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NEW APPROACHES TO
BYZANTINE HISTORY AND CULTURE

The Reign of Constantine,

306–337
Continuity and Change in
the Late Roman Empire
Stanislav Doležal
New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture

Series Editors
Florin Curta, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Leonora Neville, University of Wisconsin Madison, Madison, WI, USA
Shaun Tougher, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture publishes high-quality
scholarship on all aspects of Byzantine culture and society from the fourth
to the fifteenth centuries, presenting fresh approaches to key aspects of
Byzantine civilization and new studies of unexplored topics to a broad
academic audience. The series is a venue for both methodologically
innovative work and ground-breaking studies on new topics, seeking to
engage medievalists beyond the narrow confines of Byzantine studies.
The core of the series is original scholarly monographs on various
aspects of Byzantine culture or society, with a particular focus on books
that foster the interdisciplinarity and methodological sophistication of
Byzantine studies. The series editors are interested in works that combine
textual and material sources, that make exemplary use of advanced
methods for the analysis of those sources, and that bring theoretical prac-
tices of other fields, such as gender theory, subaltern studies, religious
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 Stanislav Doležal

The Reign
of Constantine,
306–337
Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire
Stanislav Doležal
University of South Bohemia
České Budějovice, Czech Republic

ISSN 2730-9363 ISSN 2730-9371 (electronic)

New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture
ISBN 978-3-030-97463-3 ISBN 978-3-030-97464-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97464-0

1st edition: © University of South Bohemia Press 2020

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2022
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hereafter developed.
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in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
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To my family
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
References 16
2 Literary Sources on Constantine’s Time 19
Postscript: Sources for the Period 193–293 CE 40
References 41
3 The Illyrian Emperors 45
References 161
4 The First Tetrarchy (293–305 CE) 167
The Establishment and Functioning of a New Political
System 167
The First Tetrarchy (293–305 CE): The Emperors
and Relations Between Them, Their Travels, and Their
Cities of Residence 172
Important Political Events During the First Tetrarchy 179
Prefects and Prefectures 187
Provinces and Dioceses 193
Diocletian’s Army 196
Diocletian’s Monetary, Price, and Tax Reforms 200
The Persecution of Christians During the First Tetrarchy 211
References 217

vii
viii CONTENTS

5 Constantine’s Life up to 306 CE 221

The Problem of 305 CE 237
References 243
6 Britain 245
References 264
7 The Fight for the West 265
Constantine’s Invasion of Italy 286
The “Edict of Milan” 297
References 304
8 Licinius 307
The First War with Licinius 307
The Second War with Licinius 314
References 323
9 Crispus 325
Investigation 325
Analysis 332
References 339
10 The Final 10 Years 341
Prefectures 342
Dioceses and Provinces 346
Constantine’s Army 347
Constantine’s Court and the Sacrum Consistorium 349
Monetary and Tax System 355
Constantinople 360
Constantine as an Ecclesiastical Politician 365
War with the Goths 373
War with the Sarmatians 377
Ulfilas 381
Persia 385
Conclusion 389
References 391
11 Epilogue: The Death of Constantine and the Massacre
of His Relatives 397
References 405
 CONTENTS ix

Appendix A: Claudius Gothicus as a Purported Ancestor

of Constantine 407
Appendix B: The Panegyrici Latini 415
Appendix C: The Might of the Roman Army During
the Tetrarchy and the Constantinian Dynasty 419
Appendix D: Constantine’s Visions 429
Appendix E: The Year of Diocletian’s Death 439
Bibliography 443
Index of Names 463
Index of Nations and Terms 471
Index of Places 475
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 Abbreviations

Sources
Ambros. obit. Ambrosius, De obitu Theodosii
Amm. Marc. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae
Aug. civ. Aurelius Augustinus, De civitate Dei
Aur. Vict. Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus
Cons. Const. Consularia Constantinopolitana
Cypr. ep. Cyprianus, Epistulae
Dio Cassius Dio, Historiae Romanae
Epitome Epitome de Caesaribus
Euseb. HE Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica
Euseb. VC Eusebius, Vita Constantini
Eutr. Eutropius, Breviarium
Flav. Ant. Jud. Flavius Josephus, Antiquitates Judaicae
Herod. Herodianus, Ab excessu divi Marci
Hieron. Chron. Hieronymus (Jerome), Chronicon
Hieron. De vir. Hieronymus (Jerome), De viris illustribus
Chron. 354 Chronicle of the year 354 (Chronographus anni CCCLIIII )
Jord. Get. Jordanes, Getica
Jord. Rom. Jordanes, Romana
Julian. Caes. Julianus, Caesares
Julian. Or. Julianus, Orationes
Lact. mort. pers. Lactantius, De morte persecutorum
Lact. div. inst. Lactantius, Divinae institutiones
Malalas Joannes Malalas, Chronographia
Mater. Julius Firmicus Maternus, Mathesis

xi
xii ABBREVIATIONS

Optat. Carm. Publilius Optatianus Porfyrius, Carmina

Origo Origo Constantini imperatoris
Oros. Hist. Paulus Orosius, Historiae adversus paganos
Philost. HE Filostorgios, Historia ecclesiastica
Plin. epist. Pliny the Younger, Epistulae
Polem. Polemius Silvius, Laterculus
Socr. HE Socrates Scholasticus, Historia ecclesiastica
Soz. HE Sozomenus, Historia ecclesiastica
Suet. Aug. Suetonius, Divus Augustus
Suet. Dom. Suetonius, Domitianus
Suet. Jul. Suetonius, Divus Julius
Suet. Ner. Suetonius, Nero
Suet. Tib. Suetonius, Tiberius
Tac. Ann. Tacitus, Annales
Tac. Hist. Tacitus, Historiae
Tert. Apol. Tertullianus, Apologeticum
Theod. HE Theodoretus, Historia ecclesiastica
Theoph. Theophanes, Chronographia
Zon. Zonaras, Epitome historion
Zos. Zosimus, Historia nea

