functions for
Using C++ operators 53 the calculator class 83
Accepting user input 57 Creating the CalculatorEx class, which
Adding C++ comments 57 inherits from the Calculator class 84
Controlling the C++ flow 58 Summary88

4
Investigating the Shooter Game’s Generated Project and C++ Code 89
Technical requirements 89 Getting familiar with the source code 95
Understanding the MyShooter C++ MyShooterCharacter.h95
project structure 90 MyShooterCharacter.cpp100
Understanding the game program MyShooterProjectile.h and
structure92 MyShooterProjectile.cpp103
 Table of Contents ix

TP_PickUpComponent.h and TP_ MyShooter.Build.cs, MyShooter.Target.cs,

PickUpComponent.cpp106 and MyShooterEditor.target.cs 111
TP_WeaponComponent.h and TP_
Launching Unreal Editor and
WeaponComponent.cpp108
opening the game project in Visual
MyShooter.h and MyShooter.cpp 110
Studio112
MyShooterGameMode.h and
MyShooterGameMode.cpp110 Summary114

Part 2 – C++ Scripting for Unreal Engine

5
Learning How to Use UE Gameplay Framework Base Classes 117
Technical requirements 118 Defining private properties for these two
components136
Creating a Pangaea top-down game
project118 Adding public getter functions to the
components137
Understanding the gameplay Creating components in the class constructor 138
framework base classes 119
Creating game actor classes 120 Creating blueprints from the new
actor classes 138
Creating the ADefenseTower class 120
Creating the AProjectile class 125 Learning about the Unreal gameplay
Creating the APlayerAvatar class 125 framework classes 142
Locating and creating gameplay framework
Recompiling C++ projects 127 classes in Pangaea 142
Using the UPROPERTY macro 128 Learning about the PlayerController class 143
The UPROPERTY syntax 129 Learning about the GameModeBase class 144
The UPROPERTY specifiers and metadata keys130 GameState144
Marking the ADefenseTower, AProjectile, GameInstance144
and APlayerAvatar attributes as UE properties 130 Retrieving class instances from your code 145

Using the UFUNCTION macro 132 Using the Cast template function 145
The UFUNCTION syntax 132 Summary147
UFUNCTION specifiers and metadata keys 132
Tagging ADefenseTower and APlayerAvatar
member functions as UFUNCTION macros 133

Adding components to the new actors136

Including component header files 136
x Table of Contents

6
Creating Game Actors 149
Technical requirements 149 Replacing the game’s player pawn 160
Setting up the player avatar 150 Creating the player avatar’s
Adding SpringArmComponent and animation blueprint 162
CameraComponent to PlayerAvatar 150 Creating the PlayerAvatarAnimInstance class 163
Initializing the player avatar 154 Creating the ABP_PlayerAvatar blueprint 169
Setting up the character’s Creating the State Machine on ABP_
SkeletalMeshComponent155 PlayerAvatar171
Syncing the movement speed with the
Importing the character model 155
animation instance 174
Using the Hero skeletal mesh in BP_
PlayerAvatar160 Summary176

7
Controlling Characters 179
Technical requirements 180 Implementing the OnStateAnimationEnds
function186
Controlling the player character to
attack180 Destroying actors 187
Adding the Attack action to the action map 180 Creating the enemy character 189
Binding the handler function to the Attack Creating the Enemy class 190
action181
Creating the EnemyController class 195
Implementing the OnAttackPressed() action
Creating the ABP_Enemy animation blueprint 200
handler function 182
Creating the BP_Enemy blueprint 201
Implementing the CanAttack() and Attack()
functions182 Testing the game 203
Processing non-loop animations 184 Summary204

8
Handling Collisions 205
Technical requirements 205 Using collisions for game interactions213
Understanding collision detection 206 Downloading and creating the weapon,
defense tower, and fireball actors 214
Setting the collision presets 210
 Table of Contents xi

Picking up weapons 218 target is hit 230

Spawning a weapon for the enemy 224 Processing a defense tower hit 234
Defense tower firing fireballs 225
Summary236
Moving the fireball and checking whether the

9
Improving C++ Code Quality 239
Technical requirements 239 Creating a fireball pool 256
Refactoring code 240 Outputting debug messages 263
Combining the PlayerAvatarAnimInstance Using the UE_LOG macro 264
and EnemyAnimInstance classes 240 Printing debug messages to the screen 265
Making PangaeaCharacter the parent class of
APlayerAvatar and AEnemy 243 Checking an Actor instance’s actual
class type 266
Refining code 255
Summary269
Using caching variables 255

Part 3 – Making a Complete Multiplayer Game

10
Making Pangaea a Network Multiplayer Game 273
Technical requirements 273 replications282
Comparing single-player and Updating the character health bar with
multiplayer games 274 RepNotify284
Processing hits on the server 290
Launching the multiplayer Pangaea
Spawning fireballs on the server side 291
game in the editor 275
Understanding multiplayer game Summary293
network modes 277
Handling network synchronizations 278
Notifying player attacks with RPCs 278
Syncing actor variables to clients with
xii Table of Contents

11
Controlling the Game Flow 295
Technical requirements 295 Adding the Timer variable to the
APangaeaGameState class 313
Designing the Pangaea game’s flow 296
Making the Timer variable replicable 314
Creating the UI widgets 297
Defining OnTimeChangedDelegate 314
Creating BP_LobbyWidget 298
Creating and binding the custom event to
Creating BP_HUDWidget 301 OnTimeChangedDelegate315
Creating BP_GameOverWidget 303 Counting down the timer 317
Adding networking functions to Designating APangaeaGameState as the
PangaeaGameInstance306 project’s game state class 319

