Fundamental Database System

Chapter 7:SQL Language

1
 SQL Introduction
 SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer
language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data stored in a
relational database.
 SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System.
 All the Relational Database Management Systems (RDMS) like
MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Postgres and SQL
Server use SQL as their standard database language.
 Many standards out there:
▪ ANSI SQL, SQL92 (a.k.a. SQL2), SQL99 (a.k.a. SQL3), ….
▪ Vendors support various subsets: watch for fun discussions in
class!

2
 Why WE CARE SQL?
 SQL is widely popular because it offers the following
advantages:
Allows users to access and describe data in the relational
database management systems.
Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate
that data.
Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules,
libraries & pre-compilers.
Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a
database.
Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and
views.

3
 What Can SQL do?
 SQL can execute queries against a database
 SQL can retrieve data from a database
 SQL can insert records in a database
 SQL can update records in a database
 SQL can delete records from a database
 SQL can create new databases
 SQL can create new tables in a database
 SQL can create stored procedures in a database
 SQL can create views in a database
 SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

4
 SQL Datatypes
 SQL data types are used to represent the nature of the data
that can be stored in the database table.
 For example, in a particular column of a table, if we want to
store a string type of data then we will have to declare a
string data type of this column.
 Data types mainly classified into three categories for every
database.
1. String Data types
2. Numeric Data types
3. Date and time Data types

5
 SQL Datatypes(Con..)
 Data Types in MySQL, SQL Server and Oracle Databases
 A list of data types used in SQL Server database.
 SQL Server String Data Type
char(n) It is a fixed width character string data type. Its size can be up to 8000 characters.
varchar(n) It is a variable width character string data type. Its size can be up to 8000
characters.
varchar(max) It is a variable width character string data types. Its size can be up to
1,073,741,824 characters.
text It is a variable width character string data type. Its size can be up to 2GB of text
data.
nchar It is a fixed width Unicode string data type. Its size can be up to 4000 characters.
nvarchar It is a variable width Unicode string data type. Its size can be up to 4000
characters.
ntext It is a variable width Unicode string data type. Its size can be up to 2GB of text
data.
binary(n) It is a fixed width Binary string data type. Its size can be up to 8000 bytes.
varbinary It is a variable width Binary string data type. Its size can be up to 8000 bytes.6
 SQL Datatypes(Con..)
 SQL Server Numeric Data Types
bit It is an integer that can be 0, 1 or null.
tinyint It allows whole numbers from 0 to 255.
Smallint It allows whole numbers between -32,768 and 32,767.
Int It allows whole numbers between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647.
bigint It allows whole numbers between -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 and
9,223,372,036,854,775,807.
float(n) It is used to specify floating precision number data from -1.79E+308 to
1.79E+308. The n parameter indicates whether the field should hold the
4 or 8 bytes. Default value of n is 53.
real It is a floating precision number data from -3.40E+38 to 3.40E+38.
money It is used to specify monetary data from -922,337,233,685,477.5808 to
922,337,203,685,477.5807.

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 SQL Datatypes(Con..)
 SQL Server Date and Time Data Type
datetime It is used to specify date and time combination. It supports range from
January 1, 1753, to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 3.33
milliseconds.

datetime2 It is used to specify date and time combination. It supports range from
January 1, 0001 to December 31, 9999 with an accuracy of 100
nanoseconds
date It is used to store date only. It supports range from January 1, 0001 to
December 31, 9999
time It stores time only to an accuracy of 100 nanoseconds

timestamp It stores a unique number when a new row gets created or modified.
The time stamp value is based upon an internal clock and does not
correspond to real time. Each table may contain only one-time stamp
variable.

8
 SQL
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
 Create/alter/delete tables and their attributes
 Following lectures...
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Query one or more tables – discussed next !
 Insert/delete/modify tuples in tables
 Data control language(DCL)
 Grant, revoke

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 SQL Basic Commands/ Queries
 The standard SQL commands to interact with relational
databases are CREATE, SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE and
DROP.
 These commands can be classified into the following groups
based on their nature −
 DDL - Data Definition Language
❖ CREATE:- Creates a new table, a view of a table, or other
object in the database.
 ALTER፦ Modifies an existing database object, such as a
table.
 DROP፦ Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or other
objects in the database.
 TRUNCATE: It is used to delete all the rows from the table and
free the space containing the table. 10
SQL Basic Commands(Con…)
 DML - Data Manipulation Language
❖ SELECT:- Retrieves certain records from one or more tables in
the database.
❖ INSERT: Creates new a record in to the database.
❖ UPDATE:- Modifies records.
❖ DELETE:- Deletes records.

