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Beethoven
A Life

Jan Caeyers
Translated by Brent Annable

university of califor nia pr ess

ROTH FAMILY FOUNDATION

Imprint in Music

Michael P. Roth
and Sukey Garcetti
have endowed this
imprint to honor the
memory of their parents,
Julia and Harry Roth,
whose deep love of music
they wish to share
with others.
 The publisher and the University of California Press
Foundation gratefully acknowledge the generous support of the
Roth Family Foundation Imprint in Music, established by a
major gift from Sukey and Gil Garcetti and Michael P. Roth.
Beethoven
A Life
Beethoven
A Life

Jan Caeyers
Translated by Brent Annable

university of califor nia pr ess

University of California Press
Oakland, California

© 2020 The Regents of the University of California

Originally published as Beethoven: Een Biografie by De Bezige Bij,

Amsterdam, © 2009 by Jan Caeyers.

This book was published with the support of Flanders Literature

(www.flandersliterature.be).

The music examples were prepared by Bryce Cannell.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Caeyers, Jan, 1953– author. | Annable, Brent, translator.

Title: Beethoven : a life / Jan Caeyers ; translated by Brent Annable. Other
titles: Beethoven. English
Description: Oakland, California : University of California Press, [2020] |
Originally published as: Beethoven : een Biografie by De Bezige Bij,
Amsterdam, ©2009 by Jan Caeyers. | Includes bibliographical references
and index.
Identifiers: lccn 2020010304 | isbn 9780520343542 (cloth) |
isbn 9780520975026 (epub)
Subjects: lcsh: Beethoven, Ludwig van, 1770–1827. | Composers—Austria—
Biography.
Classification: lcc ml410.b4 c2313 2020 | ddc 780.92 [B]—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020010304

Manufactured in the United States of America

28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 For
Armand Caeyers (1924–1995)
Karl Heinz Füssl (1924–1992)
Frans Verleyen (1941–1997)
Geniuses are the most absurd of all creatures. Absurd, because
of their normality. They are as everybody ought to be: a perfect
synthesis of means and end, of challenge and capacity. Paradoxi-
cally, this means they do what others cannot—they fulfill their
purpose.
eg on f r i e de l l
 con t en ts

Foreword by Daniel Hope xiii

Prologue xv

pa rt on e
t h e a rt ist a s a you ng m a n (1770 –1792)
1 • Louis van Beethoven: A Grandfather Figure 3
2 • Jean van Beethoven: The Absent Father? 10
3 • The Early Years 15
4 • Christian Gottlob Neefe: The Mentor 23
5 • The Young Professional 29
6 • Bonn Turns to Vienna 34
7 • Beethoven’s First Crisis 42
8 • A Second Home, and New Horizons 48
9 • Renewed Vigor and the First Major Works 54
10 • Farewell to Bonn 62

pa rt t wo
a t i m e of prov i ng (1792–1802)
11 • Vienna in 1792 71
12 • Beethoven’s First Patron: Karl von Lichnowsky 79
 13 • Haydn and Albrechtsberger 89
14 • Career Plans 97
15 • Family, Friends, and Loves in Vienna 111
16 • In Anticipation of Greater Things 124
17 • Lobkowitz’s “Center of Excellence” 130
18 • The Immortal Beloved: Episode One 138
19 • The Road to a Broader Public 144
20 • A Word from the Critics 155
21 • The Disciples: Carl Czerny and Ferdinand Ries 161
22 • The Heiligenstadt Testament 168

pa rt t h r e e
t h e m a st e r (1802–180 9)
23 • A “New Way” Forward 181
24 • The Laboratorium Artificiosum 186
25 • Publishing Pains and the “Warehouse of the Arts” 191
26 • Composer in Residence 199
27 • Salieri’s Opera Lessons 213
28 • The Mystery of the Eroica 217
29 • The Immortal Beloved: Episode Two 231
30 • In Search of the Perfect Piano 246
31 • Leonore: A Work in Progress 254
32 • The Golden Years 267

pa rt fou r
crow ds a n d pow e r (180 9 –1816)
33 • A New Social Status 297
 34 • New Prospects 306
35 • An Imperial Pupil 311
36 • Beethoven and Goethe 318
37 • The Immortal Beloved: Episode Three 330
38 • Se non è vero . . . 337
39 • The End of the Classical Symphony 344
40 • Music for the Masses 353
41 • A Lucrative Sideline 363
42 • From Leonore to Fidelio 369
43 • From Coffee and Cake to Congress and Kitsch 381
44 • The Fight for a Child 390
45 • From the “Immortal Beloved” to a “Distant Beloved” 401

