Final Tracing: 30-11-2020

Edited in Tracing 21-12-20

PHYSICS-V
(PRACTICAL)
B. Ed Science Education

Code No. 8671 Experiments: 1–24

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
ISLAMABAD
 All rights reserved with the publisher

First Edition ...................................... 2020

Quantity ............................................ 1000

Price .................................................. Rs.210/-

Typeset by: ........................................ M. Hameed Zahid

Printing Incharge ............................... Shakeel Ahmed Khan

Printer ............................................... AIOU-Printing Press, Sector H-8, Islamabad

Publisher ........................................... Allama Iqbal Open University, H-8, Islamabad

ii
 COURSE TEAM

Dean/Chairman: Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Course Development
Coordinator: Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer

Writers: 1. Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer,

Associate Professor, Science Education
Department
2. Mrs. Saima Kashif,
Lecturer, Science Education Department
3. Mr. Imran Ahmed Khan,
SRO, NSU, H-8, Islamabad
4. Mr. M. Fayyaz Abbasi,
Vice Principal, IMCB, G-9/4, Islamabad
5. Mr. Khan Karim Afrdi,
Senior Teacher, IMCB, G-9/4, Islamabad
6. Ms. Hanifa Obaid,
Senior Teacher, IMCG, I-8/3, Islamabad
7. Mr. Nadeem Ahmad,
Senior Teacher, IMCB, G7/4, Islamabad

Reviewers: 1. Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood, AIOU

2. Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer, AIOU
3. Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal, AIOU
4. Dr. Rahmat Ullah Bhatti, AIOU
5. Dr. Muhammad Samiullah, AIOU
6. Irfan Ullah, SO, Ministry of Federal
Education and Professional Training

Editor: Ms. Humera Ejaz

Layout/Typeset by: Mr. Muhammad Hameed Zahid

Course Coordinator: Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal

iii
 FOREWORD

This course has been planned for fulfilling the Knowledge and skills requirements
of prospective science teachers who will be enrolled in BEd 4/2.5/1.5 years’
programs in Allama Iqbal Open University. This book will be beneficial for
meeting the needs of the advance Practical content for students and teachers.
Scientific knowledge is expanding at a high speed. This is the age of scientific
revolution which need skillful technologies. Allama Iqbal Open University and
Science Education Department has targeted to maintain the standard of excellence
for professional science teachers. This book is one of those series of books which
will enable the teachers to cope with changing needs of the society and students.

This book is not written by a single author but a group of authors having vast
experience in the field of Physics. The course development team was committed to
make it possible in this shape which is easy to learn. Now it is a complete book
written according to the approved scheme of studies and format of AIOU. Students
of BEd level from any university can also get assistance from this manuscript.

The focus of this book is to provide the students with best knowledge, skills and
content in the subject of Physics. With the help of this book science students can
explore the natural world, can understand the dynamics of Physics and discover
new dimensions in the field. Keeping in view the qualitative aspect of education
and an increasing demand of science teachers, stress is made upon science content
as well as strengthening their professional skills and knowledge. The elements of
motivation and curiosity are also considered.

AIOU welcomes the suggestions and comments from the readers, teachers and
public at large for the improvement of this course.

Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Chairman
Science Education Department

iv
 PREFACE

Nevertheless, there are lot of books accessible in market, but there is no book which
fulfills the requirements of University approved Scheme of Studies. Some books
cover one area of content while other covers another area. In this way, there would
be a lot of financial burden and dispersed focus.

Further AIOU has its own requirement either to provide compiled material or
textbook. This book is one of those series for coverage of content area requirement
for BEd 4/2.5 Year in the field of Physics.

This book is written as per prescribed procedure of book development. After

approval of content from all statuary bodies, approval for starting development of
this book was sought from Authority. Great stress has been laid in making the
course to facilitate prospective in service and pre-service teachers for content
knowledge and skills in Physics. The course is equipped with illustrations for better
understanding of the reader. Each unit is equipped with necessary illustrations,
activities and self-assessment exercises. This is a quick effort and may have some
errors and omissions for which we shall welcome suggestions for improvement in
the next edition.

AIOU hopes that this book will prove best for the content knowledge and skills
regarding Physics at BEd level.

Prof. Dr. Nasir Mahmood

Dean Faculty of Education

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Allama Iqbal Open University and the Course development coordinator along with
course development team are grateful to the writers and reviewers of Physics books
by using materials from other books and internet for the development of the course
of Physics-V for BEd Science Education.

All references are specially acknowledged whose information and material has
been quoted in the course. Allama Iqbal Open University is a non- commercial
educational University in Pakistan which is providing educational facilities to
under-privileged remote rural areas through distance and non-formal mode.

It is a matter of pleasure for Department of Science Education and AIOU to

acknowledge all those whose efforts and hard work make it possible to develop
content of this book. Committee of courses tried her best to make necessary changes
and then its approval from statuary bodies.

Being coordinator, I highly acknowledged the guidance and supervision of

Professor Dr. Nasir Mahmood throughout development of this course. I am
indebted to the members of Course Developers Mr. Imran Ahmed Khan,
Mr. Fayyaz Abbasi, Mr. Khan Karim Afridi, Ms. Hanifa Obaid, Nadeem Ahmad
and respectable faculty members of Science Education Department Dr. Muhammad
Tanveer Afzal, Dr. Aftab Ahmed, Ms. Saima Kashif and Mr. Arshad Mehmood
Qamar.

My special thanks to all writers and reviewers for a speedy write-up and review of
the units efficiently. I also acknowledge the team of APCP, the editor Ms. Humera,
layout designer/composer Mr. Muhammad Hameed Zahid and Mr. Anwar-ul-Haq
for giving their input to make this book more beautiful readable. I am also grateful
to all PPU team is very cooperative and helpful for printing and publishing the
book. Finally, I acknowledge all those who in one way or the other put their efforts
for completion of this task.

Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer

Course Development Coordinator

vi
 CONTENTS
Page #

Foreword ........................................................................................................... iv

Preface............................................................................................................... v

Acknowledgement ............................................................................................ vi

Introduction of the Course ................................................................................ ix

Objectives of the Course ................................................................................... x

1. Determine value of g: by Compound Pendulum...................................... 1

2. Determine the Moment of Inertia of Solid Cylinder and Sphere ............. 9
3. Study the Damping Feature of an Oscillating System using Simple
Pendulum of a Variable Mass .................................................................. 17
4. Measurement of Viscosity of Liquid by Stoke’s /Poseulli’s Method ...... 23
5. Determine Modulus of Rigidity by Static and Dynamic Method
(Maxwell’s Needle, Barton’s Apparatus) ................................................ 33
6. Study the Dependence of Centripetal Force on Mass, Radius, and Angular
Velocity of a Body in Circular Motion .................................................... 39
7. Surface Tension of Water by Capillary Tube Method ............................. 43
8. Investigation of Phase Change with Position in Traveling Wave and
Measure the Velocity of Sound by C.R.O. .............................................. 51
9. Determination of Height of a Tree/Building and Horizontal/Vertical
Distance by Sextant.................................................................................. 55
10. Determination of Wavelength of Light by Diffraction Grating by using
Spectrometer. ........................................................................................... 61
11. Determine the Resolving Power of Diffraction Grating .......................... 67
12. Determination of Refractive Index for Glass Prism by Spectrometer ..... 73

vii
13. Measurement of Resistance using a Neon Flash Bulb and Condenser .... 79
14. Conversion of a Galvanometer into an Ammeter .................................... 83
15. Conversion of a Galvanometer into Voltmeter ........................................ 89
16. Charge Sensitivity of a Ballistic Galvanometer Taking into Account
Logarithmic Decrement ........................................................................... 95
17. Study the B-H Curve & Measuring the Magnetic Parameters ................. 101
18. Determination of e/m of an Electron ....................................................... 105
19. Exploring the Characteristics of a Semiconductor Diode
(Compare with (Si & Ge diode) ............................................................... 111
20. Setting up and Study Various Logic Gates (AND) using Diode and to
Develop their Truth Table........................................................................ 119

21. Setting up and Study Various Logic Gates (OR) using Diode and to
Develop their Truth Table........................................................................ 123

22. Setting up and Study Various Logic Gates (NOT) using Diode and to
Develop their Truth Table........................................................................ 129

23. Setting up and Study Various Logic Gates (NAND) using Diode and to
Develop their Truth Table........................................................................ 133

24. Study Various Logic Gates (NOR) using Diode and to Develop their
Truth Table .............................................................................................. 137

References ......................................................................................................... 142

viii
 INTRODUCTION OF THE COURSE

The 21st century is known as century of skills and we are living in a global world
which has witnessed knowledge explosion due to unprecedented growth and
development in the field of Science and Technology. Pakistan is a developing
country and gifted with human resource of youth and strong potential to develop
by focusing on Science and Technology and IT. Pakistan vision 2030 has strong
focus on Knowledge economy. Our National Education Policies had also
emphasized on the Science Education. Science has been introduced as separate
subject at School and College level. The educational institutions are lacking science
teachers and Laboratories for the teaching of science. The Teacher Education
programs offered by AIOU are most popular among public and essential to meet
the demand of teachers across country. In line with the policy decision of HEC and
approval of statuary bodies, AIOU launched BEd Program with duration of 1.5 Years
to 4 years. The approved scheme of studies has mandatory Course of Physics-V
Practical. The program is developed by Science Education Department and meets
all the national and international standards. Practical work is very much significant
in science learning. It creates interest and helps to understand physical
phenomenon. Science laboratories have been part of school and college education
for many years. The purpose of laboratory courses is to make students familiar
with procedures and equipment. It also helps students to demonstrate skills for
exploring physical phenomenon. There is paradigm shift in the teaching and
learning models across globe. The integration of ICT is close to the philosophy of
mode of delivery of distance education. In line with global trends, AIOU is striving
hard for integration of ICT in the curriculum and the statuary bodies had approved
development of Virtual Lab for science practical. AIOU has launched Project and
integrated technology in the operations and delivery of knowledge and started
process of development of data centre and launching Learning Management System
(LMS) and Campus Management System (CMS) with help of Oracle. The
development of Virtual Science Lab is essential for online delivery of session by
the faculty. The approved BEd Scheme has provision of development of Virtual
Lab for online access and learning of prospective teachers. To implement the
decision of statuary bodies, development of physics practical is first step to move
forward. The model of online learning and delivery of sessions on Physics practical
is cost effective and easy for implementation as compared to traditional model of
hiring of infrastructure and facilities/ services of colleges. The Physics Practical
course is designed as per HEC standards. The Curriculum being taught at other
National and Foreign universities and were also consulted. Experts from public or
private sector universities, Colleges having PhD / MPhil / MSEd in Physics
Education and experience of teaching were engaged to develop this course. For

ix
illustrations and diagrams expertise of a designer / illustrator along with facilities
for scanning will be required. The major objective of this course is to develop the
scientific skills among prospective Science teachers to enable them to teach physics
practical by using Physics virtual laboratory effectively. The course is focused on
in depth skills of physics teachers who will teach students to learn the skills to verify
the physics concepts through lab experiments. It includes experiments related to
mechanics, waves and oscillations, light, quantum physics, electricity and
magnetism and electronics. This course consists of twenty-four experiments. Each
unit is written by experts by following the AIOU approved pattern, Introduction,
Students learning outcomes, selected videos from You Tube, Procedure of
Experiment, Precaution and Self-Assessment Questions. The language of the unit/s
is kept easy to understand and the content of the unit/s are self-explanatory.
Students performance will be assessed in workshops, laboratory work and
completion of Physics Practical Manual.

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

After completing this course, you will be able to:

1. Do measurements with different instruments.

2. Study the dependence of Centripetal force on mass, radius and velocity of a
body in circular Motion.
3. Determine heights of a tree, wavelength of Sodium and Wavelength of Light.
4. Use spectrometer for determination of refractive index.
5. Convert Galvanometer into Voltmeter and Ammeter.
6. Determine e/m of an Electron.
7. Handle Semiconductor Diodes.
8. Set up logical gates and use them in real life.
9. Deal with practical work related with Electricity, Magnetism and light.
10. Have a wider sense about practical work.

x
Experiment–1

DETERMINE VALUE OF g
BY COMPOUND PENDULUM

Written by: Hanifa Obaid

Reviewed by: Dr. Nasir Mahmood
Experiment:
Measurement of acceleration due to gravity (g) by a compound pendulum

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. To determine the acceleration due to gravity (g) by means of a compound
pendulum.
2. To determine radius of gyration about an axis through the center of gravity
for the compound pendulum.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3uZ_Boyt_AI

Key Concept and Theory:

A simple pendulum consists of a small body called a “bob” (usually a sphere)
attached to the end of a string the length of which is great compared with the
dimensions of the bob and the mass of which is negligible in comparison with that
of the bob. Under these conditions the mass of the bob may be regarded as
concentrated at its center of gravity, and the length of the pendulum is the distance
of this point from the axis of suspension. When the dimensions of the suspended
body are not negligible in comparison with the distance from the axis of suspension
to the center of gravity, the pendulum is called a compound, or physical, pendulum.
A rigid body mounted upon a horizontal axis so as to vibrate under the force of
gravity is a compound pendulum.

In Fig.1 a body of irregular shape is pivoted about a horizontal frictionless axis

through 𝑃 and is displaced from its equilibrium position by an angle θ. In the
equilibrium position the center of gravity 𝐺 of the body is vertically below 𝑃. The
distance GP is 𝑙 and the mass of the body is m. The restoring torque for an angular
displacement θ is

𝜏 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (1) (1)

For small amplitudes 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 , 𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
𝜏 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 (2)
𝑑2 𝜃
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝛼 = 𝑑𝑡 2

2
Comparing equations (1) & (2)

𝐼𝛼 = −𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃
𝛼= −
𝐼

As a= - ω2 𝐼 (3)
α = - ω2 Ɵ (4)

by putting value of α in equation (4)

𝑚𝑔𝑙𝜃
− =- ω2 Ɵ
𝐼
𝑚𝑔𝑙
=ω2
𝐼
𝑚𝑔𝑙
√ = ω
𝐼

We know that for oscillatory motion

2𝜋
𝑇= ω (5)

𝐵𝑦 𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓ω in equation (5)

𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑚𝑔𝑙 (6)

Where T is the time period, 𝐼 is the moment of inertia of the body through the axis.
Now 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐺 + 𝑚𝑙 2 where 𝐼𝐺 is the moment of inertia of the body about an axis
parallel with axis of oscillation and passing through the center of gravity 𝐺.

𝐼𝐺 = 𝑚𝐾 2 (7)

where 𝐾 is the radius of gyration about the axis passing through 𝐺. Thus,
𝐾2
𝑚𝐾2 +𝑚𝑙2 +𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√ 𝑙
(8)
𝑚𝑔𝑙 𝑔

The time period of a simple pendulum of length 𝐿, is given by

𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔 (9)

3
Comparing with Eq. (5) we get

𝐾2
𝐿=𝑙+ (10)
𝑙

This is the length of “equivalent simple pendulum”. If all the mass of the body were
𝐾2
concentrated at a point O (See Fig.1) such that OP= 𝑙 + , we would have a simple
𝑙
pendulum with the same time period.

The point O is called the ‘Centre of Oscillation’. Now from Eq. (10)

𝐾2
𝑙1= 𝑙 𝑙2 = 𝑙

𝑙1 + 𝑙2 = 𝐿

𝐾2
𝑙1 𝑙2 = 𝑙 ×
𝑙

𝑙1 𝑙2 = 𝐾 2 (11)

Thus both 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are positive. This means that on one side of C.G there are two
positions of the centre of suspension about which the time periods are the same.

4
Similarly, there will be a pair of positions of the centre of suspension on the other
side of the C.G about which the time periods will be the same. Thus there are four
positions of the centers of suspension, two on either side of the C.G, about which
the time periods of the pendulum would be the same. The distance between two
such positions of the centers of suspension, asymmetrically located on either side
of C.G, is the length L of the simple equivalent pendulum. Thus, if the body was
supported on a parallel axis through the point O (see Fig. 1), it would oscillate with
the same time period 𝑇 as when supported at 𝑃. Now it is evident that on either side
of G, there are infinite numbers of such pair of points satisfying Eq. (9). If the body
is supported by an axis through G, the time period of oscillation would be infinite.
From any other axis in the body the time period is given by Eq. (8). From Eq. (9)
and (11), the value of g and K are given by
𝐿
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 𝑇 2 (12)
𝐾 = √𝑙1 𝑙2 (13)

By determining 𝐿, 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 graphically for a particular value of 𝑇, the acceleration

due to gravity 𝑔 at that place and the radius of gyration 𝐾 of the compound
pendulum can be determined

Apparatus:
i. A bar pendulum,
ii. a knife–edge with a platform,
iii. a sprit level,
iv. a precision stop watch,
v. a meter scale,
vi. a telescope.

Procedure:
The bar pendulum consists of a metallic bar of about one-meter long. A series of
circular holes each of approximately 5 mm in diameter are made along the length
of the bar. The bar is suspended from a horizontal knife-edge passing through any
of the holes (Fig. 2). The knife edge, in turn, is fixed in a platform provided with
the screws. By adjusting the rear screw, the platform can be made horizontal.

5
i. Suspend the bar using the knife edge of the hook through a hole nearest to
one end of the bar. With the bar at rest, focus a telescope so that the vertical
cross-wire of the telescope is coincident with the vertical mark on the bar.
ii. Allow the bar to oscillate in a vertical plane with small amplitude (within 40
of arc).
iii. Note the time for 10 oscillations by a precision stopwatch by observing the
transits of the vertical line on the bar through the telescope. Make this
observation three times and find the mean time t for 10 oscillations.
Determine the time period T.
iv. Measure the distance d of the axis of the suspension, i.e. the hole from one of
the edges of the bar by a meter scale.
v. Repeat operation (i) to (iv) for the other holes till C.G of the bar is approached
where the time period becomes very large.
vi. Invert the bar and repeat operations (i) to (v) for each hole starting from the
extreme top.
vii. Draw a graph with the distance d of the holes as abscissa and the time period
T as ordinate. The nature of graph will be as shown in Fig. 3.

