Course Title: BTH 114 HISTORY OF ISLAM‫تاريخ اإلسالم‬

Course Description:

This course studies the world of Arabia before and at the advent of Islam. It
examines the life of the prophet Muḥammad‫ ص‬and the history of Islam after him
up to the dissolution of the caliphate and thereafter. It also tackles how Islam is
propagating and facing present challenges.

Course Outline:
1.0 PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA
1.1 Geography
1.2 Political
1.3 Socio-cultural
1.4 Religious
2.0 MUḤAMMAD‫ص‬
2.1 Biography
2.2 Mission
2.3 Final Triumph and Death
2.4 Wives of the Prophet
3.0 THE RIGHTLY GUIDED CALIPHS
3.1 Abubakar
3.2 ‛Umar
3.3 ‛Uthman
3.4 ‛Alī
4.0 ISLAM AFTER THE RIGHTLY GUIDED CALIPHS
4.1 Umayyad
4.2 Abbasid
4.3 Ottoman
5.0 CONTEMPORARY ISLAM
5.1 The Dissolution of the Caliphate
5.2 Aftermath of the Dissolution
5.3 Islam and Modernism
5.4 Islam and Fundamentalism
5.5 Islam and Mission
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APPENDIX: The Arabian/Islamic Calendar

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Adam Silverstein: Islamic History: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University

Press, Oxford 2010.

2. Armstrong Karen: Islam: A Short History, Modern Library, New York 2002.

3. Bernard Lewis: What Went Wrong, Perennial, New York 2003.

4. Beverley Milton-Edwards: Islamic Fundamentalism Since 1945, Routledge,

London 2005.

5. Cragg Kenneth: The Call of the Minaret, William Collins, London 1986.

6. Esposito John L.: The Future of Islam, Oxford University Press, New York 2010.

7. Gibbs H. A. R. et al, eds.: Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, E. J. Brill, Leiden

1960.

8. Harun Abdus-Salam: Sirat Ibn Hisham: Biography of the Prophet, New Vision,
Cairo 2008.

9. Jameelah Maryam: Islam and Modernism, Muḥammad Yusuf khan, Lahore 1977.

10.Mus'ad Muḥammad Fathi: The Wives of the Prophet Muḥammad, Islamic inc.,
Cairo 2001.

11.Pickthall Marmaduke (trans.): The Meaning of The Glorious Coran, Dar al-Kitab
Allubnani, Beirut 1973.

12.Tamim Ansary: Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes,
Public Affairs, New York 2009.

13.Tariq Ramadan: Western Muslims and the Future of Islam, Oxford University
Press, Oxford 2004.

14.Watt W.M.: Muhammad at Mecca, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1953.

15.Watt W.M.: Muhammad at Medina, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1956.

ASSESSMENT: 2024/2025 ACADEMIC SESSION

The performance of each student would be assessed as follows:

1. Class Attendance and Participation ----------------------------------------- 10%

2. Assignment -------------------------------------------------------------------- 20%
3. Examination ------------------------------------------------------------------- 70%
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Total = 100%
PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA

GEOGRAPHY
Arabia is a peninsula bordered in the east by the Persian Gulf, in the west by the Red Sea, in the south
by the Indian Ocean and in the north by Syria ‫الشام‬Al-Shām (the region east of the Mediterranean).
The present countries in Arabia are: Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Qatar,
Bahrain and Kuwait. Arabia is generally arid or semi arid with periodic sandstorm. Huge part of the
peninsula is sandy desert that cannot support a stable life for lack of water. Rub' al-Khalil‫ربع خليل‬
(empty quarters) in central Arabia is one of the largest deserts in the world. There comes a little rain,
however, that gets blocked by the hills of the Hijaz in the western part. Ground water does reach the
surface in spring in forms of water holes and oases ‫ واحة‬where date palms flourish. Water is therefore
the most valuable thing in this region. This may explain why Islamic paradise is usually referred to as
a garden flowing with rivers. People living in Arabia must adopt a system of life that does not depend
heavily on water and they must keep moving in search of water since there is no stable source.

POLITICAL
There is little known history of the ancient Arabia since life there was not a stable one and it was not a
centre of any great civilization. However, little information is gathered from ancient Greek and Roman
writers and travellers and Arab geographers. The earliest known event in this area was the migration of
Semitic speaking people of Arabian origin into the valley of Tigris and Euphrates in 3500BC and into
the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea in 2500 BC. Some of these became the Amorites and
Canaanites of later times. The southern part of the peninsula (present day Yemen/Oman) could support
stable life and agriculture, and so three kingdoms flourished in succession: the Minaean kingdom
(1200-950BC), the Sabaean (950-115BC), and the Himyarite (115BC-525AD). It has been suggested
that the queen of Sheba mentioned in the bible was of the Sabaean kingdom. By the time of the
Himyarite kingdom, the Romans who were the big power north of Arabia, were trying to gain access
 4
into the peninsula and by 106 AD took charge of the Nabataean kingdom north of Arabia which
controlled trade in the region. Across the red sea, the Abyssinians (Ethiopia) were extending their
influence in the south western part of the peninsula in the third century AD. They even tried to invade
Mecca; an event mentioned in the Qur'ān (105). From the east, the Persians were also trying to exact
some influence in the southern part of the peninsula and by the 4 th century assumed control of
substantial part of it. This made trade to flourish by the sea routes to neighbouring civilization: Egypt,
Persia and Abyssinia especially in frankincense and myrrh. Settlements could also be noticed further
up the eastern coast of the red sea like Ta‛ifa. Central Arabia never knew any form of civilization or
centralised rule. Although they knew the surrounding civilization, they cared not about them.

SOCIO-CULTURAL
The huge part of Arabia; the central and northern part, were desolate with sporadic settlements of some
nomadic Arab tribes. They have to keep on moving (ḥayāt al-tarḥal ‫ )حياة الترحال‬in search of water
and also learn how to live without much recourse to water. This constant movement gave them little or
no chance to develop architecture and civilization. They were however able to develop a highly
portable form of artistic expression by way of poetry. There was much value for poetry and
memorisation. Competitions were organised among tribes. The Arabs were later able to develop a
method of saddling camels to transport loads across the desert. Gradually trans-desert trade began to
grow and the Arabs began to profit from some of the trade that had previously circumvented them.
They served as pathfinders for the traders and later on as guards and finally as merchants themselves.
Apart from the wealth that trade brought to the Arabs, it helped them to get in real contact with other
civilizations especially Syria. The caravans crossing the desert began to give rise to commercial
centres within the peninsula. Cheifest of these was Mecca. The Bedouin tribes lived in small groups of
clans and tribes surviving on the meagre resources available in the desert. Some Arab tribes did
migrate further from the south to settle around the oases. This is how Yathrib (Medina) came to be
born.

The harsh environment of the desert played a great role in forming the culture of the Bedouins of
Arabia. Hunger and the struggle for survival made them to prey on one another and on travellers. A
person cannot survive alone. The protection of the tribe or clan is indispensable. Every tribe had a set
of tradition and customary practice called Sunna ‫سنة‬. Although there was no central authority, the
Arabs had unwritten code of conduct that governed them. Some elements of this code called murūwa
‫ مروة‬are: bravery in battle, patience in misfortune, right to retaliation, persistence in revenge (the only
justice where there is no government), protection of the weak, defiance to the strong, hospitality to
visitors, generosity towards the poor, loyalty to the tribe and fidelity to promise. Another practice of
the Arabs was the killing of female children (Q.81:8) due to the fact that they are liability in the desert
life than assets. Polygamy was freely practiced without limit and even temporary marriages.