 DCL - Data Control Language

 GRANT:- Gives a privilege to user.
 REVOKE:-Takes back privileges granted from user.

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 SQL Constraints
 Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on a table.
 These are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.
 Following are some of the most used constraints available in SQL.
 NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.
 DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is
specified.
 UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all the values in a column are different.
 PRIMARY key: Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.
 FOREIGN key: Uniquely identifies a row/record in any another database
table.
 CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a
column satisfy certain conditions.
 INDEX: Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

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 Data Integrity
 The following categories of data integrity exist with each
RDBMS:
Entity Integrity: There are no duplicate rows in a table.

Domain Integrity: Enforces valid entries for a given column by

restricting the type, the format, or the range of values.

Referential integrity: Rows cannot be deleted, which are used

by other records.

User-Defined Integrity: Enforces some specific business rules

that do not fall into entity, domain or referential integrity.

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How to create database
 The database developers and the users use this statement
in SQL for creating the new database in the database
systems.
 It creates the database with the name which has been
specified in the Create Database statement.
 Syntax: CREATE DATABASE database_name:
 Example : This example creates the Student database.
To create the Student database, you have to type the
following command in Structured Query Language:
CREATE DATABASE Student ;
 When this query is executed successfully, then it will
show the following output: Database created
successfully

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Con….
 SQL DROP Database:- The SQL Drop Database statement
deletes the existing database permanently from the database
system.
 Syntax of Drop Database Statement in SQL:
DROP DATABASE Database_Name;
 In this SQL syntax, we have to specify the name of that database
which we want to delete permanently from the database system.
 We can also delete multiple databases easily by using the single
DROP syntax:
 DROP DATABASE Database_Name1, [ Database_Name2, ......., Data
base_NameN ] ;

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Con….
 SQL RENAME Database:
 In some situations, database users and administrators want to
change the name of the database for some technical reasons.
 So, the Rename Database statement in SQL is used to change
the name of the existing database.
 Syntax of Rename Database in SQL:-
ALTER DATABASE old_database_name MODIFY NAME = new_data
base_name;
 Example :Suppose we want to rename the Student Database.
For this, we have to type the following query in SQL:
ALTER DATABASE Student MODIFY NAME = College ;

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Con….
 SQL SELECT Database
❖ Suppose database users and administrators want to perform
some operations on tables, views, and indexes on the specific
existing database in SQL.
❖ Firstly, they have to select the database on which they want to
run the database queries.
❖ Any database user and administrator can easily select the
particular database from the current database server using
the USE statement in SQL.
❖ Syntax : USE database_name;

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Con….
 Example: Suppose, you want to work with
the Hospital database. For this firstly, you have to check that if
the Hospital database exists on the current database server or
not by using the following query:
❖ SHOW DATABASES;
❖ If the Hospital database is shown in the output, then you have
to execute the following query to select the Hospital
database:
❖ USE Hospital;

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 Working with table structures
❖ Table is a collection of data, organized in terms of rows and
columns. In DBMS term, table is known as relation and row
as tuple.
CREATE TABLE: Create a new table in the database.

ALTER TABLE: Modify the structure of an existing table.

DROP TABLE: Remove the tables permanently.

TRUNCATE TABLE: Delete all data in a big table fast and efficiently.

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Tables in SQL

Product

PName Price Category Manufacturer

Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks

Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks

SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon

MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

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 Tables Explained
 The schema of a table is the table name and its
attributes:
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manfacturer)
 A key is an attribute whose values are unique;
we underline a key
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manfacturer)

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Tables Explained
 A tuple = a record
 Restriction: all attributes are of atomic type

 A table = a set of tuples

 Like a list…
 …but it is unorderd:
no first(), no next(), no last().

