F) On the basis of Degree of Commercialization:-

1) Subsistence Farming:- Where no sale of crop and animal product is done.

2) Partly Commercialized Farming:- Where more than 50% of the value of the produce is
for home consumption.
3) Commercialized Farming:- Where more than 50% of the produce is for sale.

G) On the basis of Grassland Utilization:-

1) Total Nomadism:- System in which animal owners do not have permanent place of
residence. They do not practice regular cultivation and their families move with the herds.
2) Semi-Nomadism:- Animal owners have a permanent place of residence near which
supplementary cultivation is practiced.
3) Transhumance:- Under this system farmers with a permanent place of residence send
their herds, with herdsmen for long a period of time to distinct grazing areas.
4) Partial Nomadism:- Farmers have permanent residence and who have herds at their
disposal which remain in the vicinity.
5) Stationary Animal Husbandry:- Where the animals remains on the holding or in the
village thought out the entire year.

H) According to the size of farm:-

i) Small scale farming:- Farming is done on a small size of holding, capital and labour risk
is small and the scale of production said to be small.
Advantages:-
i) Intensive cultivation is possible
ii) Per unit output is more
iii) Loss is less due to natural calamities
iv) Farm is easy to manage

Disadvantages:-
i) More per unit cost of production
ii) Mechanization is not possible
iii) No employment throughout the year.

ii) Large Scale Farming:- When farming is done on large scale with large amount of capital,
labour, organization and risk is called as large scale farming.
In India 40-50 ha land holding is called as large scale farming.
Advantages:-
1) Production is more economical.
2) Per unit production cost is less.
3) Mechanization on farm is possible.
4) Better marketing of agricultural produce
5) Subsidiary occupations or employment generation throughout the year.
4
 FARMING SYSTEMS: DEFINITION, SCOPE, CLASSIFICATION &
COMPONENTS

Farming is a process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and animal
products.
A system implies a set of interrelated practices organized into functional entity i.e. an
arrangement of components or parts that interact according to some process and transforms input
into output.
Farming system:- are characterized by their physical, biological and socio-economic setting and
by the farm families, goals and other attributes, access to resources, choices of productive
enterprises and management practices.
OR

Farming system is an integration of farm enterprises such as cropping systems, animal

husbandary, piggery, fishery, poultry, beekeeping, forestry etc. for optimal utilization of
available resources and bringing prosperity to the farmers.
OR

Farming system it is a resource management strategy to achieve economic and sustained

production to meet diverse requirement of farm household while a system is preserving resource
base and maintaining a high level environmental quality.
OR

Farming system it is a decision making tool and land use unit comprising the farm household,
cropping and livestock systems that produce crops and animal products for consumption and
sale.
Concept of Farming System:- Farming system is a set of agricultural activities organized into
functional unit (s) to harness solar energy profitably while preserving land productivity and
environment quality and maintaining desirable level of biological diversity and ecological
stability.
Sustainability is the objectives of farming system where production process is optimized
through efficient utilization of inputs without impairing the quality of soil environment and
natural resources with which it interacts.
The concept of farming system is:-

 To earn profit from different enterprises

 To preserve land productivity
 To preserve environmental quality
 To maintain desirable level of biological diversity and ecological stability.

Objectives of Farming System:-

1. To identify existing farming system in specific area and assess their relative viability.
2. To formulate farming system models involving main and allied enterprises for different
farming situations. 1
 3. To ensure optimal utilization and conservation of available resources and effective
recycling of farm residues within system.
4. To maintain sustainable production without damaging resources and environmental
quality.
5. To raise overall profitability of farm house hold by complementary main and allied
enterprises with each other.
 Collective Farming System:- It includes direct collection of farm products from non arable
lands or natural fallows.
 Cultivation Farming System:- In this system farming community cultivates the land for
growing crops for obtaining maximum production per unit area.
Classification of Farming Systems:-

A) On the basis of type of Rotation:- Rotation means the sequence of crops.

