Mechanical Engineering Department

Master's degree in General Mechanical Engineering

INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL DESIGN

Spring actuated electromagnetic brake

Students: Pedro Miguel Freitas Sargo 201806713

Delphine Yvart 202111309

Teacher : Eurico Emanuel Teixeira de Almeida

June 2022
Introduction to Mechanical Design

Abstract
This report is the result of a semester study of mechanical design. It covers the design process
of a spring actuated electromagnetic brake. The report begins with a literature review to outline the
concepts and techniques for the design of each of the brake components. Then, all the dimensional
calculations required for the project are performed. Also, the selection of materials has been made for
each brake element. Finally, the definition and assembly drawings were made, as well as the
dimensional tolerancing of each machine component.

Keywords: Fail-safe brake, Electromagnetic design, Material selection, Dimensional calculations, 2D

drawings

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

List of tables
Table 1: Technical specifications for the brake ...................................................................................... 8
Table 2: Dimensions for square and rectangular standard keys [3] ...................................................... 15
Table 3: Dimensions for standard spline hubs [3] ................................................................................. 16
Table 4: Motion-Related Factor f1 ........................................................................................................ 18
Table 5: Environmental Factor f2 .......................................................................................................... 18
Table 6: Constants A and m.................................................................................................................. 21
Table 7: Formulas for the dimensional characteristics of Compression-springs .................................. 22
Table 8: Calculation of the shaft dimensions ....................................................................................... 38
Table 9: Calculation of the key dimensions .......................................................................................... 39
Table 10: Key selection......................................................................................................................... 39
Table 11: Calculations of the splined hub dimensions ......................................................................... 40
Table 12: Splined hub selection........................................................................................................... 40
Table 13: Calculation of the spring dimensions ................................................................................... 41
Table 14: Spring material selection ...................................................................................................... 42
Table 15: Calculation of the friction disk dimension ........................................................................... 43
Table 16: Calculation of the electromagnet dimensions (1/2) ............................................................. 44
Table 17: Calculation of the electromagnet dimensions (2/2) ............................................................. 45
Table 18: Coil box geometry conditions ............................................................................................... 46
Table 19: Thermal calculation for the coil ............................................................................................ 47
Table 20: Thermal calculation for the electromagnet (1/2) ................................................................. 48
Table 21: Thermal calculation for the electromagnet (2/2) ................................................................. 49
Table 22: Ventilation factor for the electromagnet ............................................................................. 50
Table 23: Heat transfer coefficient for the electromagnet .................................................................. 50
Table 24: Thermal calculation for the friction pads ............................................................................. 51
Table 25: Ventilation factor for the friction pads ................................................................................. 52
Table 26: Heat transfer coefficient for the friction pads ...................................................................... 52
Table 27: Calculation of the braking time ............................................................................................ 53

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

List of figures
Figure 1: Schematic representation of a 'fail safe' brake [1] ................................................................... 9
Figure 2: Single-face brake ................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 3: Particle brake ........................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 4: Hysteresis power brake ......................................................................................................... 12
Figure 5: Eddy current brake ................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 6: Chart relating notch radius, tensile strength, and notch sensitivity ..................................... 14
Figure 7: Forces on a key ...................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 8: Disk friction member [4] ......................................................................................................... 17
Figure 9: Dimensionless plot of equations (24) and (25) ..................................................................... 20
Figure 10: Types of ends for compression springs ............................................................................... 21
Figure 11: Schematic representation of the electrical circuit in the brake .......................................... 24
Figure 12: Equivalent magnetic circuit ................................................................................................. 24
Figure 13: Magnetic field of a bar magnet [5] ....................................................................................... 26
Figure 14: Magnetic field of a current-carrying coil [5] ......................................................................... 26
Figure 15: Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density ............................................................................ 26
Figure 16: Diagram of the electromagnet ............................................................................................ 27
Figure 17: Sectional diagram of the electromagnet ............................................................................. 29
Figure 18: Hysteresis loop or B-H curve ............................................................................................... 31
Figure 19: Eddy current paths .............................................................................................................. 31
Figure 20: Laminated core to reduce eddy loss ................................................................................... 32
Figure 21: The effect of clutching or braking operations on temperature (T∞ is the ambient
temperature) ........................................................................................................................................ 33
Figure 22: Ventilation factor [2]............................................................................................................. 34
Figure 23: Heat-transfer coefficient [2] ................................................................................................. 34

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

List of appendixes
Appendix 1: Datasheet for the shaft .................................................................................................... 66
Appendix 2: Datasheet for the key....................................................................................................... 67
Appendix 3: Datasheet for the splined hub and friction disk ............................................................... 68
Appendix 4: Datasheet for the springs ................................................................................................. 69
Appendix 5: Datasheet for the electromagnet..................................................................................... 70
Appendix 6: Datasheet for the coil wire 1/2 ........................................................................................ 71
Appendix 7: Datasheet for the coil wire 2/2 ........................................................................................ 72
Appendix 8: Datasheet for the friction pads 1/2.................................................................................. 73
Appendix 9: Datasheet for the friction pads 2/2.................................................................................. 74
Appendix 10: Datasheet for the adhesive 1/2 ..................................................................................... 75
Appendix 11: Datasheet for the adhesive 2/2 ..................................................................................... 76

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 7
2 Project objectives and specifications ........................................................................... 8
3 How the brake works.................................................................................................. 9
4 Literature review ...................................................................................................... 11
5 Mechanical sizing ..................................................................................................... 13
5.1 The shaft ....................................................................................................................... 13
5.2 The Shaft-Hub connection key ....................................................................................... 14
5.3 Splined Hub ................................................................................................................... 15
5.4 Springs .......................................................................................................................... 16
5.4.1 Axial force analysis ......................................................................................................................... 17
5.4.2 Spring sizing ................................................................................................................................... 20
5.5 Friction disk ................................................................................................................... 23
6 Electromagnetic sizing .............................................................................................. 24
7 Thermal sizing .......................................................................................................... 30
7.1 Coil ................................................................................................................................ 30
7.2 Electromagnet ............................................................................................................... 30
7.3 Brake pads..................................................................................................................... 32
8 Dynamic equilibrium equations ................................................................................ 35
8.1 Brake engaged ............................................................................................................... 35
8.2 Brake disengaging ......................................................................................................... 35
8.3 Brake engaging .............................................................................................................. 36
9 Dimensional, electromagnetic, and thermal calculations .......................................... 38
10 Material selection ................................................................................................. 54
11 Definition drawings............................................................................................... 56
12 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 57
Appendixes...................................................................................................................... 66
References....................................................................................................................... 77

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

1 Introduction

The purpose of this report is to document the design process of a spring actuated
electromagnetic brake that will be sized to transmit a nominal torque of 150 Nm to slow down or stop
a shaft with a nominal angular speed of 1500 rpm.

An electromagnetic brake slows or stops motion via an electromagnetic force that is created
to apply mechanical resistance or friction. An electrical current goes through a coil on the brakes to
create a magnetic field strong enough to move an armature on or off a magnetic face. These brakes
can be classified according to how they act: direct or indirect. Direct acting brakes are those that brake
through the action of electromagnetic forces generated by the passage of direct current in the brake's
electrical circuit. In other words, they are said to be direct acting when, in the presence of electric
current, the mechanism stops. On the other hand, indirect acting brakes are those whose braking
action occurs in the absence of electromagnetic forces. That is, they are said to act indirectly when, in
the presence of electric current, the movement of the mechanism is allowed. This report will present
the design of this type of brake or also known as 'fail safe' brake. Power off brakes have applications
in robotics and servo motor brakes.

It is important to note that a three-pronged approach to sizing is required during this design.
Electromagnetic brakes use electrical energy to create an electromagnetic field from which the
braking actions of the mechanism are performed. Although the braking action is electromagnetic by
nature, the stopping of the shaft movement is done mechanically. It is therefore essential to carry out
a correct mechanical dimensioning of the system components. Also, it should be noted that this
braking system aims to convert the kinetic energy of a mechanism into heat via friction, which requires
thermal sizing of the components. These comments show that there will be 3 different sizing issues to
consider: electromagnetic, mechanical, and thermal.