pa rt f i v e
t h e lon e ly way (1816 –1827)
46 • Longing for Greater Things 411
47 • Post-Congress Vienna 420
48 • London Plans 425
49 • A Faustian Sonata and a Diabolical Contraption 431
50 • The Missa solemnis: A Mass for Peace 442
51 • The Circle Is Complete: The Late Piano Works 455
52 • Estrangement 468
53 • Encounters with the Younger Generation 474
54 • An Ode to Joy 482
55 • Decline 495
56 • Karl’s Emancipation 499
 57 • Money Matters 509
58 • The Discovery of Heaven: The Late String Quartets 514
59 • Comoedia finita est 532

Acknowledgments 541
Notes 543
Bibliography 601
Illustration Credits 611
Index of Works 615
Index of People 620

Plates follow pages 22, 214, and 406

Other documents randomly have
different content
 Figs. 570, 571.—Plantago
media.

Fig. 570.—Diagram of
Plantago media.

Fig. 571.—Two different forms of the flower (magnified):

1, chiefly adapted for pollination by wind; 2, for insect-
pollination. a The stigma; b the calyx; k the corolla.
 The genus Plantago constitutes nearly the entire order (200 species). Some are
widely distributed weeds (e.g. P. major, “The white man’s footstep”). In P. psyllium
(S. Eur.) the integument of the seeds is mucilaginous, and swells considerably in
water.

Family 31. Nuculiferæ.