a) Natural Fallow System:- Describes a situation where cultivation of crops alternates with
an uncultivated or natural fallows.
i) A forest fallow:- Comprises woody vegetation with trunks and a closed canopy in which
trees are ecologically dominant.
ii) A bush fallow:- Comprises dense woody vegetation without trunks.

iii) A savanna fallow:- Comprises a mixture of fire resistant trees and grasses in which the
grasses are ecologically dominant.
iv) A grass fallow:- Comprises grasses without woody vegetation. Where grasses are
ecologically dominant.
b) Ley system:- In this system several years of arable farming are followed by several years
of grasses and legumes are utilized for livestock production.
i) Unregulated ley:- In this system natural vegetation of various grasses, bushy growth on
pasture is allowed to grow during the period of fallow.
ii) Regulated ley system:- During the period of fallow certain types of grasses are grown or
planted.
c) Field system:- In this system arable lands and grasslands are clearly separated from each
other.
d) Perennial crop system:- Crops that cover the land for many years are grown.

e.g. Sugarcane, sisal, tea, coffee, oil-palm, rubber.

B) On the basis of Intensity of Rotation:- It denoted by ‘R’.

No. of years of cultivation

Rotational Intensity (R) = -------------------------------------------X 100
Length of the cycle of land utilization

2
‘R’ indicates the proportion of the area under cultivation in relation to the total area available
for arable farming.
If 40% of the available land in one holding is cultivated then R= 40.

a) Shifting Cultivation:- Indicates the clearing of forest tree species into field system while
soils are exposed or exhausted to erosion.
‘R’ is very small i.e. < 33.

b) Fallow Farming:- Percentage of area cultivated annually is higher in relation to the total
area available for arable farming.
‘R’ exceeds the value > 38

c) Permanent Cultivation:- When land is cultivated nearly every years or even more often.
‘R’ = > 66
d) Multiple cropping:- In this system more than one crop is cultivated on the same piece of
land.
If ‘R’ = 150 means 50% area under two crops in a year
If ‘R’ = 300 means three crops in a year are grown.
C) According to the Water Supply:-

a) Rainfed Farming:- Farming without irrigation is widely referred to as dry farming or

rainfed farming.
Crops are sown taking into consideration annual rainfall of the region.

b) Irrigated Farming:- Water is applied through external sources in addition to natural

sources.
D) On the basis of Cropping Pattern and Animal Activities:-

The farms are grouped according to the leading crops and the livestock activities of the
holding. Each activity has different requirements as to climate, soils, markets and inputs.
Therefore those farms can be grouped together whose gross returns are similarly constituted.
E.g. Coffere-banana holdings, Rice-Jute holdings etc.

E) On the basis of Implements used for cultivation:-

i) Hoe farming
ii) Spade farming
iii) Plough farming
iv) Animal Traction
v) Tractor farming etc.

3
 Farming system components |
Syllabus
Farming System- scope, importance, concept, Types, &
Systems of farming systems and
Factors affecting types of farming,
Farming system components, and their maintenance

Systems of Farming system

Systems of farming systems refer to the various ways in which different farming systems can be combined
and integrated to create more sustainable and resilient farming systems. Some common systems of farming
systems include:

Crop-Livestock Integration: This system involves the integration of crop and livestock production in a
single farming system. Livestock can provide manure for crop production, while crop residues can be used
as animal feed. This system can increase overall productivity, improve soil fertility, and reduce pest and
disease pressure.
Agroforestry: Agroforestry involves the integration of trees with crops and livestock in a farming system.
Trees can provide multiple benefits such as shade, windbreaks, soil conservation, and timber production, as
well as providing habitats for wildlife. Agroforestry can increase overall productivity, improve soil health,
and enhance biodiversity.
Conservation Agriculture: Conservation agriculture is a farming system that aims to reduce soil erosion,
improve soil health, and conserve natural resources such as water and nutrients. This system involves
minimal soil disturbance, the use of cover crops and crop residues to protect the soil, and crop rotation to
improve soil fertility and reduce pest and disease pressure.
Sustainable Intensification: Sustainable intensification is a farming system that aims to increase
productivity while minimizing negative environmental impacts. This system involves the use of technology
and management practices to optimize the use of resources such as water and fertilizer, and the adoption
of practices that enhance soil health and biodiversity.
Integrated Farming Systems: Integrated farming systems involve the integration of various agricultural
activities such as crop production, livestock rearing, and fish farming in a single farming system. This
system can increase overall productivity, reduce waste, and enhance biodiversity.
Multi-Cropping Systems: Multi-cropping systems involve the cultivation of two or more crops in a single
field during the same growing season. This system can increase overall productivity, improve soil fertility,
and reduce pest and disease pressure.
Mixed Farming Systems: Mixed farming systems involve the integration of different types of crops and
livestock in a single farming system. This system can increase overall productivity, improve soil fertility,
and reduce pest and disease pressure.
In summary, there are several systems of farming systems that can be combined and integrated to create
more sustainable and resilient farming systems. These include crop-livestock integration, agroforestry,
8
Disadvantages:-
1) More loss in case of less demand and more production.
2) More loss in case of labour unavailability or strike and natural calamities.
3) Difficult to manage the farm.

I) According to the land, labour and capital investment:-

1) Extensive cultivation:- When more area is brought under cultivation to increase the
output.
2) Intensive cultivation:- More inputs are used to increase the production on same land.
Land remain fixed, however, inputs are increase.

c) According to the value of the products:-

i) Specialized Farming:- The farm on which 50% or more income is received from a single
source.
Advantages:-
1) Better use of land
2) Better marketing
3) Better management
4) Less labour and equipments are needed
5) Costly and efficient machinery can be kept
6) Efficiency and skill is increased.

Disadvantages:-
1) Greater risk
2) Land, labour and capital not fully utilized
3) Knowledge of farm enterprises becomes limited.

ii) Diversified farming:- Farming having several enterprises or sources of income but no
source of income equals as much as 50% of the total receipt.
Advantages:-
a) Better use of land, labour and capital
b) Farmer get regular income through out the year.
c) Provides employment through out the year
d) Risk of failure of crop due to natural calamities
e) Maintain soil fertility due to crop rotations

Disadvantages:-
a) Due to more crop diversification competition for resources within crops increases
b) Maintaining various type of machineries for various crops is not possible
c) Supervision on various enterprises is difficult

5
iii) Mixed Farming:- Farming in which crop production is combined with raising of
livestock.
Advantages:-
1) More efficient utilization of land, labour and other resources
2) By-product of crops are useful feed for livestock
3) Balanced food is possible
4) Provides money throughout the year
5) Maintaining soil fertility through manure

J) According to the supply of irrigation:-

1) Irrigated farming:- Farming in which crops are depends on artificial application of water
is called as irrigated farming.
2) Dry farming:- Means crops are grown where rainfall is less than 750 mm is called as dry
farming.

K) On the basis of type of ownership:-

1. Family Farming:- All agricultural operations are carried out by family members.
Management of inputs and farm is also done by the family members.
2. Co-operative farming:- All the members have ownership in the business. They pool
required resources to run the business. The income is distributed according to their share.
a) Co-operative better farming:- Farming is done by the members independently. They
have ownership on the land. They follow recommended plan of cultivation.
b) Co-operative joint farming:- The members have ownership on the land and cultivation is
done jointly.
c) Co-operative collective farming:- The land is acquired by the society either as freehold
or leasehold.
d) Co-operative tenant farming:- Land is owned by the co-operative society on freehold or
leasehold basis.
3. Institutional farming:- Farms are used for conducting research or demonstrations by an
institution.
4. Capitalistic farming:- Land is owned by businessman/capitalist. All the investment is
made by capitalist.
5. State farming:- Farming is done by the Government. Farm manager and other staff is
appointed for agricultural operations and day to day working.
6. Personal farming:- Farmers have ownership on the land and farming is done
independently.
7. Collective farming:- The members surrender their land, livestock and implement to the
society.
8. Corporate farming:- This is just like a capitalistic system of farming but the right of
ownership is on the basis of shares taken by the members.

