Medieval university

A medieval university was a corporation organized during

the Middle Ages for the purposes of higher education. The first
Western European institutions generally considered to be
universities were established in present-day Italy, including the
Kingdoms of Sicily and Naples, and the Kingdoms of England,
France, Spain, Portugal, and Scotland between the 11th and
15th centuries for the study of the arts and the higher
disciplines of theology, law, and medicine.[1] These universities
evolved from much older Christian cathedral schools and
monastic schools,[2][3][4] and it is difficult to define the exact
date when they became true universities, though the lists of
studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the
Vatican are a useful guide.

The word universitas originally applied only to the scholastic

guilds—that is, the corporation of students and masters—
within the studium, and it was always modified, as universitas
magistrorum, universitas scholarium, or universitas Illustration from a 16th-century
magistrorum et scholarium. Eventually, probably in the late manuscript showing a meeting of
14th century, the term began to appear by itself to exclusively doctors at the University of Paris
mean a self-regulating community of teachers and scholars
recognized and sanctioned by civil or ecclesiastical authority.[5]

From the Early Modern period onward, this Western-style organizational form gradually spread
from the medieval Latin west across the globe, eventually replacing all other higher-learning
institutions and becoming the pre-eminent model for higher education everywhere.[6]

Antecedents
The university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval
Christian setting.[7][8] For hundreds of years prior to the establishment of universities, European
higher education took place in Christian cathedral schools and monastic schools (scholae
monasticae), where monks and nuns taught classes. Evidence of these immediate forerunners of
the university at many places dates back to the 6th century AD.[2]

With the increasing growth and urbanization of European society during the 12th and 13th
centuries, a demand grew for professional clergy. Following the Gregorian Reform's emphasis on
canon law and the study of the sacraments, bishops formed cathedral schools to train the clergy in
canon law, and also in the more secular aspects of religious administration, including logic and
disputation for use in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to control finances
more effectively. Pope Gregory VII
was critical in promoting and
regulating the concept of modern
university, as his 1079 Papal Decree
ordered the regulated establishment
of cathedral schools that transformed
themselves into the first European
universities.[9]

Learning became essential to

advancing in the ecclesiastical
hierarchy, and teachers also gained
prestige. Demand quickly outstripped
the capacity of cathedral schools,
each of which was essentially run by
one schoolmaster. In addition,
tensions rose between the students of
cathedral schools and burghers in A map of medieval universities
smaller towns. As a result, cathedral
schools migrated to large cities, like
Bologna, Rome and Paris.

S. F. Alatas has noted some parallels between madrasahs and early European colleges and has
inferred that the first universities in Europe were influenced by the madrasahs in Islamic Spain
and the Emirate of Sicily.[10] George Makdisi, Toby Huff and Norman Daniel, however, have
questioned this, citing the lack of evidence for an actual transmission from the Islamic world to
Christian Europe and highlighting the differences in the structure, methodologies, procedures,
curricula and legal status of the "Islamic college" (madrasa) versus the European
university.[11][12][13]

Establishment
Hastings Rashdall set out the modern understanding[14] of the
medieval origins of the universities, noting that the earliest
universities emerged spontaneously as "a scholastic Guild,
whether of Masters or Students... without any express
authorization of King, Pope, Prince or Prelate."[15]

Among the earliest universities of this type were the University

of Bologna (1088), University of Paris (c. 1150), University of
Oxford (1167), University of Modena (1175), University of
Palencia (1208), University of Cambridge (1209), University of
Teaching at Paris, in a late 14th-
Salamanca (1218), University of Montpellier (1220), University
century Grandes Chroniques de of Padua (1222), University of Naples (1224), University of
France: the tonsured students sit on Toulouse (1229), University of Orleans (1235), University of
the floor Siena (1240), University of Valladolid (1241) University of
Northampton (1261), University of Coimbra (1288), University
of Macerata (1290), University of Pisa (1343), Charles
University in Prague (1348), Jagiellonian University (1364), University of Vienna (1365),
Heidelberg University (1386) and the University of St Andrews (1413) begun as private
corporations of teachers and their pupils.[16][17]

In many cases universities petitioned secular power for

privileges and this became a model. Emperor Frederick I in
Authentica Habita (1158) gave the first privileges to students in
Bologna. Another step was Pope Alexander III in 1179
"forbidding masters of the church schools to take fees for
granting the license to teach (licentia docendi), and obliging
them to give license to properly qualified teachers".[20]
Rashdall considered that the integrity of a university was only
Bologna University, Italy, established
preserved in such an internally regulated corporation, which in AD 1088, is the world's oldest
protected the scholars from external intervention. This university in continuous operation.
independently evolving organization was absent in the
universities of southern Italy and Spain, which served the
bureaucratic needs of monarchs—and were, according to
Rashdall, their artificial creations.[21]

