Study Material

Department of AIML
Semester /
Course Code : BCS303 III / II
Year :
Academic
Course Title : Operating Systems 2024-25
Year :
Important

Please refer to Text Book for detailed

notes:
Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer
Galvin, Greg Gagne, Operating System
Principles 8th edition, Wiley-India, 2015
2
 Module 1

Unit 1
Introduction to operating systems, System structures: What operating
systems do; Computer System organization; Computer System architecture;
Operating System structure; Operating System operations; Process management;
Memory management; Storage management; Protection and Security; Distributed
system; Special-purpose systems; Computing environments.

3
 Introduction to Operating System

 What Operating Systems Do

 Computer-System Organization
 Computer-System Architecture
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating-System Operations
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 Protection and Security
 Distributed Systems
 Special Purpose system
 Computing Environment
4
 What is an Operating System

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the

computer hardware

 Operating system goals:

 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

5
 Computer System Structure
 Computer system can be divided into four components:
 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and
users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used
to solve the computing problems of the users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video
games
 Users
People, machines, other computers
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Four Components of Computer System

7
What operating System Do?

 USER’S VIEW :
 Single User :
 want convenience, ease of use and good performance
 Don’t care about resource utilization
 Optimized for Single User
 Multi User :
 Users Uses computer/terminal such as mainframe or minicomputer
satisfying its request
 Same computer/terminal accessed by other users through other
terminals sharing resources and exchanging information.

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What operating System Do?

 USER’S VIEW :
 Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
 Handheld computers are resource poor, optimized for usability and battery
life.poor performance due to power , speed and interface limitations
 Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles

9
What operating System Do?

 SYSTEM VIEW
 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use
 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer

10
Operating System Definition (Contd…)

 No universally accepted definition

 “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is a good
approximation
 But varies wildly
 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel.
 Everything else is either
 a system program , or
 an application program.

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 Computer Startup

 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

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Computer System Organization

 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing
access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles

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Computer System Operations

 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
 Each device controller has a local buffer
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing an
interrupt

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 Common Functions of Interrupts

 OS starts executing first process init and wait for an event signaled by an
interrupt from hardware /software.

Hardware trigger an interrupt any time sending a signal to CPU through system
bus

Software trigger an interrupt executing special operation called system call

A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error

or a user request

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An operating system is interrupt driven
 Common Functions of Interrupts

When CPU is interrupted ,it stop its operation & immediately transfer execution
to fixed

Fixed Location contain starting address where service routine for interrupt is
located

Interrupt service routine executes

On completion CPU resumes interrupted computations

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Interrupt Timeline

17
 Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupts are important part of computer architecture .Each computer design

has its own interrupt mechanism but several functions are common

Interrupt must transfer control to interrupt service routine

Straight forward method for handling this transfer would be to invoke a general
routine to examine interrupt information i.e routine inturn it calls interrupt specific
handler to handle interrupt quickly.

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 Common Functions of Interrupts

Since predefined routines possible.

A table of pointer to interrupt routine can be used instead to provide

necessary speed

The interrupt routine is called indirectly through the table with no intermediate
routine needed.

Table of pointers stored in low memory .These location hold address of interrupt
service routine for various devices called Interrupt vector

Interrupt vector is indexed by unique device number given with interrupt request
to provide address of interrupt service routine for interrupting device
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 Interrupt Handling

 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers and
the program counter
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 polling
 vectored interrupt system
 Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for each
type of interrupt

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Interrupt Timeline

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 Storage Definition and Notations

The basic unit of computer storage is the bit.

A bit can contain one of two values, 0 and 1.

All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.

Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs.

A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient chunk of storage.

For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to move a bit but do have one
to move a byte.
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 Storage Definition and Notations

A less common term is word, which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of
data.

A word is made up of one or more bytes.

For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-bit memory addressing
typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words.

A computer executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a
time.

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 Storage Definition and Notations

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured and
manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.

A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes

a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a megabyte is 1
million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking measurements are an
exception to this general rule; they are given in bits (because networks move data a bit
at a time).
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 Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
 Random access (RAM)-General purpose computers run their programs from
rewritable memory
 Typically volatile,
 Implemented in a semiconductor technology called Dynamic Random Access
memory

 Read only Memory (ROM)

 Not Rewritable memory
 Only Static Programs are stored
 Typically Non-volatile

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 Storage Structure
 EEPROM– Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only Memory
 Non-Volatile ROM enables individual bytes of data to be erased and
reprogrammed
 Contains Static Programs
 Smartphones have EEPROM to store their factory –installed programs
 Memory – Array of words which has its own address
 Load and Store instruction is used to specify memory addresses
 Load – moves word from main memory- internal registers within CPU
 Store – moves word from internal registers- main memory
 CPU automatically loads instruction from main memory for execution