6
 Components of Farming System:-
1. Crops and cropping system
2. Poultry
3. Piggery
4. Duck
5. Forest trees
6. Apiculture or bee-keeping
7. Dairy
8. Sheep and goat
9. Fish
10. Rabit
11. Sericulture
12. Mushroom.

Scope of Farming System:

Farming enterprises include crop, livestock, poultry, fish, free, sericulture etc. A
combination of one or more enterprises with cropping when carefully chosen planned and
executed gives greater dividends than a single enterprise, especially for small and marginal
farmers. Farm as a unit is to be considered and planned for effective integration of the enterprises
to be combined with crop production activity.

Integration of Farm Enterprises Depends on Any Factors Such as:

1. Soil and climatic features of the selected area.

2. Availability of the resources, land, labor & Capital.
3. Present level of utilization of resources.
4. Economics of proposed integrated farming system.
5. Managerial skill of farmer.

7
 2. Intensive Cropping systems:

I) Multiple cropping:- The cropping system in which two or more crops are grown
either in succession or sequence or association for entire or part period of their life
cycles on the same field in a year is called multiple cropping.
E.g. Sorghum-Wheat-Green Gram
Maize-Wheat-Green gram
Rice-Wheat-Black gram-Linseed

a) Parallel multiple cropping:- When two or more crops are grown in association for
part or entire period of their life cycle is known as parallel multiple cropping. It
includes following cropping systems.
i) Mixed cropping:- Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row
arrangement is known as mixed cropping.
E.g. Maize + Green gram + Pigeon pea
Sorghum + Groundnut + Pigeon pea
 Mixed cropping is common practice in rainfed or dry farming areas.
 Generally, legumes crops like red gram, black gram, green gram, cowpea etc. or oilseed
crops like groundnut, mustard etc. are mixed with cereal crops like jowar or bajra.
 Sowing is done by drilling the mixture of seed with the help of seed drill or moghan
can be attached behind the seed drill for sowing of mixed crop.
 Usually, cereals are grown as main crop and pulses or oilseeds as minor or mixed crop.
 Advantages of mixed cropping:-

1) Risk of failure of crop is less

2) Fullfills the daily requirements of food grains, oilseeds, pulses etc.
3) Improve fertility of the soil if legumes are taken as minor crop
4) Better distribution of labour through out the crop period
5) Increase gross monetory returns
6) Well balanced cattle feed is obtained
7) Safeguards against pests and diseases
8) Full utilization of space and available plant nutrients

 Disadvantages:-
1) Some times control of pests, diseases and weeds become difficult
2) Some times affects the yield of main crop
3) Harvesting with the help of machinery is not possible

 Types of Mixed Cropping:-

i. Mixed crop:- Seeds of different crops are mixed together and then sown either
in lines or broadcasted is called as mixed crop.
12
 conservation agriculture, sustainable intensification, integrated farming systems, multi-cropping systems,
and mixed farming systems. The choice of the most suitable system(s) of farming systems depends on the
context, objectives, and available resources.

Factors affecting types of farming

The type of farming practiced in a particular region is influenced by a range of factors that include:

1. Climate: Climate is one of the most important factors that influence the type of farming practiced in a
particular region. Temperature, rainfall, and other climatic factors determine the type of crops that can be
grown in a particular region. For example, regions with high rainfall and moderate temperatures are
suitable for growing crops like rice, while regions with low rainfall and hot temperatures are suitable for
growing crops like millet.
2. Soil type: The type of soil in a region also determines the type of crops that can be grown. Soil properties
such as texture, fertility, and pH affect the growth of crops. For example, crops like paddy require fertile,
clayey soils, while crops like maize require well-drained soils.
3. Topography: The topography of a region, including the slope and altitude, affects the type of crops that
can be grown. Regions with steep slopes are unsuitable for mechanized farming, while high-altitude
regions are not suitable for certain crops.
4. Water availability: The availability of water for irrigation is an important factor in determining the type of
farming system. Regions with abundant water resources are suitable for rice cultivation, while regions with
low water resources are suitable for crops that require less water.
5. Market demand: The type of farming practised is also influenced by market demand. Farmers tend to
produce crops that are in high demand in the market, to ensure profitability. For example, regions with
high demand for vegetables are suitable for vegetable cultivation.
6. Access to inputs: The availability of inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides can influence the type
of farming practised. Regions with easy access to inputs are more likely to practice intensive farming,
while regions with limited access to inputs may practice subsistence farming.
7. Cultural factors: Cultural factors such as traditions and customs can influence the type of farming
practised. For example, in some regions, certain crops may have cultural significance, leading to their
widespread cultivation.
8. Economic factors: The economic conditions of a region can influence the type of farming practised.
Regions with strong economies are more likely to adopt modern farming methods, while regions with
weak economies may continue to rely on traditional farming practices.
In summary, several factors influence the type of farming practised in a region, including
climate, soil type, topography, water availability, market demand, access to inputs, cultural factors, and
economic conditions. Understanding these factors can help farmers make informed decisions about the
type of farming system to adopt.

9
 Farming system components
A farming system is made up of various components that work together to achieve sustainable agriculture.
These components include:

1. Crops: The crops grown in a farming system are the primary source of food and income for farmers. To
maintain the crop component, farmers need to use sustainable farming practices such as crop rotation,
intercropping, and the use of organic fertilizers.

2. Livestock: Livestock plays an important role in farming systems by providing milk, meat, and manure for
crop production. To maintain the livestock component, farmers need to provide adequate feed and water,
maintain good animal health through vaccination and treatment, and manage grazing lands to prevent
overgrazing.

3. Soil: Soil is the foundation of any farming system and is essential for crop growth. To maintain the soil
component, farmers need to use sustainable soil management practices such as conservation tillage, use of
cover crops, and appropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides.

4. Water: Water is a vital component of farming systems and is necessary for crop growth and livestock
production. To maintain the water component, farmers need to use sustainable water management practices
such as efficient irrigation methods, rainwater harvesting, and proper management of water resources.

5. Farm machinery and equipment: Farm machinery and equipment are essential for efficient and effective
farming. To maintain the machinery and equipment components, farmers need to follow proper
maintenance procedures, ensure regular servicing, and use appropriate safety measures.

6. Human resources: The human component of a farming system includes the farmers, their family members,
and other labourers. To maintain the human resource component, farmers need to provide adequate
training, fair wages, and safe working conditions.

7. Infrastructure: Infrastructure components of a farming system include buildings, fences, roads, and other
facilities necessary for farm operations. To maintain the infrastructure component, farmers need to ensure
regular maintenance and repair of these structures.

Their maintenance

To maintain the various components of a farming system, farmers need to adopt sustainable farming
practices that ensure the efficient use of resources, minimize waste, and protect the environment. This
includes practices such as crop rotation, intercropping, conservation tillage, and the use of organic
fertilizers. Additionally, farmers need to ensure proper maintenance of farm machinery and equipment,
provide adequate training and support for labourers, and ensure regular maintenance and repair of farm
infrastructure. Through the sustainable management of these components, farmers can achieve sustainable
agriculture and improve their livelihoods.

10
 Cropping systems-Meaning, types/classification of cropping systems,
Advantages and disadvantages of each copping systems

 Cropping systems:- It is defined as the order in which the crops are grown or cultivated
on a piece of land over fixed period.
 Cropping Pattern:- The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops on a same
piece of land over a same period of time.