The flowers are hypogynous and zygomorphic (in Boraginaceæ
and Cordiaceæ, however, they are regular, except Echium and
Anchusa arvensis). The calyx is gamosepalous, the corolla bilabiate
(except in the two orders mentioned), mostly after 2/3, i.e. divided
into a 2-leaved posterior portion, and a 3-leaved anterior portion. The
æstivation of the corolla is nearly always descending.—In
Boraginaceæ and Cordiaceæ there are 5 stamens of equal length; in
the other orders 4 didynamous ones, or only 2 fertile; the posterior
stamen is sometimes developed as a staminode, sometimes fertile
(in Stilbaceæ). The ovary is formed of 2 median carpels (except
some Verbenaceæ), with (1-) 2 ovules on each carpel; in the majority
of the orders it is, however, divided by a false partition-wall between
the dorsal and ventral sutures, into 4 loculi, each of which is often
raised independently, causing the style to be situated in the
depression between the four lobes (“gynobasic” style, Figs. 572,
573, 575, 579). The fruit in these orders most frequently becomes a
4-partite schizocarp with nut-like fruitlets. The other orders have a
1(-2)-locular ovary.—The leaves are simple, without stipules.
The family is related to (and proceeds from) the Tubifloræ, especially
Convolvulaceæ, which has an almost similar construction of the ovary. It is
doubtful whether the Cordiaceæ and Boraginaceæ should be classed with the
others.
The orders are: 1, Cordiaceæ; 2. Boraginaceæ; 3, Verbenaceæ; 4, Labiatæ; 5,
Selaginaceæ; 6. Globulariaceæ; 7, Stilbaceæ.
Order 1. Cordiaceæ unites Convolvulaceæ and Boraginaceæ. Tree-like plants
with 5-(4–10) merous flowers, doubly bifid style, and drupe with 4 or less loculi. No
endosperm; cotyledons folded.—185 species; tropical.
Order 2. Boraginaceæ. The vegetative parts are very
characteristic: herbs with cylindrical stems and scattered, undivided,
nearly always sessile, entire leaves, without stipules, and generally,
together with the other green portions of the plant, covered with stiff
hairs, consequently rough and often even stinging (hence the other
name for the order Asperifoliæ). The inflorescences are unipared
scorpioid cymes with the branches coiled spirally (“helicoid,” Fig.
573) before the flowers open. The flower is perfect, regular (obliquely
zygomorphic in Echium and Anchusa arvensis), hypogynous,
gamopetalous: S5, P5 (often with ligular outgrowths), A5, G2, but
each of the two loculi of the ovary becomes divided by a false
partition-wall into two, each of which contains one pendulous
anatropous ovule with the micropyle turned upwards; the four loculi
arch upwards, so that the ovary becomes 4-lobed, and the style is
then, as in the Borageæ, placed at the base (“gynobasic”) between
the four projections (Figs. 572, 573). The fruit is a 4-partite
schizocarp with four nut-like fruitlets (Fig. 572).—Endosperm is
wanting (except in Heliotropium); the radicle is turned upwards.
The inflorescences are often double unipared scorpioid cymes; the bud of the
second bracteole is developed, that of the first suppressed; in some cases both
the bracteoles are suppressed (Myosotis, Omphalodes, etc.), but in other
instances all the first bracteoles (a) only are suppressed, and the others are then
situated in two rows towards the under side of the coiled axis, while the flowers are
situated on the upper side. Displacement of the branches or of the floral-leaves
sometimes takes place. The flowers are often red at first, and later on become
blue or violet; they hardly ever have any smell. The fruit entirely resembles that of
the Labiatæ, but the radicle of the latter is turned downwards. The fruitlets present
small differences which have systematic importance; they are hollow or flat at the
base, attached to a flat or columnar receptacle, etc.
1. Heliotropieæ. This group deviates from the characteristics
mentioned above in the undivided ovary and terminal (“apical”) style.
In this, as well as in the fact that in some genera (Tournefortia,
Ehretia, etc.) the fruit is a drupe, it connects this order with the
Cordiaceæ. Heliotropium, Tiaridium, and others have schizocarps.
2. Borageæ, Borage Group. Style gynobasic; fruit a schizocarp.
A. The throat of the corolla is without ligules, or with very small
ones.—Pulmonaria (Lung-wort); funnel-shaped corolla; a whorl of
hairs in the corolla-throat.—Echium (Viper’s-bugloss) has
zygomorphic flowers, the plane of symmetry almost coinciding with
that of the very well-developed inflorescence (through the fourth
sepal); the corolla is obliquely funnel-shaped, the style is more
deeply cleft at the apex than in the others; stamens 2 longer, 2
shorter, and 1 still shorter.—Cerinthe has a tubular corolla with five
small teeth and two bilocular fruitlets. The bracts are large and leafy,
and, like all the rest of the plant, are almost glabrous.—A few
Lithospermum-species have a naked corolla-throat; others have
small hairy ligules, which do not close the corolla-throat. The fruitlets
are as hard as stone, owing to the presence of carbonate of lime and
silica.—Mertensia (Steenhammera); Arnebia; Nonnea (small ligules).
B. The corolla-throat is closed by, or in any case provided with
ligules, i.e. scale-like bodies or small protuberances, situated in the
throat of the corolla opposite the petals, and which are invaginations
or internal spurs of the petals (Fig. 572 D).—The nuts in
Cynoglossum (Hound’s-tongue) bear hooked bristles over the entire
surface, or, in Echinospermum, only on the edge. The following have
smooth nuts:—Symphytum (Comfrey) has a cylindrical, campanulate
corolla, and prolonged-triangular, pointed ligules.—Borago (Borage)
has a rotate corolla with projecting, emarginate ligules; the stamens
have a horn-like appendage, projecting upwards from the back of the
filament. The fruitlets are hollow below.—Anchusa (Alkanet, Fig.
572). The corolla is salver-shaped; the ligules small, hairy
protuberances. A. (Lycopsis) arvensis has an S-curved corolla-tube.
—Myosotis (Forget-me-not, Fig. 573); rotate corolla with small
(yellow) protuberances in the throat; scorpioid cyme without floral-
leaves; fruitlets flat.—Omphalodes; fruitlets hollow at the back, with a
scarious, turned-in, toothed edge.—Asperugo (Mad-wort); the calyx
grows after flowering, becoming large, compressed, and deeply bifid.
 Fig. 572.—Anchusa officinalis: A diagram; the brocteole a is
suppressed (dotted); β supports a flower. B, C Myosotis, the fruit,
entire and with the calyx in longitudinal section. D, F Alkanna
tinctoria: D the corolla opened (4/1); e the ligule; f, g the anthers; E
gyncœceum (3/1); F fruit, with three fruitlets; i an aborted loculus; h
disc.
Cross-pollination is most commonly effected by insects (especially bees).
There are a great many contrivances for pollination; some flowers are protandrous
(Echium vulgare, Borago officin.), others are heterostylous (long-and short-styled:
Pulmonaria officin.); the corona (ligules) is a protection against rain, and excludes
certain insects. Some are barren when self-pollinated (Pulmonaria officinalis,
Echium vulgare); others which have but little honey, may, failing insect-pollination,
fertilise themselves, and in Myosotis versicolor this regularly occurs by the growth
of the corolla during flowering, so that the anthers are brought into contact with the
stigma. Honey is secreted on the hypogynous disc.—About 1,150 species,
growing especially in the northern temperate zone, Mucilage is found (e.g. in the
officinal root of Cynoglossum officinale, in the root of Symphytum): red dyes are
found in some roots (e.g. Alkanet-root, the root of Alkanna tinctoria, which is also
medicinal; S. E. Europe, Asia Minor); some are poisonous: Cynoglossum, Echium,
Anchusa, etc. Several species are ornamental plants. Heliotropium (Peru) is
cultivated chiefly on account of its pleasant scent; essential oils are otherwise very
rare.

