ME - 412

HEAT & MASS TRANSFER

Arranged By
PROF. DR. ASAD NAEEM SHAH
UET LAHORE
[email protected]
RADIATION HEAT
TRANSFER

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 THERMAL RADIATION
▪ Thermal radiation is a part of electromagnetic radiation that is
emitted by a body as a result of its temperature. There are
many types of electromagnetic radiation including thermal
radiation. A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is shown
in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Electromagnetic spectrum. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 THERMAL RADIATION Cont.
▪ Thermal radiation lies in the range from about 0.1 to 100 𝜇𝑚,
while the visible-light portion of the spectrum is very narrow,
extending from about 0.35 to 0.75 𝜇𝑚.
▪ Regardless of the type, radiation is propagated at the speed of
light, 3 × 108 m/s. This speed is denoted by “c”, and is equal
to the product of the wavelength (𝜆) and frequency (𝜈) of the
radiation i.e.,
𝑐 = 𝜆𝜈 →→ (1)
▪ The unit for 𝜆 may be centimeters, angstroms (1 Å = 10−8
cm), or micrometers ( 1 𝜇𝑚 = 10−6 𝑚).

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 THERMAL RADIATION Cont.
▪ The propagation of thermal radiation takes place in the form
of discrete quanta, each quantum having an energy of
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 →→ (2)
where ℎ is Planck’s constant and has the value
ℎ = 6.625 × 10−34 J. s
▪ As radiation propagation may be described as a particle
(quantum) having energy, mass, and momentum, so radiation
energy may also be expressed as:
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 →→ (3)
▪ Comparing Eqn. (2) & (3):
𝑚𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈
ℎ𝜈
⇒ 𝑚 = 2 →→ (4)
𝑐
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 THERMAL RADIATION Cont.
▪ Thus
ℎ𝜈
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑚𝑐 = →→ 5 [𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑞𝑛. 4 ]
𝑐
▪ Apart from the radiation discussion in terms of energy
density or energy per unit volume and per unit wavelength
(as per principles of quantum-statistical thermodynamics),
we are interested in energy exchange of radiation.
▪ Therefore, the expression of radiation in terms of its
temperature i.e., radiant exchange of one surface with the
other is very important from subject point of view.

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 CONCEPT OF BLACK BODY
▪ A blackbody is the body that absorbs all radiation incident
upon it. The concept of a blackbody is an idealization i.e., a
perfect blackbody does not exist—all surfaces reflect
radiation to some extent.
▪ However, materials which obey the Stefan-Boltzmann law
(i.e., 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4 ) appear black to the eye as they are
considered not to reflect any radiation. Here, 𝐸𝑏 represents
the emissive power of a blackbody.
▪ The “blackness” of a surface to thermal radiation can be
quite deceiving as far as visual observations are concerned.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 CONCEPT OF BLACK BODY Cont.
▪ A surface coated with lampblack appears black not to the
eye but also for the thermal-radiation spectrum.
▪ However, snow and ice appear quite bright to the eye but
are essentially “black” for long-wavelength thermal
radiation.
▪ Similarly, many white paints are also essentially black for
long-wavelength radiation. So, this fact may mislead to
the observers for the common understanding of a black
body.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 RADIATION PROPERTIES
➢ Radiation H.T: Transfer of heat without any material
medium is called radiation heat transfer (H.T).
▪ When radiant energy strikes a material surface (Fig. 1), part of
the radiation is absorbed, part is reflected and part of it is
transmitted. Thus
𝑞 = 𝑞𝑎 + 𝑞𝑟 + 𝑞𝑡

𝑞𝑎 𝑞𝑟 𝑞𝑡
⇒1 = + +
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
Fig. 1 ⇒1 = 𝛼 + 𝜌 + 𝜏

where
𝛼 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦.
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES Cont.
➢Emissive Power: The energy emitted by the body
per unit area per unit time i.e., 𝐸 = 𝑞Τ𝐴
➢Irradiation: Total radiation incident on the surface
per unit area per unit time. It is denoted by ′𝐺′
➢Radiosity: Total radiation leaving the surface per unit
area per unit time. It is denoted by ′𝐽’
➢Black Body: A body which absorbs all of the incident
radiation or energy (heat) i.e., 𝛼 = 1.
➢Opaque Body: A body through which transmission
of heat energy is zero (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝜏 = 0) ⇒ 𝛼 + 𝜌 = 1.