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 SQL TABLE Variable
 The SQL Table variable is used to create, modify, rename,
copy and delete tables.
 SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create table in a
database.
 Table variable was introduced by Microsoft.
 Table variables are used to store a set of records. So
declaration syntax generally looks like CREATE TABLE
syntax. create table "tablename"
("column1" "data type",
"column2" "data type",
...
"columnN" "data type");
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 Con…
 Example :- Let us take an example to create a STUDENTS table
with ID as primary key and NOT NULL are the constraint
showing that these fields cannot be NULL while creating records
in the table.
SQL> CREATE TABLE STUDENTS (
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

SQL> DESC STUDENTS;

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 Con…
 SQL DROP TABLE : it used to delete a table definition and all
data from a table.
 Syntax to drop table form the database
 DROP TABLE Table_name;
 Example: let us take an example we verify STUDENTS table and then we
would like to delete it from the database .
 SQL> DROP TABLE STUDENTS;

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 Con…
 SQL DELET TABLE: it used to delete rows from a table . If
you want to remove a specific row from a table you should use
WHERE condition
 Syntax: DELETE FROM Table_Name [WHERE Condition];
 But if you do not specify the WHERE condition it will remove all the rows from the table.
 DELETE FROM table_name;
 There are some more terms similar to DELETE statement like as DROP statement and
TRUNCATE statement but they are not exactly same there are some differences
between them.
 Difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE statements
 There is a slight difference b/w delete and truncate statement.
 The DELETE statement only deletes the rows from the
table based on the condition defined by WHERE clause or
delete all the rows from the table when condition is not
specified. 26
 Con…
 But it does not free the space containing by the table.
 The TRUNCATE statement: it is used to delete all the rows from the
table and free the containing space. Let's see an "employee" table.
Emp_id Name Address Salary
1 Abebe kasa 22000
2 Kemal Ahmed 13000
3 Chala Debebe 24000
Execute the following query to truncate the table:
TRUNCATE TABLE employee;

27
 Con…
 SQL RENAME TABLE
 In some situations, database administrators and users want
to change the name of the table in the SQL database
because they want to give a more relevant name to the
table.
 Any database user can easily change the name by using the
RENAME TABLE and ALTER TABLE statement in Structured
Query Language.
 Syntax : RENAME old_table _name To new_table_name ;
 The RENAME TABLE and ALTER TABLE syntax help in
changing the name of the table.

28
 Con…
 Example: Let's take an example of a table name Employee:
Emp_Id Emp_Name Emp_Salary Emp_City
201 Abebe 25000 Bahir Dar
202 Bontu 45000 Adama
203 kemal 30000 Assosa
204 Decha 29000 Hawasa

 Table: Employee
 Suppose, you want to change the name of the above table into
the "Coding_Employees".
 For this, you have to type the following RENAME statement in SQL:
 RENAME Employee To Coding_Employees ;
 After this statement, the table "Employee" will be changed into the table
name "Coding_Employees".
29
 Con…
 Syntax of ALTER TABLE statement in SQL:
 ALTER TABLE old_table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;
 Example:-
ALTER TABLE Employee RENAME To Coding_Employees ;

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SQL Query : INSERT
 Basic form:

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 SQL Query : INSERT
 Basic form:
 Insert into Students values(1 ,'Girmaw','Andualem','assosa',30)
 Insert into Students values(2 ,'Kemal','Hussen','Assosa',29)
 Insert into Students values(3 ,'Fekadu','Eshetu','Assosa',33)
 Insert into Students values(4 ,'Balmlay','Gebeyhu','Assosa',27)
 Or
 Insert into Students values(1
,'Girmaw','Andualem','assosa',30) ,(2
,'Kemal','Hussen','Assosa',29) (3
,'Fekadu','Eshetu','Assosa',33), (4
,'Balmlay','Gebeyhu','Assosa',27)

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SQL Query : SELECT
 Basic form: (plus many more bells and whistles)
SELECT <attributes>
FROM <one or more relations>
WHERE <conditions>

 It is used to access the records from one or more database

tables and views.
 It also retrieves the selected data that follow the conditions
we want.
 SELECT * FROM table_name;

33
 Simple SQL Query
Product PName Price Category
Manufactu
rer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi
SELECT *
FROM Product
WHERE category=‘Gadgets’

PName Price Category Manufacturer

“selection” Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks

34
Simple SQL Query
PName Price Category Manufacturer
Product Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

SELECT PName, Price, Manufacturer

FROM Product
WHERE Price > 100

“selection” and PName Price Manufacturer

“projection”
SingleTouch $149.99 Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Hitachi

35
 Notation

Input Schema

Product(PName, Price, Category, Manfacturer)

SELECT PName, Price, Manufacturer

FROM Product
WHERE Price > 100
Answer(PName, Price, Manfacturer)