Fig. 573.-Myosotis.
Inflorescence and gynœceum.
Order 3. Verbenaceæ. The majority are shrubs; a few are herbs or trees (Teak-
tree); some are lianes. The branches are often square. The leaves are opposite or
verticillate, without stipules; in some compound. The inflorescences are racemes,
spikes, capitula, or dichasia. Five sepals; five petals in a gamopetalous,
zygomorphic corolla, which is often bilabiate, but rarely to such an extent as in the
Labiatæ, and the upper lip in some is larger than the under, in others smaller;
stamens four didynamous, or two; the ovary is entire (not grooved or divided), 1- or
2-locular, or, as in the Labiatæ, divided into four loculi with an erect ovule in each,
but in some the anterior carpel is suppressed. One terminal style. The fruit is, e.g.
in Verbena, a 4 partite schizocarp with nut-like fruitlets; in Vitex (digitate leaves) a
drupe with a 4-locular stone; in Clerodendron a similar fruit, with four free stones;
in Lantana a bilocular stone, or two unilocular stones. The radicle is turned
downwards. Endosperm small or absent.—Lippia, Stachytarpheta, Bouchea, Priva,
Citharexylon, Callicarpa, etc.—The Verbenaceæ are closely allied to the Labiatæ;
they differ especially in the ovary not being 4-lobed with gynobasic style, but
undivided, almost spherical or ovoid with a terminal style. Again, the leaves are not
so constantly opposite, and the inflorescences are various.
730 species; especially in the Tropics; there are several in America, especially
Lantana-species; shrubby weeds.—Many of those mentioned are ornamental
plants, especially Verbena; Vitex agnus castus is a S. European shrub. Lippia
citriodora (S. Am.) etc., have strongly-scented leaves; the Teak tree (Tectona
grandis) is one of the largest trees in East India, and has a very hard wood.
Avicennia is allied to this order; it inhabits the Mangrove swamps on tropical
coasts. The endosperm emerges from the ovule, carrying the embryo with it; the
embryo ultimately bursts the endosperm and lies free in the loculus of the fruit; this
is then filled by the embryo with its large, green cotyledons, which are borne on an
already hairy or rooted stem. The seedling thus developed falls from the tree,
together with the fruit, and strikes root in the mud. One special cell of the
endosperm at an earlier period becomes a highly-developed organ of suction,
growing into a much-branched sac, very rich in protoplasm.
Order 4. Labiatæ. The special characteristics are: the square
stem, the opposite leaves (without stipules), the inflorescences
which are formed by two double unipared scorpioid cymes, the
labiate corolla, the 4 didynamous stamens (the posterior being
entirely suppressed) (Fig. 574), and the 4-partite schizocarp with nut-
like fruitlets. The floral formula is S5, P5, A5 (the posterior stamen is
generally absent), G2.
 Fig. 574.—Diagram of Lamium album: sv dichasia.
They are chiefly aromatic plants (herbs, shrubs, e.g. Lavender, or
trees), volatile oil being formed in internal cells or in the glandular
hairs, which cover all green parts. The stem is always more or less
markedly square; the leaves are borne upon the flat sides, and are
simple and penninerved, but vary in the other characters. The
inflorescences are double unipared scorpioid cymes, which may be
situated at some distance from one another in the axils of the
foliage-leaves (Fig. 575 A), but frequently when the subtending
leaves are bract-like, they are crowded into spike-like inflorescences
(Lavandula, Mentha, Salvia, etc.), each of the so-called “whorls”
(verticillaster, glomerulus) being a double unipared scorpioid cyme
(Fig. 574). (Solitary flowers are found in e.g. Scutellaria, and
Origanum). The calyx is strongly gamosepalous, 5-toothed, often
bilabiate (Fig. 575 B). The corolla is strongly bilabiate (Figs. 575,
576, etc.), with 2 lobes in the upper lip and 3 lobes in the under lip
(an approach to regularity occurs only when the upper lip is small,
and thus resembles one lobe, as in Mentha (Fig. 578) and Lycopus,
so that the corolla approaches the 4-merous corolla of Veronica and
Plantago). The posterior stamen in the diagram (Fig. 574*) is entirely
suppressed; in most of the genera the posterior lateral stamens are
the smaller (Fig. 575 D), and are entirely suppressed in some (see
below); in others, e.g. Nepeta, they are the longer. 2 stamens are
found in Salvia, Rosmarinus, Lycopus, etc. The two halves of the
anthers are often separated from one another, and are placed at an
angle with each other. The gynœceum has 1 style with a bifid
extremity (Fig. 575 C) bearing the stigma; the true bilocular ovary is
divided by a false partition-wall into 4 loculi, each with 1 erect ovule
(Fig. 575 H). These 4 loculi project so strongly that the ovary
becomes deeply 4-lobed with the style situated in the centre of the
lobes and at their base, “gynobasic” (Figs. 575, 579). A ring-like,
often crenate, nectary surrounds the base of the ovary (Fig. 575 G,
H). The embryo in this order, as in the Verbenaceæ, is directed
downwards (Fig. 575 J) (it is directed upwards in the Boraginaceæ,
which have an entirely similar fruit). Endosperm absent.
 Fig. 575.—Thymus vulgaris.
The 142 genera are mainly distinguished according to the form of the calyx and
corolla, the number, direction, and length of the stamens, the forms of the nuts,
etc.