The lives of emperors in the Historia

Augusta (HA), listed chronologically
Hadrian. Hadrianus
Ael. Aelius
Anton. Pius Antoninus Pius
M. Aur. Marcus Aurelius
Avid. Cass. Avidius Cassius
Comm. Commodus
Pert. Pertinax
Did. Iul. Didius Julianus
Sev. Septimius Severus
Pesc. Nig. Pescennius Niger
Clod. Alb. Clodius Albinus
Carac. Caracalla
Macr. Macrinus
Diad. Diadumenus
Heliog. Heliogabalus
Alex. Sev. Alexander Severus
Maxim. Maximini duo
Gord. Gordiani tres
 ABBREVIATIONS xiii

Max. et Balb. Maximus et Balbinus

Valer. Valeriani duo
Gall. Gallieni duo
Tyr. trig. Tyranni triginta
Claud. Divus Claudius
Aurel. Divus Aurelianus
Tac. Tacitus
Prob. Probus
Quadr. tyr. Quadrigae tyrannorum
Car. Carus et Carinus et Numerianus
CJ Codex Justinianus
CTh Codex Theodosianus

Reference Works
PLRE I Jones, A. H. M. – Martindale, J. R. – Morris, J. (1971). The
Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. I (A.D. 260-395).
Cambridge.
RIC Roman imperial coinage (see Bibliography).
ILS Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, ed. H. Dessau, Berlin 1892–1916.
AE L´Année épigraphique. Revue des publications épigraphiques relatives a
l´Antiquité romaine, edd. R. Cagnat, A. Merlin, A. Chastagnol, et al.
(Paris 1888-).
List of Maps and Genealogical Charts

Genealogical Chart 3.1 The Severan dynasty 71

Genealogical Chart 4.1 Genealogy of Constantine’s line together
with the “extended tetrarchic family” 171
Genealogical Chart 9.1 A proposed connection between the houses
of Constantine and Licinius 339
Genealogical Chart A.1 Evolution of Constantinian
propaganda on the kinship proclaimed
between Constantine and Claudius II
413
Map 3.1 Map of provinces, important cities,
and legionary bases in the 3rd-century
Roman Empire. Ancient World Mapping
Center © 2020 (awmc.unc.edu). Used
by permission 47
Map 3.2 Map of provinces in the Roman Empire
and barbarian ethnic groups outside
the Empire in the third century.
Ancient World Mapping Center © 2020
(awmc.unc.edu). Used by permission 108
Map 4.1 Map of the Roman Empire’s dioceses
following Diocletian’s administrative
reforms at the end of the third century.
(Source Ancient World Mapping Center ©
2020 [awmc.unc.edu]. Used by permission) 194

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Despite its title, this book not only covers the political history of the
Roman Empire in the first third of the fourth century, but also describes
the entire previous century in order to make Constantine’s career easier to
grasp by placing it in a broader historical context. Apart from Constan-
tine, therefore, other important figures of the era—Gallienus, Aurelian,
and Diocletian among them—are discussed. Although these emperors
are separated by decades (by the time Constantine was born, Gallienus
was dead, the reigning emperor was Aurelian, and Diocletian was serving
in Aurelian’s army), the connections between them are clear enough:
Constantine would never have become “Great” if Diocletian had not
given his father Constantius the chance to become a member of the
tetrarchy; Diocletian himself could hardly have conceived of a division of
power in an empire that would be politically divided into three pieces;
Aurelian would never have been able to consolidate the empire if he
had not commanded the “new model army” created by Gallienus; and
Gallienus espoused the reforms of Septimius Severus, whose reign started
back in 193. We all stand on the shoulders of someone else, and when we
discuss Constantine, we should consider not only his father and mother,
but also the emperors of the third century. It would be near impossible
to fully understand the tetrarchic period and the Constantinian dynasty
without a detailed knowledge of the several decades’ worth of war, chaos,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Switzerland AG 2022
S. Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337,
New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97464-0_1
2 S. DOLEžAL