Output Schema

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 Details
 Case insensitive:
 Same: SELECT Select select
 Same: Product product
 Different: ‘Seattle’ ‘seattle’
 Constants:
 ‘abc’ - yes
 “abc” - no

37
The LIKE operator

SELECT *
FROM Products
WHERE PName LIKE ‘%gizmo%’

 s LIKE p: pattern matching on strings

 p may contain two special symbols:
 % = any sequence of characters
 _ = any single character

38
 Eliminating Duplicates

Category
SELECT DISTINCT category Gadgets
FROM Product Photography
Household

Compare to:

Category
SELECT category FROM
Gadgets
Product Gadgets
Photography
Household

39
 Ordering the Results
SELECT pname, price, manufacturer
FROM Product
WHERE category=‘gizmo’ AND price > 50
ORDER BY price, pname

▪ Ties are broken by the second attribute on the ORDER BY

list, etc.

▪ Ordering is ascending, unless you specify the DESC keyword.

40
POP up question
PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

SELECT DISTINCT category

FROM Product ORDER BY category ?
SELECT Category FROM
ORDER BY PName
Product
?
?
SELECT DISTINCT category FROM
Product ORDER BY PName
41
 Keys and Foreign Keys
Company

CName StockPrice Country

GizmoWorks 25 USA

Canon 65 Japan

Hitachi 15 Japan

PName Price Category Manufacturer

Product
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

42
 Joins
 Product (pname, price, category, manufacturer)
 Company (cname, stockPrice, country)

▪ Find all products under $200 manufactured in Japan;

return their names and prices.
Join
between Product
and Company
SELECT PName, Price
FROM Product, Company
WHERE Manufacturer=CName AND Country=‘Japan’
AND Price <= 200

43
 Joins
Product Company
PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks Cname StockPrice Country
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks GizmoWorks 25 USA
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon Canon 65 Japan
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi Hitachi 15 Japan

SELECT PName, Price

FROM Product, Company PName Price
WHERE Manufacturer=CName AND Country=‘Japan’
SingleTouch $149.99
AND Price <= 200

44
 More Joins
▪ Product (pname, price, category, manufacturer)
▪ Company (cname, stockPrice, country)

➢ Find all Chinese companies that manufacture products both in the

‘electronic’ and ‘toy’ categories.

SELECT cname

FROM

WHERE

45
 A Subtlety about Joins
▪ Product (pname, price, category, manufacturer)
▪ Company (cname, stockPrice, country)
❑ Find all countries that manufacture some product in the ‘Gadgets’ category.

SELECT Country
FROM Product, Company
WHERE Manufacturer=CName AND Category=‘Gadgets’

USA
Unexpected duplicates USA

46
 A Subtlety about Joins

Product Company
Name Price Category Manufacturer Cname StockPrice Country
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks GizmoWorks 25 USA
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks Canon 65 Japan
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon Hitachi 15 Japan
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

SELECT Country
FROM Product, Company
WHERE Manufacturer=CName AND Category=‘Gadgets’

Country
What is ??
the problem ? ??
What’s the
solution ?
47
Tuple Variables
▪ Person(pname, address, worksfor)
▪ Company(cname, address)
SELECT DISTINCT pname, address Which
FROM Person, Company address ?
WHERE worksfor = cname

SELECT DISTINCT Person.pname, Company.address

FROM Person, Company
WHERE Person.worksfor = Company.cname

SELECT DISTINCT x.pname, y.address

FROM Person AS x, Company AS y
WHERE x.worksfor = y.cname
48
Meaning (Semantics) of SQL Queries
SELECT a1, a2, …, ak
FROM R1 AS x1, R2 AS x2, …, Rn AS xn
WHERE Conditions

Answer = {}
for x1 in R1 do
for x2 in R2 do
…..
for xn in Rn do
if Conditions
then Answer = Answer  {(a1,…,ak)}
return Answer

49
 An Unintuitive Query
SELECT DISTINCT R.A
FROM R, S, T
WHERE R.A=S.A OR R.A=T.A

What does it compute ?

Computes R  (S  T) But what if S = f ?

50
 Subqueries Returning Relations
 Company(name, city)
 Product(pname, maker)
 Purchase(id, product, buyer)

 Return cities where one can find companies that manufacture

products bought by Customer name Aster.