Adding UI widgets to game levels 310 Destroying a base defense tower to

Adding the game timer 312 win the game 320
Summary326

12
Polishing and Packaging the Game 327
Technical requirements 327 Packaging the game 338
Polishing the game 328 Configuring the project settings for packaging 338
Importing and using high-quality game assets 328 Making the build a windowed game 340
Fixing bugs 331 Avoiding the hardcoded path for finding
Profiling and optimization 331 content341
Packaging the project 344
Using Unreal Engine console
commands332 What to do next 347
Exploring modes and console commands 332 Summary348
Executing console commands in C++ 336

Index349

Other Books You May Enjoy 360

 Preface
Welcome, and thank you for choosing to pick up the Unreal Engine 5 Game Development with C++
Scripting book! This comprehensive book is designed to assist game developers and students in
advancing their professional skills in C++ programming for Unreal Engine game development.
Unreal Engine is a powerful and versatile game engine widely used in both the gaming and movie-
making industries. Possessing advanced and professional Unreal Engine development skills enables
individuals to adapt more effectively to the demands of a career in game development, opening a
multitude of opportunities for them.
When developing with Unreal Engine, you have the option to use either one or both of two available
programming tools:

• Blueprint provides a user-friendly interface suitable for non-programmer developers

• C++ is predominantly employed by software engineers, providing a more robust and flexible
approach to game development

As an Unreal Engine developer, you may have a genuine interest in understanding C++ and how it
integrates with the engine, even if you don’t identify as a software engineer or aspire to become one.
This book is designed to assist you in expanding your knowledge and skills by guiding you through
the necessary steps to create a fully fledged game, covering essential aspects of game development. It
aims to smoothen the learning curve, allowing for a more seamless and efficient grasp of the concepts
presented. The carefully organized topics eliminate the need for random searching and prevent wasted
time on unrelated readings, enabling you to focus on the relevant information. Moreover, this book
serves as a valuable reference manual, offering a comprehensive resource that can be revisited and
utilized for further study.

Who this book is for

It is important to note that this book does not serve as a beginner’s guide to using Unreal Engine. Prior
to exploring its contents, you should already possess a basic understanding of, and practical experience
with, Unreal Engine and Blueprint. This prerequisite ensures that you have a solid foundation of
knowledge to fully leverage the material covered in this book, maximizing your learning experience.
xiv Preface

This book caters to a diverse range of readers:

• Non-engineer game developers, such as game designers and artists who aspire to learn and
comprehend C++ in the context of Unreal Engine development
• Software engineers who may lack prior experience in Unreal Engine C++ programming but
wish to quickly acquire the necessary skills for their next project or job
• Students who are interested in learning and digging into Unreal C++ programming for their
study or personal projects
• Individuals with a keen interest in game development using Unreal Engine will benefit from
the comprehensive knowledge presented within these pages

What this book covers

Chapter 1, Creating Your First Unreal C++ Game, guides you quickly through creating a new C++
game project based on the Shooter template in Unreal. This chapter also introduces how to convert
an existing Blueprint game project into a C++ game project.
Chapter 2, Editing C++ Code in Visual Studio, provides basic information on how to use the powerful
integrated development environment Microsoft Visual Studio to edit C++ code. This chapter not only
presents the editing skills needed but also demonstrates how to create a calculator application in C++.
Chapter 3, Learning C++ and Object-Oriented Programming, goes deeper into C++ programming based
on the previous chapter’s calculator project. This chapter covers the fundamental C++ syntax, data
types, flow control, and so on. C++ object-oriented programming is also introduced in this chapter.
Chapter 4, Investigating the Shooter Game’s Generated Project and C++ Code, explores the details of
the generated shooter game project, including the project files’ structure and the source files. In this
chapter, the C++ code lines are briefly explained, so that you gain an overall understanding of how
C++ code works.
Chapter 5, Learning How to Use the UE Gameplay Framework Base Classes, instructs you on how to
create our new top-down game project, Pangaea. You will be guided on how to create the game actors,
DefenseTower, for instance, and the game character, PlayerAvatar classes, for instance, as
well as defining actor properties and functions in C++.
Chapter 6, Creating Game Actors, provides steps to write code and set up the main character for the
Pangaea game. It includes setting up the character, creating the animation instance, defining the state
machine, and synchronizing the animations.
Chapter 7, Controlling Characters, provides methods of controlling game characters. This includes
configuring the input map, handling player input, and effectively processing the reactions of the
player character. Additionally, you will be introduced to the AI controller and the navigation system
for controlling non-player characters.
Other documents randomly have
different content
friends, and his family, and clear the throne for Cholkhan, who would
at once put Mongol princes in every part of Russia, and force his
religion on Christians.

Early one morning a deacon was leading to water a young mare in

good flesh; some Mongols rushed to take the beast from him,—they
wished to kill, cook, and eat her. The deacon struggled and shouted;
people ran up to help him; more Mongols hurried to the spot, and a
fight began which developed and extended till it filled the city. Church
bells were tolled. Cholkhan was roused and rushed forth to the
battle. At sunrise all Tver was raging in a desperate conflict. The
Grand Prince himself took part, and pushed into the thickest of the
struggle. Both sides fought all day fiercely, and only toward evening
did Alexander force Cholkhan and his men to the palace, where the
Mongols quickly barred every entrance. But Alexander did not spare
his father’s palace; he fired it with his own hands, and Cholkhan and
his Mongols were burned to death in it. All Mongol merchants were
slain; the Tver men spared not one of them; even those who had
lived a long time in the city received neither quarter nor mercy. They
were burned in their houses, or drowned in the river.