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 RADIATION PROPERTIES Cont.
➢ White Body: If all the incident radiations falling on a
body are reflected, the body is called white body. In this
case, 𝜌 = 1.
➢ Gray Body: If the radiative properties (especially 𝛼) of
a body are assumed to be uniform over the entire
wavelength spectrum, the body is called Gray body. It
can absorb, reflect, and transmit the radiation OR
o A body whose absorptivity of the surface does not vary
with temperature and wavelength of the incident
radiation i.e., 𝛼 = 𝛼 λ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 RADIATION PROPERTIES Cont.
➢ Emissivity: It is the ratio of the emissive power of a body to
the emissive power of a blackbody at the same temperature
i.e.
𝐸 𝑇
𝜖(𝑇) =
𝐸𝑏 (𝑇)
• The emissivity of a surface averaged over all wavelengths is
called the total emissivity.
➢ Kirchhoff’s Law: According to this law, the emissivity of a
body is equal to its absorptivity when the body remains in
thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, i.e.
𝜖 = 𝛼.
PROOF: Consider a perfectly black enclosure that absorbs all
the incident radiation falling upon it (Fig. 2).
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES Cont.
This enclosure is also expected to emit radiation as per 𝑇 4 law.
Let the radiant flux arriving at some area (under consideration) in
the enclosure be 𝑞𝑖 w/𝑚2 .
Now if a body (i.e., a sample) placed inside the enclosure emits
the radiant energy 𝐸𝐴 and is allowed to come into thermal
equilibrium with the enclosure. At equilibrium:

𝐸𝐴 = 𝑞𝑖 𝐴𝛼 →→ (1)

Fig. 2: A black enclosure. Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 RADIATION PROPERTIES Cont.
If the body in the enclosure is replaced with a blackbody of the
same size and shape and allowed it to come in thermal
equilibrium with the enclosure,
𝐸𝑏 𝐴 = 𝑞𝑖 𝐴 1 →→ 2
{∵ 𝛼 of a blackbody is unity}
Dividing eqn. (1) by eqn. (2):
𝐸
= 𝛼 →→ (3)
𝐸𝑏
Also,
𝐸
𝜖= →→ (4)
𝐸𝑏
Comparing Equations (3) & (4):
𝜶 = 𝝐 →→ (5)
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES Cont.
Thus, equation (5) is called Kirchhoff’s identity. It shows that the
emissivity and absorptivity are the total properties of the
particular material i.e., they represent the integrated behavior of
the material over all wavelengths.
Real substances, however, emit less radiation than ideal black
surfaces.
➢ Wien's Displacement Law: According to the law, the
wavelength corresponding to the maximum of solar irradiance
(radiation from the sun) can be expressed with absolute
temperature as follows:
𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟖𝟗𝟕. 𝟔 𝜇𝑚. 𝐾
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 RADIATION PROPERTIES Cont.
➢ Specular and Diffuse Reflections:
Two types of reflection phenomena may be observed when
radiation strikes a surface.
If the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection as
shown in Fig. 3, the reflection is called specular. On the other
hand, when an incident beam is distributed uniformly in all
directions after reflection, the reflection is called diffuse.

Fig. 3

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 RADIATION SHAPE FACTOR (S.F)
▪ Radiation shape Factor is the fraction of energy leaving surface
“i” and reaching surface “j”. It is also called view factor or angle
factor or configuration factor and is denoted by 𝐹𝑖𝑗 .
▪ Suitable graphs are available for the estimation of Shape Factor
in case of following standard configurations:
a) For radiation between two parallel rectangles, Fig. 1
b) For radiation between perpendicular rectangles with a
common edge, Fig. 2
c) For two concentric cylinders of finite length. (a) Outer cylinder
to itself; (b) outer cylinder to inner cylinder, Fig. 3
d) For radiation between two parallel coaxial disks, Fig. 4
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RADIATION SHAPE FACTOR Cont.