The following section outlines the specifications and objectives of the project. An explanation
of how the mechanism works will be presented as well as a review of the literature. The target is to
better understand the different types of brakes, to analyze the main points to consider when designing
this type of brake, and to understand the different concepts necessary for its realization. Next, the
mechanical, electrical, and thermal sizing will be detailed followed by the dynamic equilibrium
equations. Then, the selection of materials for the construction will be justified. Finally, the 3D design
of the assembly will be carried out using SolidWorks software, the definition drawings of the main
parts of the brake, their dimensions, and tolerances.

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

2 Project objectives and specifications

As explained in the introduction, this project is framed by several objectives and specifications.
These specifications can be summarized in the following table:

Parameters Specifications
Brake type Reverse acting electromagnetic
Braking torque 150 Nm
Shaft rotation speed 1500 rpm
Air gap 0.4mm
Table 1: Technical specifications for the brake

Considering the technical specifications presented in Table 1, it is now possible to define the
objectives in detail and find a starting point for the research. So, the work will start with the
mechanical dimensioning, followed by the electromagnetic dimensioning and ending with the thermal
dimensioning. Once the calculations are done, the selection of materials will follow. The mathematical
modeling of the braking system will be done to make a balance of the static and dynamic equilibrium
respectively to obtain the braking time and the unlocking time. Finally, the 3D models will be
presented, and the end of this report will focus on the design and definition of the main components.

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

3 How the brake works

This section will discuss the operation of the brake in more detail, the function of each component
is described and defined. Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of a 'fail safe' brake.

Fail-safe brakes are brakes that are, inherently, always engaged. Essentially, the term "fail-safe"
means that a brake disengages (allowing movement) when power or brake pressure is applied and
engages (preventing movement) when current is removed [1]. Fail-safe electromagnetic brakes are
spring actuated and use an electromagnetic solenoid to hold the brake open. If the brake is disabled
or power is lost, the spring engages the brake. Braking force is generated by clamping the friction
surfaces.

Electromagnetic brakes have advantages. In fact, they provide fast operation, as they adjust faster
than most other types of fail-safe brakes. They also allow for torque adjustment, which allows for fine
tuning of the braking process. Electromagnetic brakes are often used when environmental
contamination from leaking fluids is a major concern (for example, hydraulic fluid in the case of
hydraulic brakes).

Electromagnetic brakes also have drawbacks. They are generally more expensive than other types
of fail-safe brakes (for example, an air brake that achieves a comparable level of torque). This is
because electromagnetic brakes are inherently expensive due to the number of expensive materials
such as copper that they require. Also, electromagnetic brakes can be difficult to integrate into tight
spaces, especially when compared to hydraulic brakes. Finally, electromagnetic brakes may not be the
best option if the application requires a high duty cycle, a situation in which electrohydraulic thruster
brakes excel.

Figure 1: Schematic representation of a 'fail safe' brake [1]

Before explaining how the brake works, we will look at its components in order to clarify their roles in
the braking system. The brake is composed of the following 9 elements:

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

• Shaft: This element is not part of the braking system itself; it is part of the machine to which
the braking system is coupled. The brake is sized to stop the movement of the shaft that
transmits the 150Nm of torque.

• Keys: The purpose of this part is to secure the hub to the shaft. It is through the key that the
movement of the shaft is transmitted to the hub. When sizing the key, it is essential to
consider the mechanical characteristics of the material used and also the dimensions of the
shaft to be braked.

• Hub: The purpose of this component is to transmit the movement of the shaft to the friction
disc. The connection between the hub and the friction disc is made by splines. Once again, it
is essential to consider the material of the hub because its polar moment of inertia has a direct
influence on the performance of the brakes.

• Friction disk: This component consists of a rotor and two friction pads that can be attached to
their faces with adhesives or glue. The friction pads are essential elements in the construction
of the brake. Due to the high coefficient of friction of these pads, the kinetic energy from the
rotation of the shaft is converted into heat. As with the hub, the material of the rotor must be
carefully selected to minimize its polar moment of inertia. To avoid rapid wear of the friction
discs due to high load, speed and temperature conditions, the rotor must be sized correctly.

• Pressure plate: This is a static component that is attached to the electromagnet thanks to
screws. The pressure plate is a support on which the friction disk will be pressed due to the
axial force exerted by the springs in the absence of electric current. In this situation, the
pressure plate and the armature are in direct friction with the friction pads.

• Armature: This is an axially moving component whose purpose is to press on the friction disc
to stop the system. It is crucial that this component is made of a ferromagnetic material, as its
axial movement is only possible due to the existence of forces of electromagnetic origin.

• Electromagnet: This is also a static component of the system. Its main purpose is to attract
the armature towards it in order to unblock the movement of the shaft when it is in the
presence of the electromagnetic field.

• Coil: This is one of the main components of the braking system. The coil consists of a
conductive wire wound on a spline of the electromagnet. Its function is to create an
electromagnetic field strong enough that the force of attraction between the armature and
the electromagnet is able to overcome the force exerted by the deformation of the
compression springs allowing the shaft to move.

• Springs: These elements will be numerous in the system. Their purpose is to press the
armature against the friction disc when there is no electrical current. These springs must be
sized so that the pressure exerted on the friction disc is sufficient to dissipate the kinetic
energy of the movement as heat. Care must be taken in sizing these elements to ensure that
the shaft is locked.

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

4 Literature review

This section discusses the origin and invention of the electromagnetic brake as well as the different
types of EM brakes that exist.

The electromagnetic brake was invented by the engineer Granville Tailor Woods. Originally, these
types of brakes were called electro-mechanical brakes but over time the name changed to
electromagnetic brakes, with reference to the way they functioned.

The electromagnetic brake has had several evolutions and is used in several applications. For
instance, Electromagnetic brakes have a wide variety of uses in the locomotive industry, particularly
for trains and trams. However, they have plenty of use in robotics, power tools, engineering industries
and other transport industries.

In the early twentieth centuries, trains and trams would use electromagnetic brakes to ensure
safety and efficiency on their tracks. They are widely used as emergency braking systems and can offer
protection when electronic brakes fail to function.

Over time these brakes have become more varied in their forms. Here are a few types of
electromagnetic brakes that are in use today:

• Single-face brakes: A friction-plate brake uses a single plate friction surface to engage the
input and output members of the clutch. Single face electromagnetic brakes make up
approximately 80% of all of the power applied brake applications.

Figure 2: Single-face brake

• Particle brakes: The output disk/shaft does not touch the body. The gap in between is filled
with a fine, dry stainless-steel powder. The powder is free flowing, until a magnetic field is
applied from the coil. The powder particles form chains along the magnetic field lines, linking
the disk to the body. This type of brake provides smooth and repeatable torque control.
Torque is proportional to input current, and independent of shaft speed, thereby allowing for
precise control.

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Figure 3: Particle brake

• Hysteresis power brakes: This type of brake does not use the contact between the elements
to generate the torque necessary to stop the shaft. Its operation is made possible by a
hysteresis disk that is attached to the shaft. This brake is constructed so that there is an equal
air gap between the hysteresis disk and the magnets. The hysteresis disk interacts with the
electromagnetic field created by the magnets. The braking torque is controlled from the
rotating cover, which allows the position of the magnets in one cover to be changed relative
to the other. This change in the relative position of the magnets creates a torque of an
electromagnetic nature which, if correctly sized, is capable of blocking the movement of the
shaft.

Figure 4: Hysteresis power brake

• Eddy current brakes: Unlike mechanical brakes, which rely on friction and kinetic energy, eddy
current brakes rely on electromagnetism to prevent objects from moving. Eddy currents are
created when a conductor passes through a magnetic field, which creates opposing forces
that rotate inside the conductor. According to Lenz's Law, an eddy current produces a
magnetic field that is in opposition to the magnetic field that produced it, so eddy currents
are an inverse response to the source magnetic field. This reaction between the
electromagnetic forces is ideal for proper braking.

