Introduction to

Remote Sensing
FIFth EdItIon

JameS B. CampBell
Randolph h. Wynne


The GUIlFoRd pReSS
new york london
Contents

Preface xv
List of Tables xix
List of Figures xxi
List of Plates xxxi

PART I. FOUNDATIONS

1. History and Scope of Remote Sensing 3

1.1. Introduction 3
1.2. Definitions 4
1.3. Milestones in the History of Remote Sensing 7
1.4. Overview of the Remote Sensing Process 18
1.5. Key Concepts of Remote Sensing 19
1.6. Career Preparation and Professional Development 21
1.7. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 25
Review Questions 27
References 28

2. Electromagnetic Radiation 31
2.1. Introduction 31
2.2. The Electromagnetic Spectrum 31
2.3. Major Divisions of the Electromagnetic Spectrum 34
2.4. Radiation Laws 36
2.5. Interactions with the Atmosphere 38
2.6. Interactions with Surfaces 48
2.7. Summary: Three Models for Remote Sensing 54
2.8. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 56
Review Questions 56
References 57

PART II. IMAGE ACQUISITION

3. Mapping Cameras 61
3.1. Introduction 61
3.2. Fundamentals of the Aerial Photograph 62

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3.3. Geometry of the Vertical Aerial Photograph 66

3.4. Digital Aerial Cameras 72
3.5. Digital Scanning of Analog Images 77
3.6. Comparative Characteristics of Digital and Analog Imagery 78
3.7. Spectral Sensitivity 79
3.8. Band Combinations: Optical Imagery 80
3.9. Coverage by Multiple Photographs 84
3.10. Photogrammetry 90
3.11. Sources of Aerial Photography 91
3.12. Summary 94
3.13. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 94
Review Questions 95
References 95
Your Own Infrared Photographs 97
Your Own 3D Photographs 98
Your Own Kite Photography 99

4. Digital Imagery 101

4.1. Introduction 101
4.2. Electronic Imagery 101
4.3. Spectral Sensitivity 106
4.4. Digital Data 109
4.5. Data Formats 111
4.6. Band Combinations: Multispectral Imagery 115
4.7. Image Enhancement 117
4.8. Image Display 121
4.9. Image Processing Software 125
4.10. Summary 128
4.11. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 128
Review Questions 128
References 129

5. Image Interpretation 130

5.1. Introduction 130
5.2. The Context for Image Interpretation 131
5.3. Image Interpretation Tasks 132
5.4. Elements of Image Interpretation 133
5.5. Collateral Information 138
5.6. Imagery Interpretability Rating Scales 138
5.7. Image Interpretation Keys 139
5.8. Interpretive Overlays 139
5.9. The Significance of Context 140
5.10. Stereovision 143
5.11. Data Transfer 147
5.12. Digital Photointerpretation 147
5.13. Image Scale Calculations 148
5.14. Summary 151
5.15. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 152
Review Questions 152
References 153
 Contents ix

6. Land Observation Satellites 158

6.1. Satellite Remote Sensing 158
6.2. Landsat Origins 159
6.3. Satellite Orbits 160
6.4. The Landsat System 162
6.5. Multispectral Scanner Subsystem 167
6.6. Landsat Thematic Mapper 172
6.7. Administration of the Landsat Program 176
6.8. Current Satellite Systems 178
6.9. Data Archives and Image Research 192
6.10. Summary 194
6.11. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 195
Review Questions 195
References 196
CORONA 198

7. Active Microwave 204

7.1. Introduction 204
7.2. Active Microwave 204
7.3. Geometry of the Radar Image 208
7.4. Wavelength 212
7.5. Penetration of the Radar Signal 212
7.6. Polarization 214
7.7. Look Direction and Look Angle 215
7.8. Real Aperture Systems 217
7.9. Synthetic Aperture Systems 219
7.10. Interpreting Brightness Values 221
7.11. Satellite Imaging Radars 226
7.12. Radar Interferometry 236
7.13. Summary 239
7.14. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 239
Review Questions 240
References 241

8. Lidar 243
8.1. Introduction 243
8.2. Profiling Lasers 244
8.3. Imaging Lidars 245
8.4. Lidar Imagery 247
8.5. Types of Imaging Lidars 247
8.6. Processing Lidar Image Data 249
8.7. Summary 253
8.8. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 254
Review Questions 254
References 255

9. Thermal Imagery 257

9.1. Introduction 257
9.2. Thermal Detectors 258
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9.3. Thermal Radiometry 260

9.4. Microwave Radiometers 263
9.5. Thermal Scanners 263
9.6. Thermal Properties of Objects 265
9.7. Geometry of Thermal Images 268
9.8. The Thermal Image and Its Interpretation 269
9.9. Heat Capacity Mapping Mission 277
9.10. Landsat Multispectral Scanner and Thematic Mapper
Thermal Data 279
9.11. Summary 280
9.12. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 281
Review Questions 282
References 283

10. Image Resolution 285

10.1. Introduction and Definitions 285
10.2. Target Variables 286
10.3. System Variables 287
10.4. Operating Conditions 287
10.5. Measurement of Resolution 288
10.6. Mixed Pixels 290
10.7. Spatial and Radiometric Resolution: Simple Examples 294
10.8. Interactions with the Landscape 296
10.9. Summary 298
Review Questions 298
References 299

PART III. ANALYSIS

11. Preprocessing 305

11.1. Introduction 305
11.2. Radiometric Preprocessing 305
11.3. Some More Advanced Atmospheric Correction Tools 308
11.4. Calculating Radiances from DNs 311
11.5. Estimation of Top of Atmosphere Reflectance 312
11.6. Destriping and Related Issues 313
11.7. Identification of Image Features 316
11.8. Subsets 320
11.9. Geometric Correction by Resampling 321
11.10. Data Fusion 326
11.11. Image Data Processing Standards 329
11.12. Summary 330
Review Questions 330
References 331