Draw the horizontal line ABCDE parallel to the X-axis. Here A, B, D and E
represent the point of intersections of the line with the curves. Note that the curves
are symmetrical about a vertical line which meets the X-axis at the point G, which
gives the position of the C.G of the bar. This vertical line intersects with the line
ABCDE at C. Determine the length AD and BE and find the length L of the
equivalent simple pendulum from
𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐸 𝐿𝑥
𝐿= = .
2 2

6
Find also the time period T corresponding to the line ABCDE and then compute
the value of g. Draw several horizontal lines parallel to X-axis and adopting the
above procedure find the value of g for each horizontal line. Calculate the mean
value of g. Alternatively, for each horizontal line obtain the values of L and T and
draw a graph with T2 as abscissa and L as ordinate. The graph would be a straight
line. By taking a convenient point on the graph, g may be calculated.

Similarly, to calculate the value of K, determine the length AC, BC or CD, CE of

the line ABCDE and compute √𝐴𝐶𝑋𝐵𝐶 or √𝐶𝐷𝑋𝐶𝐸. Repeat the procedure for
each horizontal line. Find the mean of all K.

Observations:
Distance d of Time for 10 Mean time t for 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅
Serial no of holes 𝒕
the hole from oscillations 10 oscillations
from one end 𝑻 = (𝒔𝒆𝒄)
one end (cm) (sec) (sec) 𝟏𝟎
One side of 1
C.G 2
3
Other side 1
of C.G 2
3

Calculations/Analysis
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝑳 Mean g
No. of 𝒈= (cm/sec2)
Mean
observations L (cm)
T 𝑻𝟐 K (cm)
K(cm)
(sec) (cm/sec2)
√𝐴𝐶𝑋𝐵𝐶
i. ABCDE (AD+BE)/2 or
√𝐶𝐷𝑋𝐶𝐸

Results:
We have from Eq. (12)
4𝜋 2 𝐿
𝑔=
𝑇2
𝑡
Since 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑥/2 (𝐿𝑥 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐵𝐸) and 𝑇 = 20, therefore, we can calculate the
maximum proportional error in the measurement of 𝑔 as follow:

𝛿𝑔 𝛿𝐿 2 𝛿𝑡 2
= √( 𝐿 𝑥 ) + (2 𝑡 ) (13)
𝑔 𝑥

7
𝛿𝐿𝑥 = the value of the smallest division of the meter scale
𝛿𝑡 = the value of the smallest division of the stop-watch

Precautions:
i. Ensure that the pendulum oscillates in a vertical plane and that there is no
rotational motion of the pendulum.
ii. The amplitude of oscillation should remain within 40 of arc.
iii. Use a precision stopwatch and note the time accurately as far as possible.
iv. Make sure that there is no air current in the vicinity of the pendulum.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Which of the following shape of the body can be considered as compound
pendulum and give reasoning? a) Cylindrical b) Cubical c) Cuboidal d) Any
rigid body.
2. Compound pendulum needs to be spherical in shape explain your answer?
3. If the mass of the object is doubled then what will be the effect of time period
of the compound pendulum?
4. If the mass moment inertia of the object is increased to 4 times, then what will
be the effect of time period of the compound pendulum?
5. Calculate the time period of an object having mass moment of inertia = 100
Kg-m2, mass of 10 Kg and the centre of gravity lies at a point 20 cm below
the point of suspension.
6. Calculate the frequency of vibration in Hz of an object having mass moment
of inertia = 100 Kg-m2, mass of 10 Kg and the centre of gravity lies at a point
20 cm below the point of suspension.
7. Calculate the moment of inertia of an object having time period = 14 sec, mass
of 10 Kg and the centre of gravity lies at a point 20 cm below the point of
suspension.
8. All simple pendulums are compound pendulums.
9. If the mass moment inertia of the object is increased to 4 times, then what will
be the effect of time period of the simple pendulum?
10. Calculate the moment of inertia of an object having time period = 14 sec, mass
moment of inertia= 100 Kg-m2 and the centre of gravity lies at a point 20 cm
below the point of suspension

8
Experiment–2

DETERMINE THE MOMENT OF

INERTIA OF SOLID CYLINDER AND SPHERE

Written by: Hanifa Obaid

Reviewed by: Dr. Nasir Mahmood

9
Experiment:
Determine the moment of inertia of solid cylinder and sphere.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

1. Determining the moments of inertia of rotationally symmetric bodies from
their period of oscillation on a torsion axle.
2. Comparing the periods of oscillation of two bodies having different masses,
but the same moment of inertia.
3. Comparing the periods of oscillation of hollow bodies and solid bodies having
the same mass and the same dimensions.
4. Comparing the periods of oscillation of two bodies having the same mass and
the same body shape, but different dimensions.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oz80lqf8n6c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FmuGBvncWMY&t=165s

Key Concept and Theory:

The moment of inertia is a measure of the resistance of a body against a change of
its rotational motion and it depends on the distribution of its mass relative to the
axis of rotation. For a calculation of the moment of inertia J, the body is subdivided
into sufficiently small mass elements ∆𝑚𝑖 with distances 𝑟𝑖 from the axis of rotation
and a sum is taken over all mass elements:

I    mi ri 2 (1)
i =1

For bodies with a continuous mass distribution, the sum can be converted into an
integral. If, in addition, the mass distribution is homogeneous, the integral reads
1
𝐼 = 𝑀 ∫𝑉 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉 (2)
𝑉

M: total mass, V: total volume, r: distance of a volume element dV from the axis of
rotation.

The calculation of the integral is simplified when rotationally symmetric bodies are
considered which rotate around their axis of symmetry. The simplest case is that of
a hollow cylinder with radius R. As all mass elements have the distance R from the
axis of rotation, the moment of inertia of the hollow cylinder is
𝐼𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑀 ∙ 𝑅 2 (3)

10
In the case of a solid cylinder with equal mass M and equal radius R, Eq. (2) leads
to the formula

1 𝑅
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑀 𝑉 ∫0 𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑟𝐻𝑑𝑟 (4)

With 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅 2 𝐻, and the result is

1
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 2 𝑀 ∙ 𝑅 2 (5)

That means, the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder is smaller than that of the
hollow cylinder as the distances of the mass elements from the axis of rotation are
between 0 and R. An even smaller value is expected for the moment of inertia of a
solid sphere with radius R (see Fig. 1). In this case, Eq. (2) leads to the formula

1 𝑅 2
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑀 ∫ 𝑟 ∙ 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ 2√𝑅 2 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 (6)
𝑉 0

4𝜋
With 𝑉 = 𝑅 3 , and the result is
3
2
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 5 𝑀 ∙ 𝑅 2 (7)

Thus, apart from the mass M and the radius R of the bodies under consideration a
dimensionless factor enters the calculation of the moment of inertia, which depends
on the shape of the respective body.

The moment of inertia is determined from the period of oscillation of a torsion axle,
on which the test body is fixed and which is connected elastically to the stand via a
helical spring. The system is excited to perform harmonic oscillations. If the
restoring torque D is known, the moment of inertia of the test body is calculated
from the period of oscillation T according to the point O is called the ‘Centre of

11
Oscillation’. Now from Eq. (7)

𝑇 2
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝐷 ∙ (2𝜋) (8)

Apparatus:
i. Torsion axle
ii. Set of cylinders for torsion axle
iii. Sphere for the torsion axle
iv. Stand base, V-shape, 20 cm
v. Stop clock I, 30 s / 15 min

Procedure:

The experimental setup is illustrated in Figure-2.

i. Put the sphere on the torsion axle and mark the equilibrium position on the
table.
ii. Rotate the sphere to the right by 180° and release it.

12
iii. Start the time measurement as soon as the sphere passes through the
equilibrium position and stop the measurement after five oscillations.
iv. Calculate the period of oscillation T.
v. Replace the sphere with the disk and repeat the measurement.
vi. Replace the disk with the supporting plate.
vii. Repeat the measurement with the solid cylinder and then with the hollow
cylinder.
viii. Finally carry out the measurement with the empty supporting plate

Observations:
Mean
Body M(g) 2R(cm) 5T(sec) T(sec)
5T(sec)
Solid sphere
Flat solid cylinder (disk)
Long solid cylinder

Hollow cylinder
Empty supporting plate

Calculations/Analysis

a) Qualitative Comparison:
Bodies having different masses, but the same moment of inertia:
The sphere and the flat solid cylinder (disk) have different shapes and different
masses. They oscillate at approximately the same period, i.e. they have the same
moment of inertia.

Hollow body and solid body:

The hollow cylinder and the solid cylinder have approximately the same mass and
the same diameter. The periods of oscillation are clearly different, i.e. they have
different moments of inertia.

Bodies having the same mass and the same shape but different dimensions:
The flat solid cylinder (disk) and the long solid cylinder have approximately the
same mass, but different diameters. They oscillate at clearly different periods, i.e.
the moments of inertia are different.

13
b) Quantitative Comparison:
With Eq. (6), the moments of inertia J can be calculated from the periods T listed
in Table 1. The restoring torque D of the torsion axle can be calculated by using
following formula.

𝑁𝑚
𝐷 = 0.023
𝑟𝑎𝑑

The results of the calculations are listed in Table 2. The moment of inertia of the
empty supporting plate is 𝐽 = 0.2 𝑔 𝑚2 . Moreover, the dimensionless factors of
Eqs. (III), (IV) and (V) are listed in Table 2 and compared with the values calculated
from the measuring data. In all cases (solid sphere, solid cylinder and hollow
cylinder), an agreement between measurement and theory is found within the
accuracy of measurement.

Experimental Theory
Body I(gm2)
I(MR2) I(MR2)
Solid sphere

Flat solid cylinder (disk)

Long solid cylinder

Hollow cylinder

Empty supporting plate

I (gm2) is after subtraction of the moment of inertia of the empty supporting plate

Results:
i. The period of oscillation of a body on a torsion axle is determined by the
moment of inertia and not by the mass of the body.
ii. Apart from the mass and the radius, the moment of inertia also depends on
the shape of a rotationally symmetric body.
iii. If the mass and the shape are equal, the moment of inertia is proportional to
the square of the diameter.
iv. A hollow body has a greater moment of inertia than a solid body with the
same mass and dimensions.

14
Precautions:
i. If the coiled spring is too tightly wound, there is the danger that high
centrifugal forces cause the test bodies to be hurdled away.

ii. Do not displace the test bodies more than a maximum of 360° (180° is
recommended).

iii. Stop watch must be handled with care in order to avoid any error in the
reading.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Two uniform circular disks having the same mass and the same thickness are
made from different materials. Which disk is with the smaller rotational
inertia?

2. A uniform solid cylinder made of lead has the same mass and the same length
as a uniform solid cylinder made of wood. The rotational inertia of the lead
cylinder compared to the wooden one is less great or equal to lead cylinder?

3. To increase the rotational inertia of a solid disk about its axis without
changing its mass?

4. Two uniform cylinders have different masses and different rotational inertias.
They simultaneously start from rest at the top of an inclined plane and roll
without sliding down the plane. The cylinder that gets to the bottom first is?

5. A uniform disk has radius R and mass M. When it is spinning with angular
velocity  about an axis through its center and perpendicular to its face its
angular momentum is I. When it is spinning with the same angular velocity
about a parallel axis a distance h away its angular momentum is?

6. An ice skater with rotational inertia I0 is spinning with angular speed 0. She
pulls her arms in, thereby increasing her angular speed to 40. Her rotational
inertia is then:

7. A wheel with rotational inertia I, mounted on a vertical shaft with negligible

rotational inertia, is rotating with angular speed 0. A nonrotating wheel with
rotational inertia 2I is suddenly dropped onto the same shaft as shown. The
resultant combination of the two wheels and shaft will rotate at

15
8. How the moment of inertia of a system can be changed?

9. Find the moment of inertia of a hoop?

10. Calculate the moment of inertia of rod?

16
Experiment–3

STUDY THE DAMPING FEATURE OF

AN OSCILLATING SYSTEM USING SIMPLE
PENDULUM OF A VARIABLE MASS

Written by: Hanifa Obaid

Reviewed by: Dr. Nasir Mahmood

17
Experiment Title:
Study the damping feature of an oscillating system using simple pendulum of a
variable mass.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

This experiment will enable you to: -
1. Define simple pendulum and differentiate between periodic and oscillatory
motion.
2. Understand the free, damped and forced oscillations.
3. Explore the impact of mass on amplitude of vibrations.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-physics-12th-practical-9.1&v=p-pr-
11-12-fly-wheel

Key Concept and Theory:

Traditionally, in introductory physics lab courses, when students study simple
harmonic motion using a simple pendulum for small oscillations, the first
assumption that is usually made is that the damping force on the pendulum bob is
so small that it can be neglected. But a question that rises is: how small is this force
that it can be neglected? It is the intent of this paper to give an answer to this
interesting and often ignored question.

The coefficient of damping K is given by

2.3036 log10 𝐴𝑛
𝐾=
∆𝑡

where 𝐴𝑛 is the amplitude of nth damped simple harmonic motion at any time t.
The relaxation time τ is the time in which the energy of oscillation reduces to 1/e
of the original value and is given by

1
𝜏=
2𝐾

The quality factor of simple harmonic motion is 2π times the ration of energy stored
to the energy lost per cycle and is given by

2𝜋
𝑄= 𝜏
𝑇

18
Apparatus:
A long simple pendulum with brass bob and two extra bobs one of aluminum and
the other of wood of the same mass or of the same diameter as that of brass, one-
meter scale and a stop watch.

Let us know about the apparatus. An ideal simple pendulum consists of a heavy
point mass suspended from a rigid support by means of a weightless, flexible and
inextensible string. In actual practice a bob is used which is suspended by a long
thread from a rigid support near the wall as shown in figure 1. To note the amplitude
of the oscillations, a marked scale is attached on the wall just opposite to the bob.
When the bob is allowed to oscillate, its amplitude slowly decreases and after some
time it comes to rest. Such type of the motion is called damped simple harmonic
motion and slow decay of the amplitude is called damping.

Procedure:
i. Let us set up the arrangement as shown in figure 1 with length of the thread
about 3 meter long.
ii. Now give the pendulum a displacement of about 60-70 cm. and leave it.
Allow the first 6-8 oscillations to pass and ensure that the thread and bob
would not touch the wall.
iii. When the amplitude of oscillation is approximately 40-50 cm. note down this
amplitude A0 and start counting the number of oscillations. Then note down
the amplitude an at equal intervals of say 5 oscillations. Here you have to
remember that a stop watch is not required. The counting of the oscillations
should continue till the amplitude becomes about 10 cm.

19
iv. Again allow the pendulum to oscillate simple harmonically i.e. with small
amplitude and note the time taken of about 10-15 oscillations with a
stopwatch. Divide the whole time by the number of oscillations to calculate
the time period T. You should take at least three sets and calculate the mean
period of the pendulum.
v. Now repeat the whole experiment with bobs of aluminum and wood which
are either of the same mass or of the same diameter as brass bob.

Observations:

Table 1: The observation of an against n

No. of Amplitude An for Log10An for
S.
Oscillations of Brass Aluminum Wooden Brass Aluminum Wooden
No.
(n) bob bob bob bob bob bob
1 0
2 5
3 10
4 15
5 20
6
90
95
100

Table 2: The observations of time period of the bobs

Least count of the stopwatch = ....... sec.
Time taken
Aluminum Wooden
No. of Brass bob
S. bob bob
Oscillations Time Time Time
No. Total Total Mean Total
of (n) period Mean Period period Mean
time time T2 time
T1 T1(sec) T2 T3 T3(sec)
(sec) (sec) (sec) (sec)
(sec) (sec) (sec)
1 10
2 15
3 20
4 25
5 30

20
Calculations/Analysis:
Let us plot a graph between number of oscillations ‘n’ on the X-axis and
corresponding values of log10An on the Y-axis for brass bob

You will see that the graph plotted comes out nearly a straight line as shown in
log10 𝐴𝑛
figure 2. From the graph, find the slope ∆𝑛 . Now divide this slope by time
log10 𝐴𝑛
period T1 of the pendulum to calculate because ∆𝑡1 = 𝑇1 × ∆𝑛. In the same
∆𝑡1
way, plot graphs for aluminium and wooden bobs and calculate the corresponding
log10 𝐴𝑛 log10 𝐴𝑛
values of ∆𝑡 and ∆𝑡 . Now, follow the following procedure to calculate
2 3
the coefficient of damping(K), relaxation time(τ) and quality factor(Q)- For the
simple pendulum with brass bob-

For the simple pendulum with brass bob-

log10 𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝐶
Slope of the curve ∆𝑛 = 𝐶𝐵 = − 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
log10 𝐴𝑛 log10 𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝐶
Therefore, = = 𝑇 ×𝐶𝐵 = − 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐
∆𝑡1 𝑇1 ×∆𝑛 1
𝐴𝐶
The damping coefficient, 𝐾 = − 2.3026 × = + 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇1 ×𝐶𝐵
1
The relaxation time, 𝜏 = 2𝐾 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜋
The quality factor, 𝑄 = 𝑇 𝜏 = ...........
Do similar calculations for Aluminum and wooden bobs.