Figure 5: Eddy current brake

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

5 Mechanical sizing

In this section, the mechanical design method will be detailed for each component of the brake,
these being: the shaft, the shaft-hub connection key, the splined hub, the friction disk, and the
compression springs.

5.1 The shaft

As explained earlier, the shaft is not a component of the braking system because it is part of the
machine to which the brake is installed. The shaft is dimensioned for the design of this brake. Since
the diameter of the drive shaft is not in the design specifications of the brake, the minimum
permissible diameter will be calculated.

To calculate the minimum permissible shaft diameter, only torsional loads were considered, thus
neglecting axial, and bending loads. Taking this into account, after selecting the material to be used
for the shaft, the permissible shear stress is calculated with the help of the Tresca criterion as shown
in equation (1). In this equation, τ is the shear stress, Sy is the yield stress of the material, and n is a
coefficient of safety:
𝑆!
τ= (1)
2∗𝑛
From the shear stress it is possible to calculate the shaft diameter from equation (2), which relates
to the applied torque T, and the shaft diameter ds:
16𝑇
τ = 𝐾"# (2)
𝜋 ∗ 𝑑#$

The coefficient Kfs in equation (2) is a fatigue stress concentration factor that is used with the
nominal stress to obtain the maximum resulting stress due to the irregularity. This coefficient is
necessary because there is an irregularity in the shaft: it is the notch for the key that is necessary to
machine the shaft to place the key that guarantees the connection between the shaft and the hub.
This irregularity significantly increases the stresses and therefore this coefficient must be considered.
This coefficient can be calculated using equation (3) where qshear is the notch sensitivity at shear forces,
Kts is a stress concentration factor:
𝐾"# = 1 + 𝑞#%&'( (𝐾)# − 1) (3)

According to Budynas and Nisbett [2], Kts can be equal to 3 in order to calculate the stress
concentration in the notch. The sensitivity of the notch to shear stresses qshear can be obtained from
the chart in Figure 6:ƒ

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Figure 6: Chart relating notch radius, tensile strength, and notch sensitivity

Using the equations mentioned above, it is possible to calculate the minimum allowable
diameter of the shaft Once this is done, it is sufficient to choose from the data sheets a shaft whose
diameter meets this condition.

5.2 The Shaft-Hub connection key

The shaft diameter determines the standard key size. Also, its maximum length is limited by the
length of the hub and the diameter of the shaft and cannot exceed 1.5 times the diameter of the shaft
to avoid excessive twisting. So, the equation for the maximum key length is:
𝑙*'+ = 1,5 ∗ 𝑑# (4)

There are two basic modes of potential failure for keys transmitting power: shear across the
shaft/ hub interface and compression failure due to the bearing action between the sides of the key
and the shaft or hub material. The analysis for either failure mode requires an understanding of the
forces that act on the key. Figure 7 shows the idealized case in which the torque on the shaft creates
a force on the left side of the key:

Figure 7: Forces on a key

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Let’s set the shear stress equal to a design stress in shear for the maximum shear stress theory
of failure where n is a safety factor, Sy is the Yield strength:
0,5𝑆!
𝜏, = (5)
𝑛
Considering the key cross-section width w, the torque T, the shaft diameter dv and the shear
stress from equation (5) then the required length of the key is:
2𝑇
𝑙- */0 = (6)
𝜏, 𝑑1 𝑤
The failure in bearing is related to the compressive stress on the side of the key or the side of
the hub key seat. The area in compression is the same for either of these zones, L * (H/2). Thus, the
failure occurs on the surface with the lowest compressive yield strength. Let’s define a design stress
for compression where n is a safety factor, Sy is the Yield strength:
𝑆!
𝜎, = (7)
𝑛
From equation (7), it’s possible to determine the required length of the key for compression
failure:
4𝑇
𝑙- */0 = (8)
𝜎, 𝑑1 ℎ

Table 2: Dimensions for square and rectangular standard keys [3]

5.3 Splined Hub

Spline couplings are used when the torque to be transmitted exceeds the transmission capacity
allowed by the use of a key. The dimensioning of the splined hub will be done according to Mott,
Vavrek and Wang [4] will be used. Common designs use spline lengths from 0.75D to 1.25D, where D is
the pitch diameter of the spline. If these standards are used, the shear strength of the splines will
exceed that of the shaft on which they are machined. So here are the equations to get the minimum
and maximum hub length using the outer diameter of the hub D:

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

𝑙% */0 = 0,75 ∗ D (9)

𝑙% *'+ = 1,25 ∗ D (10)

The splined hub prime diameter dp is obtained with the outer diameter do and the root
diameter dr of the splined hub:
𝑑3 + 𝑑(
𝑑2 = (11)
2
The required Spline diameter for a given torque is obtained with the equation (12) using the
torque T:

𝑇
D= A (12)
208

Thanks to these dimensions and the mechanical properties of the material used, it is possible
to select a splined hub that will be suitable for the torque with Table 3:

Table 3: Dimensions for standard spline hubs [3]

5.4 Springs
The sizing of the springs will be done in 2 distinct parts. First of all, it is necessary to understand
that the axial force will play an important role since it will realize the braking of the system. It is
therefore imperative to measure it. Once the equations are obtained, it will be possible to dimension
the springs.

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Figure 8: Disk friction member [4]

Figure 8 shows a friction disk having an outside diameter D and an inside diameter d. We are
interested in obtaining the axial force Faxial necessary to produce a certain torque T and pressure p.

5.4.1 Axial force analysis

First, we want to determine what axial force Faxial, is required to overcome the torque
transmitted by the shaft. This force can be determined by two different methods: the uniform wear
method and the uniform pressure method.

(a) Uniform Wear

This method is based on the principle that the pressure distribution on the disc changes over time,
allowing for uniform wear of the instrument [7]. As the friction pads wear, the axial wear W, can be
expressed by the equation (13):

W = 𝑓4 𝑓5 𝐾𝑃𝑉𝑡 (13)

Where: f1 is a factor related to the movement and depends on its type, load, and speed, f2 is an
environmental factor that depends on the cleanliness and ambient temperature, K is a proportionality
factor related to the properties of the material, P is the pressure exerted, V is the sliding speed and t
is the flow speed. Tables 4 and 5 show the values for the factors f1 and f2 respectively:

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Table 4: Motion-Related Factor f1

Table 5: Environmental Factor f2

For uniform wear, W is constant, therefore PV is constant. Setting p = P, and V = rω, where ω is
the angular velocity of the rotating member. We find that in the wear area, pr is constant. The
maximum pressure pmax occurs where r is minimum, r = d/2, and thus:

pV = prω = C1 (constant) (14)

𝑑
pr = 𝑝*'+ = C2 (constant) (15)
2
Taking the expression from equation (15), which is the condition for having the same amount
of work done at radius r as is done at radius d/2. Referring to Figure 8, we have an element of area of
radius r and thickness dr. The area of this element is 2π r dr, so that the normal force acting upon this
element is dF = 2π pr dr. We can find the total normal force by letting r vary from internal radius ri to
external radius re of the friction disk as shown in the equation (16):

d𝐹'+/'6 = 2πpr dr (16)

(! (!
𝐹'+/'6 = V 2𝜋𝑝𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝜋𝑝*'+ 𝑑/ V 𝑑𝑟 = 𝜋𝑝*'+ 𝑑/ (𝑟& − 𝑟/ ) (17)
(" ("

Similarly, the torque T is calculated by integrating the product of the radius by the frictional
force between the internal radius ri and the external radius re as shown in equation (18):
(! (!
𝜋𝜇𝑝*'+ 𝑑/
T = V 2𝜋𝜇𝑝𝑟 5 𝑑𝑟 = 𝜋𝜇𝑝*'+ 𝑑/ V 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = (𝑟& 5 − 𝑟/ 5 ) (18)
(" (" 2

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

By rearranging equations (18) and (17), the axial force Faxial becomes equation (19):
2𝑇
𝐹'+/'6 = (19)
𝜇(𝑟& + 𝑟/ )
It should be noted for equation (19) is true for a single pair of mating surfaces. This is why we
doubled the torque value agreeing the number of pairs of surfaces in contact.