Fig. 1: Shape factor for parallel rectangles.

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RADIATION SHAPE FACTOR Cont.

Fig. 2: Shape factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 RADIATION SHAPE FACTOR Cont.

Fig. 3 : For two concentric cylinders

of finite length (a) Outer cylinder to
itself; (b) outer cylinder to inner
cylinder.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

RADIATION SHAPE FACTOR Cont.

Fig. 4: Shape factor for two parallel coaxial disks.

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 EXAMPLE

SOLUTION

Ans

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 RADIATION SHAPE FACTOR Cont.
➢ SUMMATION RULE: In case of a configuration other than
standard ones discussed earlier, an important rule known as
Summation Rule is used for the estimation of Shape Factor.
Thus, if for an emitting surface 1, there are three receiving
surfaces 2, 3, and 4; the Summation Rule suggests:
𝐹11 + 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 + 𝐹14 = 1
Since surface 1 is only emitting the radiation, ∴ 𝐹11 = 0
𝑭𝟏𝟐 + 𝑭𝟏𝟑 + 𝑭𝟏𝟒 = 𝟏
▪ Generally, the Summation Rule is gives as:
∞

෍ 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 1
𝑗=1
▪ It is important to note that If a body can not see itself, its shape
factor is zero; otherwise, the S.F is not zero (i.e., it exists).
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 RECIPROCITY THEOREM
▪ Reciprocity Theorem enables us to develop the relation
between two shape factors.
▪ Let energy leaving a black body of surface 1 and arriving a black
body of surface 2 be given as:
𝑞1→2 = 𝐸𝑏1 𝐴1 𝐹12 → (1)
▪ Similarly, energy leaving a black body of surface 2 and arriving a
black body of surface 1 is given as:
𝑞2→1 = 𝐸𝑏2 𝐴2 𝐹21 → (2)
▪ For two black bodies, the net heat exchange (H.E) is:
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑞1→2 − 𝑞2→1
▪ If both surfaces are at the same temperature:
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏1 𝐴1 𝐹12 − 𝐸𝑏2 𝐴2 𝐹21 = 0 → (3)

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 RECIPROCITY THEOREM Cont.
▪ If the emissive powers of both bodies are same i.e., 𝐸𝑏1 = 𝐸𝑏2 ,
Eqn. (3) leads to:
𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21
▪ In general, Reciprocity Theorem is given by:
𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑗 𝐹𝑗𝑖
▪ Thus, from Eq (3) heat exchange between two black bodies at
different temperatures may be given as:
𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
𝑞1→2 =
1
𝐴1 𝐹12

𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
=
1
𝐴2 𝐹21
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 PROBLEM
Calculate the shape factors for the following
configurations:
1) Long tube with cross-section of an equilateral
triangle
2) Black body inside a black enclosure
3) Diagonal partition within a long square duet.

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah

 SOLUTION
(1) By summation Rule :
𝐹11 + 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 = 1
⇒ 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 = 1
⇒ 𝑭𝟏𝟑 = 𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓 (𝐵𝑦 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦)
Similarly,
⇒ 𝐹21 + 𝐹22 + 𝐹23 = 1
⇒ 𝑭𝟐𝟑 = 𝟏 − 𝑭𝟐𝟏
By reciprocity:
𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21
𝐴2
𝐹12 = 𝐹21 = 𝐹21 (As 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 )
𝐴1
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝐹23 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
(2) As the surface 1 can see itself and the rest of radiation
falls on the enclosed surface 2, by summation rule:

𝐹11 + 𝐹12 = 1 →→→ (𝑖)