and social changes that preceded it. And just as the lessons of the tetrarchy
are necessary to understand the time of Constantine, so a summary of
third-century political events provides a natural introduction to the time
of the tetrarchy.1 Furthermore, all these stages are intertwined, and in this
book they are perceived as a single coherent whole that avoids accentu-
ating any milestones; not even the year 284, usually considered to be the
beginning of the Late Roman Empire.2
And yet, out of deference to the practice for history books to be broken
down into chapters, certain dividing lines did have to be established. This
was an easy task in Chapters 5–11: they simply cover successive periods
of Constantine’s life. With Chapter 1 describing the literary sources used
in my work and Chapter 4 dealing with the first tetrarchy (293–305),
Chapter 3 is best placed to serve as a historical introduction to the period
of the tetrarchy. By reaching back precisely a hundred years into the
past to the dawn of the tetrarchy, we witness the end of the relatively
peaceful times of the Antonine dynasty and the beginning of Septimius
Severus’ reign (193). These hundred years, with a particular emphasis on
the empire’s period of crisis (approximately 250–290), seem to be the
most suitable lead-in to the times of Constantine.
In a sense, this book is dedicated to the “Illyrian Emperors”, i.e. those
emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised,
and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268–
270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270–275), and
Probus (276–282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and
his two sons (282–284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-
ians continued their run with Diocletian (284–305) and three of his
colleagues: Maximian (285–305), Constantius (293–306), and Galerius
(293–311). A 4th-century historian said of them: “Illyricum was actually
the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture,
they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the

1 The date on which the tetrarchy began is known and undisputed: 1 March 293. Its
end is less clear, but probably came in the year 310 (see Chapter 7).
2 As the reader will find out in Chapters 3 and 4, Diocletian’s reign was far from
secure in 284 and it took him several years to become the undisputed master of the
whole empire. For a general evaluation of this period, see Cameron (1993, 1–4).
3 Technically, the first Illyrian Emperor was Decius (249–251), who was born in
Pannonia.
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state”.4 This
is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305–307), Maximinus
Daia (305–313), Licinius (308–324), and Constantine himself (306–337)
can also be counted among them.5 Apart from Constantine, these twelve
emperors created no dynasties, and in most cases they were not even
related. Nevertheless, their dominance of the period described in this
book means they merit detailed attention. They had much in common:
the geographical area in which they were born, and their (mostly) low
birth, paucity, or entire absence of education, considerable military expe-
rience, and similar approach to problem-solving. One of the aims of this
book is to point up how Constantine belonged to this group.
Constantine was an excellent general, as was to be expected of an
Illyrian Emperor, but on top of that he also was a brilliant politician.
As a military leader, he routinely defeated the barbarians, be they Franks,
Alamanni, Sarmatians, or Goths, and he emerged victorious from every
civil war he took part in. As a politician, he managed to survive the diffi-
cult first six years of his reign (306–312), during which he proved to
be patient, cautious, and astute, and succeeded in avoiding any damage
to his career from the collapse of the third and fourth tetrarchies (see
Chapter 4). Even if the tetrarchy is viewed as an experiment that failed (or
that was bound to fail), Constantine is still someone who was in no small
way responsible for the dissolution of this interesting system of govern-
ment. He could even be said to have built his political career on the ruins
of the tetrarchy, constantly trying to gain more political benefit for himself
and for his nascent dynasty. From 312, he was the undisputed master
of the West, and from 324 he ruled the whole empire. The only way
to explain his remarkable achievements is that he had an extraordinary
flair for war and politics. But that is not the whole story; Constan-
tine was successful in many other areas as well. He carried on many of
Diocletian’s reforms and continued to reform the empire’s administra-
tive, military, monetary, and fiscal systems. His founding of a dynasty and
of the city of Constantinople, and above all his adherence to Christianity,

4 Aur. Vict. 39, 26. Translation: Bird (1994, 43).

5 Most of these twelve emperors came from the area of present-day Serbia (Probus,
Maximian, Galerius, Maximinus Daia, Constantine, and probably also Claudius II, Quin-
tillus, and Severus), or from the area between north-eastern Serbia and north-western
Bulgaria (Aurelian, Constantius, and Licinius). Diocletian was born much further west, in
the territory of present-day Croatia.
4 S. DOLEžAL

presaged the completely new direction that the empire would take. This
book stops short of those developments, however, by ending shortly after
Constantine’s death (save for a brief epilogue about the Constantinian
dynasty).
There is one glaring problem in any assessment of Constantine’s
personality, accomplishments, and significance. He is generally defined
and viewed through his religious policy, which, it seems, not only sepa-
rates him from his predecessors but completely overshadows everything
else. Whereas Diocletian and some of the other tetrarchs persecuted the
Christians, Constantine not only became Christian, but also, in the second
half of his reign, acted as if he were one of the bishops. And yet, Chris-
tianity aside, Constantine was in many ways a typical Illyrian Emperor
who had much in common with the other emperors mentioned above. A
perfect example of a supposed counterpart of Constantine would be Aure-
lian. Constantine himself denounced Aurelian for his alleged persecution
of Christians,6 but if we compare their approaches to ruling the empire,
we find that they tried to deal with similar problems with similar solu-
tions and resembled each other probably more than Constantine would
have been willing to admit. Not only were they born in the same area,
but both succeeded in politically unifying the Empire, tried to reform the
coinage, and preferred a single particular god. Furthermore, they defeated
both external and internal enemies in vigorous military campaigns, and
mercilessly suppressed all resistance to their rule (not to mention that
both would later be rumoured to be cruel and greedy).7
Because of his adherence to Christianity, Constantine has proved a
battlefield of historical interpretations for more than 150 years. In the
middle of the nineteenth century, the great Swiss historian Jacob Burck-
hardt viewed Constantine as essentially a completely non-religious man
(“ganz wesentlich unreligiös”), driven only by his desire for power.8 Since
then, many scholars, frequently motivated by their own religious beliefs,
have expressed opinions on this issue.9 This debate is, I believe, largely