The University of Paris was formally recognized when Pope

Gregory IX issued the bull Parens scientiarum (1231).[20] This
was a revolutionary step: studium generale (university) and
universitas (corporation of students or teachers) existed even
before, but after the issuing of the bull, they attained
autonomy. "[T]he papal bull of 1233, which stipulated that Established in 1224 by Frederick II,
anyone admitted as a teacher in Toulouse had the right to teach Holy Roman Emperor, University of
everywhere without further examinations (ius ubique docendi), Naples Federico II in Italy is the
world's oldest state-funded
in time, transformed this privilege into the single most
university in continuous
important defining characteristic of the university and made it
operation.[18][19]
the symbol of its institutional autonomy .... By the year 1292,
even the two oldest universities, Bologna and Paris, felt the
need to seek similar bulls from Pope Nicholas IV."[20]

By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the

Church were occupied by degree masters (abbots, archbishops,
cardinals), and over one-third of the second-highest offices
were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest
theologians of the High Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas and
Robert Grosseteste, were products of the medieval university.

The development of the medieval university coincided with the

widespread reintroduction of Aristotle from Byzantine and
This Mob Quad group of buildings in
Arab scholars. In fact, the European university put Aristotelian
Merton College, Oxford was
and other natural science texts at the center of its constructed in three phases and
curriculum,[22] with the result that the "medieval university concluded in c. 1378.
laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern
counterpart and descendent."[23]
Although it has been assumed that the universities went into decline during the Renaissance due to
the scholastic and Aristotelian emphasis of its curriculum being less popular than the cultural
studies of Renaissance humanism, Toby Huff has noted the continued importance of the European
universities, with their focus on Aristotle and other scientific and philosophical texts into the early
modern period, arguing that they played a crucial role in the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and
17th centuries. As he puts it "Copernicus, Galileo, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, and Newton were all
extraordinary products of the apparently Procrustean and allegedly Scholastic universities of
Europe... Sociological and historical accounts of the role of the university as an institutional locus
for science and as an incubator of scientific thought and arguments have been vastly
understated."[24]

Characteristics
Initially medieval universities did not have physical facilities such as
the campus of a modern university. Classes were taught wherever
space was available, such as churches and homes. A university was not
a physical space but a collection of individuals banded together as a
universitas. Soon, however, universities began to rent, buy or
construct buildings specifically for the purposes of teaching.[25]

Universities were generally structured along three types, depending on

who paid the teachers. The first type was in Bologna, where students
hired and paid for the teachers. The second type was in Paris, where
teachers were paid by the church. Oxford and Cambridge were
predominantly supported by the crown and the state, which helped Diagrams, in a volume of
them survive the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 and the treatises on natural science,
subsequent removal of all principal Catholic institutions in England. philosophy, and
These structural differences created other characteristics. At the mathematics. This 1300
manuscript is typical of the
Bologna university the students ran everything—a fact that often put
sort of book owned by
teachers under great pressure and disadvantage. In Paris, teachers ran medieval university
the school; thus Paris became the premiere spot for teachers from all students.
over Europe. Also, in Paris the main subject matter was theology, so
control of the qualifications awarded was in the hands of an external
authority – the chancellor of the diocese. In Bologna, where students chose more secular studies,
the main subject was law.

It was also characteristic of teachers and scholars to move around. Universities often competed to
secure the best and most popular teachers, leading to the marketisation of teaching. Universities
published their list of scholars to entice students to study at their institution. Students of Peter
Abelard followed him to Melun, Corbeil, and Paris,[26] showing that popular teachers brought
students with them.