21
Results:
The values of different constants are given below: -
Constants
S. Simple Pendulum
Coefficient of Relaxation Quality factor
No. with
damping (K) time (τ) (Q)
1 Brass bob
2 Aluminium bob
3 Wooden bob

Precautions:
i. The length of the pendulum should be sufficiently large.
ii. The pendulum should not touch the scale.
iii. The readings should be taken carefully.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What is a simple pendulum?
2. What do you mean by periodic and oscillatory motion?
3. What do you understand by free, damped and forced oscillations?
4. What is meant by relaxation time?
5. What do you mean by quality factor?
6. On what factor or factors, the relaxation time depend?
7. Which would have the highest frequency of vibration? Pendulum A: A 200-g
mass attached to a 1.0-m length string Pendulum B: A 400-g mass attached
to a 0.5-m length string
8. One wishes to make a simple pendulum that serves as a timing device. She
plans to make it such that its period is 1.00 second. What length must the
pendulum have?
9. A pair of trapeze performers at the circus is swinging from ropes attached to
a large elevated platform. Suppose that the performers can be treated as a
simple pendulum with a length of 16 m. Determine the period for one
complete back and forth cycle.
10. If the length of the string is increased, what happen to period of a simple
pendulum?

22
Experiment– 4

MEASUREMENT OF VISCOSITY OF
LIQUID BY STOKE’S /POSEULLI’S METHOD

Written by: Hanifa Obaid

Reviewed by: Dr. Nasir Mahmood

23
Experiment:
Measurement of viscosity of liquid by Stoke’s /Poseulli’s method
https://www.gopracticals.com/physics/physics-determine-viscosity-water/
http://arunkumard.yolasite.com/resources/5%20Viscosity.pdf

Intended Learning Outcomes:

This experiment will enable you to: -
1. Make a pressure difference at the two ends of the capillary tube in terms of
liquid levels in the manometer
2. Generate data in linear and nonlinear regions for flow of liquid through
capillary tube
3. Show the streamline and turbulent flow by plotting graph using above data
4. Determine the coefficient of viscosity of water using linear region of capillary
flow.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQwlmXtRu5k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtfbmAw62Hw(new)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8TD1qeKnB38

Key Concept and Theory:

Some liquids like petrol, alcohol, water etc. flow more freely than honey, glycerin,
oil etc. This is due to the property of the liquid called viscosity by virtue of which
the liquid opposes the relative motion between its different layers. It is analogous
to friction between solid surfaces, except that it comes into play only when the fluid
flows. Viscosity is estimated in terms of coefficient of viscosity. Poiseuille’s
method is used to determine the coefficient of viscosity where liquid flows through
the capillary tube at different pressures.

Poiseuille’s apparatus shown in Figure 1 consists of a capillary tube AB placed

horizontally on a bench. The capillary tube must be placed horizontally to avoid
flow of water under the effect of gravity. The capillary must be clean and free from
dust or grease. The bore of the capillary should be narrow and uniformly spherical.
M is the manometer. T is the constant level water tank. Water enters the tank from
a water tap through inlet tube I and flows into the capillary tube constantly through
outlet tube O. There is an excess flow tube F which helps in maintaining the water
level constant. By lowering or raising the constant level tank, the pressure in the
manometer can be altered. By opening the pinch cock Q, the level of water in the
manometer on the B side of capillary goes down to level D. The pinch cock Q is
used to maintain a pressure difference at the two ends of the capillary tube AB. By
opening Q, water starts flowing through the capillary and comes out of the tube and

24
collected in the measuring cylinder. The volume collected depends on the pressure
difference at the two ends of the capillary tube.

Figure-1: Poiseuille’s apparatus

Consider a liquid flowing over a fixed horizontal surface. Each layer of the liquid
moves steadily, parallel to the fixed surface, as long as the motion is slow. The
velocity of different layers of the liquid is different and increases with distance from
the fixed surface (Figure 2). This kind of flow is called laminar or streamline. In
case of a liquid layer in contact with the wall of the tube is at rest (provided the
pressure difference causing the flow is not too great) (Figure 3).

Laboratory photograph of Poiseuille’s apparatus

25
 Figure-2: Velocity of different layers with respect to stationary layer

Figure-3: Cross-sectional view of the capillary tube

If the pressure difference exceeds a certain limit, the liquid departs from its
streamline and the flow becomes turbulent (Figure 4). Generally, in the capillary
tube, liquid flow is laminar. However, when the flow becomes faster, laminar flow
gets disrupted and becomes turbulent. When this occurs, liquid does not flow
linearly and smoothly in adjacent layers, but instead the flow can be described as
being chaotic.

26
 Figure 4: Graph between rate of flow and pressure difference

In case the flow remains streamline, the motion is such that any two adjacent layers
tend to destroy their relative motion as if there is a backward dragging tangential force.
An external force is required to overcome this backward drag and to maintain the
relative velocity between different layers of the liquid. According to Newton, the
backward tangential force F on any layer is directly proportional to area A and velocity
v of the layer at a distance x above the surface and inversely proportional to x.
𝐴𝑣
𝐹=− (1)
𝑥

(𝐹 and 𝑣 are in opposite directions). Alternatively,

𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = −𝐴 𝑑𝑥 (2)
𝑑𝑣
Where the constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of viscosity and 𝑑𝑥
is the rate of change of velocity with distance, called the velocity gradient. The
value of η depends on the nature of the liquid. According to Equation (1), the
coefficient of viscosity can be defined as the tangential force per unit area required
to maintain a unit velocity gradient in the liquid.

Consider a liquid flowing through a horizontal capillary tube of internal radius r and
length l. If the flow is streamline, then the volume V of the liquid that flows out per
second under a steady pressure difference P between ends of the tube is given by
𝜋𝑃𝑟 4
𝑉= (3)
8𝑙

27
This implies
𝜋𝑃𝑟 4
= (4)
8𝑙𝑉

This relation is known as Poiseuille’s equation and can be utilized to determine the
coefficient of viscosity by measuring 𝑃, 𝑟, 𝑙 and 𝑉. If 𝑃 is expressed in dynes per
𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑟 and 𝑙 in 𝑐𝑚, 𝑉 in 𝑐𝑚3 , then  is determined in dynes 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑐𝑚2 or poise. If
ℎ is the difference in heights of the free surface of the liquid at the two ends of the
capillary tube and 𝜌 is the density of the liquid, then

𝑃 = gℎ (5)

Hence from Equations (4) and (5), we get

𝜋ℎp𝑔𝑟 4
= (6)
8𝑙𝑉

Using Equation (4), coefficient of viscosity of water is determined. This is true in

case of streamline motion.

Turbulence does not begin to occur until the velocity of flow becomes high enough
that the flow lamina breaks apart. Therefore, as liquid flow velocity increases, there
is not a gradual increase in turbulence. Instead, the transition between laminar and
turbulent flow is often indicated by a critical Reynolds number. The equation for
Reynolds number is
𝑣𝑑𝑝
𝑅=  (7)

where v = mean velocity, d = tube/capillary diameter, ρ = density of liquid and

η= coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.

Apparatus:
i. Poiseuille’s apparatus
ii. Travelling microscope
iii. Measuring cylinder
iv. Stopwatch.
v. Rubber tube
vi. Thermometer
vii. Capillary tube

28
Procedure:
i. Set up the viscosity apparatus as shown in Figure 1.
ii. Open the pinch-cock Q and regulate the pressure difference, so that water flows.
a. out in a stream of drops.
iii. Note the steady position of water level in manometer tubes. The difference in
levels h should be large enough to be measured accurately.
iv. Place a clean dry graduated cylinder below the flowing water. Start the stop
watch simultaneously and collect the water for at least two minutes. The
accuracy of the result can be improved by collecting a large quantity of water
over a large period of time.
v. Pressure difference between the ends of the capillary may change during the
course of the experiment. Therefore, again note the position of water level in
the manometer tubes and take the mean of both the measurements.
vi. Change the rate of flow by opening the pinch–cock further and repeat steps
3–5 for another difference in levels h.
vii. Repeat step 6 six to seven times and make a record of the measurements in
Table 1.
viii. Measure the length of the capillary tube AB using a ruler.
ix. Note down the temperature of water using thermometer and corresponding
density of water from standard tables.
x. Take a small bore from which the capillary has been cut and measure its inner
diameter in two perpendicular directions (Figure 5) with the help of a
traveling microscope. Take 4-5 such readings and record the observations in
Table 2 and 3.

Figure-5: Cross-sectional view of the bore of the capillary tube

Observations:
Length of the capillary tube, 𝑙 = … … . 𝑐𝑚
Temperature of water, 𝑇 =. . . … 𝐶 𝑜
Density of water at T 𝐶 𝑜 , 𝜌 =. . . . 𝑔𝑚/𝑐𝑐
Least count of measuring cylinder… … 𝑐𝑐
Least count of scale of manometer … … . 𝑐𝑚
Least count of stopwatch … … … . . 𝑠

29
 Table 1: For determination of rate of flow
Volume flow
S. Difference in levels Volume of water collected Time of flow
Rate V (cc/s)
No. h (cm) V0(cc) t (s)
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒐/ 𝒕
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Table 2: For determination of diameter of the capillary along the horizontal direction
Least count of the traveling microscope = …… cm
Diameter d1
S. Crosswire at left Crosswire at right
II - I
No. end of the Capillary I end of the Capillary II
(cm)
T.R. T.R.
(M.S.R. + (M.S.R. +
M.S.R. M.S.R.
V.S.D. L.C. × V.S.D. L.C. ×
(cm) (cm)
V.S.D.) V.S.D.)
(cm) (cm)
1
2
3

Table 3: For determination of diameter of the capillary along the vertical direction
S. Crosswire at left end of the Crosswire at right end of the Diameter d2
No. Capillary I Capillary II II – I (cm)
T.R. T.R.
(M.S.R.+ (M.S.R.+
M.S.R. M.S.R.
V.S.D. L.C. × V.S.D. L.C. ×
(cm) (cm)
V.S.D.) V.S.D.)
(cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4

Mean diameter 𝑑, (𝑑1 + 𝑑2)/2 of the capillary = ……cm

Mean Radius r, of the capillary 𝑑/2 = … … 𝑐𝑚

30
Calculations/Analysis:
i. Using Table 3, draw a graph (Figure 4) between rate of flow, V in cc/sec and
the difference of levels, h in cm (pressure difference).
ii. The straight line portion of the graph indicates the streamline flow at low
pressures (linear low). The curved portion of the graph depicts turbulent flow
(nonlinear flow).
iii. Calculate the slope of the straight line portion of the graph.
iv. Substitute the values of r, ρ, g, l and slope in the Equation. (6) and calculate
the coefficient of viscosity, i.e.,
𝜋ℎ𝑔𝑟 4
=
8𝑙𝑉
𝜋𝑔𝑟 4 1
= ×
8𝑙 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
% error = [(standard value – experimental value)/standard value] × 100

Maximum log error

𝜋ℎp𝑔𝑟 4 𝜋(ℎ1 − ℎ2 )p𝑔𝑟 4
= =
8𝑙𝑉 8𝑙𝑉

By logarithmic differentiation

∆ ∆ℎ1 + ∆ℎ2 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑙 ∆𝑉
= +4 + + +
 ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝑟 𝑡 𝑙 𝑉

Here, ∆ℎ1 and ∆ℎ2 are the least readings on the scale of measurement of the heights
ℎ1 and ℎ2 ; ∆𝑟 is the least count of the traveling microscope used to measure the
radius 𝑟 of the capillary tube; 𝛥𝑡 is the least count of the stop watch used to measure
time 𝑡; 𝛥𝑉 is the least count of the measuring cylinder 𝛥𝑙 is the least count of the
scale used to measure the length l of the capillary AB.

The value of η is found to be = …….. poise

Standard value = …….poise
% error = ……..

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. How does the viscosity of fluids change with temperature?
2. Can this method be used for finding out the viscosity of a thick oil?
3. How is η expressed in SI units? How this unit related to poise?

31
4. Why the capillary tube should be kept in the horizontal position in the flow
method?
5. Define viscosity and coefficient of viscosity.
6. What are the practical uses of the knowledge of viscosity?
7. What would happen if a tube of large bore is used?
8. Define critical velocity.
9. With the increase in temperature, the viscosity of a liquid
a) increases b) decreases c) remains same d) increases and then decreases.
10. With the increase in pressure, the viscosity of liquids a) increases b) decreases
c) remains same d) increases and then decreases.

32
Experiment– 5

DETERMINE MODULUS OF
RIGIDITY BY STATIC AND DYNAMIC METHOD
(Maxwell’s Needle, Barton’s Apparatus)

Written by: Hanifa Obaid

Reviewed by: Dr. Nasir Mahmood

33
Experiment:
Determine modulus of rigidity by static and dynamic method (Maxwell’s Needle,
Barton’s Apparatus).

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing the experiment, you will be able you to: -
1. Make a pressure difference at the two ends of the capillary tube in terms of
liquid levels in the manometer.
2. Generate data in linear and nonlinear regions for flow of liquid through
capillary tube.
3. Show the streamline and turbulent flow by plotting graph using above data.
4. Determine the coefficient of viscosity of water using linear region of capillary
flow.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQwlmXtRu5k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TdhpBSwA95g

Key Concept and Theory:

Let the two hollow cylinders be placed in the middle and the solid ones at the two
ends of the tube and let the combination be slightly rotated in a horizontal plane
and then released. The body will then execute S.H.M., about the wire as the axis
and the period of oscillation is given by

𝐼
𝑇1 = 2𝜋√ 𝐶1 (1)

where 𝐼1 is the moment of inertia of combination about the wire as the axis and C
the restoring couple per unit twist due to torsional reaction.

Now let the positions of the hollow and solid cylinders be interchanged so that the
solid cylinder are now in the middle. Then, if 𝐼2 is the moment of inertia of the new
combination about the axis of rotation, the new period of oscillation is given by
𝐼
𝑇2 = 2𝜋√ 𝐶2 (2)

Squaring equation (1) and (2) and subtracting eqn. (2) from eqn. (1), we get
4𝜋 2
𝑇1 2 − 𝑇2 2 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) (3)
𝐶
Where as
4𝜋 2 (𝐼1 −𝐼2 )
C= (4)
𝑇1 2 −𝑇2 2

34
But
𝜋𝑟 4
C= (5)
2𝑙

where r is the radius and l the length of the wire whose modulus of rigidity is .
Hence
8𝜋𝑙(𝐼 −𝐼 )
 = 𝑟 4 (𝑇 21−𝑇22) (6)
1 2

Now let 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 be the masses of each of the hollow and the solid cylinders
respectively and 𝐼0 𝐼 ′ and 𝐼 ′′ be the moments of inertia of the hollow tube, the
hollow cylinder and the solid cylinder respectively about a vertical axis passing
through their middle points. Then, if L is the length of the hollow tube,

′
𝐿 2 ′′
3𝐿 2
𝐼1 = 𝐼0 + 2𝐼 + 2𝑚1 ( ) + 2 𝐼 + 2𝑚1 ( )
8 8
𝐿 2 3𝐿 2
𝐼2 = 𝐼0 + 2𝐼 ′′ + 2𝑚2 ( ) + 2 𝐼 ′ + 2𝑚1 ( )
8 8
Hence
2 2
3𝐿 2 𝐿 3𝐿 2 𝐿
𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 2𝑚2 [( ) − ( ) ] − 2𝑚1 [( ) − ( ) ]
8 8 8 8
𝐿2
= (𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )
4

Putting this value of (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) in equation (6) we get

2𝜋𝑙(𝑚2 − 𝑚1 )𝐿2
=
𝑟 4 (𝑇1 2 − 𝑇2 2 )
This expression can be used to find the value of modulus of rigidity  of the material
of the suspension wire.

Apparatus:
i. Maxwell’s needle,
ii. Screw gauge,
iii. Wire,
iv. Meter scale,
v. Stopwatch,
vi. Physical balance
vii. Weight box.

35
Procedure:
1. Suspend the Maxwell’s needle from the lower end of a thin and long wire of
experimental material and fix the upper end to a rigid support.
2. By slightly rotating the Maxwell’s needle about the wire in the horizontal
plane, it is allowed to perform torsional oscillations. Keep the solid cylinders
inside. Start the stop, watch and simultaneously count the number of
oscillations. In this way determine the time period of 10 oscillations.
Similarly, obtain time periods for 20, 30, 40 and 50 oscillations and evaluate
the mean value of time period 𝑇1 .
3. Interchange the positions of the cylinders (hollow cylinders inside) and find
out the value of the time period 𝑇2 for the system in this case. You will find
that 𝑇2 > 𝑇1 .
4. Measure the diameter of the wire at a large number of points in two mutually
perpendicular directions at each point. Measure also the length l of the wire.
5. Using a meter scale, measure length L of the tube. Determine values of
(𝑀𝑆 – 𝑀𝐻) with the help of a physical balance.

Observations:
1. Determination of Time Period T1 &T2
Table-1 for the determination of T1 and T2.
Least count of the stopwatch = ...... sec
Solid cylinders on the inner side Solid cylinder on the outer side
Time Taken Time Taken
S. No. of Time period
No. oscillations Mean Time period 𝑻𝟏 Mean 𝑻𝟐 sec
t1 t2
t1 t2 t sec t
Sec Sec
Sec Sec sec sec

36
2. Determination of Radius
Table-2 for the determination of radius ‘r’ of the wire
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
Least count of screw gauge = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒= ...... cm
Zero error of screw gauge = ± ...... cm
Reading Along
Reading Along
a perpendicular
any direction Observed Mean
direction Mean Mean
S. diameter Radius
𝑿+𝒀 Observed corrected
No. Total 𝒅
Total Diameter diameter 𝒓=
M.S C.S X-
M.S C.S Y- 𝟐 Cm (d) cm
𝟐
cm cm cm
cm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

(III) Mean mass of a hollow cylinder MH = ...... kg.