RELIGIOUS
There was a multiplicity of idols among the Arabs for each tribe had their own form of idol worship
which they gloried in. No tribe wanted to have the same with the other. Poems were composed and
recited in praise of the tribes and their idols. Islamic history refers to this period as jaḥiliyya ‫ جاهلية‬a
state of ignorance and paganism. Mecca in addition to being a commercial centre was also a centre of
pilgrimage. Ta‛ifa was another centre of pilgrimage. The focal point in Mecca was the Ka‛aba‫; الكعبة‬
a shrine in the centre of the city, reputed to be the house of Allāh. There, all the idols were assembled
(about 360). There was a general rule that four months within the year are reserved for pilgrimage and
in these months, fighting is forbidden (cf. Appendix). It should be noted that the idols worshiped by
the Arabs were all females.

With Abyssinian influence in the south and west of Arabia, Christianity found its way into the
peninsula around the 3rd century AD. By the 4th and 5th century AD, Arabia was a haven for some
monophysites who were fleeing persecution from the Byzantine Empire. It is said that some Christian
monks even preached in Mecca and that is why the statue of Jesus and Mary were also found in the
 5
Ka'aba. The name Arabia appears in the Bible seven times. There are numerous other references to the
area and the inhabitants. Of particular interest is the mention of the Sheikhs of Arabia as trade partners
of Tyre (cf. Ezk. 27:21). The Jews had their communities in southern and western Arabia but since
they were not missionary in nature, they did not bother about converting the Arabs.
MUHAMMAD ‫محمد‬
Ṣallā Allahu ‛alayhi wa sallama‫صلى الله عليه و سلم‬
Allāh prayed for him and granted him peace
Life
The name Muḥammad means the praised one. Muḥammad‫ ص‬was born in Mecca around the year
570AD. It is said to be the year that Negus Abraha, king of Yemen, which was subject to Abyssinia
(Ethiopia) wanted to invade Mecca with elephants, but by divine intervention as recorded in the
Qur’ān (Q.105), he did not succeed. Muḥammad‫'ص‬s father ‛Abd Allāh son of ‛Abd al-Muttalib son of
Hashim was of the Quraysh tribe. He died before Muḥammad‫ ص‬was born. Muḥammad‫ ص‬then grew
under the care of his grandfather ‛Abd al-Muttalib. When he was six, his mother Amina died and after
two years (at age eight) his grandfather also died. He then went under the care of his uncle Abū Talib
(father of ‛Ali the fourth caliph).

Little is known about his youth but for the fact that he journeyed with Abū Talib to Syria for trade
when he must have got in real contact with Judaism and Christianity. In one of the journeys at about
the age of 12, he met with the Christian monk Bahira who saw in him a great prophet. At the age of 25
(595), he placed himself under the service of a rich widow in Mecca called Khadija who was 15 years
older than him. He was in charge of her trade and made regular trips to Syria. He later married her and
remained with her alone till her death in 620. From her, he got two sons: Al-Qasim and ‛Abd Allāh
who died at infancy, and four daughters: Zainab, Ruqaiya, Fatima and Umm al-Kulthum. It was only
Fatima who grew up to real adulthood and later married ‛Alī (who later became the 4 th caliph). At the
age of thirty five (c.605), it was attributed to him as having had the unique honour of restoring the
black stone of the Ka‛aba when it was rebuilt. He was noted to be an honest man. He belonged to a set
of people called hanīf who sought the worship of one true God instead of a multiplicity of idols.

Mission
MECCA: His prophethood started when he was about 40 years old (610AD). He received his first
vision in the cave of mount Hira at which he was asked to "recite". This forms the first part of the 96 th
chapter of the Qur’ān. He declined saying that he is illiterate. He returned home in fear thinking that he
has been possessed by a jinn. When he told his wife, she encouraged him and said it must have been a
true revelation. This was to be confirmed by Waraqa bn Nawfal; a Christian cousin of Khadija that he
has been chosen to be a prophet. He remained in doubt for a while but later began to assert himself as a
prophet sent by Allāh. After 3 years of internal family preaching, he was told to go public. The
revelation flowed and stopped for some time. Then it continued till he died in 632.

Muḥammad‫ ص‬preached the message of justice and unicity of God (tawḥīd) and asked the people to
prepare for the day of reckoning. This set him against the Meccan aristocrats and also the entire
population who took pride in their various tribal gods. The Arabs were not worried about adding
another god to their collection but at the destruction of the economic social and commercial life that
were strewn around these gods and the pilgrimage. The leaders of the Quraysh tribe that was in control
of the shrine and the nearby spring of zamzam saw this as a threat. Persecution therefore poured down
in torrents upon the prophet. The Qur'ān mentions Abū Lahab (Q.111) one of the greatest tormentors
of Muḥammad‫ص‬, who would be confined to the hottest part of hell. As time went on, the Meccans
wanted to kill him but that will attract the wrath of his tribesmen. The only way out was for his own
clan to disown him, but this, they didn’t do. His sub-tribe Banu Hashim was ostracised for 3 years to
put pressure on them but it was lifted when the writ was eaten up except the term Bismika Allahumma.
Furthermore, the conversion of some important men like Hamza and Umar strengthened the prophet.
 6
The persecution was also hard on the little followers that he was able to gather and so the prophet sent
them to Abyssinia to take refuge there. A time came when the prophet's sub-tribe Banu Hashim could
not protect him again. Worse still his wife Khadija and uncle Abu Talib died. He left Mecca for a
while to preach his message at al-Ta‛ifa but the people rejected and stoned him. He was therefore left
with little option. He had to flee to Yathrib (Medina) a town 100 miles north of Mecca. It was
championed by 12 men of the city who pledged their allegiance to the prophet at a place called Aqaba.
They also asked him to be their leader since the rivalry between two Arab tribes there; the Aus and the
Khazraj, needed a neutral mediator. This flight of Muḥammad‫ ص‬on 20th June 622 AD with his
followers is known as Hijra and it marks the first year of the Islamic calendar. It was on the night that
he was to be killed that he escaped with Abūbakr to a cave in mount Thaur and later to Yathrib. The
Quraysh had chosen one man from each clan to kill Muḥammad‫ ص‬together so as to make revenge
difficult for his clan.

YATHRIB: In Yathrib (Medina), his preaching recorded greater success than it did in Mecca. This
could be due to the influence of the Jews living there whose monotheistic religion had prepared the
Arabs for the message of Islam. A new community called al-Ummatu-l-Islāmiyya (‫)اإلمة اإلسالمية‬
commonly known as Umma has now been born. This is a revolution for the Arabs for they had not
known a centralised system of government. In this new community tribal allegiance had to give way to
allegiance to the Umma. The role of Muḥammad‫ ص‬now changed from a simple prophet calling people
to repentance to a political leader and a lawgiver. There is therefore need for rules and regulations that
is associated with a formally organised society. The Šarī‛a had to arise. Many of the revelations now
had legal implications as they arose to answer different situations.

Muḥammad‫ ص‬and his followers did not find it easy adapting to the conditions of Yathrib. Besides, as
refugees they depended on the generosity of their hosts (the Ansār ‫ )األنصار‬but that cannot sustain them
indefinitely. They therefore engaged on the usual desert practice of raiding caravans and attacking
travellers. Sometimes they were successful but at other times they were not. One great success they
recorded was in 623 when they routed a Meccan caravan. This however, took place in one of the
sacred months (cf.Q.5:2), Rajab. Worse still the raiders pretended to be pilgrims on their way to
Mecca. This did not go down well with the people of Medina but a verse was revealed to solve this.
Fighting is a grave offence but to block the path of Allāh is a graver one. cf. Q.2:217.

Another attack was planned for a Meccan caravan from Syria led by Abū Sufyan. This caravan got the
tip and changed its route and so the ambush was not successful. Meanwhile a message of help had
gone to the Meccans who assembled a force of about 1000 men to rescue the caravan. They met the
Muslims at the great Battle of Badr (624). Notwithstanding the little number of the Muslims, they
routed the Meccans and got a lot of booty. This is an event unprecedented in Muslim history and
Muslims see it as divine confirmation of their religion. The Qur'ān says that 3000 angels were sent to
help the believers on this day (Q.3:124). Other references are made in Q.3:13 & 123. This battle
boosted Muḥammad‫'ص‬s ergo and more tribes and communities came to pledge their submission to the
prophet. Many centuries passed without Muslims losing a battle.