6 Constantini imperatoris Oratio ad coetum sanctorum 24.

7 To be sure, there were matters in which they differed, such as their treatment of the
political opponents they had defeated: while Tetricus and Zenobia were allowed to live out
their lives peacefully, Licinius was executed together with his young son (see Chapters 3
and 8).
8 Burckhardt (1853, 389); cf. Burckhardt (1949, 292).
9 For more on this debate, see Chapter 7 and Appendix D.
 1 INTRODUCTION 5

irrelevant. There is no reason to question the sincerity of Constantine’s

conversion to Christianity or the genuineness of his faith: Constantine
was undoubtedly a Christian. But he also was a soldier and a politician,
and many of his political decisions were “religiously neutral”, i.e. it was
irrelevant whether, in making them, he was a pagan or Christian.10 In
addition, as the pontifex maximus , he was responsible for all the cults
of the Roman Empire, which was still predominantly pagan. Besides, the
Christian faith, as Constantine himself persuasively showed by his own
actions, is fully compatible with political assassinations, wars, massacres,
cruelty, ruthlessness, and an insatiable desire for ever more power.11
As this book is largely about politics, the legitimacy of the emperors
ruling during the period it covers and of Constantine’s rise to impe-
rial power is an important political issue. Many of the emperors ruling
in the third century acquired imperial power by simply usurping it; any
precise figure would be open to debate, but it was roughly half the
total. Usurpation typically involved a general in a province persuading
his troops, usually with the lure of money and promises, to elevate him to
imperial power (for many such cases, see Chapter 3). If the usurper subse-
quently took control of Rome and the whole empire, won the backing
of the senate, and eliminated his potential rivals, he became a legiti-
mate emperor. This course of action became the norm after the year 193
and was prevalent until the time of the tetrarchy. After 293, however,
it was virtually impossible for a usurper to gain legitimacy when he was
up against four legitimate emperors. He could not realistically hope to
contribute to the ruling of the empire in a situation where it was unthink-
able for there to be more than exactly four legitimate emperors. When
the tetrarchy began to collapse, not least because of the usurpations by
Constantine and Maxentius in 306, the college of emperors—or at least its
senior emperor—could rule that a usurper had gained legitimacy provided
that the resulting number of emperors remained at four. Chapter 6 anal-
yses how Constantine began as a usurper; the next chapters trace his career
further and examine how he became a tetrarch, then one of only three
legitimate emperors, then one of just two, and finally the sole ruler.

10 The great Theodor Mommsen (2005, 518) even wrote: “Ob Constantin selbst Christ
geworden oder nicht, ist ganz gleichgültig; seine privaten Überzeugungen bilden nur ein
geringes Moment”.
11 Not to mention that Constantine himself persecuted Christians (see Chapter 7).
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6 S. DOLEžAL

If we were to group usurpers by how successful they were, the ones

who failed are particularly rife. Chapter 3 contains many obscure names
of usurpers who never achieved legitimacy or never ruled any area of
the empire for long. Then there were partially successful usurpers who
ruled a part of the empire for an extended period but never gained legit-
imacy (Carausius, for example, created an empire in Britain that lasted
several years). Successful usurpers may have ruled the entire empire fleet-
ingly (e.g. Macrinus, emperor for a single year) or for many years (e.g.
Septimius Severus reigned for 17 years). Constantine was one of the
most successful usurpers in the history of the Roman Empire because
he not only ruled for 30 years himself, but he also founded a dynasty that
spanned 57 years and had a profound impact on the history of the empire.
Nevertheless, the beginnings of Constantine’s career were difficult, and
his path to power in the West in 306–312 might even be described as a
search for a source of alternative legitimacy (see Chapters 6 and 7).
In their political struggles, the cast of this story, including Constantine,
availed themselves of whatever political weapons were at their disposal.
Aside from the obvious benefits of propaganda, attested on coins, inscrip-
tions, and in many literary works (especially panegyrics), there was also the
consecratio, or deification, of an emperor and its exact opposite: damnatio
memoriae, or condemnation.12 The senate was responsible for carrying
out these acts, but they were, of course, ordered by the succeeding
emperor.13 Deification came into play when the new emperor wanted
to bolster his legitimacy by emphasising continuity with the reign of his
predecessor. This honour could, however, be taken back after some time.
Although deification was inherently pagan, even the Christian Constan-
tine was consecrated after his death, and this practice lasted until the fifth
century (and in the Eastern Empire until as late as the sixth century).14
Damnatio memoriae was employed whenever the new emperor wanted
to distance himself from the previous ruler in order to boost his own claim
to rule. It involved the removal or attempted removal of all mentions of