(IV) Mean mass of solid cylinder MS = ...... kg.
(V) Length of the Maxwell’s needle L = ...... meter
(VI) Length of the wire l = ....... meter

Calculations/Analysis:
Modulus of rigidity  is calculated by using the following formula

2𝜋𝑙(𝑀𝑠 − 𝑀𝐻 )𝐿2
= 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 2
𝑟 4 (𝑇1 2 − 𝑇2 2 )

Results:
The modulus of rigidity of the material of the wire (.....) as found experimentally =
...... Newton/meter2

Standard value: Standard Value of h for ...... = ...... Newton/meter2

Percentage error = ..... %

37
Precautions:
1. The two sets of cylinders should be exactly identical and the hollow tube
should be clamped exactly in the middle.
2. The Maxwell’s needle should always remain horizontal so that the moment
of inertia of the hollow tube about the axis of rotation remains unaltered
throughout the whole experiment. Hence while placing the cylinders inside
the tube, no portion of them should be left projecting outside the hollow tube.
3. The motion of the Maxwell’s needle should be purely rotational in a
horizontal plane. All undesirable motions (up and down, or pendular) should
be completely checked.
4. As in the expression for h the periods occur raised to the second power, they
must be carefully measured by timing a large number of oscillations with an
accurate stopwatch up to an accuracy of 1/5 of a second.
5. The wire should not be twisted beyond elastic limit otherwise the restoring
couple due to torsional reaction will not be proportional to value of the twist.
There should be no kinks in the wire. The wire should be fairly long and thin
particularly when the rigidity is high so that the restoring couple per unit twist
due to torsional reaction may be small and hence the period of oscillation of
the Maxwell’s needle is large.
6. In the expression for  the radius occurs raised to the fourth power and is a
very small quantity usually of the order of 0.1 cm. Hence the diameter must
be measured very accurately. Readings should be taken at several points
equally spaced along the wire and two diameters at right angles to each other
should be measured at each point, care being taken not to compress the wire
in taking the readings.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What is modulus of rigidity?
2. Modulus of Rigidity valid only for which limit?
3. What happen to Modulus of Rigidity with temperature?
4. What is the principle of Maxwell needle experiment?
5. On what factors does the periodic time depend?
6. What would be the change in periodic time when I is doubled.
7. What would be the change in periodic time when l is doubled.
8. What would be the change in periodic time when r is doubled.
9. Can you use thin wires in place of threads?
10. Which type of bar do you prefer to use in this experiment-heavier or lighter?

38
Experiment– 6

STUDY THE DEPENDENCE OF CENTRIPETAL

FORCE ON MASS, RADIUS, AND ANGULAR
VELOCITY OF A BODY IN CIRCULAR MOTION

Written by: Nadeem Ahmad

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal

39
Experiment:
Study the dependence of Centripetal force on mass, radius, and angular velocity of
a body in circular motion.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After completion of experiment, you will be able to: -
 Understand the Concept of Circular Motion.
 Explore the force that keeps a body in circular motion.
 Understand the dependence of mass, radius and angular velocity and develop
its relationship.

YouTube Link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EB4poDIsY30

Introduction:
Whenever an object moves in a circular path the object is accelerating because the
velocity vector is constantly changing direction. As you have learned in class, the
magnitude of this acceleration is equal to the square of the objects linear velocity
divided by the radius of its circular path: ac = v2 /R

All accelerations are caused by a net force acting on an object. In the case of an
object moving in a circular path, the net force is a special force called the centripetal
force, of magnitude Fc= mv2 / R

F is the real force (the weight of the hanging mass acting vertically downwards)
and mv²/R is the predicted centripetal force for a given orbit. Students can produce
a table of results and in each case the force creating the circular motion, F, the
tension in the string, is the weight of the mass hanging. They compare this force
with the calculated value of the force which is needed to perform a given orbit
mv²/R.

Procedure:
1. Attach your string to a hanging weight of known mass. Thread the string
through the piece of glass tube, and then tie the other end to the rubber
stopper.

40
2. Now, giving yourself plenty of space, begin to spin the rubber stopper on the
string by holding the glass tube in your hand and moving it in small circles,
as shown in figure 1, making sure there is no one too near. Practice until you
are able to keep the rubber stopper spinning in a constant, level circle.

3. For each trial adjust the string to let the radio (the length of string between the
glass tube and the rubber stopper) to be as indicated in the data table 1(0.30,
0.40, 0.50).

4. Spin the rubber stopper in a circle and using the stopwatch to measure the
time count the time for 30 revolutions (n), write it in data table 1. Determine
its period of motion using the equation T = t / n and write it in data table 1.

5. Calculate the lineal velocity of the rubber stopper for each trial, V= 2πR / T.

6. Find the mass of the rubber stopper and then calculate the value of the
predicted centripetal force, using Fc = mv²/R.

7. Repeat the steps until complete the data table 1.

Radius R Time for Period T Velocity Force Fc
(m) 30 rev. (s) (s) (m/s) (N)
0.30

0.40

0.50

Data table1 Radius R (m) Time for 30 rev. (s) Period T (s) Velocity (m/s) Force Fc
(N) 0.30 0.40 0.50 8. Determine the weight of the hanging mass, compare with
the centripetal force and express your conclusion.

41
Self-Assessment Questions:

1. What is the relationship between force and velocity in circular motion?

2. What is the relationship between radius and velocity in circular motion?

3. What is the constant of proportionality for this equation of centripetal force?

42
Experiment–7

SURFACE TENSION OF
WATER BY CAPILLARY TUBE METHOD

Written by: Nadeem Ahmad

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal

43
Experiment:
Surface tension of water by capillary tube method.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After completion of experiment, you will be able to: -
 Understand the theory of the surface tension of liquids.
 Correlate the property of surface tension with different natural phenomena.
 Understand the concept of capillarity in liquids.
 Relate surface tension and capillarity action.

YouTube Hyperlink
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzG7po1F5hE

Key Concept and Theory:

Our Objective of the Experiment is to determine the surface tension of a liquid by
capillary rise method.

Surface tension is the property of a liquid, by virtue of which its free surface at rest
behaves like an elastic skin or a stretched rubber membrane, with a tendency to
contract so as to occupy a minimum surface area. This property is caused by
cohesion of molecules and is responsible for much of the behaviours of liquids. The
property of surface tension is revealed, for example, by the ability of some objects
to float on the surface of the water, even though they are denser than water. Surface
tension is also seen in the ability of some insects, such as water striders, and even
reptiles like a basilisk, to run on the water’s surface.

Surface tension has been well- explained by the molecular theory of matter.
According to this theory, cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible
for the phenomenon of surface tension. The molecules well inside the liquid are
attracted equally in all directions by the other molecules. The molecules on the
surface experience an inward pull. So, a network is formed against the inward pull,
in order to move a molecule to the liquid surface. It results in a greater potential
energy on surface molecules. In order to attain minimum potential energy and hence
stable equilibrium, the free surface of the liquid tends to have the minimum surface
area and thereby it behaves like a stretched membrane

Apparatus:
 Capillary tube
 Tipped pointer
 Stand
 Travelling microscope
44
 Clean water
 Beaker

Procedure:
Place the adjustable height stand on the table and make its base horizontal by
leveling the screws.
i. Fix the capillary tube and the pointer in a cork and clamp it in a rigid stand so
that the capillary tubes and the pointer become vertical.
ii. Adjust the height of the vertical stand, so that the capillary tubes dip in the
water in an open beaker.
iii. Adjust the position of the pointer, such that its tip just touches the water
surface

To find the capillary rise:

i. Find the least count of the travelling microscope for the horizontal and the
vertical scale.
ii. Make the axis of the microscope horizontal.
iii. Adjust the height of the microscope using the height adjusting screw.
iv. Bring the microscope in front of the capillary tube and clamp it when the
capillary rise becomes visible.
v. Make the horizontal cross wire just touch the central part of the concave
meniscus.
vi. Note the reading of the position of the microscope on the vertical scale.
vii. Now, carefully remove the beaker containing water
viii. Move the microscope horizontally and bring it in front of the pointer.
ix. Lower the microscope and make the horizontal cross wire touch the tip of the
pointer.
x. Corresponding vertical scale readings are noted.
xi. The difference in the two readings (i.e., height of water meniscus and height
of the tip of pointer) will give the capillary rise of the given liquid.
xii. We can repeat the experiment by changing the height of the wooden stand.

45
To find the internal diameter of the capillary tube:
i. Place the capillary tube horizontally on the adjustable stand.
ii. Focus the microscope on the end dipped in water.
iii. Make the horizontal cross-wire touch the inner circle at A (fig i). Note
microscope reading on the vertical scale.
iv. Raise the microscope to make the horizontal cross wire touch the circle at B
(fig ii). Note the vertical scale reading.
v. The difference between the two readings will give the vertical internal
diameter (AB) of the tube.
vi. Move the microscope on the horizontal scale and make the vertical cross wire
touch the inner circle at C (fig iii). Note microscope reading on the horizontal
scale.
vii. Move the microscope to the right to make the vertical cross wire touch the
circle at D (fig iv). Note the horizontal scale reading.
viii. The difference between the two readings will give the horizontal internal
diameter (CD) of the tube.
ix. We can calculate the diameter of the tube by calculating the mean of the
vertical and horizontal internal diameters. Half of the diameter will give the
radius of the capillary tube.

Figure-1

46
 Figure-2 Figure-3

Figure-4
Observations:
Least count of the travelling microscope (L.C) = …. Cm.
Height
Sr.
Reading of Meniscus Reading of pointer tip h1-h2= h
No.
cm
Total Total
M.S.R V.S.R V.S.R
Reading M.S.R Reading
N n × LC n × LC
N + n (LC) N (cm) N + n (LC)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
h1 (cm) h2 (cm)
i
ii
iii

47
The internal diameter of the capillary
Microscope Reading for cross Internal
Sr.# Internal Diameter
wire in position Radius
Vertical Mean
(A) (B) (C) (D) Horizontal d/2 r
AB AB+CD/2
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) CD (cm) (cm)
(cm) d(cm)
i

ii

iii

Calculations/Analysis:
Density of water at observed temperature, ρ = ............ kgm-3

Angle of contact of water in glass, θ = 8o

Cos θ = 0.99027
Put the value h and r for each capillary tube separately and find the values of T
using the following formula:
T = r (h+r/3) ρg
2cosθ
Find the mean value of the obtained T values as follows:
T=T1+T2+T3 = _____ N/m
Results:
Surface tension of water is ………………… N/m

Precautions:
i. Capillary tube should be clean and liquid should be free from contamination.
This can be ascertained by drawing tubes just before the experiment from soft
glass tubing which are first rinsed with caustic soda, then with nitric acid, then
with considerable quantity of tap water to remove all traces of nitric acid.
ii. The capillary tube should be set vertical.
iii. The top of the tubes must be open and not blocked with wax or something else.
iv. As the surface tension is very sensitive to the changes of temperature, hence
the temperature must be recorded in the beginning and also at the end.
v. The water level in the should be a little above its edge so that does not come
in the way of observation.

48
vi. The dish should be first washed with the acid so that when water is poured
into it there are no grease traces in it.
vii. The lower tip of the pin should be just above the water surface but should not
touch it.
viii. The horizontal cross wire should touch the lower meniscus before taking the
reading.

Self-Assessment Questions:
Q. 1 Define surface tension.
Ans. “The tangential cohesive force acting along the unit length of the surface
of a liquid” T = F / L Where F = total force along a line L = length of
the line in this experiment: F = m g = weight of the pan + weight in the
pan. L = 2 (length of the slide) + 2 (breadth of the slide). Sometimes we
neglect the breadth since it is very small.

Q. 2 What are units of surface tension in C.G.S. and S.I. (M.K.S.) system?
Ans. Dynes / cm (C.G.S.) Newton / meter (M.K.S.)

Q. 3 What are cohesion and adhesion force?

Ans. Cohesion force is the attractive force between like molecules, whereas,
the adhesion is the attractive force between unlike molecules, e.g.
attraction between glass slide and the liquid.

Q. 4 What are the factors affecting the surface tension?

Ans. (a) Nature of liquid (b) Nature of the surface in contact (c) Temperature

Q. 5 What is the effect of temperature on the surface tension?

Ans. Surface tension decreases with the rise of temperature.

Q. 6 Define critical temperature.

Ans. The temperature at which the surface tension is zero.

Q. 7 Why the free surface of water is concave but that of mercury is convex?
Ans. The free surface of water is concave because: Cohesion force between
water molecules >> adhesion force between water and gas molecules
Because the free surface of mercury is convex because Cohesion force
>> adhesion force.

Q. 8 What is the shape of free surface at critical temperature?

Ans. At critical temperature the surface tension because zero hence the free
surface is flat.

49
Q. 9 Why the surface of the slide should not be oily?
Ans. The surface tension will decrease.

Q. 10 Define angle of contact.

Ans. Angle of contact, for a pair of solid and liquid, id define as “the angle
between tangent to the liquid surface drawn at the point of contact and
the solid surface inside the liquid.”

50
Experiment– 8

INVESTIGATION OF PHASE CHANGE WITH

POSITION IN TRAVELING WAVE AND MEASURE
THE VELOCITY OF SOUND BY C.R.O.

Written by: Imran Ahmad Khan

Reviewed by: Dr. Rehmat Ullah Bhatti

51
Experiment:
Investigating phase change with position in traveling wave and measure the
velocity of sound by C.R.O

Apparatus:
C.R.O. Loud Speaker, Tow Microphones

Learning Outcomes: After performing this experiment, you will be able to:
• Calibrate C.R.O (cathode ray oscilloscope)
• Observe the Phase change of sinusoidal wave
• Measure the velocity of sound by C.R.O

Key Points:
Phase Change: When they reflect from a boundary with air, Sound waves in a solid
experience a phase reversal (a 180° change. Sound waves have no experience a
phase change when they bounce back from a solid, but they show a 180° change
when reflecting from a region having a low acoustic impudence with lower

Example: when a sound wave in a hollow tube encounters the open end of the tube.
The phase change on reflection is important in the physics of wind instruments

C.R.O: C.R.O stands for cathode ray oscilloscope. It is a kind of electrical device/
instrument which is used to show the measurement and analysis of waveforms. It
is also used for the measurement of others electronic and electrical phenomenon. It
is a very quick X-Y plotter showing the input signal versus another signal or versus
time. The CROs are used to analyses the waveforms phenomena, and other time-
varying quantities from a very low-frequency range to the radio frequencies.

Watch/ see YouTube. Hyperlink is:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iD9qhUFiTuE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBd2LT0RLCE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VarCKt0f2Mc

Procedure:
1. Fix two microphones in front of Loud speaker at same distance.
2. The speaker produces the sound waves.
3. The microphones catch the sound waves of the same frequency.
4. Connect the two microphones with the CRO.
5. Sinusoidal waves are formed on the screen of CRO.
6. The waves are in phase.

52
7. At the bringing, the distance between the speaker and microphones is the same.
8. Now move away the lower microphone towards the CRO as shown in the fig.

9. Measure the distance of the lower microphones from its initial position.
10. Sinusoidal waves formed on the screen of CRO will be no more in phase.
11. Measure the distance of the lower microphones from its initial position.
12. The distance between the two position of the microphone is equal to λ.
13. Number of waves passing through certain point in one second is called
frequency(f=1/T).

Observations and Calculations

Sr. No. Distance. d = λ Frequency, f V =f λ
1
2
3
4

53
Results:
Frequency=f (Hz)
Wavelength= λ
Velocity=v (m/s)
V=f λ

Precautions:
1. There should be air between the speaker and microphones.
2. Move away the lower microphone slowly from the upper one.
3. Carefully connect the two microphones two the C.R.O

Self-Assessment Questions:
Q. 1 What is C.R.O. stands for?
Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

Q. 2 Define phase change.

Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

Q. 3 Write formula to calculate velocity of sound.

Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

54
Experiment–9

DETERMINATION OF HEIGHT OF A TREE /

BUILDING AND HORIZONTAL /
VERTICAL DISTANCE BY SEXTANT

Written by: Imran Ahmad Khan

Reviewed by: Dr. Rehmat Ullah Bhatti

55
Experiment:
Determination of height of a tree/ building and horizontal/ vertical distance by
sextant.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing experiment, you will be able to:
 Measure angle with the help of a sextant.
 Determine the height of the tank or building or tower or any object with the
help of a sextant.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CBiThaw7Pm0
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=unSnBkSZkK4
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ogucJvKyR4A

Key Concept and Theory:

Sextant is an instrument by which we determine the angular separation between
two distant points. We can find height of a tree/ building and horizontal/ vertical
distance by using sextant.

The Basic Principle of Sextant:

1. It works on law of reflection which states that when a ray of light is reflected
by a plane mirror, the angle of the incident ray is equal to the angle of the
reflected ray with the condition that the incident ray, reflected ray and the
normal lie in the same plane.

2. When a ray of light suffers two successive reflections in the same plane by
two plane mirrors, the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray is
twice the angle between the mirrors.

3. When a ray of light suffers two successive reflections in the same plane by
two plane mirrors, the angle between the incident ray and the reflected ray is
twice the angle between the mirrors.

Different Parts of a Sextant:

Different Parts of a Sextant are shown in the figure.

56
Apparatus Required:
 Sextant
 Stand with clamp
 Measuring tape
 Chalk (to mark)

Procedure:
1. First of all, note the zero error of given sextant

2. Note the least count of sextant.

3. Make two distinct points on the wall. Clamp the sextant on the stand on the
vertical plane and place it at a distance of about 10 m from the wall at
position D. Adjust the telescope horizontally to point toward the mark B.

