DSD UNIT 4

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC DEVICES (PLDS)

Introduction:

An IC that contains large numbers of gates, flip-flops, etc. that can be configured by the user
to perform different functions is called a Programmable Logic Device (PLD).

The internal logic gates and/or connections of PLDs can be changed/configured by a

programming process.

One of the simplest programming technologies is to use fuses. In the original state of the
device, all the fuses are intact.

Programming the device involves blowing those fuses along the paths that must be removed
in order to obtain the particular configuration of the desired logic function.

PLDs are typically built with an array of AND gates (AND-array) and an array of OR gates (OR-
array).

Advantages of PLDs:

Problems of using standard ICs:

Problems of using standard ICs in logic design are that they require hundreds or thousands of
these ICs, considerable amount of circuit board space, a great deal of time and cost in
inserting, soldering, and testing. Also require keeping a significant inventory of ICs.

Advantages of using PLDs:

Advantages of using PLDs are less board space, faster, lower power requirements (i.e.,
smaller power supplies), less costly assembly processes, higher reliability (fewer ICs and
circuit connections means easier troubleshooting), and availability of design software.

There are three fundamental types of standard PLDs: PROM, PAL, and PLA.
 A fourth type of PLD, which is discussed later, is the Complex Programmable Logic Device
(CPLD), e.g., Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA).
A typical PLD may have hundreds to millions of gates.
In order to show the internal logic diagram for such technologies in a concise form, it is
necessary to have special symbols for array logic.
Figure shows the conventional and array logic symbols for a multiple input AND and a
multiple input OR gate.

Three Fundamental Types of PLDs:

The three fundamental types of PLDs differ in the placement of programmable connections in
the AND-OR arrays. Figure shows the locations of the programmable connections for the
three types.

The PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) has a fixed AND array (constructed as a
decoder) and programmable connections for the output OR gates array. The PROM
implements Boolean functions in sum-of-min terms form.
The PAL (Programmable Array Logic) device has a programmable AND array and fixed
connections for the OR array.

The PLA (Programmable Logic Array) has programmable connections for both AND and OR
arrays. So it is the most flexible type of PLD.

The ROM (Read Only Memory) or PROM (Programmable Read

Only Memory):

1. Read-Only Memory (ROM):

Definition:
ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that is permanently programmed during
manufacturing to store data or instructions. This data is usually critical for the functioning of
a system and is not meant to be altered during normal operation.

Characteristics of ROM:

1. Non-Volatile: Data is retained even when the power is turned off.

2. Pre-Programmed: The programming is done during manufacturing.
3. Read-Only: The stored data cannot be changed or erased during normal use.
4. Durable and Reliable: ROM is immune to accidental overwriting or power failures.

Structure and Working:

 Data Storage: ROM consists of an array of memory cells. Each cell is connected to a
grid of rows (word lines) and columns (bit lines).
 Pre-Programming: During manufacturing, specific connections in the memory cells
are created or left open, representing binary data (1 or 0).
 Access: When a specific address is input, the ROM retrieves the corresponding data
for processing.

Types of ROM:

1. Mask ROM: Programmed at the manufacturing stage and cannot be changed.

2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased using ultraviolet light and
reprogrammed.
3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): Can be erased and
reprogrammed electrically, often used in modern systems.

Applications of ROM:

 Firmware Storage: For fixed software like BIOS in computers.

 Embedded Systems: Devices with fixed functionalities, such as calculators or
washing machines.
 Hardware Configurations: To store lookup tables, character generators, or
microcode in digital systems.
2. Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM):

Definition:
PROM is a special type of ROM that is manufactured as blank and can be programmed once
by the user. After programming, it behaves like ROM, with data becoming permanent.

Characteristics of PROM:

1. One-Time Programmable (OTP): Data can be written once and cannot be erased or
modified.
2. User-Programmable: Unlike ROM, which is pre-programmed, PROM allows
manufacturers or developers to program it based on specific needs.
3. Customizable: Suitable for creating unique configurations without modifying the
hardware design.