Students
Students attended the medieval university at different ages—from 14 if they were attending Oxford
or Paris to study the arts, to their 30s if they were studying law in Bologna. During this period of
study, students often lived far from home and unsupervised, and as such developed a reputation,
both among contemporary commentators and modern historians, for drunken debauchery.
Students are frequently criticized in the Middle Ages for neglecting their studies for drinking,
gambling and sleeping with prostitutes.[27] In Bologna, some of their laws permitted students to be
citizens of the city if they were enrolled at a university.[28]

Course of study
University studies took six years for a Master of Arts degree (a
Bachelor of Arts degree was awarded after completing the third
or fourth year). Studies for this were organized by the faculty of
arts, where the seven liberal arts were taught: arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and
rhetoric.[29][30] All instruction was given in Latin and students
were expected to converse in that language.[31] The trivium
comprised the three subjects that were taught first: grammar,
logic, and rhetoric.[32] The quadrivium consisted of arithmetic,
A university class, Bologna (1350s)
geometry, music, and astronomy. The quadrivium was taught
after the preparatory work of the trivium and would lead to the
degree of Master of Arts.[33] The curriculum came also to include the three Aristotelian
philosophies: physics, metaphysics and moral philosophy.[32]

Much of medieval thought in philosophy and theology can be

found in scholastic textual commentary because scholasticism
was such a popular method of teaching. Aelius Donatus' Ars
grammatica was the standard textbook for grammar; also
studied were the works of Priscian and Graecismus by
Eberhard of Béthune.[34] Cicero's works were used for the
study of rhetoric.[32] Studied books on logic included
Porphyry's introduction to Aristotelian logic, Gilbert de la
Universitas Istropolitana (a former
Porrée's De sex principiis and Summulae Logicales by Petrus
university building in present-day Hispanus (later Pope John XXI).[35] The standard work of
Bratislava) astronomy was Tractatus de sphaera.[35]

Once a Master of Arts degree had been conferred, the student

could leave the university or pursue further studies in one of the higher faculties, law, medicine, or
theology, the last one being the most prestigious. Originally, only few universities had a faculty of
theology, because the popes wanted to control the theological studies. Until the mid-14th century,
theology could be studied only at universities in Paris, Oxford, Cambridge and Rome. First the
establishment of the University of Prague (1347) ended their monopoly and afterwards also other
universities got the right to establish theological faculties.[36]

A popular textbook for theological study was called the Sentences (Quattuor libri sententiarum) of
Peter Lombard; theology students as well as masters were required to lecture or to write extensive
commentaries on this text as part of their curriculum.[37][38] Studies in the higher faculties could
take up to twelve years for a master's degree or doctorate (initially the two were synonymous),
though again a bachelor's and a licentiate's degree could be awarded along the way.[39]

Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example, a course might be
on a book by Aristotle, or a book from the Bible. Courses were not elective: the course offerings
were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to
which teacher to use.[40]

Students often entered the university at fourteen to fifteen years of age, though many were
older.[41] Classes usually started at 5:00 or 6:00 a.m.

Legal status
As students had the legal status of clerics, Canon Law prohibited women from being admitted into
universities. Students were afforded the legal protection of the clergy, as well. In this way, no one
was allowed to physically harm them; they could only be tried for crimes in an ecclesiastical court,
and were thus immune from any corporal punishment. This gave students free rein in urban
environments to break secular laws with impunity, which led to many abuses: theft, rape, and
murder. Students did not face serious consequences[42] from the law. Students were also known to
engage in drunkenness. Sometimes citizens were forbidden to interact with students because they
made accusations against the university.

This led to uneasy tensions with secular authorities—the demarcation between town and gown.
Masters and students would sometimes "strike" by leaving a city and not returning for years. This
happened at the University of Paris strike of 1229 after a riot left a number of students dead. The
university went on strike and they did not return for two years.

Most universities in Europe were recognized by the Holy See as studia generalia, testified by a
papal bull. Members of these institutions were encouraged to disseminate their knowledge across
Europe, often lecturing at a different studium generale. Indeed, one of the privileges the papal bull
confirmed was the right to confer the ius ubique docendi, an entitlement to teach everywhere.[43]

See also
Ancient higher-learning institutions
Ancient universities in the UK
Ancient universities of Scotland
List of oldest universities in continuous operation
Nation (university)
Renaissance of the 12th century

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External links
The Shift of Medical Education into the Universities (http://www.medievalists.net/2008/10/19/th
e-shift-of-medical-education-into-the-universities/)
The Educational Legacy of Mediaeval and Renaissance Traditions. (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20040811153008/http://www.csupomona.edu/~plin/ls201/medieval2.html)
From Manuscript to Print: Evolution of the Mediaeval Book. (http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/medie
valbook/intro.htm)
Life of the Students at Paris. (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/vitry1.html)
Mediaeval History: A Mediaeval Atlas (http://historymedren.about.com/library/atlas/blatmapuni.
htm) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121715/http://historymedren.about.com/li
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Mediaeval Science, the Church, and Universities (http://www.bede.org.uk/university.htm)
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The Rise of Universities (classic), Charles Homer Haskins, 1923 (http://www.elfinspell.com/Uni
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