 Classification/Types of cropping systems:-

1) Monoculture 2) Multiple cropping 3) Following or Fallow in rotation

1) Parallel Multiple cropping 2) Sequential Multiple cropping

1) Mixed cropping i) Sequential cropping

2) Intercropping a) Double cropping

3) Relay cropping b) Triple cropping

4) Alley cropping c) Quadruple cropping

5) Multistroyed cropping ii) Ratoon cropping/Ratooing

A. Cropping systems for dryland and irrigated areas:-

I) Monoculture/Monocropping:- The cropping system in which only one major crop is

grown on the same land year after year. Or Repetitive growing of only one crop on
same piece of land year after year. e.g Rice-Rice, Bajra-Bajra
 Advantages of monoculture/monocropping:-

1) Convenience in sowing with the help of machinery under mechanized farming

2) It is convenient for harvesting with the help of machinery

 Disadvantages:-
1) Sometimes fertility and productivity of the soil are lowered if suitable soil
management practices are not followed.
2) Soil structure may be deteriorated.
3) Increase infestation of pests, diseases and weeds.
11
 Types of Alley cropping :-
1. Food cum fodder system:- In this system provides food grains like pulses, cereals,
oilseeds and fodder for livestock.
2. Food cum mulch system:- In this system provides food grains as well as crop
residues as a mulch for soil and water conservative measures.
3. Food cum pole system:- In this system provides food as well as wood for fuel,
timber, furniture etc.

v) Multistoreyed cropping:- In this system the crops of different height and vertical
layers of leaf canopies, sunlight requirements and root system are grown together on
the same field is called as multistoreyed cropping.
 Generally, the shorter crops favouring shade and humidity are grown in passage
between the rows of taller crops, which are tolerant to strong sunlight.
e.g. Growing of pineapple, sweet potato, black pepper, tapioca, turmeric, ginger etc. in
coconut or arecanut.
 Advantages of Multistoreyed cropping:
1) Better utilization of moisture and nutrients in different soil layers.
2) Better utilization of sunlight and space.
3) Provides a balanced food for humans.
4) Enrichment of organic matter or plant residues in soil.
5) Improve the water holding capacity of soil

 Disadvantages:
1) Competition among the natural resources.
2) More area is required.
3) Lack of labour availability
4) Incidence of pest, disease and weeds is more.

a) Synergetic cropping:- The yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crop on
unit area basis is called as synergetic cropping. e.g. Sugarcane + Potato
i) Additive Series:- In this system one crop is main crop or base cop and another crop is
intercrop.
1. Intercrop is introduced into the base crop by adjusting or changing crop
geometry.
2. Plant population of main crop is kept same so that recommended for pure stand
by reducing row spacing.
3. Intercrop is sown in the reduced space.
4. The objective of the system is to get additional income and to cover risk.
5. LER (Land Equivalent Ratio) is more than 1.
6. Additive series is more efficient than the replacement series.
ii) Replacement Series:- Both the crops are component crops. The plant
population of both crops is less than their recommended population in pure stand. LER
is less than 1. 16
 ii. Companion crop:- Seeds of different crops are not mixed together but different
crops are sown in different rows is called as companion crop.
iii. Guard crop:- The main crop is sown in the center, surrounded by hardy crop to
provide protection to main crop is called as guard crop. E.g. Safflower around
wheat, mesta around sugarcane.
iv. Augmenting crop:- Sub crops are sown to supplement the yield of main crop, the
sub crop is called as augmenting crops. e.g. Japanese mustard with berseem.

 Advantages of Augmenting crop:-

1. Better utilization of available resources
2. Insurance of against total failure of crop
3. Higher yield per unit area per unit time
4. Less incidence of pest and diseases
5. Improvement in soil structure
6. Improvement in soil fertility
 Disadvantages of Augmenting crop:-
1. Difficult to carry out different field operations
2. More labour requirement
3. Due care is needed while selecting crop

ii) Intercropping:- It is cropping system in which intercrop is grown in between rows of

the major crop, without affecting the optimum plant population as well as yield of the
major crop (base crop) or growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece
of land with distinct row arrangement is called as intercropping.
E.g. Maize + Pigeon pea (2:1)
Sorghum + Pigeon pea (2:1)
Cotton + Green gram (2:1)
Pigeon pea + Ground nut + Lentil (2:1:1)
 In this system in addition to yield of major crop some extra intercrop yield is
obtained.
 Therefore, intercrop is bonus crop in this system. e.g. Intercropping of groundnut or
vegetables in sugarcane or pulse or oilseed crops in sorghum or bajra.
 The crops having different growth habits, canopy development, root system and
nutrient requirement are choosen.
 The crops grown in association are sown by following specific planting pattern for
base crop so as to create space to accommodate the intercrop in systematic geometric
progression.
 Characteristics of good intercrop/minor crop/subsidiary mixed crop:-
1) It should be nor affect the growth and yield of base crop or main crop.
2) It should mature earlier or latter than the base crop or main crop.
3) A far as possible it should be a legume crop for maintaining fertility and productivity
of the soil.
13
 4) It should have different growth habits and nutrient requirements in order to have
minimum competition.
5) It should have different rooting depths.
6) It should differ in canopy development and sunlight requirement.