(b) Uniform Pressure

When uniform pressure pmax can be assumed over the area of the disk, the actuating force F is
simply the product of the pressure and the area. This gives equation (20):

𝐹'+/'6 = 𝜋𝑝*'+ (𝑟&5 − 𝑟/5 ) (20)

As before, the torque T is found by integrating the product of the frictional force and the radius,
thus equation (21) gives:
(!
2𝜋𝜇𝑝*'+ $
T = 2𝜋𝜇𝑝*'+ V 𝑟 5 𝑑𝑟 = (𝑟& − 𝑟/$ ) (21)
(" 3

As in the previous method, combining equations (20) and (21) gives the relationship between
axial force and torque as shown in equation (22):

3𝑇 (𝑟&5 − 𝑟/5 )
𝐹'+/'6 = (22)
4𝜇 (𝑟&$ − 𝑟/$ )

Again, equation (22) is valid for a single pair of mating surfaces. This is why we doubled the
torque value agreeing the number of pairs of surfaces in contact.

It is important to understand the different values of axial forces between the two methods used.
The uniform pressure method describes a new friction disc while the uniform wear method describes
a worn friction disc. Based on these considerations, the braking capacity of a "new" brake disc and a
disc that has already been cycled a few times must be analyzed. By dimensioning the equations with
the method of Buckingham [7], the following dimensionless equations (23) were obtained:
𝑇 𝑑/
𝜋4 = 𝜋5 = 𝜇 𝜋$ = (23)
𝑑& 𝐹'+/'6 𝑑&
From these dimensionless equations a plot of equations (24) and (25) was made, as shown in
figure 9 (f on the figure 9 is considered as µ). These equations represent the relationships between
axial force and torque that were obtained by the wear and uniform pressure methods, respectively:
𝑑
𝜋4 𝑇 1 + (𝑑 / )
&
= 𝑓(𝜋$ ) → = (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 19) (24)
𝜋5 𝜇 𝑑& 𝐹'+/'6 4

𝑑/ $
𝜋4 𝑇 1 1 − d𝑑& e ⎞
= 𝑓(𝜋$ ) → = ⎛ (𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 23) (25)
𝜋5 𝜇 𝑑& 𝐹'+/'6 3 𝑑/ $
1−d e
⎝ 𝑑& ⎠

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Figure 9: Dimensionless plot of equations (24) and (25)

The analysis of figure 9 shows that for the same axial force, the torque that a new brake can
absorb (obtained by the uniform pressure method) is always bigger than the torque that a brake that
has already completed a few cycles (obtained by the uniform wear method) can absorb, however close
these values may be. Therefore, when sizing the axial force required to ensure that the specifications
of the brake to be designed are met, the uniform wear method must be used. In addition, it should be
noted that the axial force applied must be oversized by a certain safety coefficient in order to
guarantee the braking of the shaft in any working situation for which it has been designed.

5.4.2 Spring sizing

The sizing of springs begins by analyzing the shear stress to which the spring will be subjected
to. The shear stress τ of the critical spring section, which is given by equation (26), must be lower than
the admissible shear force Ssy. In equation (26), Ds is the mean spring diameter, ds is the wire diameter
and K is a shear stress-correction factor:
8𝐹#2(/07 𝐷#
τ= 𝐾 (26)
𝜋𝑑#$
Equation (26) is based on the wire being straight. However, the curvature of the wire causes
a localized increase in stress on the inner surface of the coil, which can be accounted for with a
curvature factor. This factor can be applied in the same way as a stress concentration factor. For static
loading, the curvature factor is normally neglected because any localized yielding leads to localized
strain strengthening. For fatigue applications, the curvature factor should be included. So, it is
necessary to find the curvature factor in a roundabout way. Let’s replaced K by another KB factor,
which corrects for both curvature and direct shear. This factor is called the Bergsträsser [2] factor and
it is given by this equation were C=Ds/ds
4𝐶 + 2
𝐾8 = (27)
4𝐶 − 3
So, the equation (28) becomes:

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

8𝐹'+/'6 𝐷# 4𝐶 + 2
τ= ∗ (28)
𝜋𝑑#$ 𝑛# 4𝐶 − 3

Once the equation that determines the shear stress to which the spring is subjected has been
defined, here is the admissible shear stress for the application using equation (29):
𝐴
𝑆#! = 𝑝/ (29)
𝑛 𝑑#*
Equation (29) referred to the shear stress which is written as a function of the wire diameter
ds, a percentage pi, and constants A (intersection) and m (slope of the graph tensile strength vs. wire
diameter). To find these 2 constants, let’s use Table 6[2]:

Table 6: Constants A and m

Once the process of calculating the previously mentioned stresses is complete, an analysis of
the working position of the springs begins. To begin this step, it is necessary to choose the shape of
the spring ends to be used. Compression springs generally have four different types of ends as shown
in figure 10[2]. When springs are to be used in demanding applications, it is recommended to use
springs with both square (or closed) and ground ends. This recommendation is justified because this
type of end ensures better load transfer.

Figure 10: Types of ends for compression springs

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Once the shape of the ends is defined, a value is arbitrated for the working length of the spring,
h. It is recommended that this value corresponds to approximately 80% of the free length of the spring,
as shown in equation (30):
h = 0,8𝐿9 (30)

Then the value of the stiffness coefficient k of the spring is defined as shown in equation (31).
This coefficient is a function of the wire diameter ds, of the mean spring diameter Ds, of the shear
modulus G and the number of active coils Na:

𝑑#: 𝐺
k= (31)
8𝐷#$ 𝑁'

Remember that the force exerted by a spring is a function of its stiffness coefficient k and its
deformation δx as shown in equation (32):
𝐹#2(/07 = 𝑘𝛿+ (32)

Considering the working position of the spring (i.e., the position for which the deformation of
the spring is equal to δx = L0 - h). In this position the brake is in the "locked" position. This means that
the force that each spring exerts is equal to the ratio of the axial force required for braking by the
number of springs in the brake. Taking these considerations and with the help of equations (31) and
(32), it is possible to determine the number of active coils Na that the spring must have, as shown in
equation (33).

𝑑#: 𝐺 𝑑#: 𝐺𝑛#

𝑁' = (𝐿9 − ℎ) = (𝐿9 − ℎ) (33)
$ 𝐹'+/'6
$
8𝐷# 𝑛 8𝐷# 𝐹'+/'6
#

From the equation (33), when Na is obtained, then it is possible to determine any of the
dimensional characteristics present in the following Table 7[2]. There are equations that relate the
different dimensional characteristics of compression springs. I

Table 7: Formulas for the dimensional characteristics of Compression-springs

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

5.5 Friction disk

When sizing the friction disc, it is necessary to consider the need to minimize the weight of the
disc in order to reduce its polar inertia. In addition, it is necessary to maximize the heat dissipation
capacity to avoid the " brake fading effect". Attention must also be paid to the crushing stresses caused
by the springs on the disc faces and the splined connection to the hub.