By reciprocity:
𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21
𝑨𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑭𝟐𝟏
𝑨𝟏
𝐴2
(𝑖) ⇒ 𝐹11 = 1 − 𝐹12 = 1 − 𝐹21
𝐴1
But 𝐹21 = 1
𝑨𝟐
⇒ 𝑭𝟏𝟏 =𝟏−
𝑨𝟏
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(3) By summation Rule :
𝐹11 + 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 = 1
⇒ 𝐹12 + 𝐹13 = 1

⇒ 𝐹12 = 𝐹13 = 0.5 (𝐵𝑦 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑦)

Now
𝐹21 + 𝐹23 = 1
By reciprocity:
𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21

𝐴1 2𝑙
⇒ 𝐹21 = 𝐹12 = × 0.5 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏
𝐴2 𝑙
Thus, 𝐹23 will be known now.
Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah
 PROBLEM
Establish a relation for the shape factor of a cavity with respect to
itself. The cavity is closed on its outer surface with a flat surface.

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 SOLUTION
𝐹11 + 𝐹12 = 1 →→ (𝑖)
For the surface 2 of the cavity:
𝐹22 + 𝐹21 = 1
⇒ 𝐹21 = 1
By reciprocity:
𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21
𝐴2
𝐹12 =
𝐴1

𝑨𝟐
𝑖 ⇒ 𝑭𝟏𝟏 =𝟏− →→ (𝑖𝑖)
𝑨𝟏
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 HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN
NON-BLACKBODIES (Concept of Surface
Resistance)
Consider a body with an opaque surface as shown in Fig. Let
G = irradiation
J = radiosity
= total radiation that leaves a surface per unit time and per unit area.
Net energy leaving the surface in unit time is:
𝑞 = 𝐴(𝐽 − 𝐺) → (1)
But 𝐽 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 + ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝜖𝐸𝑏 + 𝜌𝐺 → (2)
As for an opaque body 𝜏 = 0, ⇒ 𝜌 = 1 − 𝜖 → (3)
𝐽−𝜖𝐸𝑏
By Eqns. (2) & (3) we may get 𝐺 = → (4)
1−𝜖

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 HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN NON-
BLACKBODIES Cont.
▪ Putting Eqn. (4) in Eqn. (1)
𝐴𝜖
𝑞= 𝐸𝑏 − 𝐽
1−𝜖

𝐸𝑏 − 𝐽 𝐸𝑏 − 𝐽
⇒𝑞 = = → (5)
1−𝜖 𝑅𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝜖

1−𝜖
where 𝑅𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = = Surface resistance
𝐴𝜖

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 HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN
TWO SURFACES (Concept of Space Resistance)
▪ Consider two surfaces , 𝑨𝟏 & 𝑨𝟐 ,
which can see each other as shown in
Fig. 1.
▪ Of that total radiation leaving surface
1, the amount that reaches surface 2
is: 𝑱𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑭𝟏𝟐 .
▪ Of that total energy leaving surface 2,
the amount that reaches surface 1 is:
𝑱𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑭𝟐𝟏 . Fig. 1
▪ The net interchange between the two
surfaces is:
𝑞1−2 = 𝐽1 𝐴1 𝐹12 − 𝐽2 𝐴2 𝐹21 → (1)
But 𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21
𝐽1 − 𝐽2
⇒ 𝑞1−2 = → (2) Fig. 2
1
𝐴1 𝐹12
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HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO SURFACES Cont.
1
▪ Thus, in general, there is “space resistance” between two
𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗
radiosity potentials (𝐽1 & 𝐽2 ) or nodes (Fig. 2).
▪ Two surfaces that exchange heat with each other (see each
other and nothing else) would be represented by the network
shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3
▪ In this case the net heat transfer would be the overall potential
difference divided by the sum of the resistances:

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HEAT EXCHANGE BETWEEN TWO SURFACES Cont.

𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2
+ +
𝜖1 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝜖2 𝐴2

𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
⇒ 𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = → (3)
1 − 𝜖1 1 1 − 𝜖2
+ +
𝜖1 𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝜖2 𝐴2

where 𝜎 is Stefan-Boltzmann constant; 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10-8 w/m2.K4

Arranged by Prof. Dr. Asad Naeem Shah