1. Ajugeæ, Bugle Group. Calyx 10-nerved; the upper lip is

small; 4 stamens. The ovary is not so strongly lobed as in the
following group, so that it is most nearly allied to the Verbenaceæ.
The nuts are reticulately wrinkled. Ajuga (Bugle) has a very small
upper lip. The upper lip of Teucrium (Germander) is deeply cleft, and
the two lobes are bent on their respective sides towards the under
lip, which in consequence appears to be 5-lobed, and the upper lip to
be wanting.

Fig. 576.—Lamium album: A lateral view of flower; B longitudinal section; C

ovary with nectaries (a); D the apex of the style; e, upper lip of corolla; c, b, c the
three petals of the lower lip; f anthers; g stigma.
2. Stachydeæ, Betony Group. The calyx is 5- or 10-nerved. The
upper lip of the corolla is most frequently strongly arched or helmet-
shaped; 4 stamens, the anterior pair the longer (Fig. 576).
a. A somewhat regular and 5–10-dentate calyx with projecting
stamens.—Stachys (Betony, Woundwort); the lobes of the under lip
are rounded off. The anterior filaments, after pollination, bend
outwards. Betonica—Ballota (Horehound); the calyx is funnel-
shaped, and has triangular, long, pointed, awn-like teeth.—Galeopsis
(Hemp-nettle) has two conical protuberances on the under lip
between the lateral and the central lobes. The anthers open by 2
unequal valves. Lamium (Dead-nettle, Fig. 576) has dentate, lateral
lobes on the under lip. L. album (White Dead-nettle), L. rubrum, etc.
Galeobdolon.—Leonurus; Phlomis.
b. Tubular, regular, often 10-toothed calyx and concealed
stamens.—Marrubium vulgare (Fig. 577); 10 calyx-teeth, hooked at
the apex; many almost spherical whorls of flowers in the axils of the
foliage-leaves, at some distance from one another.—Sideritis.

Fig. 577.—Marrubium vulgare.

c. Strongly bilabiate calyx, the lips closing together after flowering.
—Scutellaria (Skull-cap); the two lips of the calyx are entire, the
upper lip has a large spur, and drops off on the ripening of the fruit.
The flowers are generally solitary and turned to one side.—Prunella
(Heal-all); the calyx is compressed, its two lips are strongly dentate,
the upper lips closing slightly round the under. The stamens have a
tooth-like projection beneath the anthers.
3. Nepeteæ, Catmint Group. 13–15 nerves in the calyx; this
deviates from the other groups in the posterior stamens being the
longer. The upper lip is slightly arched. Nepeta (Catmint), also
Glechoma (Ground Ivy), with regular, and Dracocephalum with
irregular calyx.

Fig. 578.—Mentha aquatica, var. crispa.