Such was the punishment inflicted on Cholkhan, Uzbek’s cousin.

When Uzbek heard of this massacre, his anger blazed up furiously
against the rebels, and in grief over Cholkhan. He sent at once for
the Prince of Moscow. Ivan delayed not. It seems that his obedience
and ready arrival at Sarai surprised even the Khan. Ivan found every
one in great alarm. The Mongols thought that all Russia had risen in
revolt and refused further obedience. When the true condition was
explained, Uzbek gave the Moscow prince a part of his army to
punish the insolent Tver men. He sent with him also Mongol princes
and five commanders, each leading ten thousand warriors. In fact he
gave an army [313]sufficient to conquer a kingdom. His order was to
destroy the Tver principality.
No man had ever seen Uzbek in such convulsions of anger. He
roared like a lion. Not a Tver prince was to be left alive. The whole
Russian land must be harassed. Ivan was to slaughter his own
countrymen to avenge Mongols. Vassili, a Ryazan prince summoned
recently for judgment, was beheaded at once. Later on, when
Mongol warriors were at work, the head of another prince fell at the
Khan’s capital. During the summer of 1328, there was great
bloodshed throughout all Vladimir. The legions which came with
Ivan, led by Turlyak, were so numerous that no Russian power could
withstand them. Tver and other towns were leveled. All people who
did not flee were either slain or taken captive. Alexander and his
brothers fled to Novgorod, but Novgorod, greatly alarmed, would not
allow them to remain in the city, and they fled to Pskoff. When the
Khan’s warriors approached Novgorod, Ivan sent envoys from
himself and Turlyak. The Novgorod men showed the envoys all
honor, paid tribute and made presents. The city sent then an
embassy to Uzbek, and implored Ivan to conduct it. “Go thou to the
Horde,” begged they, “and declare the obedience of Novgorod.” The
prince consented. Constantine of Tver, Ivan’s cousin, joined the
embassy, for Ivan had promised to intercede in his favor.

It would be difficult to estimate what suffering that outbreak in Tver

brought on Russia; how much torture and anguish that desperate
affair cost the people. The Khan was waiting for news with
impatience; when it came, it was so terrible that he was satisfied.
The smoking ruins of Tver towns and settlements seemed to him a
splendid reminder and a hint strong enough to keep down the
disobedient. Tver, Kashin, and all towns in Torjok and the Tver
principality were turned into ashes. People had been destroyed or
taken captive wherever hands or weapons could reach them. Only
those who fled to gloomy forests, where they hid among wild beasts,
survived that dreadful visitation. In time they came back to their
places, and began to work anew, but all were in dire need and
poverty, for their lands were as a desert.

The campaign successfully ended, the Mongols went home with

much wealth and many captives. They not only seized cattle,
[314]horses, and property, but took the wives and daughters of
Russians, and the men who were able to labor. They took everything
that pleased them, wherever they found it. Those who complained or
resisted were cut to pieces immediately. But Moscow and all its
lands were free from Mongol rapacity and massacre.

In the autumn of 1328, Ivan went to the Horde to report that the
Khan’s demand was accomplished. With him were the Novgorod
envoys and Feodor Kolenitsa, their chief man, also Constantine, the
Tver prince. Uzbek met all very graciously, and received Ivan with
much honor. He gave him the Grand Principality, adding lands also
to Moscow, and granting everything that the prince asked for; he
gratified Kolenitsa as well. But he commanded them all to the last
man to seek out Alexander and bring him to the Horde to receive the
Khan’s sentence.

After the countless quarrels between princes, and the Mongol raids
which did not cease for even one year during five decades after the
death of Alexander Nevski, the peace which now began, when
Nevski’s grandson, Ivan, became Grand Prince of Vladimir, must
have seemed a miracle. And for many a day it remained in the minds
of the people as a wonderful benefaction. This lasting peace was the
great event of Ivan’s reign. All knew that he had Uzbek’s confidence.
Russian princes saw that the Khan granted whatever Ivan asked of
him. They saw this even before, but when Constantine, brother of
the fugitive Alexander, was confirmed in Tver through Ivan’s
influence, all were convinced of Uzbek’s friendship for him, none
more firmly than the Novgorod envoys, who had visited the Horde
with the Grand Prince.

In 1328, upon his return from Sarai, Ivan and the other princes met
in Novgorod, for they had to find Alexander. They decided to send
envoys to that prince, and say, “The Khan summons thee to
judgment; wilt thou suffer for the Russian land like a warrior of Christ,
or survive alone, and give the whole Russian land to destruction?”
The envoys returned with the declaration that the Pskoff men would
not yield Alexander. They had agreed and kissed the cross not to
forsake him. He and they would stand or fall in one company. The
princes moved now on Pskoff with strong forces. Besides Ivan’s
army, he commanded Tver troops with the troops of other princes,
and men of Novgorod also. Wishing no harm to Pskoff, he pitched
his camp at some distance [315]and negotiated. He sent the
Novgorod bishop with the Novgorod commander to the prince, and
strove to act with kindness. Alexander was moved to tears and
answered that he was willing to stand before Uzbek, but the Pskoff
men swore that they would not allow him to go from their city.
Alexander sent this message from himself: “It is better that I die for
all, than that all should perish for me. But ye might defend your own
brothers and not yield them to pagans. Ye do just the opposite, and
with you ye bring Mongols.”