12 This term was not used in antiquity, but it has gained currency in modern literature,
and is therefore used here. The original term was abolitio nominis (“removal of the
name”).
13 Although both acts did not occur until after the death of the emperor in question,
the beginnings of the adoration of a living emperor can be discerned in the third century
(see Chapter 3) and in the time of the tetrarchy (see Chapter 4).
14 Kienast, Römische Kaisertabelle, 53.
 1 INTRODUCTION 7

the hapless former emperor from public inscriptions; not only that, but
his statues were overthrown and images destroyed. However, this prac-
tice was not carried out thoroughly, and the condemned emperor did not
disappear from the world altogether. As with deification, damnatio could
be repealed over time, paving the way for rehabilitation and perhaps re-
deification. This was the case, for example, of the emperor Maximian, who
revolted against his son-in-law Constantine in 310 and faced condem-
nation. Later, however, he was rehabilitated by Constantine (clearly
for political reasons) and commemorated on Constantine’s coins as the
“divine Maximian” (see Chapter 7). The case of another of Constantine’s
relatives, his own son Crispus, who suffered damnatio memoriae in 326
and was never rehabilitated, seems to be a complete mystery (which I try
to solve in Chapter 9).
The way emperors had themselves represented was another impor-
tant element of politics in the late empire. Of course, emperors exploited
self-representation for propaganda, an art mastered by Constantine. He
can even be said to have had his own propaganda machine, consisting
primarily of literary works propagandistic in their nature that were written
during his own lifetime, such as the Panegyrici Latini (five of which
were written for Constantine in the years 307–321), Lactantius’ De mort-
ibus persecutorum, Eusebius’ Historia ecclesiastica, Vita Constantini and
Laus Constantini, the poems of Publilius Optatianus Porfyrius, the extant
fragment of Praxagoras’ history, and the Origo Constantini imperatoris
(the date of composition of which is, admittedly, unknown). Certain later
authors—such as Aurelius Victor, Socrates Scholasticus, Sozomenus, the
Epitome de Caesaribus , and Jerome—were influenced by Constantine’s
propaganda to varying degrees and should therefore be included as well.
This propaganda machine was obviously not built to tell the truth.
Constantine, an astute politician, utilised any political tool available to
him to his advantage, particularly during the first half of his reign, when
he was fighting for his survival. These tools included half-truths, base-
less assertions, and outright lies. Timothy D. Barnes listed some of these
political lies, which he called ”official lies” (e.g. fabrications designed
to strengthen Constantine’s political position), but omitted or neglected
other instances where Constantine or his propaganda machine demon-
strably fashioned lies or deceptions. Here are some of Constantine’s
”official lies” as listed by Barnes:
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su madre traigo en los brazos.
Adivina lo que puede ser.

Irish Folk-lore Riddles, 70:

O’er the gravel I do travel,
On the oak I do stand,
I ride a mare that never was foaled,
And hold the bridle in my hand.

—A sailor on board ship.

See Story No. 26, p. 33. ↑
71 Cf. Nursery Rhymes of England (Halliwell), 93.
Irish Folk-lore Riddles, 68.
Holme riddles, 223:
(27) j have a little boy in a white cote the bigger he is the lesser he goes. ↑
72 Cf. West Highlands (Campbell), 2:419:
Totaman, Totaman, little black man,
Three feet under and bonnet of wood.

Welsh-Gypsy:
Black within and black without,
Four legs an’ a iron cap.

Lincolnshire Riddles (Notes and Queries, 3rd series, VIII), page 503, etc. ↑
73 Cf. Nursery Rhymes of England (Halliwell), page 92.
Irish Folk-lore Riddles: 68.
Hitly, Hatly etc. ↑
74 Cf. Holme riddles, 230: 232:
(82) What is that that is round as a cup yet all my lord oxen cannot draw it up.
—A well.
Canadian, Ontario, JAFL 31: 67:
Round as a well, deep as a bowl, long handle, little hole.
—A frying-pan.
Yorkshire (Notes and Queries 3rd series, 8: 325). ↑
75 Cf. Nursery Rhymes of England (Halliwell), 96:
CLV. Highty, tighty, paradighty clothed in green,
The king could not read it, no more could the queen;
They sent for a wise man out of the east,
Who said it had horns but wasn’t a beast.

—Holly tree.
Lancashire (Notes and Queries, 3rd series, IX), 86:
Itum Paraditum all clothed in green, etc.
—Parrot. ↑
76 Canadian, Ontario, JAFL 31: 68.
Brown I am and much admired;
Many horses have I tired;
Tire a horse and worry a man;
Tell me this riddle if you can.

77 Lincolnshire Riddles (Notes and Queries, 3rd series, VIII), 503:

Hickamore, ’ackamore
Sits over th’ kitchen-door,
Nothing so long, and nothing so strong
As Hickamore, ’ackamore,
Sits over th’ kitchen-door.

—A cloud. ↑
78 Cf. Lincolnshire Riddles (Notes and Queries, 3rd series, VIII), 503.
Canadian, Ontario, 68. ↑
79 Cf. Popular Rhymes of Scotland (Chambers), III.
English: New Collection, 14.
Riddler, 18, etc. ↑
80 Cf. Popular Rhymes of Scotland (Chambers), 108. ↑
81 Ascribed to Charles James Fox (1749–1806) in Modern Sphinx 17.
Cf. Nursery Rhymes of England (Halliwell), 91.
Canadian, Ontario, 70. ↑
82 Cf. Canadian, Ontario, 69:
English: Fashionable Puzzler, 58:
In marble walls as white as milk,
Lined with a skin as soft as silk,
Within a fountain crystal clear,
A golden apple doth appear.
No doors there are to this strong hold,
Yet thieves break in and steal the gold.

83 Cf. English: Puniana, 34, etc. ↑

84 Cf. English: New Collection, 13:
XXI. Three-fourth of a cross and a circle complete,
Two semi-circles and a perpendicular meet,
A triangle standing on two feet,
Two semi-circles and circle complete.