4. Satureieæ, Mint Group. The upper lip is flat, most frequently
ovate, or almost spherical, and emarginate (Fig. 578). The calyx is
most frequently 5–10-nerved. 4 stamens, the anterior being the
longer; rarely, 2 stamens only.—Mentha (Mint, Fig. 578) has a
regular, 5-dentate calyx, a small, almost regular, 4-partite corolla,
and 4 erect stamens of nearly equal size. The verticillasters are
many-flowered, and are often collected into cylindrical
inflorescences. Herbs.—Lycopus (Gipsy-wort); corolla almost
regular. 2 stamens, the posterior lateral ones are wanting. Preslia: 4-
dentate calyx, 4-partite, regular corolla; 4 stamens of equal size.—
Thymus (Thyme, Fig. 575) has a strongly bilabiate calyx, the throat
being closed by a whorl of hairs (Fig. 575 B). The corolla is distinctly
labiate. Under-shrubs, with small entire leaves; verticillasters few-
flowered and separate.—Origanum (Marjoram); spike or capitate
inflorescences with the flowers solitary in the axils of the rather large
and distinctly 4-rowed (often slightly coloured) floral-leaves. Melissa.
Calamintha. Clinopodium (Wild Basil). Satureia. Hyssopus (Hyssop);
small, entire leaves; the verticillasters are situated unilaterally in a
slender, spike-like inflorescence. Lavandula (Lavender); shrubs with
verticillasters collected in cylindrical, long-stalked inflorescences; the
calyx is tubular, has 13–15 nerves, the posterior tooth is much larger
than the others. Stamens and style do not project. Coleus differs, among
other characters, in having united filaments; the stamens and style are bent down
and concealed in the boat-shaped under lip.

Fig. 579.—Salvia officinalis.

5. Monardeæ, Salvia Group. Only the 2 anterior stamens are
developed.—Salvia (Fig. 579); calyx deeply bilabiate; the upper lip of
the corolla is generally strongly compressed. Rudiments of the two
lateral stamens are present. The connective in the two fertile
stamens is long and filamentous, and bears at the upper end a
normal half-anther, but at the lower one a barren, often broader
portion, against which the insect is obliged to push its proboscis
during its visits to the flowers, causing the pollen-bearing half-anther
to be pressed down against its back. Floral-leaves often coloured.—
Rosmarinus (Rosemary); a shrub with leathery linear leaves, with
rolled back edge. A small tooth on the filament represents the barren
half of the anther. Monarda.
 The pollination is generally effected by insects, especially bees; the under-lip
is the landing-stage and the pollen is deposited on their backs. Cross-fertilisation is
promoted by dichogamy; honey is secreted by an hypogynous disc and collected
in the corolla-tube. Some genera are homogamous (Lamium, Galeopsis, etc.);
others are dichogamous (protandrous); a few are gynodiœcious: ♀ -and ☿-flowers
in various relative sizes (Glechoma hederaceum, Thymus, Salvia pratensis, and
others). The entrance of uninvited guests to the honey is often rendered difficult by
whorls of hairs, etc. In numerous instances the upper lip protects the pollen from
rain. Cleistogamy is found e.g. in Lamium amplexicaule.
2,700 species; distributed over the entire globe, but the greater number in
Mediterranean countries (especially in the Eastern regions), where many are
shrub-like.—Poisonous and acrid properties are absent. On account of their
volatile oils they are principally used as condiments, for perfumery and in medicine
(the officinal parts are therefore nearly always “folia” and “herba,” in Lavandula the
flowers, and the volatile oils extracted from them). Such are:[39]Mentha piperita [+]
(Peppermint)—menthol is obtained from this species and from M. arvensis—M.
viridis [+] (Spearmint), M. crispa (Curly-mint), Thymus vulgaris (Garden Thyme),
Melissa officinalis (S. Eur.), Hyssopus officinalis (Hyssop, S. Eur.), Origanum
majorana (Marjoram, from the Mediterranean), O. vulgare (Wild Marjoram),
creticum, smyrnæum, etc., Salvia officinalis (S. Eur.), Rosmarinus officinalis (oil of
Rosemary, S. Eur.), Lavandula vera [+] (oil of Lavender, S. Eur.). Also: Satureia
hortensis (S. Eur.), Ocimum basilicum (E. India), Pogostemon patchouli (E. India),
etc.—As ornamental plants, e.g. Monarda, Plectranthus, and Coleus (foliage-
plants, often with red stems and leaves), Stachys lanata (white, woolly), Phlomis,
Salvia-species, Perilla, etc.
Order 5. Selaginaceæ. 130 species; small, most frequently heath-like shrubs or
herbs, mainly from S. Africa. They differ from the other Nuculiferæ especially in the
bilocular, transversely-placed anthers of the 4 stamens (2 stamens divided as far
as the base (?)). The ovary has 2, or by suppression only 1 loculus, each with 1
ovule, and the fruit is a schizocarp dividing into two, or is a 1-seeded nut. Radicle
turned upwards.—A few are ornamental plants (Selago, Hebenstreitia).
Order 6. Globulariaceæ. 12 species; especially in the Mediterranean. They
form an analogy to the Compositæ, and in the main resemble Jasione montana in
appearance, the flowers being crowded into a spherical head (hence their name)
and supported by bracts, but without involucre; the ovary is unilocular with 1
pendulous ovule. The 1-seeded nut is enveloped by the persistent calyx. The
corolla is more or less labiate, the upper-lip is often absent as in the ligulate
corollas of the Astereæ; stamens 4, didynamous, with transversely placed anthers
opening by one transverse cleft. The leaves are scattered, simple, entire, and
generally form a rosette. Globularia.
 Order 7. Stilbaceæ. Heath-like shrubs. The ovary is bilocular; 1 erect seed in
each loculus, or the posterior cell is empty. Stilbe. 7 species. S. Africa.