SELECT Company.city
FROM Company
WHERE Company.name IN
(SELECT Product.maker
FROM Purchase , Product
WHERE Product.pname=Purchase.product
AND Purchase .buyer = ‘Aster‘);

51
Subqueries Returning Relations
Is it equivalent to this ?

SELECT Company.city
FROM Company, Product, Purchase
WHERE Company.name= Product.maker
AND Product.pname = Purchase.product
AND Purchase.buyer = ‘Joe Blow’

Beware of duplicates !

52
 Removing Duplicates
SELECT DISTINCT Company.city
FROM Company
WHERE Company.name IN
(SELECT Product.maker
FROM Purchase , Product
WHERE Product.pname=Purchase.product
AND Purchase .buyer = ‘Aster‘);

➢ Now they are equivalent

SELECT DISTINCT Company.city
FROM Company, Product, Purchase
WHERE Company.name= Product.maker
AND Product.pname = Purchase.product
AND Purchase.buyer =‘Aster’

53
 Subqueries Returning Relations
You can also use: s > ALL R
s > ANY R
EXISTS R

Product ( pname, price, category, maker)

Find products that are more expensive than all those produced By “Gizmo-
Works”

SELECT name
FROM Product
WHERE price > ALL (SELECT price
FROM Purchase
WHERE maker=‘Gizmo-Works’)

54
 Correlated Queries
▪ Movie (title, year, director, length)
Find movies whose title appears more than once.
correlation

SELECT DISTINCT title

FROM Movie AS x
WHERE year <> ANY
(SELECT year
FROM Movie
WHERE title = x.title);

Note
▪ scope of variables
▪ this can still be expressed as single SFW
55
 Complex Correlated Query
▪Product ( pname, price, category, maker, year)
 Find products (and their manufacturers) that are more expensive
than all products made by the same manufacturer before 1972

SELECT DISTINCT pname, maker

FROM Product AS x
WHERE price > ALL (SELECT price
FROM Product AS y
WHERE x.maker = y.maker AND y.year < 1972);

Very powerful ! Also much harder to optimize.

56
 Aggregation
• SQL supports several aggregation operations:
Sum, count, min, Max, avg

SELECT avg(price)
FROM Product
WHERE maker=“Toyota”

SELECT count(*)
FROM Product
WHERE year > 1995

• Except count, all aggregations apply to a single attribute

57
 Aggregation: Count
COUNT applies to duplicates, unless otherwise stated:
same as Count(*)

SELECT Count(category) FROM Product WHERE year > 1995

We probably want:

SELECT Count(DISTINCT category) FROM Product WHERE year > 1995

58
 More Examples
Purchase(product, date, price, quantity)

SELECT Sum(price * quantity) FROM Purchase

SELECT Sum(price * quantity) FROM Purchase WHERE product = ‘bagel’

59
 Simple Aggregations
Purchase
Product Date Price Quantity
Bagel 10/21 1 20
Banana 10/3 0.5 10
Banana 10/10 1 10
Bagel 10/25 1.50 20

SELECT Sum(price * quantity) FROM Purchase WHERE product = ‘bagel’

50 (= 20+30)

60
 Grouping and Aggregation
Purchase(product, date, price, quantity)

Find total sales after 10/1/2005 per product.

SELECT product, Sum(price*quantity) AS TotalSales

FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product

Let’s see what this means…

61
Grouping and Aggregation
1. Compute the FROM and WERE clauses.

2. Group by the attributes in the GROUPBY

3. Compute the SELECT clause: grouped attributes and

aggregates.

62
 1&2. FROM-WHERE-GROUPBY

Product Date Price Quantity

Bagel 10/21 1 20

Bagel 10/25 1.50 20

Banana 10/3 0.5 10

Banana 10/10 1 10

63
 3. SELECT

Product Date Price Quantity Product TotalSales

Bagel 10/21 1 20
Bagel 10/25 1.50 20 Bagel 50
Banana 10/3 0.5 10
Banana 15
Banana 10/10 1 10

SELECT product, Sum(price*quantity) AS TotalSales

FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product

64
 GROUP BY v.s. Nested Quereis
SELECT product, Sum(price*quantity) AS TotalSales
FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product

SELECT DISTINCT x.product, (SELECT Sum(y.price*y.quantity)

FROM Purchase y
WHERE x.product = y.product
AND y.date > ‘10/1/2005’)
AS TotalSales
FROM Purchase x
WHERE x.date > ‘10/1/2005’

65
 Another Example
 SELECT product,
sum(price * quantity) AS SumSales
max(quantity) AS MaxQuantity
FROM Purchase
GROUP BY product

What does
it mean ?