Crushing stresses are analyzed by comparing the value of the material yield strength Sy, with
the normal stress σ, exerted on the faces of the disk as shown in equation (34). In this equation, Faxial
is obtained from the equation (19), re is the outer radius and ri is the inner radius of the friction disk:
𝐹'+/'6
σ= (34)
𝜋(𝑟&5 + 𝑟/5 )

To obtain the force applied by each spring, the axial force Faxial and the number of springs ns will
be considered with the following equation:
𝐹'+/'6
𝐹#2(/07 = (35)
𝑛#
As mentioned in previous sections, two ring friction pads will be attached to the friction disc.
Each of them will be glued to one of the faces of the disc, so it is necessary to choose a method of
attachment and analyze the ability of this method to withstand the shear stresses to which it will be
subjected. To perform the torsional shear stress analysis, it is necessary to calculate the shear stress,
τ, to which the inserts fixing material will be submitted to, and then compare it with the admissible
shear stress, τadm. This shear stress is obtained with the equation (36), in which T represents torque,
re is the outer radius of the ring pad to be attached to the friction disc, and I is the moment of inertia
of the contact area.
𝑇𝑟&
τ= (36)
2𝐼
Equation (37) shows how to calculate the polar moment of inertia as a function of the outer
diameter de and inner diameter di. The applied moment is split in half due to the fact that there are
two friction pads, so a 2 appears in the formulation:

𝜋(𝑑&: − 𝑑/: )
I= (37)
32
From these analyses it is possible to arrive at satisfactory values for the friction disc
dimensioning.

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

6 Electromagnetic sizing

In this subsection, reference will be made to the methods of sizing the electromagnetic elements
of the brake, as well as some theoretical notes concerning these components.

Before sizing the magnetic circuit, the axial force exerted by the springs must be considered.
When the brake moves from the "locked" to the "unlocked" state by passing current through the
electromagnetic circuit, an electromagnetic force appears which opposes the axial force exerted by
the springs. This force must be greater than the axial force of mechanical origin, otherwise the brake
will never move to the "unlocked" position. It should be noted, however, that the size and deformation
of the springs are functions of time and are not constant. This is important because it implies that the
modulus of the axial forces Faxial and the FMAG will also be a function of time.

An analysis of the steady-state problem will be performed, it will be necessary to evaluate only
the static equilibrium when the brake is in the "locked" position, as shown in inequation (38), where :
n is a safety coefficient, ns is the number of springs, k is the spring stiffness coefficient, L0 is the free
length of the springs, h is the working length of the springs, and Faxial is the axial force in the "locked"
position.

𝐹;<= ≥ 𝑛𝐹'+/'6 = 𝑛 𝑛# 𝑘 (𝐿9 − ℎ) (38)

To begin sizing the electromagnetic circuit, it is necessary to understand the construction of the
circuit, i.e., its component parts. Figure 11 shows a schematic representation analogous to the
electrical circuit present in the brake and in Figure 12 it is an equivalent magnetic circuit that allows a
more accurate evaluation of the problem:

Figure 11: Schematic representation of the electrical circuit in the brake

Figure 12: Equivalent magnetic circuit

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Thanks to Figure 12, it is possible to obtain the electrical balance of this circuit. This balance is
given as shown in equation (39) where U is the difference of potential in the circuit, R is the electrical
resistance of the coil wire, L is the inductance of the coil and i is the electrical current:
𝑑𝑖
U = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 (39)
𝑑𝑡
Using equation (39) and transposing it into the Laplace domain, we obtain a transfer function, as
shown in equation (40), in which K is the gain of the system, τ is a time constant that quantifies the
time required for the system to evolve to 63.2% of the final response. The 63.2% value previously
mentioned is due to the fact that the system is of first order.
1
i(s) 𝐾 𝑅
= = (40)
𝑈(𝑠) 1 + 𝜏𝑠 1 + 𝐿 𝑠
𝑅

1 1
i(s) = z ∗ { 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑅 1+𝐿𝑠
𝑅
(41)

Using equation (41), we can recalculate in the time domain by doing an inverse Laplace
transform to obtain equation (42) which is the evolution of the current as a function of the time
where τ=L/R:
𝑈 >)
i(t) = d1 − 𝑒 ? e
𝑅
(42)

Finally, when t=0 then i=0 and the brake is engaged and for t= τ=L/R then i=U/R and the
brake is disengaged.

A short summary of what magnetic current can be interesting. The magnetic field is a special
condition of the space, which is expressed in force effects, so that filings chain themselves together to
lines and magnetic needles (compasses) adjust themselves in a certain pointing direction within these
lines. The space in and around a magnet is interspersed without gaps with line and pointing directions:
Magnetic field is equivalent to a vector field. If a magnet is suspended so that it can rotate in a
horizontal plane, one end points approximately to the geographic north pole of the earth, the other
to the south pole. The end pointing north is called the north pole, the other the south pole.

The magnetic field lines are closed in themselves. Accordingly, they point from the south to
the north pole inside the magnet. Although the space is interspersed with lines and pointers without
gaps, single field lines are used to illustrate the magnetic field. If several magnetic fields overlap, their
field lines add up geometrically to a resulting field because of the vector character of the lines.

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Figure 13: Magnetic field of a bar magnet [5]

If a conductor is wound as a coil N time around the space to be magnetized, then this space is
orbited by N times the quantity of electrons per time when current flows, and a magnetism of N times
the strength is obtained inside the coil (Figure 14). The strength of the magnetic field of a coil is
proportional to its ampere-turn number Ni (flux). When current flows through the conductor wire that
is wound in the electromagnet, an electromagnetic field is created around it, as shown in Figure 14:

Figure 14: Magnetic field of a current-carrying coil [5]

The electromagnetic field creates a magnetic flux that can be quantified as shown in equation
(43), in which ɸ is the magnetic flux, B is the magnetic flux density and A is the area considered. Figure
15 shows a schematic representation of the quantities.

ϕ = V 𝐵. 𝑑𝐴 (43)

Figure 15: Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density

Using Ampere's law, it is possible to relate electrical quantities to magnetic quantities as

shown in equation (44), where H is the intensity of the magnetic field or magnetizing force, J is the

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

density of the electric current, dl is the infinitesimal element of the length and dS is the infinitesimal
element of the area of the surface.

• 𝐽. 𝑑𝑆 = • 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 (44)

If we discretize equation (44), we obtain a relationship between the number of turns N, the
electric current I, the reluctance ℛn and the magnetic flux ɸn as shown in equation (45):

Ni = ℛ4 𝜙4 + ℛ5 𝜙5 + ⋯ + ℛ0 𝜙0 (45)

Again, it is helpful to make a diagram of the electromagnet to understand how it works. The
figure (16) shows the number of reluctances that must be considered. There are four: 2 reluctances
for the air gap (ℛg1 and ℛg2), one reluctance for the electromagnet body (ℛ1) and one reluctance for
the armature (ℛ2).

Figure 16: Diagram of the electromagnet

These reluctances can be calculated as shown in equations (46), (47), (48) and (49). In these
equations: µ0 is the air permeability, µr is the material relative permeability, g is the air gap, S is the
magnetic cross section and l the magnetic path:
𝑔4
ℛ74 = (46)
𝜇9 𝑆74
𝑔5
ℛ75 = (47)
𝜇9 𝑆75

𝑙4
ℛ4 = (48)
𝜇9 𝜇( 𝑆4
𝑙5
ℛ5 = (49)
𝜇9 𝜇( 𝑆5

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

In this case, there are simplifications that can be made:

• ɸ1 = ɸ2 = ɸ by conservation of the flux

• ℛg1 = ℛg2 = ℛAIR because g1=g2=g. Note also that the air gap g is a function of time because it
goes from 0.4mm to about 0mm so g(t).
• ℛ1 = ℛ2 = ℛFE

Indeed, ℛFE <<< ℛAIR because the relative permeability of the material µr is much lower than the
permeability of the air µ0. With this, it is possible to write the equation for the total reluctance
ℛTotal as shown in equation (50):
ℛ @3)'6 = ℛ4 + ℛ5 + ℛ74 + ℛ75
ℛ @3)'6 = 2ℛAB + 2ℛ<CD (50)

Using the equation (45) and by conservation of magnetic flux, we arrive at equation (51), in
which N is the number of turns, i is the electric current, ɸ is the magnetic flux, µ0 is the air permeability,
µr is the electromagnet material relative permeability, S is the area of the core, g is the air gap and l is
the magnetic path:

Ni = 2𝜙(ℛAB + ℛ<CD ) (51)

Where:

𝑔
ℛ<CD = (52)
𝜇9 𝑆
𝑙*'7
ℛAB = (53)
𝜇9 𝜇( 𝑆
But as ℛFE <<< ℛAIR then equation (51) becomes:
Ni ≈ 2𝜙ℛ<CD (54)

To obtain the magnetic force FMAG, it is possible to use other simplifications. Let’s focus on the
2 limit positions of the brake: engaged and disengaged and the behavior of the current and the flux.