English: Fashionable Puzzler, 241, etc. ↑

85 Cf. English: Puzzles Old and New, 320:
From a number that’s odd cut off its head,
It then will even be,
Its tail, I pray, next take away,
Your mother then you’ll see.

English: Puniana, 99, etc. ↑

86 Cf. English: Riddler, 12.
English: Puniana, 217, etc. ↑
87 Cf. English: Puniana, 217.
Porto Rican (Mason and Espinosa):
342. Una en un minuto, dos en un momento, y ninguna en un siglo. ↑
88 Cf. Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales (Halliwell), 143:
10. What God never sees,
What the King seldom sees,
What we see every day,—
Read my riddle, I pray.
Irish Folk-lore Riddles:
(Gaelic) I sought for it and found it, ’twas easy its finding,
The thing that God never found and never can find.

Welsh-Gypsy, 247:
What is it God does not see, etc.
Catalan, 80:
CVI. Qu’es aixó?
Lo pastò’ ho veu á la montanya
y no ’u veu lo rey de Espanya.

Porto Rican (Mason and Espinosa); 300. ↑

89 Cf. Booke of Merry Riddles (Halliwell):
LXIII. What is that no man would have and yet when he hath it will not forgoe it?
—A broken head.
Irish Folk-lore Riddles: 74:
I have it and I don’t think much of it; but if I had it not, there would be great grief on
me. ↑
90 Cf. No. 106, p. 195.
English: New Collection, 180:
There is a thing was three weeks old
When Adam was no more;
This thing it was but four weeks old
When Adam was four-score.

Irish and Anglo-Irish: Folk-lore Riddles, 76.

Canadian, Ontario, 70. ↑
91 Cf. Porto Rican (Mason and Espinosa):
389. Qué es lo que el muerto come, que si el vivo lo come se muere también? ↑
92 Cf. Porto Rican (Mason and Espinosa):
90 (Cf. 17) En el mundo no lo hubo,
en la tierra no se halló;
Dios, con ser Dios no lo tuyo,
y un hombre a Dios se lo dió.
New-Mexican Spanish, 321:
Se que en el cielo no lo hubo,
siendo Dios quien lo inventó;
y si el mismo Dios lo tuvo,
fué un hombre quien se lo dió.
[Contents]
 INDEX TO RIDDLES.
Ackee, 46, 68, 121, 174.

Andrew, 206.

Annata, 45.

Anne, (205), (208). 1

Ants, 192.

Ants’ nest, 81.

Ashes, 98.

Axe, 100.

Bag, 27.

Baking-pan, 125, 171.

Bald head, (256).

Bamboo, 109.

Bammie, 122, 125, 171.

Banana leaf, 20, 113.

Banana shoot, 114.

Bananas, bunch of, 13.

Baptism, (264).

Bed, (240).

Bird, 128.

Birth, 9, 88, 180.

Blacking, 196.

Boot, 151, 170, 183.

Bottle, 96, 133, 187.

Bottle of ale, 148.

Bottle and cork, 37.

Bottles packed in straw, 49.

Bridge, (260).

Broom, 191, 197.

Brush, 195, 196.

Butter, 155.

Can, 108.

Candle, (228).

Castor-oil bean, 14, 48, 95, 153.

Cat, 178.

Chickens, 182.

Child, 159.

Clock, 72, 97.

Cloud, 57, 134.

Cloud and stars, 46.

Cocoanut, 63, 83, 135, 175, 188, 200.

Coco leaf, 18.

Coffee, 111, 172.

Coffee-pot, 51, 116.

Coffee-pulper, 10.

Cooking-pot, 42, 50, 110, 123, 124, 130, 139, 161, (229).

Cord, 23.

Cork, and bottle, 37.

Corn, and rat, 177.

Corn-ear, 103.

Corn-grain, 66.

Cow, 181, 184.

Crow, 102, 127.

Daughter, (266).

Debt, 118.

Dew and sweat, 79.

Dog, 8, (202).

Dog-flea, 30.

Duckanoo, (236).

Ear, 60.

Ear of corn, 103.

Earth, 134.

Earthquake, 82.

Egg, 25, 26, 70, 86, (230), (237), (244), (265).

Equal, (255).
Eve, (238).

Eye, 17, 168.

Eye-lashes, 168.

Feather, 127, 128.

Fingers, 16, 80.

Fingers catching lice, 67.

Finger-nail, 163. [220]

Fire, 39, 65, 98, 123, 124, 125, 141, 171.

Fire-stones, 139.

Flea, 30, 190, (241).

Fly, 129.

Foot, 151.

Frying-pan, 28, 167.

Goat, 199.

Grass-quit, 1.

Grater, 69.

Grave, 22.

Griddle, 122, 125, 171.

Guitar, 137.

Gum, 126.

Gun, 7, 146.

Gungo peas, 43.

Hawk, 119.

Heaven, 134.

Hen, 182.

Hole, 64, 179, (231).

Horse-shoe nail, 90, 179.

Hunger, 117.

Ink on paper, 71, 120.

Jigger, 160.

Jonah and the whale, (239).

Kasava, root, 85.

Key, 189.

Ladder, 99.

Lamb, 201.

Lamp, 166.

Letter M, (254).

Lice, 41, 67.

Lock, 189.

Lot’s wife, (263).

Mat, 165.

Match-box and match, 35.