4. Now mark two distinct marks C and D on ground at a distance i.e. d = 10

meter by using measuring tape. There should be equal distance between them.

5. Put sextant (withstand) at position 1meter and see this mark B through the
transparent portion of the horizontal glass by the telescope with its plane
vertical and point the telescope towards the reference mark, so that in the left
half of the field of view, the cross mark is seen.

57
6. Now rotate the movable arm (index arm) of the sextant so that reference mark
is also seen till the right half of the field of view adjusts with the help of fine
screw. So that reference mark in two halves is coinciding.

7. Note down the reading of sextant. This is called zero error reading.

8. Movable arm is rotated gradually till the image of the upper mark or top of
the building whose height is to be determined, in this position the reading on
the scale is noted.

9. Take this observation. It is called elevation reading. The difference between

zero reading and elevation reading gives angle of elevation.

10. Repeat this for the position C moving 10 m away from position D.

Let ‘h’ be the height of building whose height is to be measure.

Let α and β are the angles subtended by the top A of building at point C and D
positions

In  ABC
𝐵𝐴 ℎ ℎ
= tan ∝= 𝐵𝐶
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐶

In  ABD 𝐵𝐶 = ℎ cot ∝
𝐴𝐵
tan β = 𝐵𝐷
ℎ
𝑡𝑎𝑛 β = 𝐵𝐷

𝐵𝐷 = ℎ cot 𝛽

58
Now 𝑑 = 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐵𝐷

d d1 d2

𝑑 = ℎ (cot 𝛼 − cot 𝛽)

𝑑
ℎ=
cot 𝛼 − cot 𝛽

Take d =10 m ( Movining 10 m from position C towards position D)

Lest count of sextant = smallest division on main sclae / No. of division on vernierscale.

Observations and Calculation

Distance 𝒉
No.
Reading at Reading at b/w C 𝒅
of
position C position D and D =
obs.
d 𝑪𝒐𝒕 𝜶 + 𝑪𝒐𝒕𝜷
α
Initial Final Initial Final Β
degree
reading reading reading reading degree cm

Precautions:
 The reference positions should be in the straight line.
 On taking reading, two images should overlap properly.
 The axis of the telescope should be parallel to the plane of the circular scale.
 The index glass and the horizon glass may not be parallel in zero reading.
 The plane of index glass may not be perpendicular to the plane of the circular
arc.
 The centre of graduate arc and of the moving arm may not coincide
 Points C and D should be in horizontal line

59
Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Does the sextant principle work in darkness?
2. What is sextant?
3. Is the incident ray fixed here as glass is rotated?
4. Give functions of the screw attached with glasses M 1 and M2?
5. What are the uses of light filters (colored glasses) in this experiment?
6. What types of telescope is fitted with sextant?
7. Is the actual angle subtended by the arc appears to be an acute angle? and
how is this anomaly explained?
8. Why two images seen when the sextant is pointed towards an object?
9. Define angle of elevation.
10. Define angle of depression.

60
Experiment–10

DETERMINATION OF
WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT BY DIFFRACTION
GRATING BY USING SPECTROMETER

Written by: Imran Ahmad Khan

Reviewed by: Irfan Ullah
Experiment:
Determination of wavelength of light by diffraction grating using spectrometer

Apparatus:
A spectrometer, sodium lamp, spirit level, diffraction grating with clamping
arrangement and eye-piece.

Learning Outcomes:
After performing this experiment, you will be able to:
• Calibrate the eyepiece and collimator of Spectrometer
• Observe the first and second order spectrum
• Determine wavelength of light

Key Points:
Spectrometer: It is a scientific Device/instrument used to analyze the light
properties of reflected light or a luminous object. The instrument measures these
properties of light over a specific section of the electromagnetic spectrum. It may
also be defined as a scientific device/instrument used to separate and measure
spectral components of a physical phenomenon.

Diffraction Grating:
A diffraction grating is the tool of choice for separating the colors in incident light.
It acts as a "super prism", separating the different colors of light much more than
the dispersion effect in a prism. It may also be defining as a diffraction grating is
an optical tool with a periodic structure that splits and diffract light into several
beams travelling in different directions.

Resolving Power:
The ability of an optical instrument/tool to show separate images of very closely
placed two objects is called resolving power.

Resolving Power of a Diffraction Grating:

It is defined as its ability to form separate diffraction maxima of two closely
separated wave lengths.

Watch/ see YouTube. Hyperlink is:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0lxwqANsd4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=desLn3tMLcc

62
Procedure:
1. Focus the eye – piece on cross-wires

2. Focus the telescope and collimator for parallel rays of light.

3. level the prism table using a spirit level.

4. Adjust the slit of the collimator narrows and symmetrical with respect to the
telescope cross-wires.

5. Find the Vernier constant

6. Note the readings of the two venires against graduated circular scale.

7. Turn the telescope toward the left side through 90 degrees.

8. Fix the telescope. Place the grating G on the prism table.

9. Make it perpendicular to the line joining two of the levelling on the prism
table so that it is perpendicular to the line joining two of the levelling screws
L and N of the prism table.

10. Allow light from collimator to fall on the plane side of the grating (the side
having no rulings).

11. Rotate the table till the light reflected from the grating falls on the telescope
cross-wires.

12. It makes an angle 45 with the axis of telescope. The image should symmetrical
with respect to horizontal cross-wires of telescope, if not then it can be made
symmetrically by turning screw N and L’

13. Note the reading on Vernier and rotate the table by a further angle of 45 in
the direction of the arrow head as in diagram. The plane of grating is now set
perpendicular to the incident light falling on its back (unrolled surface).

14. Fix the table and release the telescope slowly.

15. Turn the telescope gradually to the left so that the image of the slit appears.
This will be the spectrum of first order. See if the slit is symmetrical with
respect to cross-wire the diffracted image, if not, turn the third screw M to
make it symmetrical.

63
16. Make the vertical cross-wire coincident with the help edge of yellow line and
read the position OA.

17. Adjust the telescope so as to see the clear image along O 1 in fig (See
Hyperlinks) and note the Vernier position for direct image.

18. Now turn the telescope slowly to the right of the central position till the
spectrum is visible in the direction OB. make the adjustment of cross-wire
and read the position OB. Difference is the angle AOB=2 θ1.

19. Repeat the measurement for the second order spectrum and measure the angle
COD =2 θ

20. Read the number of lines at each inch made on the grating. Suppose the
number be 15000/inch the grating element a + b= 2.54/15000cm.

21. Using formula, (a + b) sin θ=n λ, the value of n will be 1 and 2 for first and
second order spectrum respectively.

Observations and Calculations:

No of lines ruled on the grating = 15000/inch (say) = 15000/2.54…………cm
Grating element (a + b) =2.54/15000=…………cm.

Least count of the spectrometer=Value of the smallest + scale division/No of

divisions on the Vernier scale =

Order of Reading For Angle of diffraction Wavelength

Sin
Spectrum Vernier Λ=(a+b)sin
Mean θ
(n) Left Direct Right. Left Right θ/n
θ
1st order V1
n=1 V2
2nd order V1
n=2 V2

Mean wavelength=………..cm.

64
Result:
The wavelength of sodium light = …………A ………..cm
A = 10-8 cm
Actual value of the wavelength λ =5896x10-8 cm.
Error:- %error = (Actual value of λ –n Calculated value)/
Actual value x 100= ………. %

Precautions:
1. The grating must be placed with its plane vertical.

2. Do not touch the ruled surface of the grating.

3. All adjustments of the spectrometer must be made correctly.

4. The ruled surface should face opposite the telescope.

5. The light must fall on the whole of the grating surface.

6. Adjustment of the telescope and collimator should be for parallel rays.

7. Focused the eye-piece on the cross-wires carefully.

8. During taking readings, the slit should be made extremely narrow.

65
Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What is spectrometer?
Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

2. What is diffraction grating?

Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

3. Write formula to calculate wavelength of light.

Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

66
Experiment–11

DETERMINE THE RESOLVING POWER OF

DIFFRACTION GRATING

Written by: Imran Ahmad Khan

Reviewed by: Irfan Ullah

67
Experiment:
Determination of resolving power diffraction grating

Apparatus:
Spectrometer, diffraction grating, sodium lamp, travelling microscope, slit of
variable width.

Learning outcomes:
After performing this experiment, you will be able to:
• Analyze first and second order of Spectrum
• Calculate the Resolving power of Diffraction grating:

Key Points:
Diffraction grating
A diffraction grating is the tool of choice for separating the colors in incident light.
It acts as a "super prism", separating the different colors of light much more than
the dispersion effect in a prism. It may also be defining as A diffraction grating is
an optical tool with a periodic structure that splits and diffract light into several
beams travelling in different directions.

Resolving Power:
The ability of an optical instrument/tool to show separate images of very closely
placed two objects is called resolving power.

The resolving power of a diffraction grating:

It is defined as its ability to form separate diffraction maxima of two closely
separated wave lengths.

Watch/ see YouTube. Hyperlink is:

: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FxfmBLN31s

Procedure:
1. Focus the eye-piece on the cross-wires.

2. Also focus the telescope and collimator of the spectrometer for parallel rays
of light.

3. Place the slit of the collimator in front of the sodium lamp.

4. Adjust the grating on the turn table.

68
5. The unrolled surface of the grating should be perpendicular to the incident rays
of light and its ruled surface should pass through the center of the turn table.

6. After adjusting the telescope and the collimator, place turntable levelled and
grating on it, so that light falls exactly perpendicular to it.

Now place a well edged adjustable fine slit S set on a stand in front of
collimator lens L as show in figure. See. Hyperlink is:
: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FxfmBLN31s

7. See the direct image of the slit using the telescope and then turn it towards
right, so as to observe the first order spectrum.

8. Keep adjust the width of the slit of the collimator till the two D lines of the
sodium light became distinct.

9. Now place the adjustable slit between collimator and grating and with its
plane perpendicular to the axis of the collimator.

10. With the help of the tangential side screw M.A Open the adjustable slit S
sufficiently wide, so that line spectrum will be seen through the telescope.

11. Rotate the screw M so as to close the slit S slowly. The image of the first order
spectrum will become sharper and sharper. On further closing the slit, a stage
will come when a sharp dark line will appear exactly in the middle of the
yellow line of the first order spectrum.

12. Remove the slit and measure the width W of the slit at this stage by moving
microscope.

13. Now Close the slit. Again place the slit in between the collimator and the
diffraction grating as earlier

14. Start the slit slowly, a stage will come when one bright line will be separated
into two lines., Stop opening the slit when two lines just appear in the
spectrum. Again measure its width W and then take the mean of two widths.
suppose it be W.

15. Note the total number of lines M made on the grating. Also find the width of
the ruled surface of the grating. If the number of lines per inch N, then find
the number of lines per cm.
a. N=N/2.54.

69
 b. Now calculate the numbers of lines M in the opened width W, using
M=N/2.54XW.
c. (17) Determines the resolving power of the grating

(I) For the first order image using the following relation
R. P=Nm = M (for n=1)

(II) For second order spectrum

R.P.=Nm=2 m (for n =2)

Observations and Calculations:

Number of lines per inch of the grating = N = …………………….
Number of lines per cm of the grating =N = N /2.54
Number of lines in the opened width = M = N/2.54 X W =………………….
Least count o microscope = …………………….
Width of split when dark Number
Line just appears of
No. of Order of Lines in Resolving
While While Mean width the Power
observations Spectrum Opened R.P= nM
Closing opening W=(W1+W2)/2
it it W2 cm slit
W1 cm cm M=N1W
1 1st order
n=1
2 2nd order
n=2

Result:
The resolving power of diffraction grating is ………….

Actual Resolving Power:

Wavelength of D1 line of sodium =………………….
Wavelength of D2 line of sodium=……………....
Mean Wavelength =λ =……………
Difference in wavelength =d λ
Actual resolving power = λ/d λ=……………….
Actual R.P =……. = ………
Calculate error

70
Precautions and Sources of Error:
1. The light must be fall on the side of the grating having no rulings.

2. The plane of the adjustable slit must be parallel to the plane of the grating.

3. The grating surface should be perpendicular to the incident light from the slit.

4. The Slit of the sodium light should be very narrow so that the D lines in the
first and second order spectra are separated from each other.

5. The light must fall on the whole grating surface.

Self-Assessment Questions:

1. What is meant by spectrum?

Answer ..............................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

2. Define resolving power.

Answer ..............................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

71
3. What is diffraction grating?
Answer ..............................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................

72
Experiment–12

DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX FOR

GLASS PRISM BY SPECTROMETER

Written by: Imran Ahmad Khan

Reviewed by: Irfan Ullah
73
Experiment:
Determination of index for glass prism by using spectrometer.

Apparatus:
sodium light, spirit level, spirit level, spectrometer, glass prism, and reading lens.

Learning Outcomes:
After performing this experiment. you will be able to:
• Calibrate and use spectrometer
• Analyze the phenomenon of total internal reflection.
• Measure critical angle and refractive index of prism.
• Determine the relationship between critical angle and refractive index

Watch and see YouTube. Hyperlink is:

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h4RiczDeLQY
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOfVMgwmWNM

Key points:
Refractive index: The refractive index of a material is a dimension less number.
It describes how fast light travels through the material. It is defined as
The ratio of speed of light in vacuum to its speed in a specific medium.
n= c/v
 c is the velocity of light in a vacuum (3 × 108 m/s)
 v is the velocity of light in a substance
 n is the refractive index

For example, the refractive index of water is 1.333, meaning that light travels 1.33
times as fast in vacuum as in water. Refractive index inversely proportional to the
speed of light in the material.

74
Refraction of a light ray

The refractive index tells how much the path of light is refracted or bent, refracted,
when it enters a material.

Spectrometer: It is a scientific Device/instrument used to analyze the light

properties of reflected light or a luminous object. The instrument measures these
properties of light over a specific section of the electromagnetic spectrum. It may
also be defined as a scientific device/instrument used to separate and measure
spectral components of a physical phenomenon

Watch and see YouTube. Hyperlink is:

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h4RiczDeLQY
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SOfVMgwmWNM

Procedure:
1. Study the scale of spectrometer with the help of a magnifying glass and find
the least count of the Vernier.

2. Adjust the spectrometer.

3. Set the prism on the table of spectrometer.

4. Open the slit so that more light can pass through the collimator and illuminate
the slit with sodium light.

5. Turn the telescope so that the image of the slit formed by reflection from the
face AC falls on wire exactly in the center of the image of the slit.

6. Note the reading of the two verniers.

75
7. Now turn the telescope to see the reflected image of the slit from the face AB.

8. Adjust the vertical cross-wire in the center of the image of prism.

9. Again note the readings of the two verniers.

10. The difference of the two readings of each vernier = two times the angle of prism.

11. The angle of prism A = (difference between the two readings)

12. Put sodium light on the slit of the collimator.

13. Place the prism at the center of the table.

14. Adjust the prism for entrance of light from the collimator on face of the prism
emergence out of the other.

15. Find the position of the image of the slit with the unaided eye.

16. Rotate the table in one direction. Now rotate the prism table keeping the image
always in view and find the position at which the image reverses the direction
of its motion

17. keep the telescope on the image when it is on the point of refracting in path.

18. Make the slit very narrow so that the image should be of the fine yellow line.

19. Adjust the telescope so that by rotating the prism table, the image coincides
with the vertical cross-wire and then come back.

20. Finally coincide the cross-wire with the image using the tangent screw on
telescope.

21. Clamp the prism table. Read the position of telescope by means of the verniers.

22. Now remove the prism and turn the telescope around so that the slit is viewed
directly. Also clamp the telescope.

23. Adjust the tangent screw of the telescope to coincide the slit with vertical
cross-wire and. Again read the verniers.

24. The angle with which the telescope has been turned is the angle minimum
deviation.

76
Observations and Calculations:
Each main scale division of spectrometer = ½
30 Vernier scale divisions = 29 main scale divisions
Therefore 1 VS.D = 29/30 M.S.D
Lest count = 1.M.S.D-1.VS.D=1-29/30=1/30
M.S.D=1/30x1/2x1/60
So Least count of spectrometer = 1/30 x ½ =1/2 1 min.

(a) Angle of prism.

Angle
Position of Telescope Angle of
No. of between two
Vernier prism
observations telescope
AB AC A=θ/2
position =
1

Mean angle of Prism = a = ……….

(b) Angle of Minimum Deviation.

Reading for Angle of
No. of
Vernier minimum
obs
Minimum deviation Direct Light Deviation D
1 V1

2 V2

Refractive index, =n = sin(A+D)/2_Sin(A/2)

Corrected value of n =
Percentage error = ………Precautions

Precautions:
1. A narrow slit should be used.
2. Adjust the spectrometer carefully.
3. The edge of the slit image must coincide with the vertical cross-wires of the
telescope.
4. There should be no confusion with the so-called bogus image that is made by
refraction with back side of the prism.