The Meccans went home and in anger re-assembled a force of 3000 men to come and finish off with
Muḥammad‫ ص‬in Yathrib. The Muslims could summon only 1000 men. This is the Battle of Uhud
(625). The initial plan of the prophet was for them to remain in the city but some overzealous fighters
spurred by the victory of Badr and the booty (Al-Bukhari 53:1218), ventured out to engage the
Meccans. Abdullah bn Ubey, in anger, withdrew from the battle with over 250 men thus giving the
Meccans undue advantage. This attitude is discouraged in Q. 8:15-16. The Meccans led by Abu Sufyan
dealt with the Muslims. Qur'ān (3:166) says that Allāh permitted this, to know true believers. For an
unknown reason, however, which the Muslims again see as divine intervention, the Meccans did not
finish them off. (Some say that Abu Sufyan was told that the prophet had vowed to revenge next day).
 7
The Meccans returned the next year with 10,000 men to end the story of Muḥammad‫ص‬. This is the
Battle of the Ditch (Al-Khandāq 626) because a novel war tactics of digging a trench around the city
was employed at the advice of Salman the Persian. The Ghatafān desert tribe joined the Meccans at
this battle. The Meccans besieged the city for long but then became divided on continuing the siege or
not. More so a strong desert storm contributed to making them abandon the enterprise.
The Meccan effort to destroy Muḥammad‫ ص‬has come to an end and he began to grow tremendously
in power. From a defensive position he now began his offensive against his enemies. In 628,
Muḥammad‫ ص‬prepared for a pilgrimage to Mecca with 1500 pilgrims. The Meccans saw this as a
concealed treat and prevented him from entering the city. They entered into a pact with him, called the
truce of Hudeybiyah. It was agreed that the Muslims would go back to Medina and return the next year
for their pilgrimage when the Meccans will evacuate the city for them for three days. This is to
forestall bloodshed. The pact also had it that there will be no more fighting between the two parties for
ten years. Furthermore, Muslims should remain Muslims and idol worshipers should also remain thus.
Qur'ān 109 refers to this position. This agreement was reached even though some of Muḥammad ‫'ص‬s
followers wanted a fight. As time went on, more important men of Mecca converted to Islam and the
opposition to Muḥammad‫ ص‬diminished greatly. Besides he was now in far away Medina and their
contact was only minimal unlike the time he lived and preached in Mecca.

It was not all in Yathrib that welcomed Muḥammad‫ص‬. There were three main Jewish tribes who
opposed him virtually in everything despite his attempts to align himself to them. They boasted that
Muḥammad‫ ص‬necessarily needed them for guidance (Q.2:135). They later said that idolaters are even
better than the Muslims cf. Q.4:51. Due to their obstinacy the prophet had to change the Qibla in 624
from Jerusalem (al-Bayt al-Muqaddas – The Holy House), to the Ka‛aba in Mecca (Q.2;142-144). He
later had to exile the Banu Qaynuqa because of a market incident that resulted to the killing of a Jew
and a Muslim. After the battle of Uhud, the Banu Nadhir was accused of plotting the murder of the
prophet and was equally exiled and their properties confiscated (cf. Q.49:1-2). The Banu Quraydha
was not lucky enough to be exiled. Accused of sabotage at the battle of the ditch, the men (about 600-
700) were all slaughtered in 627AD and their wives and properties distributed among the Muslims.
They had relied on an Arab judge who betrayed them.

There were also other Arabs who only paid lip service to their allegiance. The Qur'ān referred to them
as hypocrites Munāfiqūn (cf. Q.63:1-4) and they are worse than the unbelievers. In 628 Banu Mustalaq
was subdued. There was another campaign in 629 against a Jewish tribe at Khaybar. There a Jewesh
poisoned the prophet. Some believe that it eventually led to his death; a position many Muslims refute.

Final Triumph and Death

When Muḥammad‫ ص‬was at the zenith of his power, he still had one mission to accomplish; the
conquest of Mecca. He found a reason to break the treaty of Hudeybiyah, a provision allowed for by
the Qur'ān (9:1, 66:2). He gathered a force of about ten thousand men in 630 and marched to Mecca.
At this time there was not much opposition and the prophet entered victoriously into Mecca. He
declared amnesty to all but with a proscription of a few prominent enemies. He went into the Ka‛aba
and cleansed it of all the 360 idols. Tradition has it that he did not destroy the statue of Jesus and
Mary. The call for prayer was then made by an African slave Bilal.

After the conquest of Mecca few tribes and cities like al-Ta‛ifa still tried to resist the authority of the
prophet. The battle of Huneyn was wedged against idolaters who wanted Mecca back from the
Muslims. They were all smoothly subjugated. And so at the death of the prophet almost the whole of
the Arabian Peninsula had succumbed to Islam. The year 631 is termed the year of deputation since in
it almost all the tribes of Arabia came to pay their allegiance to the prophet. A delegation of Christians
also came from Najaran (South Yemen) to make a concordance with the prophet. During this visit,
they prayed in the prophet's mosque. In 632 Muḥammad‫ ص‬set out to perform what is now referred to
as the Farewell pilgrimage - Hijja al-Wadā‛ ‫حجة الوداع‬. It would turn out to be his last. On the 9 th of
the month Dhul al-Hijja, large number of pilgrims gathered at Arafat. He received the final revelation
 8
of the Qur'ān on that day (cf Q.5:3 - Today I have perfected your religion for you...). He then gave a
long sermon referred to as The Sermon of the White Horse after which he cried "Oh Allāh I have
delivered thy message!"

Shortly after his return to Yathrib, he fell ill and after twelve days (June 8th 632) he passed on. When
the rumour of his death saturated the air, ‛Umar called it a wicked thing and insisted that the prophet
cannot die. It was Abu Bakr who assuaged the confusion with a Quranic verse (3:144) saying: He who
worships Muḥammad‫ص‬, lo he is dead but he who worships Allāh, he lives he cannot die. Muḥammad
‫ ص‬was buried in the chamber of ‛Aisha his favourite wife at Medina. He had married a total of 11
wives after Khadija.

There is no agreement on the number of battles (Ġazwā) he fought; between 20 and 30. There were
also other battles that he deputed others to lead; about 38. At the end of his life, he had transformed the
scattered ignorant/immoral Arabs into knowledge seekers and a centralised civilization that will rule
the world for over a millennium.

WIVES OF THE PROPHET

1. Khadija Bint Khuwaylid – She was about 15 years older than Muḥammad‫ص‬. She was her only
wife in Mecca. She bore four daughters: Zaynab, Ruqayya, Umm Kulthum, Fatima, and two sons
Al-Qasim and ‛Abd Allāh. Unfortunately only Fatima grew up to adulthood and later married ‛Ali.
2. Sauda bint Zum‛a – The first wife he married at Medina. She was a widow and was about 30 years
when he married her. She had a son from her previous marriage. She was one of those who took
refuge in Abyssinia.
3. ‛Ᾱ'isha Bint Abu Bakr – She was betrothed to him at nine and they came to live together at 12. She
was the daughter of Abu Bakr the first caliph. The accusation of infidelity made against her is
condemned in Q.24:11ff.
4. Hafsa Bint Umar – She was the daughter of Umar the second caliph. Her husband was killed at the
battle of Badr.
5. Zaynab Bint Khuzayma – She was married 20 days after Hafsa. And she died just three months
after her marriage to Muḥammad‫ص‬. She was the only one that died during the prophet's time.
6. Umm Salama (Hind Bint Umayya) – She emigrated twice with her husband to Abyssinia. She was
the oldest of his wives.
7. Zaynab Bint Jahsh – She was the wife of Zayd, an adopted son and cousin of the prophet. His
marriage to her caused a scandal but was soon justified by a timely revelation (cf.Q.33:37)
8. Juwayriya Bint al-Harith – She was from the Banu al-Mustalaq which Muḥammad‫ ص‬had
conquered. After their marriage he released all the captives from her tribe.
9. Safiyya Bint Huyayy – She was a Jewess who lost her parents and husband when Muḥammad‫ص‬
attacked the Jewish tribe of Khaybar.
10. Umm Habiba (Ramla Bint Abu Sufyan) – His father was called Abu Sufyan, one of the refugees to
Abyssinia.
11. Maymuna Bint al-Harith – She was the widow of Abu Ruhm.
12. Maryam the Copt – Of all the wives married in Medina she was the only one who bore a child,
Ibrahim who died after 18 months.
13. Rayhana – She was a Jewess who came to the household of the prophet after the men of Quraydha
were massacred. Is not clear if they were legally married or she was a slave or concubine. For this
reason some sources do not mention her.
 9