“It is impossible to take the prince from Pskoff or drive him from the
city.” These words were current in the camp of the allies. Ivan knew
much more of the true state of affairs than could be gathered from
camp reports, or the words of Alexander. He knew that Pskoff hoped
to be independent of Novgorod, that it wished for its own prince, and
thought that it had one now in Alexander. He knew also that Livonia
supported the city in secret, understanding well that if alone it would
be weaker and more easily subjected, while Lithuania supported
Pskoff openly and roused the city to resistance. Alexander,
consciously or not, was the helper of Gedimin. Ivan knew, perhaps,
of a treaty made by Pskoff and Alexander with Livonia. “The
Germans are near them, and they expect aid from them,” said Ivan
in council. It was difficult for him to act. In those straits he
remembered that when Yuri, his brother, was struggling with Tver,
Maxim, the metropolitan, made peace at the outset. There was still
another case, even more memorable. At the time when Dmitri of the
Terrible Eyes, intending to war against Yuri, was leading his troops to
Nizni, and had reached Vladimir, Pyotr, the bishop, stopped him by
refusing to give him his blessing, and Dmitri, after waiting three
weeks, returned home without meeting Yuri. Ivan turned now to
Feognost, the metropolitan, and begged for his assistance.

Feognost consented immediately, and was ready to utter a curse on

the Pskoff prince if he would not stand before Uzbek, and on all the
Pskoff people unless they surrendered him. Envoys were sent to the
city declaring that unless they submitted an interdict would be
issued, and services stopped in the churches. All people would be
excommunicated.

“Brothers and friends,” said Alexander to the people, on hearing

[316]this message, “let your oath to me, and my oath to you lose their
value. I will go from your city so that no harm may strike you. I will
find refuge with the Germans or in Lithuania,” and he departed.
Pskoff then informed Ivan that Alexander was no longer with them,
and added: “Pskoff pays thee homage as its Grand Prince.”

Thus Ivan was the first Moscow prince who gave peace to Pskoff in
the old fashion, as he would to his own principality. The metropolitan
blessed the Pskoff people, and Ivan marched homeward with the
princes. After Ivan had reached Moscow, Gedimin proposed that
Novgorod should take as prince his son Narimont, and give him
Oraihovo and Ladoga, with a part of Karelia, as inheritance. Moscow
learned then for the first time that since Ivan had left Pskoff,
Alexander had returned, and was prince there, supported by
Gedimin. It was not this return alone which roused Novgorod, but the
treason of the Pskoff men. The city had accepted Alexander as
prince from Lithuania, and were striving now for church separation.
When Vassili, the new archbishop, went from Novgorod for
ordination, Gedimin of Lithuania and Alexander of Pskoff sent
envoys to Feognost, Metropolitan of Russia, then in Volynia. These
envoys took with them Arseni to be bishop in Pskoff. Gedimin had
given Pskoff a prince in Alexander, and would now give a bishop.
Feognost ordained Vassili as Archbishop of Novgorod, but refused to
ordain Arseni, and Alexander’s envoys returned without a bishop.
Gedimin, enraged by the Novgorod success, and the failure of
Arseni, sent men to seize Vassili, but, warned by a messenger from
Feognost, he escaped the Lithuanians, and returned in safety to
Novgorod.

Alexander managed Pskoff for ten years, while Constantine and

Vassili, his brothers, ruled the Tver region,—the first in Tver, the
chief city, the second in Kashin in the northern part of the Tver
principality. Ivan had reconciled the Tver princes with Uzbek, and as
they were friendly and obedient their position was easy. Ivan asked
of them only to leave the road free between Moscow and Novgorod,
—Tver held the way between those two cities. Vladimir, the capital of
the principality, was occupied by Alexander, the Suzdal prince, not
as a capital, but as a possession. Ivan lived at all times in Moscow,
which had become the real capital of Russia. Uzbek, as stated
already, gave him many [317]lands in addition, giving Vladimir
meanwhile to the Suzdal prince.

Several princes found themselves tied to Ivan through relationship.

He gave one of his daughters to Vassili, Prince of Yaroslavl, another
to Constantine of Rostoff. Those princes, fearing to disobey their
father-in-law, had worked with him loyally thus far.

Besides having the Khan’s confidence, Ivan was strong through the
tribute. No other Grand Prince had given the Khan such an income;
and no prince held such uncontrolled management of tribute. This
gave Ivan unique power and position. Of all princes in that day he
was the only one, or at least the only one known to us, who had a
fixed object. He took no part in local quarrels in favor of one or
another region. He strove for Russia, and when prince only in
Moscow he saw all Russia far in the future. This was clearly shown
in his every act, not merely in the title which he assumed, “Grand
Prince of Moscow and All Russia,” but in his relations with other
princes and with Novgorod, and even with Uzbek. To preserve the
Russian land in its integrity was, by the very working of fate, to
preserve the Khan’s lordship, and support it for a season. There is
no doubt that Ivan explained always to Uzbek the harmful growth of
Lithuania, and as he himself warred with that power, so he roused
Uzbek to war with it. He showed the Khan, too, the immense wealth
of Novgorod in the distant lands of the East and the Pechora, to
which Novgorod admitted no Grand Prince. Uzbek rewarded and
honored his untiring assistant, and Ivan all the more easily reached
his object, calling himself with deep reason Grand Prince, not of
Moscow alone, but of all Russia.