77
5. To avoid bogus images, the back side of the prism must be covered with a
paper
6. Tangent screws should be used for fin adjustments.
7. The approximate position of minimum deviation must be found before seeing
with naked eye.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What do you understand by critical angle?
Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

2. What do know about total internal reflection?

Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

3. Establish the relationship between critical angle and refractive index.

Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

78
Experiment–13

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING A

NEON FLASH BULB AND CONDENSER

Written by: Imran Ahmad Khan

Reviewed by: Irfan Ullah
79
Experiment:
Measurement of resistance using Neon flash bulb and condenser

Learning Outcomes:
After performing this experiment. you will be able to:
• Analyze discharge of gas at cathode and anode terminal of Neon flash lamp.
• Measure the Flashing period of discharge of gas.
• Comprehend the causes neon flash lamp to give flash.
• Measure the Resistance through Striking voltage and Quenching potential

Key Points:
Neon flash lamp:
It is a gas discharge lamp. It consists of a small glass capsule that contains a
mixture of neon and other gases. The gases are kept at low pressure It also have
two electrodes (an anode and a cathode). When suitable voltage is applied and as
result the current is supplied between the electrodes, the lamp produces an orange
glow discharge. The glowing portion in the lamp is a thin region near the cathode;
the larger and much longer neon signs are also glow discharges, but they use the
positive column which is not present in the ordinary neon lamp. Neon glow lamps
were mostly used as indicator lamps for displaying purpose of electronic appliances
and instruments.

High Electrical Resistance:

A high electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the flow
of an electric current through that conductor. resistance gives the relationship
between voltage and current. Its SI is the ohm.

Apparatus:
Neon Flash Lamp apparatus, Connecting Wires. Power Supply, Diode, Resistor of
unknown resistance, Stopwatch

Circuit Diagram

80
Watch and see YouTube. Hyperlink is:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_L4sVT7hv74
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZQ89mkOApM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=81iQAMD5wXE
https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-P11iGyW8m9k/T-
uOkBkhBQI/AAAAAAAAAXA/iv1nOwR8PFI/s1600/calculations-table-values-
comsats-Islamabad.jpg

Procedure:
1. Make clean and neat circuit diagram of the connection.
2. Connect and neon lamp and the resistance box in series with power supply.
3. Connect the condenser i.e., capacitor in parallel with neon lamp.
4. Capacitor having capacitance range of 0.5m f to 0.2mf should be used
5. Resistance R must be of the order of mega Ohms. In order to change the
resistance, high resistance box should be used.
6. To check the striking voltage, Connect the neon bulb directly with the output
terminals of the power supply.
7. Turn ON the power supply and increase the voltage slowly. Note the voltage on
occurring of a sudden flash in the neon bulb. This voltage is called ‘striking
voltage’.
8. In order to obtain a measurable rate of flashing in the neon bulb, adjust the
values of the capacitor C and resistance R. Do not change the capacitance C
and the applied voltage.
9. Start the stopwatch on occurring the flashes in regular manner, Note the time for
20 flashes. Repeat the observations and find out the average time for 20 flashes.
10. Find the flashing time T=t/20 of the bulb.
11. Repeat the whole experiment for increasing the value of resistance R in
regular steps and note the corresponding flashing period.
12. Now connect the unknown resistance instead of the resistance R and find out
flashing period for as it has done earlier.
13. The experiment must be conducted in darkroom in order to avoid the
possibility of the photo electric interference with the working of the bulb.
Observation and Calculation:
Capacitance of the voltage = C = ---------- Micro Farad
Striking Voltage of the bulb = Vt = ----------------------- Volts
Time for 20 flashes Time/Flashing
Sr. Resistance
Mean time period
No. R (ohm) t1 sec t2 sec
T=(t1+t2)/2 sec T=t/20 sec
1
2
3

81
Result:
Time for 20 flashes of unknown resistance = --------- sec.
Flashing time for unknown resistance = T ………. sec.
Value of unknown resistance from the graph = ………… Ohm.
Unknown resistance = R ……………. Ohm.

Precautions:
1. The applied voltage must always be greater than the ‘striking voltage’ of the
bulb.
2. This must be kept constant throughout the experiment.
3. The condenser must have such a capacitance that the rate of flashing of the
bulb should be measured with the used resistance.
4. The condenser must have least capacitance that should not be changed for
specific set of observations.
5. The resistance must be changed in regular steps.

Self-Assessment Question:
1. How neon bulb works?
Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

2. What is meant by striking and quenching potential?

Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

3. What is meant by flashing period?

Answer ..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................

82
Experiment–14

CONVERSION OF
A GALVANOMETER INTO AMMETER

Written by: Imran Ahmad Khan

Reviewed by: Irfan Ullah
83
Experiment:
Part-I: Conversion of the given galvanometer into an ammeter

Part-II: Determination of the length of shunt resistance

Part-III: Verification for converted ammeter

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing this experiment. you will be able to:
 Know the sensitivity of a galvanometer.
 Convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter.
 Learn an ammeter is always connected in series to a circuit.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink:

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YG1CcDICy2w
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abWXstPKFx0

Key Concepts and Theory:

Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument therefore it cannot measure large
current. In order to convert a Galvanometer into an Ammeter, a very low resistance
known as "shunt" resistance is connected in parallel to Galvanometer. Value of
shunt is so adjusted that most of the current passes through the shunt. In this way a
Galvanometer is converted into Ammeter and can measure large current.

Part-I: Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter

Let resistance of galvanometer = Rg and it gives full-scale deflection when current
Ig is passed through it.

Then by using Ohm’s Law

Vg = Ig Rg -------(i)

Let a shunt of resistance (Rs) is connected in parallel to galvanometer. If total

current through the circuit is I.

84
Then current (Is) through shunt:
Is = (I-Ig)
and potential difference across the shunt:
Vs= Is Rs
Or
Vs = (I – Ig)Rs -------(ii)

But
Vs =Vg
(I - Ig)Rs = IgRg
After simplification we get,

Apparatus:
 A Weston type galvanometer
 Ammeter of the range 0-3 A
 Battery box with two cells
 Two resistance boxes of 10,000Ω and 200Ω respectively
 Two one way keys
 A rheostat
 Connecting wires
 Piece of sandpaper
 Screw gauge

Circuit Diagram:

85
Procedure:
 The electrical connections must be the same as in the circuit diagram with k1
and k 2 are opened.
 Close k1 keeping k 2 open, galvanometer will show out of scale deflection.
 Adjust the value of R (Ω) from H.R.B. (High Resistance Box) box, so that
galvanometer deflection becomes within scale and needle of galvanometer is
on even number value. Note this even value x (div) and value of R (Ω)
 Keeping R (Ω) unchanged now close key k 2 the reading of galvanometer
should become zero.
 Adjust the shunt resistance S (Ω) from L.R.B so that reading of the
galvanometer becomes half of the previous value. Note this value of S(Ω)
 Calculate the value of resistance of galvanometer S(Ω) by using relation
𝑅𝑠
𝑅𝑔 = − 𝑆 (Ω)
𝑅
 Repeat the experiment thrice with different values of R(Ω) and S(Ω) and
calculate the mean value of Rg(Ω).
 Plug out the value of resistance from H.R.B. for which the galvanometer
deflection becomes 30 div. (full scale deflection) by using the given circuit.
 Measure the e.m.f. E of the battery with the help of voltmeter.
 Find current Ig to get maximum deflection of the galvanometer using relation.
𝐸
𝐼𝑔 =
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑔
Observation Table
No. Resistance taken deflection of Half Shunt 𝑺
Rg=𝑹 ×
𝑹−𝑺
of from H.R.B galvanometer deflection resistance
(Ω)
obs. R(Ω) x( div) x/2( div) S(Ω)
1
2
3

Calculations:
Mean value of Rg-=------------------------------ (Ω)
Value of resistance for full scale deflection (30 div) = R = ---------------(Ω)
e.m.f of the battery = E = -----------------------volt
Maximum value of current in the galvanometer =
𝐸
𝐼𝑔 =
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑔

86
Result:
When Rs (shunt resistance) is connected in parallel across galvanometer, the
galvanometer is converted into an ammeter.

Part-II: To Determine the Length of Shunt Resistance

 Select the range of galvanometer (I=0.6A)
 Find the value Rs by using formula

 Measure radius “r” of the shunt resistance

 Note the resistivity p (ohm cm) of the shunt resistance
 Calculate the length of the shunt resistance
𝑟2
L=Rs𝜋 𝑝
 Connect L (cm) wire in parallel
Let the length of the wire be 2cm more than the calculated value of I such that
there is 1 cm extra available at each end. Mark points on each end of the wire
and connect it to the two terminals of the galvanometer. The wire should be
such that the points are on the outside of the terminal screws. A galvanometer
with the shunt wire will now work as an ammeter with the range I.

Part-III: Verification for Converted Ammeter

In this part verify the conversion of galvanometer into ammeter of given range.

Procedure:
 The electrical connections must be the same as in the circuit diagram.
 To observe maximum and minimum deflection in the galvanometer, insert the
key and adjust the rheostat.

87
 Note the readings from the galvanometer scale and the corresponding
ammeter reading.
 Record the observations.

Verification Table
range
Least count of the galvanometer converted into an Ammeter = 30
Galvanometer Converted Ammeter
Sr. reading Ammeter Difference
Deflection
No. 𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 reading I2 (A) I2 – I1
Ө(div) I1 = Ө 𝐱
𝟑𝟎
1
2
3

Result:
The value of the current difference (I2 – I) is very small and conversion is perfect.

Precautions:
 Calculate the resistance accurately
 Same range conversion ammeter should be used for the verification
 The length of the shunt wire must be correct

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What is a galvanometer?
2 Why is a galvanometer not suitable to measure current?
3. Why zero is placed in the middle of the galvanometer?
4. Is there a positive and negative terminal in the galvanometer?
5. What is the other name of moving coil galvanometer?
6. Define ammeter.
7. How ammeter should be placed in an electric circuit?
8. Why is ammeter placed in series?
9. Name the galvanometer used in laboratories
10. Compare ammeter and voltmeter.

88
Experiment–15

CONVERSION OF
A GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER

Written by: Imran Ullah Khan

Reviewed by: Irfan Ullah
89
Experiment:
Conversion of the given galvanometer into voltmeter.

Part-I: Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing experiment, you will be able to:
 Know sensitivity of the galvanometer.
 Connect Voltmeter in parallel to a circuit.
 Convert the given galvanometer into voltmeter.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink:

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0_BxHctffQE
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RNZeE95VgEs

Key Concept and Theory:

Voltmeter is a device, which is used to measure potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit.

Connection of Voltmeter in Circuit:

Voltmeter is always connected in parallel to a circuit.

SYMBOL

Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter:

Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument, therefore it cannot measure high
potential difference. In order to convert a Galvanometer into voltmeter, a very high
resistance known as "series resistance" is connected in series with the galvanometer.

Circuit Diagram:

90
Procedure:
1. The electrical connections must be the same as in the circuit diagram with k1
and k 2 are opened.
2. Close k1 keeping k 2 open, galvanometer will show out of scale deflection.
3. Adjust the value of R (Ω) from H.R.B. box, so that galvanometer deflection
becomes within scale and needle of galvanometer is on even number value.
Note this even value x (div) and value of R (Ω).
4. Keeping R (Ω) unchanged now close key k 2 the reading of galvanometer
should become zero.
5. Adjust the shunt resistance S (Ω) from L.R.B so that reading of the
galvanometer becomes half of the previous value. Note this value of S(Ω)
6. Calculate the value of resistance of galvanometer S(Ω) by using relation.
𝑅𝑔 = 𝑅𝑠/𝑅 − 𝑆 (Ω)
7. Repeat the experiment thrice with different values of R(Ω) and S(Ω) and
calculate the mean value of Rg(Ω).
8. Plug out the value of resistance from H.R.B, for which the galvanometer
deflection becomes 30 div. (full scale deflection) by using the given circuit.
9. Measure the e.m.f. (E) of the battery with the help of voltmeter.
10. Find current Ig to get maximum deflection of the galvanometer using relation
𝐸
𝐼𝑔 =
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑔

Observations: Table Readings

Resistance deflection of Rg=𝑹 ×
No. Half Shunt
taken from galvanomete 𝑺
of deflection resistance
H.R.B r 𝑹−𝑺
obs. x/2 ( div) S(Ω) (Ω)
R(Ω) x ( div)
1
2
3

Calculation:
Mean value of Rg-=------------------------------ (Ω)
Value of resistance for full scale deflection (30 div) = R = ---------------(Ω)
e.m.f. of the battery = E = -----------------------volt
Maximum value of current in the galvanometer =
𝐸
𝐼𝑔 =
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑔

91
Part-II: To Determine Value of High Resistance Rx
Select the range of conversion of galvanometer, let it is to be (0-3V) i.e. V=3 volt
Let the resistance of galvanometer = Rg and resistance Rx (high) is connected in
series to it. Then combined resistance = (Rg + Rx).

If potential between the points to be measured = V and if galvanometer gives full-

scale deflection, when current "Ig" passes through it. Then

V = Ig (Rg + Rx)
V = IgRg + IgRx
V – IgRg = IgRx
Rx = (V – IgRg)/Ig

Thus Rx can be found

Calculations:
Mean value of Rg- =------------------------------ (Ω)
Value of resistance for full scale deflection (30 div) = R = ---------------(Ω)
e.m.f of the battery = E = -----------------------volt
Maximum value of current in the galvanometer =
𝐸
𝐼𝑔 =
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑔
Ig=---------------

92
Part-III: Verification for Converted Voltmeter
In this part verify the conversion of galvanometer into ammeter of given range

Circuit Diagram

Procedure:
1. Connect resistance box in series combination with the galvanometer and take
the plugs of resistance R.
2. A and B are the fixed terminals and C is the variable terminal of the rheostat.
3. Now the galvanometer functions as a voltmeter of range V Volts.
4. Take out the plugs of calculated resistance R from the resistance box.
5. By using a key adjust the movable contact of the rheostat such that the
deflection of the galvanometer becomes maximum.
6. Note both the readings of galvanometer and voltmeter.
7. Convert the readings of galvanometer into volts.
8. Find the difference in the reading. This difference between voltmeter reading
and galvanometer reading gives the error.
9. By moving the variable contacts of rheostat take 3 readings covering the range
of voltmeter from 0-3 Volts.

Observations:
Range of galvanometer = 3V
Least count of galvanometer converted into voltmeter = V/n =

93
 Observations and Calculations
Reading of The potential Standard
Sr. 𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
galvanometer difference in voltmeter
No. = 𝑽𝟐 – 𝑽𝟏
into voltmeter volts V1 reading V2
1
2
3

Precautions:
 Calculate the resistance accurately
 Use the same range conversion voltmeter should be used for verification
 Use correct length shunt wire.

Result:
The value of the actual and measured value of the potential difference is very small
and conversion is perfect.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What is the resistance of ideal voltmeter
2. How is galvanometer converted into voltmeter?
3. How can you convert galvanometer into a voltmeter?
4. How can the range of the voltmeter be increased?
5. Can an ammeter be converted into voltmeter?
6. How is voltmeter connected in electric circuit?
7. Why is voltmeter always connected in parallel?
8. On what principle galvanometer works?
9. How can a galvanometer be converted into voltmeter?
10. Can galvanometer be used to measure heavy currents?

94
Experiment–16

CHARGE SENSITIVITY OF A BALLISTIC

GALVANOMETER TAKING INTO ACCOUNT
LOGARITHMIC DECREMENT

Written by: Imran Ullah Khan

Reviewed by: Irfan Ullah

95
Experiment:
Charge sensitivity of a ballistic galvanometer taking into account logarithmic
decrement.

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing experiment, you will be able to:
 Determine charge sensitivity of a ballistic galvanometer taking into account
logarithmic decrement.

Key Concept and Theory:

The galvanometer which is used for estimating the quantity of charge flow through
it is called the ballistic galvanometer. The working principle of the ballistic
galvanometer is very simple. It depends on the deflection of the coil which is
directly proportional to the charge passes through it. The galvanometer measures
the majority of the charge passes through it in spite of current.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z5ZlYltXs9c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W42QXas4yII

The Charge Sensitivity:

The charge sensitivity of a ballistic galvanometer may be defined as the
(transient) charge needed to have a unit value for the first maxima of the deflection
of its coil. Charge sensitivity of a ballistic galvanometer formula is Qs = Q / θ = k.

The Logarithmic Decrement:

The logarithmic decrement is a technique that by measuring the contraction of the
oscillation amplitude of a damped system, estimates the damping that the system is
experiencing. Due to this procedure, a more specific name for this technique would
be the Logarithmic Decrement of the Amplitude

Apparatus:
 A ballistic galvanometer Lamp and scale arrangement
 Voltmeter
 Battery key
 Standard capacitor
 Taping key
 Morse key
 Two one way keys
 A rheostat
 Connecting wires

96
Description of the Apparatus:
A ballistic galvanometer is employed to measure the quantity of charge passing
through it. It differs from moving coil suspended type of galvanometer in the
following aspects.
i) Its period of oscillation is very large. The large moment of inertia is
practicable for its coil.
ii) The electromagnetic damping of coil is reduced to minimum. It is done by
winding the coil on a conducting frame.
iii) The whole quantity of charge, which is measured, passed before its coil
appreciably moves from zero position i.e. the throw is independent of the
duration of the impulse. Very small currents should not allow entering a
ballistic galvanometer because it is very sensitive. It is achieved in practice
by making a potential divide arrangement as shown in figure.

97
Formula
Log decrement = ‫ = גּ‬2.303 / θ0× log θ0/θ10

‫גּ‬
Ɵ0 (1 + 2)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐶𝑉

θ0 = First throw of spot of light when initially the condenser is discharged through
ballistic galvanometer.

θ10 = tenth throw of spot of light when the condenser is discharged.

C = capacity of the standard condenser.

Procedure:
1. Make the electrical connections as in the circuit diagram.
2. Close K1 (ii) and press the Morse key (K2), i.e. charge the condenser for 40
seconds (say)
3. Release the Morse key K2 so that the condenser is discharged through the
galvanometer. Note down the first throw θ0
4. Repeat the procedure of the points (ii) and (iii) several times, i.e. every time
charge condenser and then discharge through B.G. Obtain mean value of θ0
5. Closing K1 (ii) and pressing Morse key K2, charge the condenser for the same
time. Keeping Morse key pressed, open K1 (ii) and close K1 (i). Start the stop
watch.
6. After a measured time t seconds (say 5 or 10 sec.), release Morse key and note
down the first throw θt in the galvanometer.
7. Repeat procedure (5) and (6) for different values of t.