First, when the brake is engaged or when the springs are extended, the current in the system
is zero. Since there is not current, then the product Ni is also zero. Therefore, there is no magnetic flux
ɸ or electromagnetic force in the circuit FMAG.

Then when the brake is disengaged or when the springs are retracted, the current in the
system is not zero! As shown with the Laplace transforms, when the brake is disengaged, the current
is equal to:

𝑈
i= (55)
𝑅
Then, the product Ni is equal to the equation (54) and thanks to equation (43), the flux ɸ is equal to:

ϕ = BA (56)

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Let’s now obtain the equation of the flux ɸ for each part of the electromagnet: core and outer limbs:

Figure 17: Sectional diagram of the electromagnet

In the core, the magnetic flux ɸ is:

ϕ = 𝐵E3(& 𝑆E3(& (57)

In the outer limbs, the magnetic flux ɸ is:

ϕ = 𝐵6/*F# 𝑆6/*F# (58)

The electromagnetic force can be defined as the force experienced by a charged particle in an
electromagnetic field. It is the main manifestation of the electromagnetic interaction. And it has the
following equation:

𝐵5 𝑆
𝐹;<= = (59)
2𝜇9
Using equations (57) and (58), the electromagnetic becomes:
5 5
𝐵E3(& 𝑆E3(& 𝐵6/*F# 𝑆6/*F#
𝐹;<= = + (60)
2𝜇9 2𝜇9
Using the following simplifications where Bcore = Blimb = B and Score = Slimb = S, we obtained the
final equation for FMAG:

𝐵5 𝑆
𝐹;<= = (61)
𝜇9

Once a relationship between the EM force and the electromagnetic parameters to be designed
has been established, the inequation (38) is returned so that it is possible to begin the iterative process
of design. In this way the inequality (61) is reached, which relates the axial force of mechanical origin
to the force of electromagnetic origin. After that, once the electromagnetic force is found, it is possible
to obtain all the necessary data to calculate the geometries of the coil box, the diameter of the wire,
the maximum number of turns etc. All these calculations will be detailed in the next part

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

7 Thermal sizing

This subsection will reference the thermal analysis methods of 3 brake elements that are
considered critical from a thermal point of view: the coil, the electromagnet, and the friction disks.
This evaluation is important since the principle used to stop the shaft is the conversion of kinetic
energy into thermal energy.

Good thermal sizing is necessary because large temperature variations can lead to thermal shock
that generates surface cracks, and/or large amounts of plastic deformation in the brake rotor [6]. In
the case of thermal shock, surface cracking of the brake elements would occur. In addition, an increase
in the temperature of the friction disk can lead to a phenomenon known as the "brake-fade effect".
This effect is characterized by a decrease in its friction coefficient, which leads to a lower braking
capacity. With this in mind, it is crucial that proper thermal sizing be performed to ensure that
potential temperature increases do not lead to brake failure. In the next subsections, the method of
their thermal analysis will be presented for each critical element.

7.1 Coil
At the end of a brake cycle two distinct types of losses are observed in the coil: those due to
Eddy currents and Coulomb losses.

Losses due to Eddy currents are occur when a conductor is embedded in a magnetic field.
These losses in the coil will be neglected for the thermal analysis, due to the fact that their contribution
is not very significant for this particular system. Coulomb losses, on the other hand, occur thanks to
the generation of heat in the conductor wire due to the Joule effect. To analyze the temperature
increase due to this effect, the formulation of equation (62) is used, it’s the steady state temperature
approximation of a conductor. In this equation: iop is the operating current with which the brake
operates and imax is the maximum current passing through the brake, Top is the maximum operational
temperature and Tamb is the ambient temperature:
5
𝑖32
𝑇32 = 𝑇'*F + ΔT*'+ d e (62)
𝑖*'+

To quantify iop, let’s use Ohm's law considering the increase in the wire's electrical resistance.
Equation (63) allows us to calculate the electric resistance of a wire as a function of its temperature.
In this formulation, Rf is the wire's electrical resistance at ambient temperature, T is the temperature
for which the electrical resistance is being analyzed and α is the material's temperature proportionality
coefficient.
𝑅@ ≅ 𝑅" (1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 20)) (63)

7.2 Electromagnet
During brake operation, two types of losses in the electromagnet are also observed: hysteretic
losses and losses due to eddy currents.

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Hysteretic losses are related to the magnetization properties of the material, these losses refer
to the existing relations between the magnetic flux density B, and the magnetic field strength H of a
given ferromagnetic material. This relationship is called hysteretic cycle. Figure (18) shows a generic
hysteretic cycle for better understanding of the phenomenon:

Figure 18: Hysteresis loop or B-H curve

To quantify the hysteretic losses in the electromagnet, equation (64) is used in which PH is the
hysteretic loss per unit time (power), f is the frequency of loading, B is the induction (flux density) and
η the Steinmetz:

𝑃G = η𝐵5 𝑓 (64)

Eddy current losses, on the other hand, are generated by the presence of a varying magnetic
field in the environment of a ferromagnetic material. Figure (19) and (20) shows more clearly the
behavior of these currents, which lead to the dissipation of energy in the form of heat. To reduce the
losses due to this phenomenon, the material chosen for the core must have a high resistivity. Or it’s
also possible to reduce the power loss due to eddy current by using several thin electrically insulated
plates (called laminations) stacked together to form the core instead a solid block of iron [7].

Figure 19: Eddy current paths

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Figure 20: Laminated core to reduce eddy loss

To quantify the eddy losses in the electromagnet, equation (65) is used in which PE is the eddy
loss per unit time (power), K is an electrical constant function of the material, B is the induction (flux
density), t is the core thickness and f is the frequency of loading:

𝑃B = K 𝐵5 𝑓 5 𝑡 (65)
H#
Where: 𝐾 = IJ

Once the formulations of the losses in the electromagnet have been defined, it is necessary to
establish a relation that describes how these losses are used as a function of temperatures. For this
we use equation (66), in which E is energy, m is the mass of the electromagnet, cp is the specific heat,
∆T is the temperature variation, ρ is the density of the material, V is the volume of the electromagnet,
and ∆t is the time interval:
𝐸 𝑃Δt (𝑃B + 𝑃G )Δt
E = m𝑐2 ΔT ⟺ ΔT = = = (66)
m𝑐2 ρV𝑐2 ρV𝑐2

With the equations and concepts mentioned in this subsection, it is possible to make a correct
thermal analysis of the electromagnet.

7.3 Brake pads

Shaft braking is achieved by converting the kinetic energy of the system into frictional losses. It
will be considered that all frictional energy loss will occur through heat dissipation. In addition, it will
also be considered that all energy dissipated as heat will be absorbed by the disks, in order to treat
the problem in the most conservative way possible. Taking this into account, we realize that the power
associated with this process will be much higher than the powers mentioned in the previous
subsections. With this, we conclude that of all the thermal analyses to be carried out for the design of
this brake, this is the one that interests us most.