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Storage Structure

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 Storage Structure
 Main memory –
 Typically volatile,it loses its content when power is turned off
 Main Memory is smaller to store all needed programs data permanently
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile
storage capacity
 Hold Large quantities of data
 Magnetic Disk :
 Provide storage for both programs and data
 Most programs (system & application) are stored in disk untill
they are loaded in memory
 Used both as programs and desination of processing

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 Storage Structure
 Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and
the computer
 Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
 Various technologies
 Becoming more popular

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Storage Device - Hierarchy

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Storage Hierarchy

 Storage systems organized in hierarchy

 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory can be
viewed as a cache for secondary storage
 Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
 Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel

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Caching

 Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware,

operating system, software)
 Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache smaller than storage being cached
 Cache management important design problem
 Cache size and replacement policy

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I/O Structure

 General Purpose Computer System consist of one or more CPUs and multiple
device controllers connect through common bus
 Each device controller is incharge of specific type of device

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I/O Structure

 Device Driver : A device driver is a type of software programming that assists in

connecting with various types of operating systems.

 Device Controller : A device controller is a type of hardware programming that

acts as a bridge between OS in a computer system.

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I/O Structure

 Depend on controller ,more than one device can be attached (seven or more
devices can be attached to small computer system interface(SCSI) controller
 A device controller maintain local buffer storage and special purpose registers
 The device controller is responsible for moving data between peripheral devices
that it controls and its local buffer storage
 Operating system have device driver for each device controller
 Device driver understands device controller and it provide interface to the device
and OS

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I/O Structure

 For I/O operations ,device driver loads the appropriate registers within device
controller
 A device controller examines content of registers to determine which actions to
take (Read a character from keyboard)
 Controller transfer data from device to its local buffer
 Once transfer of data complete ,device controller inform device driver via
interrupt about completion of operation
 Device driver then return control to OS
 Interrupt driven I/O is suitable for moving small amount of data but produces high
overhead for bulk data movement.

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Direct Memory Access Structure

 After setting up buffers, pointers , and counters for I/O device, the device
controller transfers entire block of data directly to and from its own buffer
storage to without CPU intervention
 Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per byte

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How a Modern Computer Works

1. High End systems rather

than using bus
architecture , switch is
used
2. Multiple components
communicate
concurrently rather than
completing for cycles on
shared bus

A von Neumann architecture

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 Computer –System Architecture
 Single processor Syatems If systems contain only one single general-purpose
processor (CPU).
 Ex PDA ,Mainframe

 CPU capable of executing GPIS (General Purpose Instruction Set ) and

Instruction from user processes
 on mainframe ,They come in the form of I/O processors that move data
rapidly among components of systems.

 All systems have other special –purpose processor

 Device specific processor ,ex Disk , keyboard ,Graphics controller
 Run limited instruction set
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Computer –System Architecture

 Do not run User processes

 Managed by OS ( OS send information about their next task and monitor
their status ) Ex: PC’s contain microprocessor in the keyboard to convert
keystroke into codes to be sent to CPU)
 Use of special purpose register is common and doesnot turn single
processor system into multiprocessor

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 Computer –System Architecture

 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

 Contain two or more processors in close communication ,sharing computer

bus ,clock ,memory and peripheral devices

 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems

 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance

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 Computer –System Architecture
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a specific task.
• Master –slave relationship
• Master controls the system
• Other processor look to master for instruction or predefined task

2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all tasks within OS

• Peers processors
• No master slave relationship between processors
• Each processor has its own set of registers, local cache and shared
physical memory
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Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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 A Dual – Core Design
 Core : A small Processor built into big CPU or CPU Socket
 Multiple computing cores on a single chip – Multiprocessor chip
 Efficient than multiple chips with single core , on chip communication is faster
than between chip communication
 Uses less power than multiple single core chips
 Well suited for Database and Web Server

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 A Dual – Core Design

 Blade Servers are recent developments in which multiple processor board,IO

boards, networking boards placed in same chasis
 Each Blade processor boards boots independently and run its OS.

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 Clustered Systems

 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

 Usually sharing storage via a local-area network (LAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
Hot-Stand by mode does nothing but monitor active server.
Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
Applications must be written to use parallelization

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Clustered Systems

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Operating System Structure

 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency

Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

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Operating System Structure

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so

frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing

Response time should be < 1 second

Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

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Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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Operating System Operations

 Interrupt driven (hardware and software)

 Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
 Software interrupt (exception or trap):
Software error (e.g., division by zero)
Request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system

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Operating System Operations(Contd…)

 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components

 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel
code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel
mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
 i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs

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Transition from User to Kernel Mode

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Timer

 Timer to prevent infinite loop / call system services/fails to return to OS

 Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period.It can be fixed
time period (1/60 seconds )or variable(1 millisecond to 1 second)
 Variable timer is implemented by a fixed rate clock and a counter )Keep a
counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
 Operating system set the counter and every time the clock ticks counter is
decremented
 When counter zero generate an interrupt

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Timer

 Before returning control to user , operating system ensures that timer is set
interrupt
 If timer interrupts ,control transfers automatically to the operating system.