THE RIGHTLY GUIDED CALIPHS

(Al-Ḫulafāu al-Rāshidūn‫) الخلفاء الراشدون‬

The death of the prophet of Islam was a shock to the whole community because many were not
thinking of him dying. To some believers it was the end of an era and to others it was the beginning of
an era. The Islamic community nevertheless had to continue. The immediate task was to elect someone
who would continue to lead the Umma as a deputy of the prophet. No event in history has divided
Islam more profoundly and durably than the succession of Muḥammad‫ص‬. The main divisions we have
in Islam today (the Sunni, the Shi‛a and the Kharijites) are as a result of that. While early division in
Christianity was doctrinal, that of Islam was political. Immediately after the death of the prophet, four
groups emerged in the battle of leadership. Each wanted the next leader to be from among them backed
with sound reasons. They included; (1) The emigrants from Mecca to Medina (Al-muhājirun‫المهاجرون‬
), (2) The Medinan supporters (Al-Anṣār‫) األنصار‬, (3) The family of the prophet (Ahl al-Bayt‫أهل البيت‬
) and (4) The Meccan aristocrats (Al-Ašrāf ‫) األشراف‬. From the year 632 to 661, four men ruled the
Islamic community. They are called "The Rightly Guided Caliphs" because not minding their personal
inadequacies, it is believed that Allah was undoubtedly with them and Islam was united and practiced
at its best form. They were given the authority to rule and they did not grab it by force. The invocation:
May Allāh be pleased with him - raḍiya Allāh ‛anhu ‫ رضي الله عنه‬is used after their names.

ABU BAKR (AṢ-ṢIDDĪQ) 632-634

The Ansar gathered at Saqifat Bani Sa‛ida were already electing a successor when the Muhājirun
intervened insisting that one who would be acceptable by all should be elected. After much squabble, a
member of the Quraysh tribe and a close companion of the prophet was elected in the person of Abu
Bakr. He was the father of ‛Aisha: wife of the prophet. He was one of the first men to embrace Islam
and he led prayers when the prophet was absent. He was converted on his way to kill the prophet most
probably by divine intervention.

Abu Bakr aligned himself more to the Meccan aristocrats while distancing himself from the aggrieved
Ahl al-Bayt. His immediate task was to subjugate those tribes who, following the death of the prophet,
withdrew their allegiance to the Islamic community. There were also cases of persons who claim
prophecy and gathered followers unto themselves like Al-Aswad, Tulaihah, Sajah (prophetess) etc.
These battles to consolidate the unity of the Islamic community were very vital in Islamic history. It is
referred to as the ridda wars. He succeeded in subjugating the whole Arab peninsula to the Islamic
empire. On his death bed he appointed Umar to succeed him. He died at 63.

UMAR IBN AL-ḪAṬṬᾹB 634 - 644

It was during his time that Islam saw a great expansion outside the Arabic peninsula. When the whole
of Arabia was subjugated, Muslims could no longer carry out raid on one another since they have
become a single brotherhood. They had to move outside the peninsula. The Byzantine empire was the
great power to the west and the Sassanid to the east. ‛Umar defeated the Sassanid at the great battle of
Al-Qadisiyya (Iraq) in 636, thus opening up the way for Islam to spread eastwards. Syria fell in 635
under the command of Khalid Ibn al-Waḥīd. At the famous battle of Al-Yarmuk (south Syria) in 636
‛Umar faced Byzantine with 30,000 soldiers while they had 240,000. That notwithstanding, the
Muslims won and one of the Byzantine generals converted to Islam.

The Muslims conquered Jerusalem in 637 with a peace treaty from Patriarch Sophronius. It is recorded
that Umar prayed in the Church of Nativity in Bethlehem with the understanding that the whole world
is a mosque (Q.2:115). Armenia and other surrounding districts of Byzantine fell too. Egypt
succumbed under a pact with the governor Al-Muqauqis and the Muslim commander Amr Ibn al-As in
642 even though the Byzantine emperor Heraclius wanted the people to resist with a fight. They did
not go further south of Egypt i.e. Sudan, because of the existence of strong Christian kingdoms like
Asum, Abyssinia etc. The Muslims later entered into peace agreement with them. Other parts of North
Africa followed subsequently. These successes were seen as the hand of Allah.
 10
Due to the expansion of the empire ‛Umar instituted a diwan (ministry) to help the organization of the
empire and constituted a consultative council (Shura). This Shura, as he commanded, was to see to the
issue of his successor. Due to the many wars of expansion, the Arabs were turned into a rich military
caste that was sustained by non-Arab majority subject. He held the Arabs at a higher esteem and the
non-Arabs as second class citizens. More so he emphasized rank; those who became Muslims earlier
were given preference to those who joined later. ‛Umar made a concerted effort to expel all non Arabs
and non Muslims from the Arabian Peninsula. During his reign, the Jizya became famous. He is the
one who decreed that the Islamic calendar be counted from the year of Hijra. His policy of
discrimination must have contributed to his death for in 644 a Persian slave Abu Lu'aLu'a stabbed him
six times to his death.

‛UTHMAN IBN ‛AFFᾹN 644 – 656

The council that was to decide the successor to Umar did not find it easy electing a successor
especially as the battle was evenly drawn between ‛Ali and ‛Uthman. At the end however, ‛Uthman
was chosen as the third caliph. His role in the community before then was very minimal. He was a
Meccan aristocrat who belonged to the Banu Ummaya clan. He is reputed to be the first Meccan
aristocrat to embrace Islam and he did emigrate to Abyssinia during the persecution from where he
joined others in Medina. He was the son in law of Muḥammad‫ ص‬for he married Ruqaiya and Umm
Kulthum his daughters. For this reason he is called: dzu nūrayni ‫( ذو نورين‬possessor of two lights).

‛Uthman was accused of nepotism although for him he wanted to establish a unity of government in
the ever expanding Islamic empire. He appointed members of his family to positions of leadership as
governors of provinces like Syria, Egypt, Basra and Kufa. Inadequacies were discovered in paying
pension and distribution of the spoils of war. With the huge in-flock into Islam, resources were
strained since there were more to be serviced. The bulk of the work of writing down the Qur’ān and
the promulgation of the official copy and the destruction of the provincial copies were done during his
caliphate. Many Qurā (those who know the Qur’ān by heart) were silenced and one out of the 7 Qiraāt
(way of reading) was sustained. Opposition to him exploded into open rebellion. In 654 rebel soldiers
succeeded in deposing the governor he installed (Sa’aid bn al-As) in Kufa. Another group of rebel
from Egypt, who came to negotiate with him, finally killed him in 656 after laying siege to his house.
They discovered a foul play along the line of negotiation. They were led by Muhammad bn Abu Bakr.