 Advantages of intercropping system:

1) It should helps to Improves the soil fertility and soil productivity.

2) Maintaining the higher crop yield.
3) Better utilization of available resources.
4) It should resist the soil erosion.
5) Reduces the incidence of insect pest, disease and weeds.
6) Improves the soil structure and water holding capacity of soil.

 Disadvantages:
1) Harvesting with the help of machinery is difficult.
2) Intercultural operations are not possible.
3) Competition among the resources is more.
4) Harvesting makes a time consuming/difficult.
5) Weed control is not possible.
6) Water requirement is more.

 Types of Intercropping :-

a) Parallel Cropping:- Cultivation of such crops which have different natural habit and
zero competition is called as parallel cropping. e.g. black gram/green gram + Maize.
b) Companion cropping:- System in which production of both intercrops is equal to that
of its solid planting is called as companion cropping. e.g. Mustard/Potato/Onion +
Sugarcane.
a) Mixed Intercropping:- Growing of two or more crops with no distinct row
arrangement is called as mixed intercropping.

There are four types of mixed intercropping systems:-

1. Row intercropping:- Growing of two or more crops simultaneously, where one or more
crops are planted in rows is called as row intercropping.
2. Patch cropping:- Where component crops are planted in patches is called as patch
cropping.
3. Strip intercropping:- Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in strips wide
enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough to interact the crop
agronomically is called as strip intercropping.

14
4. Relay intercropping:- Growing of two or more crops simultaneously during the part of
life cycle of each is called as relay intercropping.
Second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage of growth
but before it is ready for harvest. Suceeding crop is planted before harvesting of
preceeding crop.

iii) Relay cropping:- It is the cropping system in which succeeding crop (next crop) is
or sown or planted when the first crop (preceding crop) has reached its physiological
maturity stage or before it is ready to harvest is called as relay cropping. e.g. Rice-
Linseed/lentil/black gram/chickpea.
 Advantages of relay cropping:
1) Better utilization of residual moisture and fertilizers.
2) Reduces the cost of cultivation practices.
3) Also reduces the cost of fertilizers and irrigation.
4) Labour requirement is less.
5) Incidence of pest, diseases and weeds is less due to early sowing operation.

 Disadvantages:-
1) Risk of crop failure is more.
2) Harvesting by means machinery is difficult.
3) Lack of availability of skilled labour.
4) Greater incidence of pest, disease and weeds.

iv) Alley cropping:- The system of growing jowar, maize, bajra or any other arable crop
in the alleys (passage between two rows) of leguminous shrubs like subabul ( Leucaena
leucacephala) is called as alley cropping.
 Growing of maize, jowar, bajta, cowpea in between rows of subabul planted at 5-
10 m spacing, this system is useful for conservation of moisture and maintaining
fertility of soil in dry farming areas.
 The loppings of the subabul are used as green fodder for animals or spread in
between the crop rows as mulch for conservation of soil moisture and after
delaying it adds organic matter to the soil.
 Advantages of alley cropping:
1) Better utilization of natural resources.
2) Reduces the cost of cultivation.
3) Improves the soil fertility and productivity.
4) Provides fodder for animals and food for human.
 Disadvantages:
1) Competition among the natural resources i.e moisture, nutrients, light and space.
2) Incidence of pest, diseases and weeds is more.
3) Chances of crop failure is more.
4) Less yield is obtained.
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  Replacement series is less efficient than the Additive series.
 LER of intercropping system should be 1.