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 Process Management

 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system. Program is

a passive entity, process is an active entity.

 Process needs resources to accomplish its task

 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data

 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources

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 Process Management
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next
instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion

 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread

 Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system running
concurrently on one or more CPUs

 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

57
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with
process management:

 Creating and deleting both user and system processes

 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

58
Memory Management

 To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in memory

 All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in memory.
 Memory management determines what is in memory and when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of
memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
59
 Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

 The OS Abstracts from the physical properties of its storage devices to define a
logical storage unit - file

 The OS maps files onto physical media and access these files Via the Storage
device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)

Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate, access

method (sequential or random)

60
 Storage Management
File-System management

 A File is a collection of related information defined by its creator

 File represent programs (source and object forms) and data

 Data files may be numeric ,alphabetic ,alphanumeric or binary

 The operating system implements abstract concept of a file by managing mass

storage media such as tapes and disks and devices that control them

61
Storage Management
 Files usually organized into directories

 Access control on most systems to determine who can access what

 OS activities include
Creating and deleting files
Creating and deleting directories to organize files
Supporting Primitives for manipulating files and directories
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backing up files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

62
Mass Storage Management
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that must
be kept for a “long” period of time
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling

63
 Mass Storage Management
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed – by OS or applications
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)

64
Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
Protection and Security
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to
resources defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft
of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do
what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine
access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls
managed, then also associated with each process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more rights 65
 Distributed System
 Distributed computing
 Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems networked together to
provide users access to various resources that the system maintains
 Access to a shared resources increases computation speed ,functionality
,data availability and reliability.
Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Network Operating System provides features between systems across
network
Communication scheme allows systems to exchange messages
66
Illusion of a single system
Special Purpose System
Real Time Embedded System

 Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers found everywhere

from car engines to manufacturing
 Consist of very specific tasks robots to DVD’s and microwave ovens
 These systems run on their primitives and so operating system provide limited
features.
 These system have little User interface preffering to spend their time ,managing
and monitoring hardware devices ,such as automobile engines and robotic arm

67
Special Purpose System
Real Time Embedded System

 Real-time embedded systems vary considerably

 Some are general purpose computers running standard OS such as UNIX with
special purpose applications to implement functionality
 Some hardware devices with special purpose embedded OS providing desired
functionality
 Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
 Processing must be done within constraint
 Correct operation only if constraints met

68
Special Purpose System
Multimedia System
 Multimedia describes a wide range of applications
 It includes audio files such as MP3,DVD movies, video conferencing and short
video clips of movie preview or news stories downloaded over the internet.
 Multimedia applications include live webcasts (broadcasting over www) of
speeches or supporting events and even live webcam
 Multimedia applications need not be either audio or video ,rather combination of
both ( movie consist of separate audio and video tracks)
 Multimedia applications be delivered only to desktop personal computer
Increasingly ,they are being directed toward smaller devices

69
Special Purpose System
Handheld Systems:
 Handheld systems include personal digital assistants (PDA’s) such as Palm and
Pocket-PC’s and cellular phones –uses special purpose embedding operating
systems
 Developers of handheld systems and application face many challenges ,due to the
limited size of such devices
 PDA is about 5 inches in height and 3 inches in width and its weight less than
one-half pound
 Handheld devices have small amounts of memory ,slow processors and small
display screens

70
Special Purpose System
Handheld Systems:
 Limitations of Handheld systems

 The amount of physical memory depends on the device ,typically between 1MB
to 1GB
 Speed of processor – runs at a fraction of the speed of processor .Faster
processor requires a larger battery
 Lack of physical space limits input methods to small keyboards, handwriting
recognition, or small screen-based keyboards.

71
Computing Environments - Traditional

 Stand-alone general purpose machines

 But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e., the
Internet)
 Portals provide web access to internal systems
 Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals
 Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
 Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use
firewalls to protect home computers from Internet attacks
 Computing Environments –
Client-Server
 Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by
clients
Compute-server system provides an interface to client to request
services (i.e., database)
File-server system provides interface for clients to store and
retrieve files
Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer
 Another model of distributed system
 P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
 Instead all nodes are considered peers
 May each act as client, server or both
 Node must join P2P network
Registers its service with central lookup
service on network, or
Broadcast request for service and
respond to requests for service via
discovery protocol
 Examples include Napster and Gnutella, Voice
over IP (VoIP) such as Skype
Computing Environments – Web-Based
Computing
 Web has become ubiquitous , leading to more access by a wider variety of
devices
 PC’s most prevalent access devices with workstation ,handheld PDA’s and
even cell phones providing access.
 Web computing has increases the emphasis on networking ,Devices are
networked through wired or wireless technology
 Implementation of web-based computing given rise to new categories of
devices such as load balancers which distribute network connection among
pool of servers