Family 32. Contortæ.

Hypogynous, regular, ☿, gamopetalous flowers (Figs. 581, 582),
which are generally 5- or 4-merous, with 5 or 4 stamens (with the
exception of Oleaceæ and Jasminaceæ which have only 2 stamens,
alternating with the carpels). The gynœceum is formed of 2 (nearly
always median) carpels. The corolla very frequently has twisted
æstivation (the upper edges of the petals being free; Fig. 581 A), and
hence the individual lobes of the corolla are oblique, but the flower
as a whole is regularly actinomorphic. A nectary, in the form of a
honey-secreting ring or glands, is often found round the base of the
ovary.—The leaves, with a few exceptions, are opposite and without
stipules. Endosperm large (Fig. 581 C), except in Jasminaceæ and
Asclepiadaceæ.
The Apocynaceæ and the Asclepiadaceæ, on account of the free ovaries,
without doubt represent a more primitive form, but the Asclepiadaceæ on the other
hand form an offshoot on account of their peculiar pollen-masses. The
Loganiaceæ form a transition to the Rubiaceæ.
The orders are:—
A. Stamens 5. 1, Gentianaceæ; 2, Apocynaceæ; 3, Asclepiadaceæ; 4,
Loganiaceæ.
B. Stamens 2. 5, Oleaceæ; 6, Jasminaceæ; 7, Salvadoraceæ.
Order 1. Gentianaceæ (Gentians). Glabrous herbs, without latex;
the opposite, undivided and entire leaves are often slightly united at
the base; many have rosette-like radical leaves. Stipules absent. The
flowers are generally borne in regular, dichotomously-branched
dichasia (Figs. 580, 581 A), which finally become transformed into
unipared scorpioid cymes; the parts of the flower are 4–5-merous as
far as the gynœceum, which is 2-merous; the calyx frequently is
almost polysepalous; the corolla has distinctly twisted æstivation (the
upper edges being free) (Fig. 581 A), except Menyantheæ. The
carpels are entirely united, and most frequently form a 1-locular
ovary with 2 parietal placentæ bearing many ovules (often in several
rows, Fig. 581 D, F). Capsule, 2-valved, with septicidal dehiscence,
the incurved edges bearing the seeds (Fig. 581 D, F).

Fig. 580.—Erythræa. Inflorescence. 1, 2, 3, etc.,

the successive shoot-generations.
1. Gentianeæ.—Gentiana (Gentian) has most frequently a
tubular, campanulate or funnel-shaped corolla, sometimes with teeth
between the corolla-lobes and fringed in the throat of the corolla; G.
lutea has a rotate, yellow corolla.—Swertia: rotate corolla; each lobe has at
its base 1–2 nectaries, with fringed edges.
Erythræa (Centaury, Fig. 581); corolla most frequently salver-
shaped. The anthers ultimately become spirally twisted (E). The style
prolonged, deciduous. The flower has the Lobelia-arrangement, i.e.
the median sepal is anterior; the corolla is rose-coloured (in the
native species). The capsule is semi-bilocular (Fig. 581 F, G).—
Cicendia has a low creeping stem, fine as a thread, and small, yellow flowers, 4-
merous (without twisted anther).—Chlora (Yellow-wort) 6–8-merous.
 Fig. 581.—Erythræa centaurium. Inflorescence, flower and fruit: br1, br2 floral-
leaves of the 1st and 2nd order; G a valve of the capsule separated from its fellow.