2) Sequential multiple cropping:- It is the multiple cropping system in which two or

more crops are grown in sequence on the same piece of land in a year or over a fixed
period.
i) Sequence cropping:- In this cropping system two or more crops are grown in
sequence one after another on the same piece of land in a year.
a) Double cropping:- It is multiple cropping system in which two crops are grown in
sequence on the same piece of land in a year. e.g. Black gram-Jowar, Black gram-
Wheat, Rice-Gram, Groundnut-Wheat etc.
b) Triple cropping:- It is the multiple cropping system in which three crops are grown
in sequence on a same land in a year.
 It is possible when irrigation facilities are available throughout the year.
e.g. G.nut-Wheat-Okra, Rice-Wheat-G.nut, Jowar-Potato-Green gram, Soybean-
Wheat-G.nut etc.
c) Quadruple cropping:- It is the multiple cropping system in which four crops are
grown in a sequence on the same land in a year.
 It is possible under irrigated conditions throughout the year. e.g. G.nut-Coriander-
Wheat-Green gram, Soybean-Methi-Wheat-Green gram etc.

ii) Ratoon cropping or Ratooning:- The cultivation of crop regrowth after harvest is
known as rotoon cropping.
 Ratooning is one of the important systems of intensive cropping, which implies
more than one harvest from one sowing/planting because of regrowth from the
basal buds on the stem after harvest of first crop.
 Thus ratooning consists of allowing the stubbles of the original crop to strike
again or to produce the tillers after harvesting and to raise another crop.
e.g. Ratooning of Sugarcane, Hybrid Jowar, Hybrid Bajra, and Redgram etc.

 Advantages of multiple cropping:-

1) It increases the total production and gross monetary returns from the unit area in a
year.
2) Fullfills various needs of food grains, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, fodder etc.
3) Facilitates even distribution of labour throughout the year.
4) Better utilization of land, labour, power and other resources on the farm.
5) Regular flow of income throught the year.
 Disadvantages of multiple cropping:-
1) Fertility and productivity of the soil is lowered or exhausted if proper soil
management practices are allowed.
2) Sometimes if affects the structure of the soil due to continuous cropping and
irrigation.
3) Sometimes control of pests, diseases and weeds becomes difficult. 17
 III) Fallowing or fallow in rotation:- In scarcity areas (dry farming) where rainfall is
very low only two crops are taken in three years as against one crop every year is called
as fallowing or fallow in rotation.
 A fallow year or season in one in which field is not cultivated with any crop but left
without crop.
 The field may be left undisturbed in a ploughed condition or kept clean by frequent
harrowing.
 This practice is useful for conservation of soil moisture and maintaining fertility of
the soil.
 In irrigated area some times one season is kept fallow for maintaining fertility of the
soil and minimizing the damage to the soil due to continuous use of irrigation and
cropping.
Staggerd planting: sowing of a crop in split or at the particular time interval to full fill the market
/ family requirement throughout the growing season.

 Definitions of important terms in cropping systems:-

1) Base crop:- It is the major crop grown in intercropping system.

2) Inter crop:- It is the additional crop grown in the space created in inter cropping
systems.
3) Mixed crop/minor/subsidiary crop:- In the crop grown by seed mixture in main
cropin mixed cropping.
4) Main crop:- The major crop grown in mixed cropping system.
5) Companion crop:- The crop grown in association in cropping system for
complementary effect.
6) Component crop:- Either of the crop grown in multiple cropping system.

 Land Equivalent Ratio (LER):

It is defined as relative land area under sole cropping to produce the yield from one
hectare in intercropping.
LER = Yield of base crop in intercropping + Yield of inter crop in intercropping

Yield of base crop in sole cropping Yield of intercrop in sole cropping

 Crop Rotation:- A crop rotation may be defined as more or less systematic recurrent
succession of crops on the same piece of land.
e.g. Jowar-Gram, Groundnut-Wheat

 Equivalent Yield =Yield of Base crop + {value of inter crop in term of base crop Yield}

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