‛ALI IBN ABI ṬᾹLIB 656 -661

The rebels elected ‛Ali the cousin of the prophet as the new caliph. He is argued to be the second
Muslim in history after Khadija. He was also the son in law of the prophet since he married his
daughter Fatima from whom came the only grandsons of the prophet; Al-Hasan and Al-Husayn. He
was the closest family member of the prophet (Ahl al- Bayt) and was believed (especially by the
Shī‛ites) to be appointed by the prophet to succeed him if not for the obvious foul play at Saqifa. He it
was who supervised the execution of the Jewish tribe of Banu Quraydha in 627. Since he was
enthroned by the rebels, he was suspected of having aided the murder of ‛Uthman, coupled with the
fact that he had earlier accused ‛Uthman of deviating from the Qur’ān.

For these reasons, all were not well with his caliphate. Many were not ready to recognize him. He
worsened the situation by removing some governors appointed by ‛Uthman. His greatest opposition
was from Mu‛awiyya the governor of Damascus and a relative of ‛Uthman. The struggle between the
two initiated the era of great sedition (Al-Fitna al-kubra). While he was marching to Damascus to
settle scores with Mu‛awiyya, ‛Ᾱ'isha the wife of the prophet started another rebellion that was intent
on taking control of the eastern province of Iraq. At the Battle of the Carmel (Basra) in 656, ‛Ali
quelled the rebellion and returned to face Mu‛awiyya. At the Battle of Siffin in 657, ‛Ali engaged
Mu‛awiyya who, when he saw that they were losing pleaded for arbitration by fastening scrolls of the
Qur’ān to their swords. ‛Ali accepted but some of his supporters rejected this and even withdrew their
support from him and assembled at Nahrawan. They were about three to four thousand men. Judgment
they say belong to Allah (cf. Q.49:9). They are called the Kharijites.
 11
The arbitration was not in favour of ‛Ali since it established that ‛Uthman was murdered unjustly. ‛Ali
has lost credibility both within and without, but he struggled to maintain his position. He was intent to
finish up the battle with Mu‛awiyya so he tried to win back the Kharijites and when he didn’t succeed
he attacked them in 658 and murdered a lot of them. Mu‛awiyya went further to take over Egypt. ‛Ali
managed to remain as the caliph until 661 when one of the Kharijites (Abd al-Rahman b. Muljam al-
Murad) murdered him in Kufa, thus bringing an end to the period of the rightly guided caliphs. His
burial place was kept secret to avoid desecration by his enemies. It has been identified at Al-Najaf
where many Shiites have made their cemetery and a place of pilgrimage. Meanwhile the supporters of
Mu‛awiyya already regarded him as the caliph.

ISLAM AFTER THE RIGHTLY GUIDED CALIPHS

THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY 750-661 ‫الخالفة األموية‬

Mu‛awiyya Ibn Abi Sufyān (d.680) has torn the leadership away by force to himself. In order to avoid
much bloodshed there was a pact between him and Al-Hasan Ibn ‛Alī, the grandson of the prophet,
whom people expected to be the next caliph. Al-Hasan was to pipe low and take over the leadership at
the death of Mu‛awiyya. Unfortunately Al-Hasan died in 669 before Mu‛awiyya.

At the death of Mu‛awiyya in 680, arrangements have been made to enthrone Yazid (d.683) his son
thus sidelining the line of the prophet. Al-Husayn (626 – 680) could not accept this and gathered a
little support based mainly in Kufa, Iraq. He was on his way with the members of the family from
Medina to Kufa where he would be proclaimed the caliph when the army of Yazid attacked and killed
him with 72 other family members at the Battle of Karbala on the 9th of Muharram (October 9, 680).
The anniversary of his death is called Ashura (last celebrated on 11th October 2016). This was an
outrage but Yazid has confirmed the Umayyad dynasty that now has its capital at Damascus. That
notwithstanding, this second fitna raged from 680 to 692. It was the Caliph ‛Abd al Malik (r.692-705)
who was able to restore substantial unity.
 12
Expansion
At first the Muslims were a minority in Damascus. Instead of their usual habit of pitching camps
outside the city, the Muslims, in Damascus, started living inside the city especially with fellow Arabs.
The Islamic world started to expand outside Damascus. From Egypt they conquered the rest of North
Africa. They could not penetrate into West Africa because of the natural barrier of the Sahara desert.
They crossed over to Europe (Spain) in 710 when Governor Julian of Ceuta a province in Spain sought
the help of Tariq Ibn Ziyad the Muslim governor of North Africa against the Gothic King Roderic.
They went to help but did not withdraw afterwards. Muslims conquered most part of Spain and
Portugal in the west and were advancing into France until they were halted by Charles Martel in 732 at
the battle of Tours. In Asia, they had invaded as far as Mukran and Sind in India. Pakistan and Central
Asia was much under their control.

Administration
There were a total of 14 Umayyad caliphs that ruled the Islamic empire. They had the great duty of
governing and expanding Islamic rule. Christians were used in administration since they were more
literate. The Umayyads were able to harness the rich culture of the Byzantine and Persia and gradually
began to build on it. Their greatest work of architecture was the Great Mosque of Damascus built (705-
715) on the site of the Cathedral of St John the Baptist. Their rule saw a policy of tolerating the non-
Muslims but also limiting them. Later on, the social organization and rule had to change to the Islamic
standard. Islamic coins were minted. Arabic became the language of administration replacing Greek,
Coptic, Persian, Latin etc. ‛Abd al-Malik (685-705) who attained the peak of the Umayyad dynasty, is
credited for this revolution. It was he who built the Dome of the Rock (Masjid al-Aqṣā) in Jerusalem;
completed in 691. Some commentators say that this was to divert attention from Mecca and Medina
where the Kharijites seem to be in control.

Religion
Conversion was not encouraged since it reduces the state income. Those who wish to become Muslims
must be aligned to an Arab family as mawla/mawālī (patron). It was ‛Umar II (717-720) who
encouraged conversion. There came to be mass conversion later on when oppressive policies started
emerging. The Umayyads struggled for religious authority with the ‛Ulama' (Religious teachers). They
were also at log ahead with the Shī‛a who had been aggrieved since the inception of the dynasty. The
Umayyads they hold has taken away their right. To placate them, ‛Umar II stopped the practice of
cursing ‛Alī after prayers; a practice started by Mu'awiyya.

Scholarship
Serious attention was not paid to Islamic scholarship at this time. The Muslims were ignorant Arabs
coming from the desert of Arabia to meet great civilization of Byzantine. They were thus still at the
learning process. An important event of this period was in 732, when Ibn Ishaq wrote the first major
Sirah (biography) of prophet Muḥammad‫ص‬. Hasan al Basri (d.732) became a famous ḥadīṯ scholar.

Collapse
The dynasty began to decline with the defeat of the Syrian army by Byzantine under Leo III in 717.
Furthermore Umar II tried to abolish the distinction between Arab Muslims and non-Arabs. He also
abolished the taxation of people who have converted to Islam. This brought about discontent and a
drain of resources. Finally a major revolt in Syria, Iraq and Khurasan (Iran) saw the Umayyad
overthrown by the Shi‛a (Hashimiyya) who had denied the legitimacy of the caliphate of Mu'awiyya.
The last Umayyad ruler Marwan II (744-750) was defeated at the battle of the great river Zab in 750.
All the members of the Umayyad house were killed except Abd al-Rahman who escaped to Andalusia
(Spain) to establish the Umayyad dynasty of Cordoba.
 13
THE ABBASID DYNASTY )1258 – 750( ‫الدولة العباسية‬

The Abbasids struggled and took over power on the pretext of returning the leadership of the Islamic
empire to the family of the prophet after it had been usurped. They derive their name from the
prophets' uncle Abbās Ibn ‛Abd al-Muttalib (566–653AD) of the Meccan clan of Hāshim. They won
the support of the Shi‛a who were sympathetic to the cause of ‛Ali but later turned to persecute them
when they became threat to the caliphate. They established their capital in Baghdad where it had the
greatest support. This period saw the golden age of Islam both in philosophy, theology, politics,
administration, architecture etc. It had much of Persian influence.