To begin the analysis, it is necessary to quantify the kinetic energy associated with the motion.
This is done using equation (67), in which Ek is the kinetic energy, J is the rotary inertia of the brake
and ω is the angular velocity [2]:

𝐽𝜔5
𝐸- = (67)
2
Once the kinetic energy associated with the motion is defined, equation (68) is used to quantify
the temperature change at the end of a cycle. In this equation ρ is the density of the friction pads
material, V designates the volume of the pads and cp is the specific heat of the pad material:

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

𝐸-
ΔT = (68)
𝜌𝑉𝑐2

However, one must realize that successive cycles have an impact on the brake thermal behavior,
so the results obtained with equation (68) are unsatisfactory. At the end of a cycle, the heat absorbed
by the pads begins to dissipate into the medium as the pad-air interface evolves towards thermal
equilibrium. However, with the start of a new cycle, the wafer again absorbs the heat dissipated in the
conversion of kinetic energy to thermal energy. In this way the temperature on the friction pads
gradually increases. Figure (21) shows the effect of successive braking on pad temperature:

Figure 21: The effect of clutching or braking operations on temperature (T∞ is the ambient temperature)

To skip this problem, we use the Newtonian cooling formulation [2] to calculate the maximum
temperature reached in the evolution of the cycles, as shown in equation (69) [2]. In this equation T∞
is the ambient temperature, ∆T is obtained in the equation (68), β is a coefficient, and t1 is the time.
Δ𝑇
T*'+ = TK + (69)
1 − 𝑒 (>M)$ )
%& % <
The coefficient β is: 𝛽 = JOE where hCR is a heat transfer coefficient, A is the lateral surface
'
area of the friction pad, ρ is the density of the pad material, V is the volume of the pad, cp is the specific
heat of the pad material.

The overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated as shown in equation (70), in which hr is the
radiation component, hc is the convective component and fv is a ventilation factor.

hPD = h( + hE f1 (70)

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

These unknowns can be defined using the graph [2]:

Figure 22: Ventilation factor [2]

Figure 23: Heat-transfer coefficient [2]

With the equations and theoretical considerations mentioned in this subsection it is possible
to make a correct thermal analysis of the brake.

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

8 Dynamic equilibrium equations

The goal of this section is to propose a dynamic modeling of the brake behavior in order to
understand its operation. An analytical approach will be carried out on the system at all stages of its
operating cycle: brake engaged, brake disengaging, and brake engaging. From this analysis, it will be
possible to calculate the braking times and to perceive if the designed brake is able to meet the initial
requirement of performing 1500rpm.

8.1 Brake engaged

In this state, the brake is in the "locked" state i.e., the absence of current in the coil (i = 0) implies
pressure from the armature on the friction pads via the compression springs. The analysis of this state
is based on equation (72), in which T is the torque coming from the shaft, µ is the friction coefficient
of the friction pads, Faxial is the force exerted by the spring and ri and re are the respective internal and
external radius of the friction pads. Using the fundamental principle of statics, we obtained:

›››⃗ = 0
™ℳ ›⃗ (71)

Using equation (71), we were able to have:

T = 𝜇 𝐹#2(/07 (𝑟& + 𝑟/ ) (72)

8.2 Brake disengaging

This stage of the cycle is characterized by the beginning of the passage of electric current in the
conductor wire (i > 0). The coil generates a magnetic field from which the electromagnet and the
armature interact, allowing the movement of the shaft. The time counted from the beginning of the
current flow in the conductor until the moment the armature contacts the electromagnet is called the
unlocking time.

Equation (73) is obtained by using the fundamental principle of dynamics:

™𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗
⟺ 𝐹*'7 − 𝐹'+/'6 − Δ𝐹#2(/07 = 𝑚𝑥̈ (73)

Let’s integrating equation (73) in order to time to obtain equation (74). The integration
constant C1 can be obtained by an initial condition of the system: the initial velocity (t = 0) of the
system is zero. With this we conclude that the constant C1 is zero:

𝑚 𝑥̇ = ¡𝐹*'7 − 𝐹'+/'6 − Δ𝐹#2(/07 ¢𝑡 + 𝐶4

1
𝑥̇ = ¡𝐹*'7 − 𝐹'+/'6 − Δ𝐹#2(/07 ¢𝑡 (74)
𝑚

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Introduction to Mechanical Design

Let’s integrating equation (74) in order to time. We will obtain equation (75) which is a
relationship between time and space as shown in equation. The integration constant C2 can be
obtained through an initial condition of the system; the system is initially (t = 0) at the zero position.
With this it follows that the constant C2 is also zero:
1
𝑥 (𝑡) = ¡𝐹 − 𝐹'+/'6 − Δ𝐹#2(/07 ¢𝑡 5 + 𝐶5
2𝑚 *'7
1
𝑥 (𝑡) = ¡𝐹 − 𝐹'+/'6 − Δ𝐹#2(/07 ¢𝑡 5 (75)
2𝑚 *'7
By substituting equations (31), (32) and (61) into the final equation, we arrive at equation (76).
With this equation, it is possible to obtain the unbraking time by solving the equation as a function of
t and by posing x(t) = g= 0,4mm. If a more detailed analysis of the armature motion in the unbraking
movement is desired, it will be necessary to use appropriate software since this is a second order
nonlinear equation.

1 𝐵5 𝑆
𝑥 (𝑡) = £ − 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑥) ¤ 𝑡 5 (76)
2𝑚 𝜇9

8.3 Brake engaging

The modeling of the system in the braking motion is done in 2 steps. The first is the modeling
of the axial movement of the armature from the moment it touches the electromagnet until the
moment it touches the friction pad due to the interruption of the electric current (i = 0). The second
step is from the moment the armature touches the friction pad to the moment the shaft stops.

a. First stage

Using again the fundamental principle of dynamics again to analyze the motion of the
armature, we obtain equation (77). This time the electromagnetic force no longer exists.

™𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃗
⟺ 𝐹'+/'6 + Δ𝐹#2(/07 = 𝑚𝑥̈
𝐵5 𝑆
⟺ − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝑥̈ (77)
𝜇9
Integrating equation (77) twice and using the same initial conditions, we obtain equation (78).
This equation will allow to find the time necessary for the armature to reach the friction disk.

1 𝐵5 𝑆
𝑥 (𝑡) = £ − 𝑘𝑥 ¤ 𝑡 5 (78)
2𝑚 𝜇9

It should be noted that the Δ𝐹#2(/07 in this case is negligible since the spring operates in a
quasi-static state because the air gap is very small. Therefore, Δ𝐹#2(/07 = 𝑘𝑥 ≈ 0 because it is much
smaller than the other quantities analyzed. Then equation (78) becomes:

1 𝐵5 𝑆 5
𝑥 (𝑡) = £ ¤𝑡 (79)
2𝑚 𝜇9

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To obtain the necessary time t7 for the armature to reach the friction disk, we must assume
in equation (79) that x = g (air gap), we then have equation (80):

1 𝐵5 𝑆
𝑔= £ ¤ 𝑡7 5 (80)
2𝑚 𝜇9

Thanks to equation (80), we obtain the desired time tg:

2𝑚𝑔𝜇9
𝑡7 = A (81)
𝐵5 𝑆

b. Second stage

In this second step, a balance of moments is made to analyze the brake stopping, as shown in
equation (82). In this equation we assumed that J the polar moment of inertia would be equal to 50
times the polar moment of inertia of the friction disk, 𝜇 is the friction coefficient of the material. Note
that in this equation the moment related to the force exerted by the springs has a negative sign. This
is justified by the fact that it is a moment used to stop the shaft.

›››⃗ = 𝐼𝜃⃗
™ℳ
⟺ −𝜇𝐹#2(/07 (𝑟& + 𝑟/ ) = 𝐼𝜃̈ (82)

Since we want to analyze the instant when the tree has zero velocity, we just need to integrate
equation (82) once to obtain the relationship between velocity and time. To calculate the constant C3
we use the initial condition of the problem which says that the angular velocity 𝜔9 for the initial instant
(t = 0) is 1500 rpm or 157.1 rad/s. This gives the equation (83):

𝐼𝜃̇ = −𝜇𝐹#2(/07 (𝑟& + 𝑟/ )𝑡 + 𝜔9

−𝜇𝐹#2(/07 (𝑟& + 𝑟/ )
𝜃̇(𝑡) = 𝑡 + 157,1 (83)
𝐼
The time tf needed to have a zero speed is therefore expressed as follows if we put 𝜃̇ (𝑡) = 0:
157,1 ∗ 𝐼
𝑡" = (84)
𝜇𝐹#2(/07 (𝑟& + 𝑟/ )

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9 Dimensional, electromagnetic, and thermal calculations

Now that the theoretical design analysis is completed, the iterative process of dimensional
calculation begins. All the brake dimensional calculations were performed with Excel because the
software allows a better dynamic for the iterative calculation.