Throughout his whole reign, Ivan had no personal quarrels; he

deprived no prince of his inheritance, he made war on no rival. Still
he kept all in obedience. At that epoch Alexander, the Tver prince,
was beyond doubt the most important of the princes. Owing to Ivan’s
non-interference, Alexander reigned ten years in Pskoff without
annoyance; neither with arms nor with words did Ivan disturb him,
but he watched Alexander’s connections with Gedimin and with
Livonia, and forgot no intrigue of his.
Novgorod, fearing the power of Ivan, sought his good-will, offered
friendship, and did not refuse to send Moscow more tribute than it
had sent Vladimir. As Prince of Novgorod he might have been
satisfied with the tribute, and the honor with [318]which Novgorod
strove to placate him, but as chief of all Russia he was not content
with this; he demanded what the city owed to all Russia. Ivan would
never yield to Novgorod when it claimed single ownership of regions
beyond the Volok, nor would he pardon its boyars for threatening to
favor Lithuania. On those points he warred with the city at all times.
During his reign he made Novgorod feel very clearly that he did not
ask an extra thousand of grievens to build up Moscow, but that the
boundaries fixed from the days of Yuri Dolgoruki, Andrei
Bogolyubski, and Big Nest must be given to Vladimir. Besides he
showed the Novgorod men that not to their city alone, but to all
Russia, was open the road to the whole northern country. And the
region beyond the Ural Mountains, the Kamen, as it was then called
(beyond the Kamen meant Siberia) was, as Ivan considered it, the
property, not of Novgorod alone, but of all Russia. Novgorod,
however, insisted most stubbornly that those regions belonged to her
exclusively. The Moscow prince would not concede this claim, and
watched with the utmost care those relations which then began
between Novgorod and Lithuania.

The boyars of Novgorod not only considered that they had a right to
invite a prince from Lithuania, but apparently they were ready to
place Novgorod under Lithuanian protection, if thus they could keep
independent of other princes, and preserve to their city those rich,
boundless lands on the north and the east.

Ivan would not admit for a moment that they had the right to call in a
foreign prince, or owned exclusively those lands which they claimed
for their own.
In 1332, when returning from the Horde, Ivan made a demand in the
name of the Khan to which the people of Novgorod gave a stern
refusal. He insisted, and to make sure of their compliance he seized
the Upper Baijets and Torjok immediately. From that began a long
quarrel. At times Novgorod seemed to yield, and the quarrel
apparently ceased; again it would blaze up on the city’s renewed
refusal. Thus the dispute continued during Ivan’s reign.

The main cause of the dispute was the silver beyond the Ural
Mountains. Ivan demanded from Novgorod an income from places
claimed by the city, no part of which income should go to any prince
ruling in Novgorod. He wished to extend taxes over all Novgorod
possessions to the boundaries of Siberia. [319]

In proportion as Novgorod quarreled with Ivan, it tried to be intimate

with Pskoff. Vassili, the archbishop, having added stone walls to the
Kremlin of Novgorod, found it proper to visit Pskoff and give the
people his blessing, withheld since his installation, at which time he
had opposed Pskoff’s efforts to separate from the diocese. A son
had just been born to Alexander. The bishop baptized him, and was
one of the godfathers of this little prince, named for his grandfather,
Michael.

At that time Novgorod had entered into friendship with Lithuania, and
Narimont, son of Gedimin, had arrived in the city. Novgorod received
him with gladness, and gave him Ladoga with Oraihova and Karelia
in part as a portion. In view of these acts Ivan went to Sarai, and
when he came back it was stated that he had been shown great
honor, and had gained large accessions of power while with Uzbek.
This alarmed Novgorod. During Ivan’s absence the Novgorod
archbishop had gone on a visit to Moscow, bearing gifts from the city
to the metropolitan, who had just come from Tsargrad. The
archbishop begged the metropolitan to speak with Ivan about
Novgorod. This intercession succeeded, for when envoys arrived in
Moscow and invited Ivan to Novgorod, he set aside his dislike for the
city, entered Novgorod February 16, 1335, and was received there in
triumph. They offered to add all their forces to his, and fall upon
Pskoff if he so ordered. But he would not attack Pskoff at that period;
he accepted their service, however, and marched on Lithuania. His
forces, and those of the city, took towns in good number, and though
this Lithuanian campaign was not the most important in conquest, it
was in agreement.

Meanwhile Gedimin’s son had not justified Novgorod’s hopes in him,

and he went back at last to his father. This freed Ivan’s hands, for he
had been gracious to Novgorod partly because of this young prince’s
presence at Ladoga. At this time Novgorod yielded in many, if not in
all things to Ivan. He bought lands where he liked in Novgorod
regions, and founded villages in them, a thing which Novgorod had
never permitted to any prince. Still he yielded no claim touching
Russia. The great contention as to what belonged to Novgorod, and
what was all Russia’s dominion was still undecided. Novgorod now
sought again the Pskoff friendship. But the Pskoff men knew well
that Novgorod’s desire [320]for friendship came from dread of Ivan,
Prince of Moscow. They knew also that a little while earlier Novgorod
had offered aid against Pskoff, if Ivan wished to have it. There was
no quarrel or hatred on either side at the time of the offer, and it had
been made purely from policy; passion had had nothing to do with
the matter.