Expansion
The Abbasid dynasty further extended the Islamic empire from where the Umayyad left it. In 846, a
Muslim naval expedition from Sicily sacked Ostia and Rome all in Italy. By mid 10 th century, Sicily
was comfortably ruled by the Muslims. They were only pushed out in 1258. It was during the Abbasid
dynasty that Islam penetrated into West Africa. Towards the end of this period, the empire's borders
were static though they never ceased harassing their neighbors from time to time. It was a 6500km
wide empire extending from Spain in the west to India in the east.

Administration
There were a total of 37 caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty. The first was Abū al-Abbās (750-754) and the
last was Al-Musta‛sim (1242-1258). During the reign of Harūn al-Rashid (786-809) and his son al-
Ma‛mūn (813-833), the Abbasid dynasty achieved its most brilliant peak of political and intellectual
life. There was the integration of non-Arabs into the Abbasid government. It was no longer Arab
dominated. They opened up the empire to the influence of other cultures. They 'islamised' Persian
culture and 'persianised' Islamic culture. Their attempts at holding the large empire together were not
without the existence of autonomous dynasties like the Samanids of Persia (874-1005), the Seljuk of
Iraq (1037-1157), the Fatimids of Egypt/Syria/North Africa (909-1171), the Ayyubid (1174-1250) and
the Mamluk (1250-1517) dynasties of Egypt, the Umayyad of Spain etc.

Under the Abbasids, government machinery became more and more complicated. Though the caliph
stood at the head, he had a Wazir who had the power to appoint and depose governors and judges. The
diwans (ministries) were multiplied and provinces created; all geared to a smoother running of the
large empire. The Abbasid dynasty confronted the crusaders and defended the land of Islam as much
as they could. The first crusade (1095) was called for when the byzantine emperor sought for help
against the invading Turks (Seljuks). In 1187, Saladin of Egypt defeated the crusaders at Hattin. He is
the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty (1174-1250).

Religion
It was during this time that Muslims outnumbered the non-muslims. Just as natural sciences developed,
religious sciences were also at its peak. The codification of the ḥadīṯ took place at this time beginning
with Al-Bukhari 810-870AD, Imām Muslim 817- 875AD etc. Islamic schools of law were developed:
Abū Ḥanifa (700-768AD), Malik bn Anas (713-795AD), Al-Shafi‛i (767-820AD) and Aḥmad Ibn
Ḥanbal (780-855AD). It was the classical period of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh). The standard of
Islamic theology was also set at this period which warranted the closure of the door of Ijtihad. Sufism
reached high stage with Rābi‛a al-‛Adawiyya (717-801) and others. In 827 the Caliph Al-Ma‛mūn, in
conjunction with the Mu‛tazilites decreed the createdness of the Qur’ān thus making himself the
supreme authority in doctrine. This did not go down well with the ‛Ulamā' and other muslims. This
was the period of the Islamic inquisition (miḥna ‫)محنة‬.

Scholarship
The search for knowledge reached its apex during the Abbasid dynasty. By the 9 th century, they
translated the works of the Greek philosophers and other great works from Greek, Persia, Syriac etc
into Arabic. It is from Arabic that they were later translated modern European languages. The
 14
European renaissance was thanks to the Abbasid dynasty. It is believed that the Arabic numerals were
developed from Indian alphabets. The development of Islamic philosophy and theology at this period
cannot be overemphasized. Rationalism permeated Islam at this time. There was a development of
natural sciences like mathematics, astronomy, medicine, geography, literature, history, architecture etc.
Al-Azhar University, built by the Fatimids in Cairo in 970, became the greatest Islamic centre of
learning. The great philosophers and scholars of Islam arose at this period: Al-Kindi d.873(Persian),
Al-Tabari 838-923(historian-Persian), Al-Forabi 870-950, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) 980-1037, Al-Ghazali
1058-1111, Ibn Rushd (Averroes) 1126-1198, Ibn Arabi 1165-1240 etc. It was the Abbasids who
wrote Islamic history. They also did the codification of the ḥadīṯ.

Collapse
Many factors contributed to the decline and fall of the Abbasids. A group of slaves from east Africa
(Zanj) championed a major revolt within the empire (869-883), thus causing a disruption in
agriculture. Internal power struggle also weakened the empire. The many petty dynasties that arose
contributed to the dissolution. The extent of the empire furthermore made it difficult to manage; a
6500km wide empire with no modern communication or transport. This made the regional Emirs feel
autonomous and began to withhold taxes that were meant for the centre. More conversion to Islam also
meant less tax thus drain of treasury. The Seljuk Empire which was a product of a mass movement of
Turkish nomads into the lands of Islam harassed the Islamic empire. They were however Muslims. The
Mamluks (Turkish slaves working in the court of the king) also harassed the Caliphs. They were
responsible for the death of three Caliphs, one of whom is Al-Mutawakkil. The Buyids did a similar
thing from around 945. The caliphs eventually became puppets in their hands. The Abbasid dynasty
finally fell in 1258 when Baghdad was captured and burnt by the Mongols from central Asia led by
Hulagu Khan. These unbelievers who were fierce fighters took charge of affairs in Baghdad.

THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE )1924-1326( ‫الدولة العثمانية‬

 15
After the Mongols had taken charge of affairs in Baghdad, the once great empire was broken up into
various parts. The caliphate power was gradually replaced by the sultanate. Some Islamic provinces
resisted the Mongols like Egypt and Syria and were now running petty dynasties. At the dawn of the
14th century however, the Mongols had become Muslims and began to spread Islam vigorously. Three
Islamic empires emerged at the top and lasted long: Ottoman (1326-1924), Safavid (1502- 1736),
Mughal/Mongol (1526-1858). The Ottoman Empire was the oldest and the most widespread and was
therefore seen as the continuation of the caliphate. It was founded in 1326 as an independent Islamic
state in Anatolia by Uthman I, thus the name Ottoman. They were a group of Turkish soldiers brought
into the Islamic empire in the 9th century by the Abbasid caliphs.

Expansion
The Ottomans continued the expansion bid where the Abbasids stopped. The high point of this
expansion was the conquest of Constantinople from Byzantine in 1453 by Sultan Mehmet (1451-
1481). He renamed it Istanbul making it his capital thus mastering the east and the west. Santa Sophia
Church was converted to a mosque. It became a museum in 1935. The empire expanded greatly under
Sultan Selim (r.1512-1520) and under his son Sultan Suleiman the magnificent (1520-1566) the empire
reached its greatest expansion over Asia and Europe. They developed the most advanced fighting force
of the time. The Ottomans continued to expand until it practically took charge of the old Islamic
empire; conquering the other dynasties. They defeated the Mamluks of Egypt in 1517, the Safavid in
1534 etc. Externally they expanded into Rhodes 1522, Cyprus 1570, Hungary 1526, Austria, Croatia
etc in the West. They laid siege to Vienna in 1529. In 1669 they took Crete and Venice. Further
advance into Europe was truncated by incursions and rivalries in the eastern part of the empire. They
however made occasional incursions father north into the Scandinavians. In one of their raids in 1627,
they carried off a Lutheran pastor, Oluf Eigilsson from Iceland to Algiers. They made further
expansion in India, Indonesia, Malaysia etc.

Administration
The head of the Ottoman government was called the sultan. He had his governors called Bey ruling the
different parts of the wide empire. This period saw a boost in trade between the east and west and the
Islamic empire was at the crossroad thus benefitting greatly. The Ottomans introduced a system of
administration based on religious confession. It is called the millet system ‫ مّلة‬. By this, each religious
confession was ruled by itself but accountable to the supreme authority of the Ottomans. In other
words the dhimma ‫ ذمة‬status prevailed. Christianity tended to prosper at this time. They accepted
Christian youths as part of the military called the janissaries.