66
 HAVING Clause
 Same query, except that we consider only products that
had at least 100 buyers.

SELECT product, Sum(price * quantity)

FROM Purchase
WHERE date > ‘10/1/2005’
GROUP BY product
HAVING Sum(quantity) > 30

 HAVING clause contains conditions on aggregates.

67
 General form of Grouping and Aggregation
SELECT S
FROM R1,…,Rn
WHERE C1
GROUP BY a1,…,ak
HAVING C2’

Why ?
S = may contain attributes a1,…,ak and/or any aggregates but NO OTHER
ATTRIBUTES
C1 = is any condition on the attributes in R1,…,Rn
C2 = is any condition on aggregate expressions
68
 General form of Grouping and Aggregation
SELECT S
FROM R1,…,Rn
WHERE C1
GROUP BY a1,…,ak
HAVING C2

Evaluation steps:
1. Evaluate FROM-WHERE, apply condition C1
2. Group by the attributes a1,…,ak
3. Apply condition C2 to each group (may have aggregates)
4. Compute aggregates in S and return the result

69
 Advanced SQLizing
1. Getting around INTERSECT and EXCEPT

2. Quantifiers

3. Aggregation v.s. subqueries

70
 INTERSECT and EXCEPT: not in SQL Server

1. INTERSECT and EXCEPT:

(SELECT R.A, R.B

SELECT R.A, R.B
FROM R)
FROM R
INTERSECT
WHERE
(SELECT S.A, S.B
EXISTS(SELECT *
FROM S)
FROM S
WHERE R.A=S.A and R.B=S.B)

(SELECT R.A, R.B SELECT R.A, R.B

FROM R) FROM R
EXCEPT WHERE
(SELECT S.A, S.B NOT EXISTS(SELECT *
FROM S) FROM S
WHERE R.A=S.A and R.B=S.B)

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 2. Quantifiers
▪ Product ( pname, price, company)
▪ Company( cname, city)

Find all companies that make some products with price < 100

SELECT DISTINCT Company.cname

FROM Company, Product
WHERE Company.cname = Product.company and Product.price < 100

Existential: easy ! ☺
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 2. Quantifiers

▪ Product ( pname, price, company)

▪ Company( cname, city)

Find all companies that make only products with price < 100

same as:

Find all companies s.t. all of their products have price < 100

Universal: hard ! 

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 2. Quantifiers
1. Find the other companies: i.e. s.t. some product  100
SELECT DISTINCT Company.cname
FROM Company
WHERE Company.cname IN (SELECT Product.company
FROM Product
WHERE Produc.price >= 100

2. Find all companies s.t. all their products have price < 100
SELECT DISTINCT Company.cname
FROM Company
WHERE Company.cname NOT IN (SELECT Product.company
FROM Product
WHERE Produc.price >= 100

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 3. Group-by v.s. Nested Query
▪ Author(login,name)
▪ Wrote(login,url)
 Find authors who wrote ³ 10 documents:
 Attempt 1: with nested queries

SELECT DISTINCT Author.name

FROM Author
WHERE count(SELECT Wrote.url
FROM Wrote
WHERE Author.login=Wrote.login)> 10

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 3. Group-by v.s. Nested Query
 Find all authors who wrote at least 10 documents:
 Attempt 2: SQL style (with GROUP BY)

SELECT Author.name FROM Author, Wrote

WHERE Author.login=Wrote.login GROUP BY Author.name
HAVING count(wrote.url) > 10

No need for DISTINCT: automatically from GROUP BY

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 3. Group-by v.s. Nested Query
▪ Author(login,name)
▪ Wrote(login,url)
▪ Mentions(url,word)

Find authors with vocabulary ³ 10000 words:

SELECT Author.name
FROM Author, Wrote, Mentions
WHERE Author.login=Wrote.login AND Wrote.url=Mentions.url
GROUP BY Author.name
HAVING count(distinct Mentions.word) > 10000

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 Two Examples
▪ Store(sid, sname)
▪ Product(pid, pname, price, sid)

Find all stores that sell only products with price > 100

same as:

Find all stores s.t. all their products have price > 100)

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SELECT Store.name
FROM Store, Product
WHERE Store.sid = Product.sid
GROUP BY Store.sid, Store.name Why both ?
HAVING 100 < min(Product.price)

SELECT Store.name
FROM Store
WHERE
100 < ALL (SELECT Product.price
FROM product
WHERE Store.sid = Product.sid)

SELECT Store.name
FROM Store
WHERE Store.sid NOT IN
(SELECT Product.sid
FROM Product
WHERE Product.price <= 100)

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 Two Examples
▪ Store(sid, sname)
▪ Product(pid, pname, price, sid)

For each store, find its most expensive product?