If Ivan, as Grand Prince of all Russia, preferred his demands against

Novgorod so insistently, we may understand very well that he was
not tender with princes of small strength. Attendants and boyars of
small princes went to serve him by preference, Moscow’s success
was desired by all people who toiled and produced, because order
and quietness came from it. No prince could rival Ivan in power and
in resources. He surpassed not only each Russian prince separately,
but he was stronger than any combination which might be made
among them. For long years Ivan had worked at winning wealth and
power. He had worked successfully and with great diligence. Then
Uzbek gave him lands in addition to Moscow, and gave him perfect
control of all tribute from other princes. This made his position
unequaled. Ivan now held the purse. He kept such firm order that
merchants felt safe to expose their goods everywhere. New markets
on the Volga and elsewhere were opened. In Northern Russia
Yaroslavl, near the mouth of the Mologa, a river which enters the
Volga, was a place where German, Persian, Greek and Italian
merchants met and sold goods during summer. The revenue from
transactions was large. Boats covered the Volga, and till the
sixteenth century this market was an important one in Russia.

Ivan purchased from poor princes not only villages, but towns such
as Uglitch, Bailozersk, and Galitch beyond the Volga, and thus
increased his inheritance unceasingly. He also bought from boyars
and monasteries, and exchanged with them. He received presents of
land and property through wills of friends and relatives. With the
wealth which belonged to him personally, and that which pertained to
his office, he was able to meet all possible demands.

Responsible to the Khan for Russian tribute, and paying this tribute
at regular intervals, he frequently had to pay for princes who lacked
ready money. Of these some grew insolvent and paid him with land.
All, in greater or less degree, were dependent upon him; all in fact
needed his protection. Without regard to the [321]murmurs of
Novgorod boyars, he bought towns and villages in Novgorod regions
continually. So, extending power from his capital always with the
rights of a Grand Prince, to which he knew how to give proper
emphasis, he was strong at all points, and for many reasons.
Consequently boyars and warriors of weakening principalities went
gladly to the service of Moscow.

Alexander, Prince of Pskoff for about ten years, was disturbed by no

one. It was quite impossible that the Khan did not know what
Alexander was doing, or had forgotten that Cholkhan, his favorite
cousin, had been killed by him. At last Alexander left Pskoff of his
own accord. Lest his son might lose Tver through his father’s exile,
he resolved to appear at the Horde and hear the Khan’s sentence. It
was thirteen years since his first visit, and now he was ten years in
disobedience. To the astonishment of Mongol magnates, and of the
Khan himself, Alexander stood before him, not only without
trembling, but with a clear eye; and all were astounded at the words
which he uttered:

“Supreme Sovereign,” said he, “though I have committed much evil,

and am guilty before thee, I have come hither of my own will, and am
ready to receive life or death, as God shall announce to thee. If, for
the sake of God, through thy greatness thou give me pardon, I will
thank God and thy grace; if thou give me death, I am worthy of
death.” At this he bowed down, and added, “My head is at thy
disposal.”

For a moment Uzbek was dumb from astonishment, and all present
wondered. Alexander was kneeling with bowed head, and in silence.
“See ye,” said Uzbek at last, “how with obedient wisdom Alexander
has saved himself.” The Khan pardoned him straightway, gave him
back the Tver principality, and sent him home without injury.

But Alexander from the first had an ominous feeling, a presentiment

that evil days were approaching. When the Khan’s officials had
installed him, and Abdul, the chief envoy, was returning to Sarai, “to
show the Khan favor,” he took to the Golden Horde Alexander’s son,
Feodor. Soon news came from this prince of fifteen years that for
some unknown reason the Khan was very angry, and would not
dismiss him. Alexander understood then that his son had been taken
as a hostage.

The return of Alexander to Tver signified a return to the old

[322]quarrels with Moscow. It meant trouble also in governing.
Alexander brought with him to Tver new boyars and warriors, partly
strangers. The chief of these boyars was a German from Livonia.
The Tver boyars were not pleased with this man, or with the return of
Alexander. The Moscow prince, of course, could not expect such
relations with Alexander as with Constantine. The old rivalry was
remembered, and with Alexander were renewed the claims of the
Tver principality not to depend on the Prince of all Russia, but to be
quite apart from him and separate. Through this example and also
through advice from Alexander, other princes showed the same
tendencies. As soon as Tver had left that position which for some
years it had held toward Ivan, a similar movement appeared in other
places, especially in Yaroslavl, where David, Ivan’s son-in-law,
showed clear disobedience. Unpleasant reports came from
Lithuania. It seemed as though Ivan had lost in one moment, and
fatally, all that he had gained step by step for a decade. Was he now
to be Grand Prince of Russia, or was the old rivalry between
Moscow and Tver to begin again? Alexander felt the need of
explaining relations with Moscow, but Ivan avoided discussions of all
sorts. Envoys came at last to Ivan from Alexander, but Ivan would
not talk upon any subject with the Tver prince, hence there was no
result from the action of the envoys.

Ivan went now to the Horde. This visit of his to Uzbek produced on
all a peculiar impression. He took with him his eldest and second
sons, Simeon and Ivan; the youngest, Andrei, he sent to Novgorod.
This sending of a son to Novgorod was not without special meaning.
Ivan had remained two years, not in peace, not in war with the city.
Lord Novgorod had not met his demands, and he had not dropped
them. By sending Andrei to the city at this juncture, Ivan reminded
Novgorod men once again that he looked on their capital as his
inheritance.

At Novgorod the usual disorders were active. Gedimin’s son, who

had been absent for a time in Lithuania, had returned, but there was
great dissatisfaction with him, for he did not show sufficient energy in
defending their borders against the Swedes.

Ivan came back from the Horde with added power and new honor.
All princes were placed under his hand still more firmly. It became
known very quickly that, owing to Ivan’s suggestion, [323]the princes
were summoned to Sarai to receive the Khan’s commands.