The Ottomans carried out series of reform called Tanzimāt, (1839-1876), in line with European
standards. This became necessary when the Islamic empire was in a steady decline while Europe was
on steady ascent. They acted but maybe not fast enough and completely. That they lasted longer was
thanks to these reforms. Secular laws replaced the Šarī‛a. With pressure from the west, non Muslims
were made to be equal to Muslims thus abolishing the jizya. Christians could now bear arms in the
Janissary (19th century). They copied the European military wear. They also began to learn democracy
and European bureaucracy.

Religion
There was a further spread of conversion among the inhabitants who were previously non-Muslims all
these while. It was a slow and indirect process although in some areas it was done by force. The Sufi
brotherhood and the Muslim traders played a vital role in this spread and conversion to Islam. The
‛Ulamā' and the Qādi had the role of seeing to it that the state don't depart from the Islamic system.
Since the Ottomans later started running after Europe, they tended to play down many religious
elements that previously had upper hand like the status of non Muslims. Sultan ‛Abd al-Hamid
(r.1876-1909) departed from religious projects to secular ones like building of roads, rail, edifice etc.
Sultan Selim integrated customary law into the Šarī‛a. In general there was liberalization in religion in
pursuit of secular development and civilization.
 16

Scholarship
The Ottomans inherited the rich scholarship of the Abbasid. It seems however that further progress
was not made. Besides, European renaissance made Muslims to lose their prime position in the
academia. Nevertheless, this period further produced great Islamic scholars. The famous Islamic,
jurist, geographer, traveler cum explorer, Ibn Battuta (1304-1369) flourished at the early stage of the
Ottomans. He was of Moroccan origin. The great Andalusian historian Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) was a
product of this era. He migrated to Tunisia when Muslims were expelled from Spain. With the
increased activities of the Europeans in the Islamic land, Muslims began to venture into the west. This
was a revolution because they earlier despised the west saying that they had nothing to offer.
Gradually, they began to send delegations to study in Europe. Muḥammad ‛Alī Pasha of Egypt
(r.1805-1848) sent scholars in large numbers to study in France. This helped them to manage the
facilities brought by the Europeans and modernize their military and administration.

Collapse
The Ottoman Empire witnessed some internal rot that initiated its decline. In the 16 th century, most
positions were no longer on merit; nepotism took over. Sultan Selim II (r.1566-1574) was said to be
addicted to alcohol and women. Like the Abbasids, the empire became so large to be adequately
governed. It was then affected drastically by the European renaissance. The West woke up from
slumber, built on the scientific, technological and cultural heritage of Islam and overtook them.

The fall in economy contributed in no small measure to the collapse of the Ottomans. European
demand for Ottoman textile and other goods fell with the discovery of sea route to Asia by Vasco da
Gama in 1498. The Europeans by-passed the empire and got their raw materials from the Far East. By
1513, Portuguese traders had reached south China. The Ottomans also lost in terms of economic tax.
European industrialization was then another big blow. The Ottomans were slow to industrialization
and modernization. When eventually they did, they owed huge debts to their European partners thus
making them inferior. There were more of finished products being pumped into the Ottoman Empire; a
situation that made Europe to drain the resources of the Ottomans. By 1547, Sultan Suleiman the
Magnificent was importing clocks in a large number from Europe. Ismaili Pasha, governor of Egypt
(1863-1879), incurred great debt that the Suez Canal was sold to the British in 1875.

The system of warfare changed and Europe took charge with their superior firearms. The 800 years of
reconquista of Spain ended in 1492 when the Muslims were successfully pushed out. In 1554, Russia
began fighting back and won total victory in 1774. The Ottoman fleet was defeated at the Battle of
Lepanto - Greece in 1571 which initiated the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary. Another defeat was at
the Battle of Vienna (1683). 1798-1801, saw the French occupation of Egypt led by Napoleon. After
World War I, Europe gradually took over many territories that were formerly under the control of the
Ottomans and colonized them. These interventions in the Ottoman Empire brought about its final
disintegration.
 17

CONTEMPORARY ISLAM

THE DISSOLUTION OF THE ISLAMIC CALIPHATE

With the defeat of the Ottomans in the First World War (1914-1918), the Islamic empire gradually
became a puppet in the hands of the Europeans. It was known as The Sick Man of Europe. The
different regions took advantage to fight for independence from the Ottomans. The Arabs in
collaboration with the British revolted against the Ottomans from 1916 -1921. Further still there was a
loss of Arab identity and national identity began to arise. There was a gradual partition of the empire
among the Europeans (1918-1922). Even before then, in 1907, Iran was shared between Britain and
Russia. As early as 1881 the French had occupied Tunisia. Egypt was taken over by Napoleon in 1798
and then by the British in 1801. With the treaty of Berlin in 1878, the countries of the Eastern Europe
were separated from the Ottoman Empire. By 1919, the Ottoman Empire was reduced to only the
territory of modern day Turkey.

When it was obvious that the Islamic empire was not going to make a bounce back as was expected, a
group of Young Turks emerged in 1908 and wanted radical modernisation, secularisation and
industrialization according to the European way in order to catch up with the rest of the world. It was
more of a nationalistic move. These changes could not be achieved with the Islamic system in control.
They took over power and thus Turkey became a republic in 1922. They changed the Arabic script into
Latin alphabets. On March 3, 1924, Mustapha Kemal (Ataturk) dissolved the Ottoman caliphate,
making out of it the modern state of Turkey. In 1945 Turkey joined the United Nations. The different
regions of the Islamic empire remained independent countries with their sovereign powers.
 18
AFTERMATH OF THE DISSOLUTION
In 1926, a Caliphate Congress in Al-Azhar, Cairo established the necessity of restoring the caliphate
but it was not feasible at that moment. The kings of Egypt, Palestine and that of Saudi Arabia were
trying to assume the role but it was far from being real. More than unite Muslims; the restoration of the
caliphate has divided Muslim the more because views on the modalities and authorities differ.
Nationalism seems to have taken the upper hand. Rashid Rida 1865-1935 was the editor of Al-Manar
newspaper with which he called for the restoration of a pan-Islamic caliphate. Later on, ‛Abdul Nasser
of Egypt fought seriously for pan-Arabism from 1958-1961.

When the immediate restoration of the caliphate was not achieved there arose the formation of
different international Islamic organizations like: World Muslim Congress (1926), Arab League 1945,
Muslim World league (1962), Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC) 1969. Hizb al-Taḥrīr is a
political organization that is mainly devoted to the restoration of the universal Islamic caliphate. It was
founded in Jerusalem in 1953. The restoration of Muslims' political unity became more pressing with
the creation of the state of Israel in the middle of the Arab nations in 1948. In 1967 there was the
combined Arab war against Israel (six day war) but Israel defeated them. There was another surprise
attack on Israel by Egypt and Syria on Yom Kippur (holiest day in Judaism) in 1973. Israel was quick
to put herself together and was even at the verge of overrunning Cairo before United Nations
intervened. This led to the signing of peace treaty between Egypt (Anwar Sadat) and Israel (Menachem
Begin) in 1978. This is the Camp David Accord under the presidency of Jimmy Carter of USA.

After the collapse of the Islamic empire and the rise of the western powers, the Muslims kept on
asking themselves this very fundamental question: WHAT WENT WRONG ‫ ?ما أخطأ‬or WHO DID
THIS TO US ‫ ?من ضربنا‬Some answers include; the Mongols, the Ottomans, western imperialism,
America/West, Jews, etc. None of these answers were satisfactory and the Muslims had to look
inwards. Could it be their religion: Islam? God forbid ‫ ما شاء الله‬The final blame is therefore on
Muslims themselves. Some say they are too fanatical and majority believed that they departed from
true practice of Islam. The path to recovery therefore lies in going back to the glorious era of Islam.