98
Observations:
Capacity of the condenser (C) =........ưF

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆
P.D of th 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚
I st
10
No. the Mean Mean Log
throw Throw. ‫גּ‬
obs capacitor θ0 θ10 𝛉𝟎 (𝟏 + )
θ0 Θ10 decrement 𝟐
V ‫ = גּ‬2.303 / =
𝑪𝑽
θ0 × log
1 2 1 2 θ0/θ10
Volt mm/C
mm Mm Mm mm mm mm

Result:
Mean charge sensitivity = -------------------- mm/C

Precautions and sources of errors:

1. The galvanometer coil should be made properly free.
2. Connection should be proper & tight
3. Tapping key should be used across the galvanometer.
4. Condenser should be free from dielectric loss.
5. After observing θ0, the galvanometer coil should be at rest for observing the
value of θt.
6. Switch ‘OFF’ the supply after completion of experiment

99
Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What is moving coil galvanometer?

2. What is the use of ballistic galvanometer?

3. Why only low current is allowed to flow in a ballistic galvanometer?

4. Define time constant.

5. What the significance of time constant?

6. Why this method is suitable for measurement of high resistance only?

7. What is order of resistance one can determine by this method?

8. Why the charge should not leak through the keys and the capacitor?

9. Explain the different between dead beat galvanometer and ballistic

galvanometer.

10. Why the tapping key is connected in parallel to the ballistic galvanometer?

100
Experiment–17

STUDY THE B-H CURVE & MEASURING THE

MAGNETIC PARAMETERS

Written by: Nadeem Ahmad

Reviewed by: Dr. Rehmat Ullah Bhatti

101
Experiment:
Study the B-H curve & measuring the magnetic parameters

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After the experiment, you will be able to:
1. Draw Hysteresis loop on CRO.
2. Measure magnetic parameters on the B-H Curve.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qemfN7LfL7A&list=PLDdxpX0_Tqg21GCP
909Lgm1S_a5BwPOO7

Apparatus: B-H curve tracer kit, CRO, Patch Cords, Trace paper Magnetic
Materials: Nail, Hack Saw Blade, Ferrite Rod, Steel rod

Theory:
Magnetic hysteresis may be defined as the lagging of magnetization (or flux density
B) behind magnetizing force H. It is that property of material due to which energy
is dissipated in it on the reversal of its magnetism. The magnetizing force H can be
produced by passing current through the coil wound on iron core. It can be
increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing the current through the coil.
Consider a circuit consisting of a battery “E” an ammeter, variable resistance R and
reversible switch shown in the fig.1.
i) Initially variable resistance is kept at maximum position so current through
the circuit is very low. The field strength H=NI /l is also very low. So as
current increased, for low values of field strength, flux density does not
increase rapidly. But after the knee point flux density increases rapidly up to
certain point. This point is called point of saturation. There after any change
in current do not have an effect on the flux density. This curve is nothing but
the magnetization curve (B-H curve). This is the initial part of hysteresis loop.
ii) After the saturation point, now current is again reduced to zero. Due to this
field strength also reduces to zero. But it is observed that flux density do not
trace the same curve back but falls back as compared to previous
magnetization curve. This phenomenon of falling back of flux density while
demagnetization cycle is called hysteresis. Hence due to this effect, when
current becomes exactly zero, there remains some magnetism associated with
a coil and hence the flux density. The core does not get completely
demagnetized though current through coil becomes zero. This value of flux
density when exciting current through the coil and magnetic field strength is
reduced to zero is called residual flux density/ residual magnetism of the core.

102
 The magnitude of this residual flux or magnetism depends on the nature of
the material of the core. And this property of the material is called retentively.
iii) But now if it is required to demagnetize the core entirely then it is necessary
to reverse the direction of the current through the coil. This is possible with
the help of the intermediate switch. The value of magnetic field strength
required to wipe out the residual flux density is called the coercive force. It is
measured in terms of coercively.
iv) If now this reversed current is increased, core will get saturated but in opposite
direction. At this point flux density is maximum but with opposite direction.
v) If this current is reduced to zero, again core shows a hysteresis property and
does not get fully demagnetized. It shows same value of residual magnetism
but with opposite direction.
vi) If current is reversed again, then for a certain magnitude of field strength,
complete demagnetization of the core is possible.
vii) And if it is increased further, then saturation in the original direction is achieved
completing one cycle of magnetization and demagnetization. The curve plotted
for such one cycle turns out to be closed loop which is called hysteresis loop.
Its nature is shown in the Fig. 2. In the conventional techniques of tracing the
B-H loop, one has to wind a primary and a secondary coil on the specimen and
experiment with it. This method is not convenient for quick study of the shapes
of B-H loop of different materials. The present technique can be used to study
B-H loop by simply inserting the specimen in a magnetizing coil. It makes use
of a specially designed integrated circuit probe to measure the flux density B.
The current flow through the magnetizing coil develops a potential difference
across the resistance R, which deflects the beam in the X –direction. The
deflection is proportional to the magnetic field H which is given by; R L N V
H X * *  ampere turns/meter where N is the no. of turns of the coil (300),R
the resistance in series with the coil, and L is the coil length in meters(0.033m).
Vx is the voltage applied to the X-input of the CRO. The probe has a sensitivity
of 5mV per Gauss. Hence B=0.5VyWeber/sq m, Where Vy is the voltage
applied to the Y input of the CRO.

103
Procedure:
a) Connect one terminal of the magnetizing coil to point C of main unit and the
other terminal marked VI (6Volts ac). Connect H to the horizontal input of
the CRO and V to vertical input of the CRO. Operate the CRO in X-Y mode.
b) Connect the IC probe to the “IC” marked on main unit.
c) Switch ON the kit. To get proper loop vary the resistance to the maximum
value with the help of knob P on the panel.
d) With no specimen through the coil, adjust the horizontal gain of the CRO until
a convenient X deflection is obtained. Note down this reading as SH.
e) Insert the magnetic specimen (a 5’ nail), through the magnetizing coil such
that it touches the probe at the centre. Make sure that sample is touching I C
only and conducting tracks should not be shorted in any case. Adjust the
oscilloscope vertical gain (Y gain) until a trace showing the B-H loop
conveniently fills the screen. Note down this reading as Sv. If the curve is
back to front, reverse the connection of the magnetizing coil.
f) Trace the area of the loop on butter paper from the screen of CRO and retrace
it on graph paper.
g) Note down the X intercept Vx and Y intercept Vy from the graph paper.
Calculate the coercivity H using relation 1and retentivity B using relation 2.
h) Measure the area of the loop with the help of graph paper. The energy loss =
(𝟎.𝟓 𝐱 𝐍 𝐱 v S 𝐱 SH 𝐱 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐩) (𝐑 𝐱 𝐋) Joules/second/unit volume
Where Sv and SH are vertical and horizontal sensitivities of the CRO for that
particular setting of the gains.
i) Repeat the experiment by varying the a.c. voltage by connecting coil between
points C& V2(9Volts) and V3(12V). The part of the curve showing saturation
changes in length.
j) Repeat the experiment with different specimen and note your comments on
the properties of different materials.
Precautions:
(a) The specimen should touch the probe.
(b) If the area of the loop is expressed in cm2, the sensitivities should be expressed
in volts/cm. If the area of the loop is expressed in sq. meter the sensitivities
should be expressed in volts/meter. The length of the coil should be in meter.
Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Draw and briefly explain the hysteresis loop.
2. What is saturation in magnetic material?
3. What is residual magnetism?
4. What is relative permeability and absolute permeability?
5. Why B-H curve is different for different material?
6. Plot B-H curve for non-magnetic material?
7. Draw hysteresis loop for hard steel, cast and alloyed sheet, laminated sheet
on the same graph paper and compare.
8. Why hysteresis loop is thin /small for transformer stamping?

104
Experiment–18

DETERMINATION OF e/m
OF AN ELECTRON

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer

Reviewed by: Irfan Ullah
105
Experiment:
Determination of e/m of an electron

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing experiment, you will be able to:
1. Observe the effect of electric and magnetic fields on the charged electron
beam.
2. Measure the charge to mass ratio of an electron by applying electric
and magnetic field forces.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SI3LHKoMB40
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AO0pxFwPINg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOo0-3rQe9M

Key Concept and Theory:

J. J Thomson was the first scientist who measured charge to mass ratio (e/m) of an
electron. When a narrow beam of charged particles are projected at constant speed
(v) across a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to the field, the beam of
particles experiences a force, which makes them move in a circular path.

When an electron moves in a magnetic field B whose direction is perpendicular to

the velocity v of the electron, it is acted on by a force F (Lorentz force)
perpendicular to B and v with a magnitude.

𝐹 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵

Where F, e, v are the applied force, charge of electron and velocity of electron. The
electron beam is passed through the filament by applying high potential. The coils
are arranged across the tube where a strong magnetic field is applied. Which results
in the deflection of electron beam. This force causes the particle to move in a circle
in the plane perpendicular to the field.

Hence the magnetic force produces centripetal force for the electron,
mathematically it can be given as

𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐵 ---------------------i
2
𝑚𝑣
𝑒𝑣𝐵 = -------------------ii
𝑟

106
Where r is the radius of circle formed by electronic and m is the mass of an electron.

If the electron has been accelerated from rest through a potential difference V, then
the kinetic energy acquired is equal to the loss of potential energy.
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉---------------------------------iii
2

By using the above equations, we get

𝑒 2𝑉
= 𝐵2 𝑟 2------------------------- iv
𝑚

Thus, when the accelerating voltage V (in volts), the magnetic field B (in Tesla),
and the radius of the circular path r (in meter) are known, the value of the e/m can
be computed and is given in units of Coulomb/kg by equation.

Apparatus:
 Cathode Ray Tube apparatus
 Two circular coils (Helmholtz Coils)
 Power supply

107
Procedure: Setting of apparatus, Diagram, Figure
1. Magnetic compass is used to determine the North-South direction at the
location of the laboratory. Then set the equipment so that the plane of the
Helmholtz Coils lies in the plane of the earth's magnetic field.

2. The apparatus i.e. the cathode ray tube (containing i.e. the filament, coil, and
anode) is connected with the power supplies. The whole apparatus lies in pack
form.
(i). The knob on the pack controls the anode voltage, and the display can be
seen on the screen regarding the accelerating voltage V (0−500 volts).
(ii) The other knob controls the current through the Helmholtz coils, which
can be seen on the display screen.
(iii) The diameter (2r) of the illuminated beam is measured.

4. Now switch on the power supply. This will automatically turn on the filament
current for one or two minutes the filament to heat up.
5. Turn the anode voltage knob to apply about 150 volts to the anode. This is the
accelerating voltage V. A fine greenish-colored beam will now be observed.
6. Switch on the current to the coils. Adjust the current and observe how the
beam bends over and eventually circles back on itself. It may be necessary to
rotate the whole tube to achieve this condition.
7. Set the current at some value about 1.8 A. Adjust the anode voltage to give
an accelerating voltage V between 150 and 250 volts so that the beam falls on
the phosphor-coated crossbars.
8. Before taking the measurements, make sure that with the current value chosen
you will be able to bend the beam to fall on the 5 cm cross bar. If not, then
increase the coil current slightly and decrease the anode voltage until the
beam is observed to fall on the cross bar. Keep this value of current I constant
in the rest of the experiment.
9. Record the diameter of the orbit (5 cm) and the accelerating voltage V
10. Adjust the anode voltage to get the circles of diameters 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11
cm and record the corresponding values of V.
11. After finishing your measurements, turn the current through the coils to zero,
reverse the current leads and increase the current.
12. Observe that the beam is deflected in the opposite direction.

108
Observations and Calculations:

(Table Readings, Calculations/Analysis and Formula)

𝒆
Radius 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟔 µ𝒐𝑵𝑰
Number 𝑩= 𝒎
Sr. Voltage Current
of Turns
(r) 𝒓 𝟐𝑽
No. (V) (I) (Amp) (Circular =
(N)
Beam) (m) Tesla (T) 𝑩𝟐 𝒓𝟐

Where µo is the permeability constant which is equal to 4π × 10−7 T.m/A , N = 130

turns and r is the radius of the coils.

Results:
The accepted value of e/m is 1.7×1011 C/kg. However, the 5% to 10% error may
occur due to mishandling like taking measurements of the diameter of circular
beam.

Precautions:
 The filament of the e/m tube should be warm up about a minute before
applying the accelerating voltage.
 Reduce the accelerating voltage to zero before switching off the power
supply.
 Limit the accelerating voltage to 250 volts
 Be very careful around the glass e/m tube like touching etc.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What will happen if the terminal of power supply reversed?
2. Can we determine only charge of electron?
3. If the magnetic coil is tilted from its perpendicular position, then what will
happen?
4. Can cathode ray tube be used to measure the mass of electron only?
5. If the inside gas is removed from the tube, then what will happen with the
appearance of electron beam?
6. Can cathode ray tube be used to measure the charge to mass ratio of a neutron?

109
7. If there is low voltage, then what will happen with beam of electron?
8. If there is small hole in the cathode ray tube, then what will happen with the
beam of electron?
9. If the tungsten filament is replaced with iron filament, then what type of
effects would be produced?
10. If the magnetic coils are replaced with the simple bar magnets, then what will
happen regarding deflection of electron beam?

110
Experiment–19

EXPLORING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF

A SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
(Compare with (Si & Ge Diode)

Written by: Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Tanveer Afzal
Experiment:
Exploring the characteristics of Semiconductor Diode (Compare with Si & Ge diode)

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing this experiment. you will be able to:
1. Analyze Forward Biased Condition
2. Analyze Reverse Biased Condition
3. Plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode
4. Find cut-in Voltage for Silicon /Ge P-N Junction diode.
5. Find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse biased
conditions for Si/Ge P-N Junction diode.
6. Compare Si &Ge diodes

Key Concept and Theory:

A semiconductor diode is two-terminal device that allows the electric current in
only one direction which does not allow the electric current in reverse direction.
The P-N junction, which is formed when the p-type impurities and n-type impurities
are doped, is called as p-n junction diode.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_vKeaPHXF9U
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7U8NzRAvy-
I&list=PL7jfMV2bTYmpz8DeH8_SBBEEq0bxCnnss&index=10&t=19s
 https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-physics-12th-practical-
5.2&v=p-pr-11-12-sc-diode

Forward Biased Diode:

The P-N junction allows uni-directional current flow. If positive terminal of the
battery is connected to anode or P-side and negative terminal of the battery is
connected to cathode or N-side then diode is known as forward biased. This is the
condition when the height of the potential barrier is decreased and electrons and
holes can easily cross the junction and constitute a forward current. This condition
of diode is called forward biased diode.

Reverse Biased Diode:

The P-N junction allows negligible current if negative terminal of the battery
connected to anode or P-side and positive terminal of the battery is connected to
cathode or N- side then diode is known as reverse biased. This is the condition when
the height of the potential barrier is increased and practically negligible current flow
through the circuit and diode can considered as open circuit.

112
Apparatus:
 Power Supply (0-12V)
 Digital Ammeter (0-200mA/20mA)
 Digital Voltmeter(0-2V/20V) DC
 Connecting Wires
 Diodes IN 4001(Ge),
 key
 Rheostat
 Resistor1K,10K

Circuit Diagram:

113
Procedure for Forward Biased:
1. Make the circuit as shown in the figure (1) using silicon PN Junction diode.
2. Turn on the power supply and lose the key.
3. Slowly increase the Voltage till voltmeter shows o.1V. Note down the
corresponding ammeter readings.
4. Repeat the above step 6l times. Note down the voltmeter reading and
corresponding ammeter readings after increase of 0.1V.
5. Draw a graph V verses I.
6. Find slope of graph to find forward resistance Rf

Forward Resistance
∆𝑉𝑓
𝑅𝑓 = ( )
∆𝐼𝑓
Table for forward biased conditions:

Sr. Forward Forward

No. Voltage V(volts) Current I (mA)
1 0
2 0.2
3 0.4
4 0.6
5 0.8
6 1
7 1.2
8 1.4

Procedure for Reverse Biased:

1. Make the circuit as shown in the figure (1) using silicon PN Junction diode.
2. Turn on the power supply and lose the key.
3. Slowly increase the Voltage till voltmeter shows 1V. Note down the
corresponding ammeter readings.
4. Repeat the above step 6times. Note down the voltmeter reading and
corresponding ammeter readings after increase of 2V.
5. Draw a graph V verses I.
6. Find slope of graph to find reverse resistance Rf

Reverse Resistance:

∆𝑉𝑟
𝑅𝑟 = ( )
∆𝐼𝑟

114
 Sr. No. Reverse Voltage V(volts) Reverse current I (mA)

1 0

2 02.

3 .04

4 .06

5 08

6 10

7 12

8 14

Calculations with the help of Graphs:

If (mA)

Vr(volts) Vf(volts)

Ir( A)

Forward Resistance Rf = Vf/ If (Ω)

Reverse Resistance Rr=Vr/Ir ( Ω)

115
 Forward biased V-I graph

4.5

3.5

2.5
I
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Reverse biased graph

I
1.5

0.5

0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-0.5

-1 I

-1.5

-2

-2.5

-3

-3.5

116
 1.5

0.5

0
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

-3

-3.5

Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may
lead to damage the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter incorrect polarities as shown in the circuit
diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit
connections as per the circuit diagram.