Alexander knew that now he must go, and that he would never again
see Tver. He sent quickly to his son for any information which he
might have regarding the affair. The tidings which came back were
woeful and he hesitated. An envoy now came to Alexander from the
Khan promising him favor, but at the same time reminding him that
his son was held as hostage. If a year before the Tver prince had
hastened to the Horde when he himself was in danger, he hastened
all the more now when Feodor was threatened.

Meanwhile Ivan had gone to Sarai still a second time, and taken with
him his three sons. Before Alexander’s arrival at the Horde Ivan was
back in Moscow, but his sons had wished to remain with the Khan.

With Alexander went the princes of Bailozero and Yaroslavl. When

the Tver prince approached the Khan’s capital, his son came to meet
him, and with tearful eyes told of Uzbek’s dreadful anger. “God’s will
be done,” said Alexander. “If I do not die now, I shall die on some
other day.” In accord with Mongol custom, he presented rich gifts to
the Khan and his magnates, but the gifts were received in gloomy
silence. His offenses were not declared, nor were questions asked
him. It was announced that the Khan had commanded to give him to
death without trial. But till his last day, October 28, 1339, he enjoyed
freedom. That morning he sent to one of the Khan’s wives, who had
been kind to Feodor, to learn his fate; then he mounted a horse to
make the inquiry in person. She did not conceal from the prince that
his last sun had risen.

Returning to his tent, Alexander embraced Feodor, and took farewell

of his attendants. He kissed his boyars, asking pardon of all, then he
and his son with the boyars took holy communion. Soon after that
they heard the executioners approaching, and Alexander and Feodor
went forth to meet them. The men stripped the clothes from the two
princes, tied their hands, and led them toward Tablubey, the Khan’s
magnate, who was present on horseback. “Kill them!” commanded
Tablubey. The executioners hurled the prince and his son to the
earth, beat both with fists, and then, after trampling them to death,
cut their heads off. Alexander’s attendants carried the bodies to Tver.
[324]

That winter Ivan’s three sons were sent home in high favor. By
command of “the Godless Uzbek,” adds the chronicler, “the following
princes were put to death during that winter: Feodor of Starodub,
Ivan and Vassili of Ryazan, and Alexander Novosilski.”

The position acquired by Ivan through the favor of Uzbek was

evident to all other princes. They knew, moreover, that after his
death no change would be made. Every measure had been taken to
give primacy to his family, and not to another.

Six months had not passed after the death of Alexander and his son,
when Ivan died, March 31, 1340, being about fifty years of age. He
died before his time, and perhaps unexpectedly, but he was able to
go to Spasski, his favorite monastery, and put on the monk’s habit.
He was buried in the Archangel Cathedral, his tomb being the first in
that series of Moscow sovereigns, his descendants.

Uzbek, besides appreciating Ivan as a servant who was faithful and

who worked for him zealously, liked the man personally. He placed
him above all the princes, honored him in sovereign style, and made
him presents. Among those presents was a bag, the Mongol kalitá,
destined to historic celebrity. Of Ivan it was said by those who
praised him that to the poor he stretched a hand which was never
empty; that whenever he went from his palace he filled his kalitá with
coins and gave them to the poor whom he met in his progress. “Not
precious the gift,” says the proverb, “but precious the love which
goes with it,” and Ivan Kalitá, as people came to call him from the gift
of the Khan which ever afterward he used so constantly, gave his
coins affably, for he liked much to give to the needy. The kalitá which
he had received from Uzbek’s own hands might be considered
emblematic of his leading activity and methods. Though one use of
this kalitá was to carry coins for the needy, Ivan’s purse had other
uses. It was the clearing house of Russia in his day. Into it flowed the
tribute and taxes; out of it went the sums for which account was
imperative; with him remained for use in his struggle for supremacy
all profits and remnants of every kind. One of the most important
acts of Ivan’s life was the removal of the religious capital of Russia
from Vladimir to Moscow. During his pastoral visits, Peter of
Lithuania, at that time metropolitan, came to Moscow frequently, and
conceived a friendship for Ivan. Later he spent all of his time in
Moscow, where he died and was buried. His last words to Kalitá
were: “If [325]you obey me, my son, you will build a church here and
give repose to my bones in your city. You and your sons and your
grandsons will thus gain more fame than all the other princes, and
this place will be renowned. The pastors of the church will dwell in it,
and it will be above all other cities.” The church was built. The
succeeding metropolitan would not desert the house and tomb of the
holy Peter, and Moscow became the center of religious
administration.

During 1340 died Ivan Kalitá, Gedimin, and Uzbek Khan of the
Golden Horde, three men who left profound traces in Russia.

Before touching on Gedimin, we must give some account of his

dynasty. In the district of Kovno, on the right bank of the Dubissa, is
a place called Eiragola. In the thirteenth century there was a small
wooden castle in Eiragola, and from that castle came the Lithuanian
princes. The first noted man of this line was Mindog; the first great
one was Gedimin. Mindog was sure of success in that place and
epoch. He was a man for whom all means were equally good, if
equally effective. He had only one way of judging an action,—might it
be of use to him, and had he power to commit it?

When Batu had conquered Eastern Russia, the Lithuanian princes

fell to raiding the west of that country, but in 1246, while returning
from a raid, they were overtaken near Pinsk and scattered by Daniel
of Galitch and his brother, Vassilko. The next year, another such
party was crushed by those same princes.