ISLAM AND FUNDAMENTALISM ‫ أصول‬Uṣūl

Fundamentalism is a reaction to the loss of control of the world by Islam. Fundamentalists see return to
full practice of Islam (the past) as the only way that Muslims can regain control of the world. Why
have they lost control when the Qur’ān had told them that they are the best of all peoples created for
mankind (cf. Q.3:110). It should be noted that Muslims were pushed out of Spain in 1492 with the
conquest of Granada and later on in the same year, Christopher Columbus set out on the voyage that
discovered America. Were this to be carried out under Islamic rule, most part if not the whole of North
and South American continent would have been Muslim dominated. All these add to the frustration.
Fundamentalism should not be equated to terrorism. Terrorists feel that it is only through violence that
Islamic doctrines and position can be asserted but all fundamentalists don’t share the same view.

Islamic fundamentalists fight against the following: colonization, foreign interference in Islamic
territory, secularization, modern interpretation of the Qur’ān, moral decay in Islamic society, religious
laxity among Muslim leaders, the nation of Israel, the West etc. For Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966), the
prime enemy is the one within; the Muslims (especially rulers) who are cooperating with the foreigners
to suppress Islam and make it a private religion. Thus the contemporary Muslim society is evil and
need to be overthrown. This was done in Iran 1979 and Sudan in 1985.

Muḥammad Ibn ‛Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) of Saudi Arabia founded the puritanical Wahhabism.
Hasan al-Banna (1906-1949) of Egypt founded The Muslim Brotherhood in 1928. He is considered the
father of modern fundamentalism. From the Muslim Brotherhood came HAMAS of Palestine in 1987.
Abu ‛Ala Mawdudi (1903-1979) founded Jama‛at-l-Islamī in 1941 in Pakistan. He fought against the
British and the Hindus. In 1994 the Taliban fundamentalists came to power in Afghanistan. The
September 11, 2001 tragedy in USA is also a reaction of the violent fundamentalists.
 19
ISLAM AND MODERNISM ‫ حديث‬Ḥadīṯ
Modernizing is one of the responses to the big question of How do Muslims regain their position. The
battle seems to be equally drawn between those who support modernism and those who reject it.
Supporters claim that Muslims can only overcome the West with their own tool. From 1805- 1848,
Muḥammad ‛Alī tried to modernize Egypt by sending scholars to France. The Tanzimat of the
Ottomans (1839-1876) also took place as a response to modernism. The Iranian reformer Jamal al-Din
Al-Afghani (1839-1897) wanted to use modernization to counter European hegemony. Reason, for
him, can be used in interpreting the Qur’ān (Iğtihād ‫)اجتهاد‬. He is one of the brains behind the
Ottoman Tanzimāt. Modernizing learning is also a problem. Suliman Bashear (1947-1991) was thrown
out of the window of a 2 storey building by his own students in West Bank for saying that Islam
developed gradually from Judaism and Christianity and not purely a revelation. The Qur’ān was not
subjected to official printing until the 19th century. Earlier attempts were seen as defilement. Critical
study of the Qur’ān has continued to be a mirage. Taha Hussein of Egypt (1889-1973) after his study
in France wanted to apply philosophical methods in the study of the Qur’ān but was booted out of Al-
Azhar.

Some commentators say that Islam needs a similar reformation like that of the Protestants in
Christianity, before it can really embrace modernism. In 1959, the constitution of Tunisia under Prime
Minister Habib Bourguiba abolished the Šarī‛a but recognized Islam as the state religion. It prohibited
polygamy and extrajudicial divorce thus increasing women's right. Modernism sets secular leaders
against religious leaders who see it as going far away from Islamic principles. Most rulers try to
placate the religious leaders by making them part of their government and giving them remuneration.
Mohammed Daoud, prime minister of Afghanistan championed modernization and secularization in
the 1950's and 60's thus cracking down on the fundamentalists. Flourishing Islamic nations like UAE,
Kuwait, Singapore etc, have to tame fundamentalism in order to make any headway.

ISLAM AND MISSION ‫ دعوة‬Da‛awa

The prophet Muḥammad‫ ص‬called the Arabs to conversion to Islam. This invitation was later carried
outside the Arabian Peninsula. In the cause of history, there seemed to be a slack in this mission owing
to the fact that the Islamic religion could not be distinguished from the Islamic empire. The coercive
import of the empire made Islam to spread so fast since people passively became Muslims because of
the consequences of not submitting.

With the turn of events, when Muslims do not possess all the political power they need to promote
Islam, they have to recourse to evangelization which is termed da‛wa ‫ دعوة‬meaning invitation.
Sometimes tabligh ‫ تبليغ‬preaching is used. This becomes more imperative since in the world of the
21st century, what was applicable in the middle ages can no longer hold. In the early times, Islamic
battles were refered to as futūḥ - opening. Today inviting people peacefully through preaching and
lobbying is more in vogue. This is without prejudice to the fundamentalists who insist on turning the
whole world to Islam by force. Islam is not satisfied with a piece of land but the whole world.

The Qur’ān tells the Muslims to invite to Islam with kind words (cf.Q.16:125). The better in speech is
the one who calls to the way of Allāh and does good deeds (cf.Q.41:33). Let a group among you arise,
enjoining righteousness and forbidding evil (cf.Q. 3: 104 ). The Aḥmaddiyya group has a very sound
and modern system of preaching Islam. They don’t believe in Jihad as other Muslims do. Other
Muslim groups involved in Da‛wa include: The Muslim Brotherhood, Jama‛at Islamī, The Izala
Movement etc. The Nigerian Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, has a committee on Da‛awa. World
Islamic Call Society established in Tripoli in 1972 is the international Islamic agency for mission.
Muslims have realized that other coercive means can no longer be sustained in a pluralistic society.
The Christian missionary pattern of building schools, social and charitable amenities is being
employed by the Muslims. Grants are coming from Muslim countries especially Saudi Arabia and
organization all over the world and well meaning individuals.
 20
APPENDIX

THE ARABIAN/ISLAMIC CALENDAR ‫أشهر‬

The Islamic calendar follows the movement of the moon (Lunar) instead of the sun (Solar). This
means that the months are shorter and subsequently the year. This explains why the Islamic feasts
move round the year and the years can't be totally equivalent to the solar years. Four of the twelve
months are considered sacred: 1,7,11 & 12. The twelve months are:

1. Muḥarram — ‫المحّر م‬, "forbidden" — so called because it was unlawful (haram) to fight during
this month. The 10th of Muharram is the Day of Ashura.
2. Ṣafar — ‫صفر‬, "void" — supposedly named because pagan Arabs looted during this month and
left the houses empty. Fighting is forbidden in the three previous months.
3. Rabīʿ I (Rabīʿ al-Awwal) — ‫ربيع األّول‬, "the first spring".
4. Rabīʿ II (Rabīʿ ath-Thānī or Rabīʿ al-Ākhir) — ‫ ربيع الثاني‬or ‫ربيع اآلخر‬, "the second (or last)
spring".
5. Jumādā I (Jumādā al-Ūlā) — ‫جمادى األولى‬, "the first month of parched land". Often considered
the pre-Islamic "summer".
6. Jumādā II (Jumādā ath-Thāniya or Jumādā al-Ākhira) — ‫ جمادى الثانية‬or ‫جمادى اآلخرة‬, "the
second or last month of parched land".
7. Rajab — ‫رجب‬, "respect" or "honor". This is another sacred month in which fighting was
traditionally forbidden.
8. Shaʿbān — ‫شعبان‬, "scattered", marking the time of year when Arab tribes dispersed to find
water.
9. Ramaḍān — ‫رمضان‬, "scorched". Ramadan is the most venerated month of the Hijri calendar
during which Muslims must fast between dawn and sunset. The Qur'ān was revealed in this
month.
10. Shawwāl — ‫شّوال‬, "raised", as she-camels normally would be carrying a fetus at this time of
year.
11. Dhū al-Qaʿda — ‫ذو القعدة‬, "the one of truce". It was another month during which war was
banned.
12. Dhū al-Ḥijja — ‫ذو الحّج ة‬, "the one of pilgrimage", referring to the annual Muslim pilgrimage
to Mecca, the Hajj.