2. Menyantheæ. Menyanthes (Buck-bean) deviates in several

respects from the type of the order. The leaves are scattered and, in
M. trifoliata, trifoliate; the corolla has valvate æstivation; the testa is
also very hard (thin in the true Gentians). They are aquatic plants
with creeping rhizome; the flowers borne in racemes, with terminal
flower, heterostylous. The corolla is funnel-shaped with a very hairy
throat.—Limnanthemum with floating leaves, like the Water-lilies.
575 species; distributed over the entire globe, but most numerous in Alpine
districts. Neither poisonous nor nutritive plants are found, but several are used in
medicine on account of the bitter properties so prevalent amongst them.
Officinal: the roots of Gentiana lutea. The roots of other species, e.g. G.
purpurea, punctata and pannonica (Europe) and the leaves of Menyanthes
trifoliata are medicinal. Some are grown as ornamental plants on account of the
pure (often deep blue) colour of the flowers.

Order 2. Apocynaceæ (Periwinkles). Trees and shrubs (also

lianes), less frequently herbs, generally with latex. The leaves are
opposite, simple, entire, without stipules; the flowers are regular;
corolla-lobes oblique, æstivation twisted. The stamens are
individually free, and the pollen-grains are free or at most united in
fours (see Asclepiadaceæ). The two carpels have 2–∞ ovules, in all
cases there is only 1 style and a capitate stigma, which towards the
base is widened out into a disc-like table (stigma-disc) abstricted in
the centre; but the carpels in most of the genera (e.g. those
mentioned below) are entirely separate, and the fruit consists of two
follicles, the seeds of which often have a tuft of woolly hairs
projecting from the micropyle, less frequently of two drupes. In some
other genera there is a 1-locular (provided with 2 parietal placentæ)
or a 2-locular ovary becoming a 2-valved capsule or a berry.
Endosperm abundant.
Vinca (Periwinkle) has a salver-shaped corolla, which is twisted to
the left in æstivation (i.e. the left edge of the petals is free); nectaries
2, alternating with the carpels; the summit of the style is hairy.
Follicles; seeds without hairs. Mostly creeping, perennial, evergreen plants,
whose large flowers are apparently axillary; in reality they are terminal, but by the
development of the bud in the axil of one of the two uppermost leaves, they are
thus displaced over the other leaf of the pair (a helicoid sympodium being formed).
—Plumeria, Tabernæmontana, Cerbera (drupe). Aspidosperma.
Nerium (Oleander). The leaves are in whorls of 3. Corolla funnel-
shaped, in æstivation twisted to the right, and with a corona
resembling that of Lychnis. The anthers are prolonged at the base
and each also bears at the apex a long, linear, hairy appendage;
these finally become spirally twisted. Follicles; seeds hairy.
Apocynum, Echites, etc. Epigynum is epigynous.
124 genera, 1,000 species; principally in the Tropics. Only 2 species of Vinca
are natives of this country; the following are cultivated as ornamental plants:—
Vinca minor, V. major, V. (Lochnera) rosea, Amsonia salicifolia, Nerium oleander
(Eastern Mediterranean). The latex of some is poisonous (Tanghinia venenifera,
Cerbera). Caoutchouc is obtained from others (Hankornia, Landolphia, Vahea,
etc.). Tough bast is frequently developed. The bark of Aspidosperma quebracho
and the seeds of Strophanthus hispidus are used in medicine (also for African
arrow-poison), the latter is officinal.
Order 3. Asclepiadaceæ. A natural and easily recognised order,
closely allied to the Apocynaceæ, having, like it, frequently a
poisonous latex, opposite, single, entire leaves and fundamentally
the same floral diagram and floral structure (S5, P5, A5, G2); but in
some the æstivation of the corolla is valvate. The carpels here also
have free ovaries, but are united for some distance above into a
large, shield-like, 5-angular head, having on its underside the true
stigmas, and the fruit always consists of 2 follicles; seeds most
frequently numerous and hairy at the micropyle (“vegetable silk”);
endosperm scanty.—The order is distinguished from the
Apocynaceæ and from all other plants also, except the Orchids, by
having all the pollen-grains in each of the 2 loculi of the anthers (true
2-locular anthers) united into one waxy, club-shaped pollen-mass
(“pollinium”), for the purpose of pollination by insects. These heavy
masses, in order to secure pollination (as in the case of the Orchids),
must be attached to sticky discs (corpuscula); there are 5
corpuscula, one at each of the corners of the 5-angular stylar-head
(alternating with the anthers), and to each of these are attached 2
pollinia, one from each of the anthers situated on either side (thus
each anther gives its right pollinium to one corpusculum and its left
to another). The stamens are frequently united at the base, and each
bears on the back a variously formed, petaloid appendage, termed a
“cucullus.”