In this section all the final calculations performed will be presented in tables. Each table will show
the general data required for the calculations, the arbitrarily chosen data, the calculated data with the
formulas used for the calculation. At the end of each table, a small conclusion is on the size each
element of the brake. Also, all the graphs and auxiliary tables used in the process are listed.

Table 8: Calculation of the shaft dimensions

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Table 9: Calculation of the key dimensions

Table 10: Key selection [3]

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Table 11: Calculations of the splined hub dimensions

Table 12: Splined hub selection [3]

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Table 13: Calculation of the spring dimensions

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Table 14: Spring material selection

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Table 15: Calculation of the friction disk dimension

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Table 16: Calculation of the electromagnet dimensions (1/2)

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Table 17: Calculation of the electromagnet dimensions (2/2)

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Table 18: Coil box geometry conditions

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Table 19: Thermal calculation for the coil

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Table 20: Thermal calculation for the electromagnet (1/2)

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Table 21: Thermal calculation for the electromagnet (2/2)

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Table 22: Ventilation factor for the electromagnet

Table 23: Heat transfer coefficient for the electromagnet

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Table 24: Thermal calculation for the friction pads

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Table 25: Ventilation factor for the friction pads

Table 26: Heat transfer coefficient for the friction pads

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This last table present all the final calculations performed to modelized the brake, allowing
the brake braking and unbraking times to be calculated.

Table 27: Calculation of the braking time

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10 Material selection

For every part of the brake there was thought behind the selection of its material. Considering
the requirements of the part and thinking how the properties of the material would affect the
performance of the brake, catalogues and other means of bibliography were consulted for this
purpose.

Shaft: The material chosen for the shaft is a construction carbon steel by the supplier Universal Afir. It
was chosen considering its good mechanical properties and for being appropriate for shaft
manufacturing. The data sheet for this material is presented in the appendix 1.

Key: Another construction carbon steel from Universal Afir was chosen for the key. This choice was
made considering the stress it is meant to endure, and the standards required for this part. This steel
is also very commonly used for key manufacturing. The data sheet for this material is presented in the
appendix 2.

Splined Hub and Friction Disk: The same material was chosen for both these parts. It is a stainless steel
supplied by Universal Afir. This material was chosen in order to reduce the inertia created by the
movement of these parts with the objective of improving the performance of the brake. Some studies
show there are advantages to using this material for this purpose [8]. The data sheet for this material
is in appendix 3.

Springs: A spring steel supplied by RolMetais was chosen for this part. It is a chrome-vanadium steel,
and it was chosen for its mechanical properties and for being a steel specifically used in spring
manufacturing. The data sheet for this material is in appendix 4.

Electromagnet: For this part a stainless-steel grade 430 supplied by aalco. It was chosen for being a
ferritic stainless steel that has great magnetic permeability. The data sheet for this material in in
appendix 5.

Coil wire: For the coil, we decided to choose a copper wire standard IEC 60317-51 with a diameter of
0.315mm by pro-POWER. The insulation is Polyurethane 180. The data sheet for this material is in
appendix 6 and 7.

Friction pads: For the pads the chosen material was a non-asbestos friction material supplied by
Friction Technology Ltd. It is manufactured from a variety of mineral fibers and other non-metallic
substances. It has a friction coefficient of around 0.3 and has been developed to retain its friction
stability at high temperatures. This material also has a higher maximum rubbing speed than the one

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it will endure in this brake and is often used in industrial brakes. The data sheet for this material in in
appendix 8 and 9.

Adhesive: To fix the pads to the friction disk an epoxy adhesive was chosen. This adhesive is supplied
by Permabond and has good adhesion to several materials. It was chosen mainly for its high
temperature resistance and for being able to endure the stresses applied. The data sheet for this
material is in appendix 10 and 11.

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11 Definition drawings

In this section all the definition drawings and the brake assembly drawing will be presented. In
addition, the tolerances used will be justified.

In the surfaces where the splined hub and the friction disk would be contact between the hub
and the disk the roughness of 0,8 was set because the disk will slide on the hub so the surface can’t
be too rough and should be well polished. On the hub the concentricity should be assured because of
the constant rotation of the shaft and hub for the brake to function properly. On the disk the surfaces
where the pads will be located have to be perpendicular to the axis and must be straight to guarantee
a uniform contact between the pads and the other parts. The coupling H7/f7 is an inner centering with
sliding contact between the disk and the hub. This coupling allows the movement the disk does during
braking.

On all the circular surfaces of the electromagnet the concentricity with the axis should be
assured for the contact with armature to be uniform. Also, this surface that will be in contact with the
armature should be straight and perpendicular to the axis for the same reason. The position of the
screws must be guaranteed to not have any problems in the installation.

Both surfaces of the pressure plate should be straight and perpendicular to the axis for the
contact with the friction pads to be uniform.

On the rest of the parts surfaces where the roughness is set as 6,3 the surface should be well
finished but there is no need for polishing.

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12 Conclusion

The completion of this project allowed us to deepen our technical knowledge in some areas of
mechanical engineering. We found it very interesting to carry out this type of project from start to
finish, resembling all the knowledge acquired during several courses, it allows us to review our
tutorials in a more thorough and concrete way.

In addition, during the development of the project, we developed the ability to observe
engineering problems from a macroscopic point of view, perceiving how each of the technical areas
of mechanical engineering influence each other. We came to the realization that every scientific
discipline is mutually dependent and intertwined.

Even though we researched the literature thoroughly, we refrained from discussing fatigue and
creep of elements. Although this part is to be considered in real engineering projects, it was not
needed, and it was time consuming. Therefore, we decided to pay more attention to the design of the
brake itself.

This detailed design work has given us skills in research, discussion, and critical analysis of results.
In general, we can say that we are satisfied with the results obtained and we believe that we have
achieved the objectives proposed at the beginning of the semester.

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Appendixes

Appendix 1: Datasheet for the shaft

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Appendix 2: Datasheet for the key

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Appendix 3: Datasheet for the splined hub and friction disk

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Appendix 4: Datasheet for the springs

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Appendix 5: Datasheet for the electromagnet

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Appendix 6: Datasheet for the coil wire 1/2

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Appendix 7: Datasheet for the coil wire 2/2

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Appendix 8: Datasheet for the friction pads 1/2

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Appendix 9: Datasheet for the friction pads 2/2

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Appendix 10: Datasheet for the adhesive 1/2

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Appendix 11: Datasheet for the adhesive 2/2

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References

[1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0rwtxrMMCZQ (brake engaged and disengaged)

[2] BUDYNAS, R. G.; NISBETT, J. K. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design. 10th edition. McGraw-Hill
Education, 2015.

[3] MORAIS, S. Desenho Técnico Básico. 26th edition. Porto Editora Lda., 2016

[4] MOTT, R.; VAVREK, E.; WANG, J.; Machine Elements in Mechanical Design. 6th edition. Pearson
Education, 2014.

[5] BÖGE, A. Handbuch Maschinenbau: Grundlagen und Anwendungen der Maschinenbau-Technik.

21st edition. Springer Vieweg, 2013.

[6] TALATI, F.; JALALIFAR, S. Analysis of heat conduction in a disk brake system. Springer-Verlag,
2009.

[7] Kharagpur, Magnetic Circuits and Core Losses, Lesson22: Eddy Current & Hysteresis Loss. Version
2 EE IIT.

[8] DHOOT, R. et al. Design & Theoretical Study of Electromagnetic Braking System. IOSR Journal of
Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE), v. 13, n. 6, p. 87-96, 2016. ISSN 2278-1684

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