12. Image Classification 335

12.1. Introduction 335
12.2. Informational Classes and Spectral Classes 337
 Contents xi

12.3. Unsupervised Classification 339

12.4. Supervised Classification 349
12.5. Ancillary Data 364
12.6. Fuzzy Clustering 367
12.7. Artificial Neural Networks 368
12.8. Contextual Classification 370
12.9. Object-Oriented Classification 371
12.10. Iterative Guided Spectral Class Rejection 373
12.11. Summary 373
12.12. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 373
Review Questions 374
References 375

13. Field Data 382

13.1. Introduction 382
13.2. Kinds of Field Data 382
13.3. Nominal Data 383
13.4. Documentation of Nominal Data 384
13.5. Biophysical Data 384
13.6. Field Radiometry 387
13.7. Unmanned Airborne Vehicles 389
13.8. Locational Information 392
13.9. Using Locational Information 397
13.10. Ground Photography 397
13.11. Geographic Sampling 397
13.12. Summary 403
13.13. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 403
Review Questions 403
References 404

14. Accuracy Assessment 408

14.1. Definition and Significance 408
14.2. Sources of Classification Error 410
14.3. Error Characteristics 411
14.4. Measurement of Map Accuracy 412
14.5. Interpretation of the Error Matrix 418
14.6. Summary 424
Review Questions 425
References 426

15. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 429

15.1. Introduction 429
15.2. Spectroscopy 429
15.3. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 430
15.4. The Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer 430
15.5. The Image Cube 431
15.6. Spectral Libraries 432
15.7. Spectral Matching 433
15.8. Spectral Mixing Analysis 434
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15.9. Spectral Angle Mapping 437

15.10. Analyses 437
15.11. Wavelet Analysis for Hyperspectral Imagery 438
15.12. Summary 439
Review Questions 440
References 441

16. Change Detection 445

16.1. Introduction 445
16.2. Bitemporal Spectral Change Detection Techniques 446
16.3. Multitemporal Spectral Change Detection 452
16.4. Summary 460
Review Questions 460
References 461

PART IV. APPLICATIONS

17. Plant Sciences 465

17.1. Introduction 465
17.2. Structure of the Leaf 470
17.3. Spectral Behavior of the Living Leaf 472
17.4. Forestry 476
17.5. Agriculture 479
17.6. Vegetation Indices 483
17.7. Applications of Vegetation Indices 484
17.8. Phenology 485
17.9. Advanced Very-High-Resolution Radiometer 487
17.10. Conservation Tillage 489
17.11. Land Surface Phenology 491
17.12. Separating Soil Reflectance from Vegetation Reflectance 493
17.13. Tasseled Cap Transformation 495
17.14. Foliar Chemistry 498
17.15. Lidar Data for Forest Inventory and Structure 500
17.16. Precision Agriculture 501
17.17. Remote Sensing for Plant Pathology 502
17.18. Summary 506
17.19. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 506
Review Questions 507
References 508

18. Earth Sciences 517

18.1. Introduction 517
18.2. Photogeology 518
18.3. Drainage Patterns 521
18.4. Lineaments 523
18.5. Geobotany 527
18.6. Direct Multispectral Observation of Rocks and Minerals 531
18.7. Photoclinometry 533
 Contents xiii

18.8. Band Ratios 534

18.9. Soil and Landscape Mapping 537
18.10. Integrated Terrain Units 540
18.11. Wetlands Inventory 542
18.12. Radar Imagery for Exploration 542
18.13. Summary 543
18.14. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 543
Review Questions 543
References 544

19. Hydrospheric Sciences 549

19.1. Introduction 549
19.2. Spectral Characteristics of Water Bodies 550
19.3. Spectral Changes as Water Depth Increases 553
19.4. Location and Extent of Water Bodies 555
19.5. Roughness of the Water Surface 557
19.6. Bathymetry 558
19.7. Landsat Chromaticity Diagram 564
19.8. Drainage Basin Hydrology 567
19.9. Evapotranspiration 570
19.10. Manual Interpretation 571
19.11. Sea Surface Temperature 575
19.12. Lidar Applications for Hydrospheric Studies 576
19.13. Summary 577
19.14. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 578
Review Questions 579
References 580

20. Land Use and Land Cover 585

20.1. Introduction 585
20.2. Aerial Imagery for Land Use Information 586
20.3. Land Use Classification 587
20.4. Visual Interpretation of Land Use and Land Cover 588
20.5. Land Use Change by Visual Interpretation 596
20.6. Historical Land Cover Interpretation for Environmental
Analysis 597
20.7. Other Land Use Classification Systems 599
20.8. Land Cover Mapping by Image Classification 601
20.9. Broad-Scale Land Cover Studies 603
20.10. Sources of Compiled Land Use Data 604
20.11. Summary 606
20.12. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 608
Review Questions 608
References 609

21. Global Remote Sensing 614

21.1. Introduction 614
21.2. Biogeochemical Cycles 614
21.3. Advanced Very-High-Resolution Radiometer 621
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21.4. Earth Observing System 622

21.5. Earth Observing System Instruments 623
21.6. Earth Observing System Bus 627
21.7. Earth Observing System Data and Information System 629
21.8. Long-Term Environmental Research Sites 630
21.9. Earth Explorer 631
21.10. Global Monitoring for Environment and Security 632
21.11. Gridded Global Population Data 633
21.12. Summary 634
21.13. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 634
Review Questions 635
References 635

Conclusion. The Outlook for the Field of Remote Sensing: 639

The View from 2011

Index 643

About the Authors 667