Mile-posts, 94.

Mill-rollers, 138.
Moon, 53, 58, 78, 106, 107, 152, (257).

Nail, finger, 163.

Nail, in a house, 47, 101.

Nail, horse-shoe, 90, 179.

Needles, 52.

Needle and thread, 3, 4, 33, 34, 140, 193, 194.

Newspaper, 144.

Nipples, 180.

Nothing, (267).

Onion, 173.

Orange, 76.

Ox, (246).

Paper, 71, 120.

Parrot, (232).

Peas, Gungo, 43.

Pepper, 131.

Pig, (202), (203), (204).

Pingwing, 19.

Pipe, 5, 73, 142.

Pot, coffee, 51, 116.

Pot, cooking, 42, 50, 110, 123, 124, 130, 139, 161, (229).

Pumpkin-vine, 15, 115, 147, 162.

Purse, 154.

Rainbow, 176.

Rat, and cat, 178.

Rat, and corn, 177.

Riddle, (243).

Ring, 62, 158, (242).

Road, 156, 198.

Roof, 2.

Rooster, 77, 143.

Saddle, 91, (234).

Saw, 157.

Scissors, 12, 38.

Sea, 105, 136.

Secret, (259).

Ship, at sea, 136.

Sieve, 21.

Smoke, 98, 141, 164, 185, 186.

Snail, 36.

Soil, 87.

Spark, 98.

Stars, 54, 55, 56.

Steelyard, 6.
Stockings, 169.

Stove, 11.

Strings, of a guitar, 137.

Stump, 187.

Sugar-cane, 61, 149, 150.

Sun, 104, (245).

Sunshine, (235).

Sweat, and dew, 79. [221]

Talking-machine, 112.

Teats, 181.

Teeth, 31, 32, 126.

Thunder, 145.

Tin can, 108.

Tobacco, (247).

Toes, 183.

Tongue, 32.

Tooth, 126.

Train, of cars, 89.

Trash, 75.

Tree, 40.

Tree, climbing a, 74, 135, 188.

Trousers, 84.
Tumblers, 29.

Turn-stick, 130, 161.

Umbrella, 59.

Water, (233).

Wheel, buggy, 24, 92, 93.

Wife, 9, 88, 159, (258).

Wife, Lot’s, (263).

Witch, 209.

Women, (261).

Woodpecker, 44, 132. [223]

1 Numbers enclosed within parentheses belong to the last group and are not strictly Jamaica folk riddles. ↑

[Contents]
 ABBREVIATIONS OF TITLES.

[Contents]

1. Jamaica references.

Bates, Creole Folk-lore from Jamaica; I. Proverbs; II. Nancy

JAFL 1 9 stories; by William C. Bates. JAFL 9: 38–42; 121–126.
1896.
Bell Obeah, by H. J. Bell. London 1889.
Cundall FL 2 Folk-lore of the Negroes of Jamaica, by Frank Cundall.
15, 16 FL 15: 87–94; 206–214; 450–456; 16: 68–77. 1904,
1905.
Jekyll Jamaica Song and Story, by Walter Jekyll, with an
introduction by Alice Werner. Publications Folk-Lore
Society 55, London, 1907.
Lewis Journal of a West India Proprietor (1815–1817), by
Matthew Gregory Lewis. London, 1834.
Milne- Mama’s Black Nurse Stories, by Mrs. M. P. Milne-
Home Home. Edinburgh & London, 1890.
Musgrave, Ananci Stories, furnished by W. A. S. Musgrave. FLR 3,
FLR 3 3 pt. pt. 1; 53–54. London, 1880.
1
Newell, Abstracts from Milne-Home, by W. W. Newell. JAFL 9:
JAFL 9 126–128. 1896.
Robinson, Obeah Worship in East and West Indies: in Jamaica, by
FL 4 May Robinson. 207–213. 1893.
Smith Anancy Stories, by Pamela Coleman Smith. New York,
1899.
Smith, Two Negro Stories from Jamaica, by Pamela Coleman
JAFL 9 Smith. 278.
Trowbridge, Negro Customs and Folk-stories of Jamaica, by Ada
JAFL 9 Wilson Trowbridge. 279–287. 1896.
Udal, FL 26 Obeah in the West Indies, by J. S. Udal. 253–295.
London, 1915. [224]
Wake, FLJ Ananci Stories (abstracts from Lewis), by C. Staniland
1 Wake. FLJ 1: 280–292. London, 1883.
Wona Selection of Ananci Stories, by Wona (Mrs. Charles
Wilson). Kingston, 1899.

[Contents]

2. General References.

Arcin La Guinée française, by André Arcin. Paris, 1907.