In 1252, Mindog sent Vykint, his uncle, and two nephews, Tovtivil
and Edivil, to attack Smolensk places, and to ravage the country.
“Let each of you keep what he wins,” said he at parting. But these
words were used simply to mislead and deceive his three relatives.
As soon as they had gone, Mindog seized their possessions, and
sent warriors to follow and kill them. They heard of this treachery in
season, and took refuge quickly with Daniel, who had married the
sister of Tovtivil and Edivil. Mindog sent at once to Daniel, asking him
not to assist them, but Daniel paid no heed to this message; first
through regard for his wife’s brothers and her uncle, and second
because he wished to weaken Mindog and his people. After
counseling with Vassilko, Daniel formed a plan. He sent to Polish
princes this message: “It is time for us to fall upon pagans, since
they are warring against one another.” He sent similar messages to
the Yatvyags, to Jmud, and to the Germans in Riga. [326]

Vykint, Daniel’s envoy, roused the Yatvyags, and half the Jmud
region. The Germans sent this answer to Daniel: “Though Vykint, thy
relative, has killed many of our men, we have made peace with him,
and will assist you.” The brothers now set out to make war in
earnest. Daniel sent Vassilko to Volkovisk, his son to Slonim, and
then marched to Zditov. They captured many towns and returned to
Galitch well satisfied. After that, he sent Tovtivil with Russians and
Polovtsi against Mindog. The Germans made no move whatever,
until Tovtivil went to Riga, where he received baptism from them;
then they made ready for action.

Mindog saw that he could not meet two foes in one conflict. He could
not war with the Germans and Daniel of Galitch at the same time.
Hence he sent secretly rich gifts to the Grand Master Von
Schtükland, and the following proposal: “If thou kill Tovtivil or expel
him, thou wilt get still greater gifts from me.” Von Schtükland replied
that he felt immense friendship for Mindog, but could give no aid till
baptism had changed him. Mindog asked for a meeting, which was
granted, and he settled the question while feasting with Von
Schtükland. The Lithuanian prince was to be baptized. On hearing
this news, the Pope was delighted, and wrote to the bishop that no
one should offend the new convert. The Bishop of Culm was to
crown him.

But Mindog was forced to Christianity under the sword-blade, just as

the Prussians had been forced to it earlier, and had gone back to the
faith of their fathers whenever the chance came. Mindog, however,
escaped all the dangers which threatened him from the Order.
Tovtivil fled to Vykint, his uncle. He assembled warriors from the
Yatvyags and Jmud, and, aided by warriors from Daniel, marched
against Mindog assisted now by the Germans.

During 1252, the war was not marked by notable action, but in 1253
Daniel took part in it personally, and with such success that Mindog
asked for peace. He offered his daughter to Daniel’s son, Svaromir,
and found still other means of persuasion.

Tovtivil declared now that Mindog had bribed the Yatvyags, who
refused to assist Daniel longer. Daniel was enraged at the Yatvyags,
but that could not serve him. Two years passed. In 1255, there was
peace between Daniel of Galitch and Mindog’s son, Voishelk.
Voishelk was a man greatly noted, even in that [327]time of
bloodshed. Mindog was cruel and terrible, but Voishelk surpassed
him, if the annalist is truthful. Voishelk shed blood from his youth up.
“Every day he killed three or four men for amusement. When his time
passed without bloodshed, he was sad, and when he had killed a
man, good feeling returned to him.”

All at once news came of Voishelk’s baptism; nay, more, it was said
that he had left ruling, and had put on a monk’s habit. This man now
appeared as a peacemaker between Daniel and Mindog. The
conditions seemed so favorable that Daniel did not reject them.
Daniel’s son, Svaromir (familiarly Shvarn), was to marry Mindog’s
daughter; Shvarn’s elder brother, Roman, was to have Novgrodek
from Mindog, and Daniel was to get Slonim and Volkovisk from
Voishelk, on condition of recognizing Mindog as his superior in those
places.

Mindog had promised the Order to accept its religion for himself and
all the people under him. He was to receive the friendship of the
Order, and the kingly office as a reward. In exchange, he was to give
the Order various places in Jmud, those same places where there
had been such terrible bloodshed because of newcomers fleeing
from Prussia. The friendship seemed to be made for the ages, and a
speedy union of the two lands appeared imminent. In case that he
had no heir, Mindog agreed to give his kingdom to Livonia, now of
one faith with him.

The Bishop of Culm came with priests and monks; the Grand Master
with knights of the Order. Mindog was christened, anointed, and
crowned at Novgrodek. Pope Innocent IV in 1255 blessed the new
convert to war against Russia and its inhabitants who were
schismatic, and confirmed in advance to him all regions which he
might join to his kingdom.

“The God-Crowned King,” as he was entitled, freed himself gradually

from every one. From Tovtivil he freed himself by perfidy; from the
Yatvyags by money, from Daniel through marriage and lands, from
Poland by victories. One Polish prince was slain in battle, another
was captured. Then the Knights of Livonia discovered what kind of
man their good friend and new convert was. Mindog turned on them
and fought like a hero. He sent a message stating that he dropped
them and their baptism. He roused Jmud to the struggle, and those
people whom he had so recently surrendered to the Order rose up
against it in pitiless [328]warfare. To one who did not understand
Mindog’s keen policy, it might seem strange that he should show
such hatred for his godfathers, and should openly irritate the Order.
The Germans, however, knew from the first that his conversion was
feigned for the purpose of obtaining aid.

He did not cease to observe the ancient rites of his people; he made
sacrifices to their deities, but for him that was not sufficient. He was
a shrewd leader of men; he had also learned the policy of Germans.
It was necessary to fire the hearts of his people, and to purify himself
perfectly from any taint of German religion, hence before Lithuanians
he ridiculed his own pretended conversion.