Results:
1. Cut in voltage =……… V
2. Static forward resistance =……….
3. Dynamic forward resistance =……….

The Difference between Germanium and Silicon diode

There are four important differences
i. Threshold voltage
ii. Reverse bias saturation current,
iii. Dynamic resistance,
iv. Maximum working temperature.

117
The main difference between silicon and germanium diodes is the voltage. A
germanium diode conduct electric current when voltage properly applied across the
diode reaches 0.3 volts. Silicon diodes require greater voltage to conduct current. It
takes 0.7 volts to form a forward-bias condition in the silicon diode.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. What are pentavalent impurities?

2. What are trivalent impurities?

3. Name two semiconductors?

4. How can depletion region have formed?

5. What do you mean by cut-in voltage?

6 What is maximum forward current?

7. How does PN-junction diode acts as watch?

8. What is the effect of temperature in the diode reverse characteristics?

9. What is incremental resistance of a diode?

10. What is slope of V-I graph?

118
Experiment–20

SETTING UP AND STUDY AND LOGIC GATES

USING DIODE AND TO
DEVELOP THEIR TRUTH TABLE

Written by: Mr. Fayyaz Abbasi

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer

119
Experiment:
Design and Verify the truth table for AND gate

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing experiment, you will be able to:
 Understand the basic operation of digital electronics.
 Identify and draw the symbols for AND gate
 Develop and verify the truth tables of AND, gate.
 Understand simple circuits and schematic diagram using logic gates.
 State the action of the logic gates in the form of truth table.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-physics-12th-practical-5.4&v=p-pr-
9-10-gates

Key Concept and Theory:

The logic gates are building blocks at digital electronics. They are used in digital
electronics to change one voltage level into another according to some logic
statement relating to them. The basic logic gates are foundation of digital
electronics. These logic gates are simple interpretation of logical operations AND,
OR, and NOT.A table which shows all possible combinations or set of inputs and
outputs in binary form is called truth table. It indicates how the logic circuits output
responds to various condition of logic levels at the inputs.

The AND Gate: -

It is a device that combines A with B to give Y as the result. The AND gate has
two or more inputs and one output. In Boolean algebra, multiplication sign is
referred as the AND. The Boolean expression: A. B=Y o r A X B=Y This indicates
that Y equals to A and B.

The circuit witch implement the AND operation is known as “AND gate” Is symbol
is shown in the figure

120
Apparatus:
 D.C power supply(0-6V)
 Tow semiconductor diodes
 LED indicator
 Bread board
 Resistors of different values
 Connecting wires

Circuit Diagram

121
Procedure:
1. Check the components for their working.
2. Insert the appropriate IC into the IC base.
3. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
4. Provide the input data via the input switches and observe the output on
output LEDs
5. In logic gate 0 is consider as low level and 1isas high level.
6. In this step verify the truth table for AND gate.

If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0, B=0), then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0.
(ii) If switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0), then bulb does not
glow, hence Y=0.
(iii) If switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1), then bulb does not
glow, hence Y=0.
(iv) If both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1), then bulb glows, hence
Y=1.

Observations:
Table Readings
No. of Inputs Output
obs. A B Y=A×B
1 0 0 0
2 1 0 0
3 0 1 0
4 1 1 1

Results:
If both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1), then bulb glows, hence Y=1

Precautions:
1. Check the components for their working.
2. Clean ends of connecting wires.
3. All connection should be tight and clean.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Draw circuit diagram of AND gate.
2. Develop truth table of AND gate.
3. All connection should be tight and clean.

122
Experiment–21

SETTING UP AND STUDY OR

LOGIC GATES USING DIODE AND TO DEVELOP
THEIR TRUTH TABLE

Written by: Mr. Fayyaz Abbasi

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer

123
Experiment:
Design and Verify the truth table for OR gate

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing experiment, you will be able to:
 Understand the basic operation of digital electronics.
 Identify and draw the symbols for OR gate
 Develop and verify the truth tables of OR, gate.
 Understand simple circuits and schematic diagram using logic gates.
 State the action of the logic gates in the form of truth table.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-physics-12th-practical-5.4&v=p-pr-
9-10-gates

Logic circuit OR gate:

Logic circuit OR gate has two or more inputs and only one output. The output of
the OR gate is HIGH (1) if one or more inputs are HIGH Symbol of OR gate

Apparatus:
 D.C power supply(0-6V)
 Tow semiconductor diodes
 LED indicator
 Bread board
 Resistors of different values
 Connecting wires

124
Circuit diagram
Circuit diagram of two input, positive logic OR gate using diodes and a resistor is
shown below:

7432 Quad 2-input Logic OR Gate

Inputs A&B output

125
In this logic gate circuit, A and B are inputs and Y is output. These symbols can
take only two values either LOW (0) or HIGH (1).
i. If all inputs are at 0, both the diode becomes in reverse biased hence acts as
an open switch. Hence the output is low.

ii. If A is HIGH and B is LOW, the diode d1 becomes in forward biased hence
act as the closed switch. Hence the output is HIGH.

iii. Also, If A is low and B is high. Diode d2 becomes in forward biased and act
as an open switch. Hence the output is HIGH.

iv. If both the input is in HIGH then the output is high.

Procedure/Verification:
1. Check the components for their working.
2. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Insert the appropriate IC 7432 on a bread board
4. Always connect pin 14with +ive terminal and pin 7 with –ive terminal of a
battery.
5. Input A&B are given to pin-1 and pin-2 and output Y is taken from pin-3
6. Provide the input data via the input switches and observe the output on output
LEDs
7. In logic gate 0 is consider as low level and 1 is as high level.
8. In this step verify the truth table for OR gate.
9. If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0, B=0) then bulb does not glow,
hence Y=0
10. if switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0) then the bulb will
glow, hence Y=1
11. If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1) then bulb glows,
hence Y=1
12. If the switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1) then bulb glows, hence Y=1

126
Observations:

OR Gate Truth Table Readings

No. of Inputs Output
obs. A B Y=A+B
1 0 0 0
2 1 0 1
3 0 1 1
4 1 1 1

Precautions:
1. Check the components for their working.

2. Clean ends of connecting wires.

3. All connection should be tight and clean.

4. Confirm the pin configuration f IC according to data given manufacture.

Results:
OR gate having two or more inputs and only one output. The output of the OR
gate is High (1) if one or more inputs are High

X=A+B
X=0+0=0
X=0+1=1
X=1+0=1
X=1+1=1

127
Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Draw Circuit diagram of OR gate.

2. Develop truth table of OR gate.

3. In logic gate OR 1+1=1 why?

4. NOR is reciprocal of OR gate. Why?

5. Does circuit act as OR gate?

6. If output terminal of NOR gate is connected coupled with NOT gate. If the
switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1), what is output of OR gate?

128
Experiment–22

SETTING UP AND STUDY NOT LOGIC

GATES USING DIODE AND TO DEVELOP
THEIR TRUTH TABLE

Written by: Mr. Fayyaz Abbasi

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer

129
Experiment:
Design and Verify the truth table for NOT gate

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing this experiment. you will be able to:
 Understand the basic operation of digital electronics.
 Identify and draw the symbols for NOT gate
 Develop and verify the truth tables of NOT, gate.
 Understand simple circuits and schematic diagram using logic gates.
 State the action of the logic gates in the form of truth table.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-physics-12th-practical-5.4&v=p-pr-
9-10-gates

NOT Gate:
The NOT gate is called an inverter. The output is high when the input is low. The
output is low when the input is high Logic NOT Gates are available using digital
circuits to produce the desired logical function. The standard NOT gate is given a
symbol whose shape is of a triangle pointing to the right with a circle at its end.
This circle is known as an “inversion bubble” and is used in NOT, NAND and NOR
symbols at their output to represent the logical operation of the NOT function. This
bubble denotes a signal inversion (complementation) of the signal and can be
present on either or both the output and/or the input terminals

Apparatus:
 Resistor
 IC 7404
 470-ohm Resister
 LED
 Wires

130
 Battery
 Power Supply
 Needle Nose Plier.
 Power Supply

Formula:
NOT Gate: Y = A̅

Circuit Diagram

7404 NOT Gate or Inverter

131
Procedure:
1. Check the components for their working.
2. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Insert the appropriate IC 7404 on a bread board
4. Input A is given to pin-1and output takes from pin-2
5. Always connect pin 14with +ive terminal and pin 7 with –ive terminal of a
battery.
6. Once the circuit on the breadboard is complete the connect the breadboard
socket to the power supply.
7. Create the truth table and record the inputs and their corresponding outputs
8. The following inference can be easily drawn from the working of circuit:
(i) If the switch A is kept open (A=0) then bulb glows, hence Y=1
(ii) If the switch A is kept closed (A=1) then bulb does not glow, hence Y=0

Truth Table:
No. of Inputs Output
obs. A Y=A̅
0 1
0 1

Precautions:
 Check the components for their working.
 Clean ends of connecting wires
 All connection should be tight and clean
 Collect all the required material to conduct the lab.
 Cut the wires of equal length. 8 wires were required for this lab.
 Prepare the wires by ply off the unwanted coating by using nose plier.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Draw Circuit diagram of NOT gate.
2. Develop truth table of NOT gate.
3. If all inputs are at 0, both the diode becomes ---------.
4. If A is HIGH and B is LOW, the diode d1 becomes -------------.
5. If both the input is in HIGH, then the output is -------------.
6. Does circuit act as OR gate? If output terminal of NOR gate is connected
coupled with NOT gate.
7. If output terminal of NAND gate is connected is coupled with NOT, does
this circuit act as OR gate?

132
Experiment–23

SETTING UP AND STUDY NAND LOGIC

GATES USING DIODE AND TO DEVELOP
THEIR TRUTH TABLE

Written by: Mr. Fayyaz Abbasi

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer

133
Experiment:
Design and Verify the truth table for NAND gate

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing experiment, you will be able to:
 Understand the basic operation of digital electronics.
 Identify and draw the symbols for NAND gate
 Develop and verify the truth tables of NAND gate.
 Understand simple circuits and schematic diagram using logic gates.
 State the action of the logic gates in the form of truth table.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-physics-12th-practical-5.4&v=p-pr-
9-10-gates

Key Concept and Theory:

NAND gate
The combination of AND gate with NOT gate is called NAND gate. In NAND gate
the output of AND gate is inverted. The output is high when both inputs are low
and any one of the input is low. The output is low level when both inputs are high.
Therefore, NAND gate is the reciprocal of AND gate.

Symbol of NAND gate

In Boolean expression, the NAND gate is expressed as

134
Apparatus:
Two semiconductor diodes, NPN transistor battery connecting wires, sandpaper
LED, Resistors of different values, breadboard

Procedure: Setting of apparatus, Diagram, Figure

Circuit Diagram

7400 Quad 2-input Logic Transistor NAND

Procedure:
1. Make Connections according to circuit Diagram. In this logic circuit the
output of AND gate is fed the input of NAND gate because NAND gate is the
composition of AND gate followed by NOT gate.
2. If the switch A and B are kept open (A=0, B=0) then bulb glows, hence Y=1.

135
3. If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1), then bulb glows,
hence Y=1
4. If switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0), then bulb glows,
hence Y=1
5. If both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1) then bulb does not glow,
hence Y=0.

Observations: Table Readings

No. of Inputs Output
obs. A B Y
1 0 0 1
2 1 0 1
3 0 1 1
4 1 1 0

Results:
The NAND gate is a contraction of AND-NOT. The output is high when both
inputs are low and any one of the input is low. The output is low level when both
inputs are high

Precautions:
1. Check the components for their working.
2. Clean ends of connecting wires
3. All connection should be tight and clean

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Draw Circuit diagram of NAND gate.
2. Develop truth table of NAND gate.
3. Why NAND gate is called universal gate?
4. Which one gate can be used to design burglar alarm?
5. If the switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1), what is output of NAND gate?
6. NAND is reciprocal of AND gate. Explain.
7. If output terminal of NAND gate is connected is coupled with NOT, does
this circuit act as OR gate?

136
Experiment–24

DESIGN AND VERIFY THE TRUTH

TABLE FOR NOR GATE

Written by: Mr. Fayyaz Abbasi

Reviewed by: Dr. Muhammad Zaigham Qadeer

137
Experiment:
Design and Verify the truth table for NOR gate

Intended Learning Outcomes:

After performing this experiment. you will be able to:
 Understand the basic operation of digital electronics.
 Identify and draw the symbols for NOR gate
 Develop and verify the truth tables of NOR gate.
 Understand simple circuits and schematic diagram using logic gates.
 State the action of the logic gates in the form of truth table.

Virtual Lab Video on YouTube Hyperlink

https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-physics-12th-practical-5.4&v=p-pr-
9-10-gates

Key Concept and Theory:

The NOR Gate
The NOR Gate gate is a combination of the 2-input OR gates with a NOT gate
connected together in series

Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2). An ideal n-p-n transistor Theory and
Construction: If we connect the output Y’ of OR gate to the input of a NOT gate,
then the gate obtained is the NOR gate. The output Y is voltage at C with respect
to earth Then we can define the operation of a 2-input digital logic NOR gate as
being:

“If both A and B are NOT true, then Y is true”

138
In Boolean expression, the NOR gate is expressed as:

Apparatus:
Two semiconductor diodes, NPN transistor battery connecting wires, sandpaper
LED, Resistors of different values, breadboard.

Circuit Diagram:

7402 Quad 2-input NOR Gate

139
Procedure:
1. Make Connections according to circuit Diagram. In this logic circuit the
output of AND gate is fed the input of NAND gate because NAND gate is the
composition of AND gate followed by NOT gate.
2. If the switch A and B is kept open (A=0, B=0) then bulb glows, hence Y=1.
3. If the switch A is kept closed and B is kept open (A=1, B=0) then the bulb
glows, Hence Y=0.
4. If the switch A is kept open and B is kept closed (A=0, B=1) then the bulb
does not glow, hence Y=0.
5. If the both switch A and B are kept closed (A=1, B=1) then bulb does not
glow, hence Y=0.
OR Gate Truth Table Readings
No. of Inputs Output
obs. A B Y
1 0 0 0
2 1 0 1
3 0 1 1
4 1 1 1

Results:
The output is 1 only when all inputs are 0 otherwise the output is 0

Precautions:
1. Check the components for their working.
2. Clean ends of connecting wires.
3. All connection should be tight and clean.

Self-Assessment Questions:
1. Draw circuit diagram of NOR gate.
2. Develop truth table of NOR gate.
3. Why NOR gates are called universal gates?
4. If the switch A and B are kept opened (A=0, B=0), what is output of NOR
gate?
5. Under what condition output of NOR gate is 1?

140
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Physics Practical’s Web-Links
Determine value of g: by compound https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3uZ_Boyt
pendulum. _AI

Determine the moment of inertia of solid https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-

cylinder and sphere. physics-12th-practical-9.1&v=p-pr-11-12-fly-
wheel

Study the damping feature of an https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid= punjab-

oscillating system using simple pendulum physics-12th-practical-2.1&v=p-pr-9-10-
of a variable mass. smpl-pendlm-ampl

Measurement of viscosity of liquid by https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQwlmX

Stoke’s /poseulli’s method. tRu5k

Determine modulus of rigidity by static https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=InPLEq2i

and dynamic method (Maxwell’s Needle, jYw&t=809s
Barton’s Apparatus).

Study the dependence of Centripetal force https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EB4poDI

on mass, radius, and angular velocity of a sY30
body in circular motion.

Surface tension of water by capillary tube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzG7po1

method. F5hE

Investigation of phase change with https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-

position in traveling wave and measure the wqHyDnX6rk
velocity of sound by C.R.O.

Determination of height of a tree/ building https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84T56YN

and Horizontal/Vertical distance by xZpw
Saxtant. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b6SZBbG
GjW0

Determination of wavelength of light by https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/wave-

diffraction grating by using spectrometer. interference

Determine the resolving power of https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_hUBXz

diffraction grating. -G-Y&t=85s

Determination of refractive index for https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h4RiczDe

glass prism by spectrometer. LQY

141
Measurement of resistance using a Neon https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-
flash bulb and condenser. physics-12th-practical-4.7&v=p-pr-11-12-
neon-lamp

Conversion of a galvanometer into https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-

Voltmeter. physics-12th-practical-4.1&v=p-pr-11-12-
conversion-gal

Conversion of a galvanometer into an https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-

Ammeter. physics-12th-practical-4.1&v=p-pr-11-12-gal-
volt

Charge sensitivity of a ballistic https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z5ZlYltX

galvanometer taking into account s9c
logarithmic decrement.

Study the B-H curve & measuring the https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qemfN7L

magnetic parameters. fL7A&list=PLDdxpX0_Tqg21GCP909Lgm1
S_a5BwPOO7

Determination of e/m of an electron. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1BV8Cp

CD0bo

Exploring the characteristics of a https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7U8NzRAv

semiconductor Diode (Compare with (Si y-I&list=PL7jfMV2bTYmpz8
& Ge diode). DeH8SBBEEq0bxCnnss&index=10&t=19s
https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-
physics-12th-practical-5.2&v=p-pr-11-12-sc-
diode

Setting up transistor oscillator circuit and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3l0uZwxj

measure its frequency by an oscilloscope. RV4

Setting up and study various logic gates https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-

(AND, OR, NAND etc.) using diode and physics-12th-practical-5.4&v=p-pr-9-10-gates
to develop their truth table.

Resonance frequency of a rejecter https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehnVw29

circuits. N1x8
Draw the characteristics curve of a Geiger https://sabaq.pk/video-page.php?sid=punjab-
Muller tube. physics-12th-practical-11.1&v=p-pr-11-12-
gm-tube

____[ ]____

142