Backus, Animal Tales from North Carolina, by Emma M.
JAFL 11 Backus. JAFL 11: 284–291. 1898.
Backus, Tales of the Rabbit from Georgia Negroes, by Emma M.
JAFL 12 Backus. JAFL 12: 108–115. 1899.
Backus, Folk-tales from Georgia, by Emma M. Backus. JAFL
JAFL 13 13: 19–32. 1900.
Backus, Negro Tales from Georgia, collected by Mrs. Backus &
JAFL 25 Mrs. Leitner. 125–136. 1912.
Barker West African Folk-tales, by W. H. Barker & Cecilia
Sinclair. London, 1917.
Basset, 1 Contes Populaires Berbères, by René Basset.
Collection de Contes et de Chansons Populaires 12,
 Paris, 1887.
Basset, 2 Nouveaux Contes Berbères, by René Basset.
Collection de Contes et de Chansons Populaires 23,
Paris, 1897.
Bérenger- Contes Populaires de la Senegambia, by L. J. B.
Féraud Bérenger-Féraud. Collection de Contes et de
Chansons Populaires 9, Paris, 1885.
Bleek Reynard the Fox in South Africa; or Hottentot Fables
and Tales, by Wilhelm Heinrich Imanuel Bleek. London,
1864.
Bleek, Specimens of Bushman Folk-lore, by W. H. I. Bleek,
Bushman edited by Lucy C. Lloyd, with an introduction by George
McCall Theal. London, 1911.
Boas, JAFL Notes on Mexican Folk-lore, by Franz Boas. JAFL 25:
25 204–260. 1912.
Boas and Tales and Proverbs of the Vandau of Portuguese S.
Simango, Africa. JAFL 35: 151–204. [225]
JAFL 35
Bolte und Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- und Hausmärchen der
Polívka Brüder Grimm. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1913–1918.
Bundy, Folk-tales from Liberia, by Richard C. Bundy. JAFL 32.
JAFL 32 406–427. 1919.
Callaway Nursery Tales, Traditions and History of the Zulus, by
H. Callaway. London 1868.
Chatelain Folk-tales of Angola, by Héli Chatelain. MAFLS 4 1.
1894.
Christensen Afro-American Folk-lore. Told around cabin fires of the
Sea Islands of South Carolina, by A. M. H. Christensen.
Boston, 1892.
Cleare, Four Folk-tales from Fortune Islands, Bahamas, by
JAFL 30 W. T. Cleare. JAFL 30: 228–229. 1917.
Cronise Cunnie Rabbit, Mr. Spider and the other Beef. West
and Ward African Folk-tales, by Florence M. Cronise and Henry
W. Ward. London & New York, 1903.
Dayrell Folk-stories from Southern Nigeria, West Africa, by
Elphinstone Dayrell, with an introduction by Andrew
Lang. London, 1910.
Dähnhardt Natursagen, by Oskar Dähnhardt, Leipzig, 1907–1912.
Dennett Notes on the Folk-lore of the Fjort (French Congo), by
R. E. Dennett. Publications Folk-Lore Society 41,
London, 1897.
Edwards Bahama Songs and Stories, by Charles L. Edwards.
MAFLS 3, 1895.
Ellis, Tshi The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast of West
Africa, by Alfred Burdon Ellis. London, 1887.
Ellis, Ewe The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West
Africa. London, 1890.
Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of
Yoruba West Africa. London, 1894.
Elmslie FL Folk-lore Tales of Central Africa (Nyassaland), by D.
3 Elmslie. FL 3: 92–110. 1892.
Ernst, Tio Tigre y Tio Conejo (Venezuela), by A. Ernst. Verh.
VBGAEU Berlin Ges. Anthrop., Ethn. u. Urgesch. 20: 274–278.
20 [226]

Espinosa, New-Mexican Spanish Folk-lore, by Aurelio M.

JAFL 24, Espinosa. JAFL 24: 397–444; 27: 119–147. 1911, 1914.
27
Espinosa, Comparative Notes on Spanish Folk-tales, JAFL 27:
JAFL 27 211–231. 1914.
Espinosa, Folk-tales of the Tepecanos, collected by J. Alden
JAFL 27 Mason, edited by Aurelio M. Espinosa. JAFL 27: 148–
210. 1914.
Espinosa, Folk-tales from Oaxaca, collected by Paul Radin, edited
JAFL 28 by Aurelio Espinosa. JAFL 28: 390–408. 1915.
Ferrand Contes Populaires Malgaches, by Gabriel Ferrand.
Collection de Contes et de Chansons Populaires 19,
Paris, 1893.
Fortier Louisiana Folk-tales in the French Dialect and English
Translation, by Alcée Fortier. MAFLS 2, 1895.
Frobenius Volksmärchen der Kabylen, by Leo Frobenius, Jena,
1921.
Frazer, FLJ A South African Red Riding-Hood, by J. S. Frazer. FLJ
7 7: 167–168.
Harris, Uncle Remus and His Friends. Boston & New York,
Friends 1892.
Harris, Nights with Uncle Remus. Boston & New York, 1911.
Nights
Harris, Uncle Remus, His Songs and His Sayings, by Joel
Uncle Chandler Harris. New York & London, 1919.
Remus
Hartt Amazonian Tortoise Myths, by Charles F. Hartt. Rio de
Janeiro, 1875.
Hollis, The Masai, Their Language and Folk-lore, by A. C.
Masai Hollis. Oxford, 1905.
Hollis, The Nandi, Their Language and Folk-lore. Oxford,
Nandi 1909.
Jacottet Treasury of Basuto Lore, by E. Jacottet. Part 1. Folk-
tales of the Basuto, South Africa & London, 1908.
Johnston, Two Negro Tales (Louisiana), by Mrs. William Preston
JAFL 9 Johnston. JAFL 9: 194–198. 1896.
Jones Negro Myths from the Georgia Coast, by C. C. Jones.
Boston & New York, 1888. [227]
Junod Les Chants et les Contes des Ba-Ronga de la Baie de