Nyquist Bit Rate and Shannon

Capacity
Data rate governs the speed of data transmission. A very
important consideration in data communication is how fast we
can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate
depends upon 3 factors:
 The bandwidth available
 Number of levels in digital signal
 The quality of the channel – level of noise

Two theoretical formulas were developed to

calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist for a noiseless
channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.
Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate: For a noiseless channel,
the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit
rate.
If the signal consists of L discrete levels, Nyquist’s theorem
states:
BitRate = 2 * Bandwidth * log2(L) bits/sec
In the above equation, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel,
L is the number of signal levels used to represent data, and
BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second.
Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it cannot be changed. Hence,
the data rate is directly proportional to the number of signal
levels.
Note: Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability
of the system.
Examples:

Input1: Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000

Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. What can be
the maximum bit rate?
Output1 : BitRate = 2 * 3000 * log2(2) = 6000bps

Input2: We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with

a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Output2 : 265000 = 2 * 20000 * log2(L)
log2(L) = 6.625
L = 26.625 = 98.7 levels
The amount of thermal noise present is measured by the ratio of
the signal power to the noise power, called the SNR (Signal-to-
Noise Ratio).
Noisy Channel Shannon Capacity: In reality, we cannot have a
noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy. Shannon capacity
is used, to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy
channel:
Capacity = bandwidth * log2(1 + SNR) bits/sec
In the above equation, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel,
SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the
channel in bits per second. Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it
cannot be changed. Hence, the channel capacity is directly
proportional to the power of the signal, as SNR = (Power of signal)
/ (power of noise).
The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is usually expressed in decibels
(dB) given by the formula:
10 * log10(S/N)
So for example a signal-to-noise ratio of 1000 is commonly
expressed as:
10 * log10(1000) = 30 dB.

Examples:
Input1 : A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz
(300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for data communication. The SNR is
usually 3162. What will be the capacity for this channel?

Output1 : C = 3000 * log2(1 + SNR) = 3000 * 11.62 = 34860

bps

Input2 : The SNR is often given in decibels. Assume that SNR(dB)

is 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. Calculate the
theoretical channel capacity.

Output2 : SNR(dB) = 10 * log10(SNR)

SNR = 10(SNR(dB)/10)
SNR = 103.6 = 3981
Hence, C = 2 * 106 * log2(3982) = 24 Mbps

The maximum data rate, also known as the channel capacity, is

the theoretical limit of the amount of information that can be
transmitted over a communication channel. The maximum data
rate for noiseless and noisy channels can be calculated using
Shannon’s theorem.

Noiseless Channel:
Advantages:
1. Maximum data rate is high

2. Error-free transmission
3. Low latency: Since there is no noise in the channel, the
transmission delay is very low. This means that data can be
transmitted quickly and in real-time.
4. High signal quality: A noiseless channel provides high signal
quality, which means that the data is transmitted with high
accuracy and without any distortion.
5. Suitable for critical applications: A noiseless channel is
well-suited for applications that require high reliability and
precision, such as in medical equipment, military
communication, and aerospace systems.
6. Easy to design and implement: Since a noiseless channel is
a theoretical concept, it is easy to design and simulate in a
controlled environment. This allows researchers to study the
theoretical limits of communication systems without having to
worry about practical limitations.
Disadvantages:
1. Not realistic as most channels have some degree of noise
2. Cost: Implementing a noiseless channel requires expensive
equipment and resources, making it impractical for many
applications.
3. Limited range: A noiseless channel has a limited range,
meaning that it cannot be used for long-distance
communication.
4. Lack of error correction: Since a noiseless channel is error-
free, it does not provide any error correction mechanism. This
means that any errors that do occur in transmission cannot be
detected or corrected, making the communication less reliable.
5. Incompatibility with existing systems: Most existing
communication systems are designed to operate in noisy
channels. A noiseless channel may not be compatible with
these systems, which would require significant changes to be
made to the infrastructure.
Noisy Channel:

Advantages:
1. More realistic as most channels have some degree of noise

2. Techniques like error correction can be used to improve

transmission reliability
3. Longer range: Unlike a noiseless channel, a noisy channel can
be used for long-distance communication as it can propagate
signals over large distances.
4. Greater flexibility: A noisy channel can be used for a wide
range of applications, from simple voice communication to
high-speed data transfer.
5. Lower cost: Since most communication channels are noisy,
using a noisy channel is generally more cost-effective than
implementing a noiseless channel.
6. Better security: Noise in a channel can help to obscure the
transmitted signal, making it more difficult for unauthorized
users to intercept and decode the signal.
7. Higher capacity: A noisy channel can support higher data
rates than a noiseless channel by using advanced modulation
schemes and error correction techniques. This makes it
possible to transmit more data over the same channel
bandwidth.
8. Adaptable: Communication systems using a noisy channel
can be designed to adapt to changing conditions, such as
variations in signal strength or interference levels. This makes
them more reliable and adaptable in dynamic environments.

Disadvantages:
1. Maximum data rate is lower than in noiseless channels

2. Higher probability of errors in transmission

3. In a noisy channel, the maximum data rate is lower than in a

noiseless channel due to the presence of noise. The presence
of noise limits the maximum amount of information that can be
transmitted over the channel.
4. Increased complexity: In a noisy channel, additional
techniques such as error correction and signal processing are
required to ensure reliable transmission. This adds complexity
 to the system design and can increase the cost of
implementation.
5. Limited range: The presence of noise in a channel can limit
the range of the communication, particularly in wireless
systems, where interference from other sources can also affect
the quality of the signal.
6. Interference: Noise can come from many sources, including
other electronic devices and environmental factors such as
weather conditions, which can interfere with the transmission
and degrade the quality of the signal.
7. degraded signal quality: The presence of noise in a channel
can cause distortion in the signal, resulting in a loss of signal
quality and clarity. This can make it difficult to distinguish
between different data values, leading to errors in
transmission.

Capacity of a channel in Computer Network





]By capacity of a channel, it means the capacity of

the transmission medium (wire or link). Capacity is the
number of bits the transmission medium can hold. So basically
there are 2 types of channels – Full duplex and half duplex.
1. Half duplex – the transmission can happen in one direction at
a time.
2. Full duplex – the transmission can happen in both the
direction simultaneously.
For example, the transmission medium is operating in its
maximum capacity then at that time the number of bits it is
holding is called capacity of the transmission medium. But how
can we find the capacity mathematically?
 If the length of the transmission medium is longer than its
capacity will be higher.
 It also depends on the area of cross section of the medium.
 If the bandwidth is 1 bps, then every second it can take 1 bit.
After every second it will move forward so that next bit could
occupy the space. Therefore the final time in which it will
occupy all the bits will be its propagation delay.
The capacity of the channel depends on two things:
1. Bandwidth
2. Propagation delay
Capacity = bandwidth * propagation delay
(in case of half duplex)

Capacity =2* bandwidth * propagation delay

(in case of full duplex)