80
 Two Examples
This is easy but doesn’t do what we want:
SELECT Store.sname, max(Product.price)
FROM Store, Product
WHERE Store.sid = Product.sid
GROUP BY Store.sid, Store.sname
Better:

But may SELECT Store.sname, x.pname

return FROM Store, Product x
multiple WHERE Store.sid = x.sid and
product names x.price >=
per store ALL (SELECT y.price
FROM Product y
WHERE Store.sid = y.sid)

81
 Two Examples
Finally, choose some pid arbitrarily, if there are many with highest price:

SELECT Store.sname, max(x.pname)

FROM Store, Product x
WHERE Store.sid = x.sid and
x.price >=
ALL (SELECT y.price
FROM Product y
WHERE Store.sid = y.sid)
GROUP BY Store.sname

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 NULLS in SQL
 Whenever we don’t have a value, we can put a NULL
 Can mean many things:
▪ Value does not exist
▪ Value exists but is unknown
▪ Value not applicable
▪ Etc.
 The schema specifies for each attribute if can be null
(nullable attribute) or not
 How does SQL cope with tables that have NULLs ?

83
 Null Values
 If x= NULL, then 4*(3-x)/7 is still NULL

 If x= NULL, then x=“Joe” is UNKNOWN

 In SQL there are three boolean values:
FALSE = 0
UNKNOWN = 0.5
TRUE = 1

84
 Null Values
 C1 AND C2 = min(C1, C2)
 C1 OR C2 = max(C1, C2)
 NOT C1 = 1 – C1

E.g., age=20, height=NULL, weight=200

SELECT *
FROM Person
WHERE (age < 25) AND
(height > 6 OR weight > 190)

Rule in SQL: include only tuples that yield TRUE

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 Null Values
Unexpected behavior:

SELECT *
FROM Person
WHERE age < 25 OR age >= 25

Some Persons are not included !

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 Null Values
▪ Can test for NULL explicitly:
 x IS NULL
 x IS NOT NULL

SELECT *
FROM Person
WHERE age < 25 OR age >= 25 OR age IS NULL

▪ Now it includes all Persons

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 Outerjoins
Explicit joins in SQL = “inner joins”:
▪ Product(name, category)
▪ Purchase(prodName, store)

SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store

FROM Product JOIN Purchase ON
Product.name = Purchase.prodName

Same as:
SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store
FROM Product, Purchase
WHERE Product.name = Purchase.prodName

But Products that never sold will be lost !

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 Outerjoins
Left outer joins in SQL:
▪ Product(name, category)
▪ Purchase(prodName, store)

SELECT Product.name, Purchase.store

FROM Product LEFT OUTER JOIN Purchase ON
Product.name = Purchase.prodName

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Product Purchase
Name Category ProdName Store

Gizmo gadget Gizmo Wiz

Camera Photo Camera Ritz

OneClick Photo Camera Wiz

Name Store

Gizmo Wiz

Camera Ritz

Camera Wiz

OneClick NULL
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 Application
Compute, for each product, the total number of sales in ‘September’
▪ Product(name, category)
▪ Purchase(prodName, month, store)

SELECT Product.name, count(*)

FROM Product, Purchase
WHERE Product.name = Purchase.prodName
and Purchase.month = ‘September’
GROUP BY Product.name

What’s wrong ?

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 Application
Compute, for each product, the total number of sales in ‘September’
▪ Product(name, category)
▪ Purchase(prodName, month, store)

SELECT Product.name, count(*)

FROM Product LEFT OUTER JOIN Purchase ON
Product.name = Purchase.prodName
and Purchase.month = ‘September’
GROUP BY Product.name

Now we also get the products who sold in 0 quantity

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 Outer Joins
 Left outer join:

 Include the left tuple even if there’s no match

 Right outer join:

 Include the right tuple even if there’s no match

 Full outer join:

 Include the both left and right tuples even if there’s no

match

93