Structure and Working:

 Blank Memory Cells: PROM contains memory cells that are initially
unprogrammed, represented by a default state (1).
 Programming: A special device called a PROM programmer applies high voltage
to selected memory cells, "burning" fuses or links to permanently change their state to
0.
 Read-Only: Once programmed, the PROM behaves like ROM, and its data is fixed.

Applications of PROM:

 Device Customization: In devices where the configuration is decided after

production.
 Prototyping: For testing specific logic before creating a fixed ROM.
 Embedded Systems: Where unique firmware is required for different batches of
products.

Comparison: ROM vs. PROM

Feature ROM PROM

Definition Non-volatile memory pre- Blank memory programmable by
programmed during manufacturing. the user.
Programming Data is permanently written during Data can be written once by the
manufacturing. user.
Reprogramming Cannot be reprogrammed. Cannot be reprogrammed after
initial programming.
Flexibility No flexibility after manufacturing. Offers flexibility to program data
post-manufacturing.
Cost More cost-effective for mass Slightly more expensive due to
production. programming capability.
Common Use Firmware, embedded systems. Custom configurations,
Cases prototyping.

Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of ROM:

1. Permanently stores critical data, making it reliable.

2. Resistant to accidental overwrites.
3. Low power consumption.

Limitations of ROM:

1. Lack of flexibility for updates.

2. High cost for small-scale production due to fixed data during manufacturing.

Advantages of PROM:

1. Provides customization and flexibility for unique applications.

2. Enables programming after manufacturing, useful for specific needs.

Limitations of PROM:

1. Programming is a one-time process, and errors cannot be corrected.

2. Requires specialized equipment for programming.

Programmable Logic Array (PLA):

A Programmable Logic Array (PLA) is a type of digital device used to implement

combinational logic circuits. Unlike fixed logic gates, PLAs are flexible and can be
programmed to perform a variety of logic functions. It is especially useful for simplifying
complex logic designs.

Structure of a PLA:

A PLA consists of two main programmable sections:

1. AND Plane:
o This is a matrix of AND gates.
o The inputs are connected to this plane, and the output of the AND plane
generates a set of intermediate signals, often called product terms.
2. OR Plane:
o This is a matrix of OR gates.
o The product terms from the AND plane feed into the OR plane, where they are
combined to generate the final output.
Working of a PLA:

1. Input Processing:
o The input variables (and their complements) are fed into the programmable
AND plane.
2. AND Plane:
o Specific combinations of inputs are selected (programmed) to form
intermediate product terms.
3. OR Plane:
o The product terms are selectively combined to produce the desired output
logic functions.
4. Output:
o The outputs represent the implemented logic expressions.

Features of PLA:

1. Fully Programmable:
o Both the AND and OR planes can be programmed, offering maximum
flexibility.
2. High Customizability:
o Designers can create almost any combination of logic functions.
3. Compact Design:
o A PLA can replace multiple discrete logic gates, saving space and simplifying
circuit design.
4. Reconfigurable:
o In some types, the programming can be modified during prototyping or
development stages.

Applications of PLA:

1. Logic Function Implementation:

o Used to implement Boolean functions in digital circuits.
2. Finite State Machines (FSMs):
o Widely used in the control logic of FSMs.
3. Decoders and Encoders:
o Useful in building decoders, encoders, or other combinational circuits.
4. Signal Processing:
o PLAs are sometimes used for custom signal processing logic.

Advantages of PLA:

1. Flexibility:
 o Allows designers to implement and change logic designs without hardware
modifications.
2. Time-Saving:
o Reduces the time to design and prototype circuits compared to fixed logic
gates.
3. Compact and Cost-Effective:
o Combines multiple functions into a single programmable device, reducing
hardware requirements.

Limitations of PLA:

1. Complexity for Large Designs:

o As the number of inputs and outputs increases, the AND and OR planes
become larger, leading to complexity and higher costs.
2. Slower Speed:
o PLAs can be slower compared to Application-Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs) for high-speed applications.
3. Limited Availability:
o PLAs are less commonly used today compared to newer devices like FPGAs.

Comparison of PLA with Other Devices:

Feature PLA PAL (Programmable ROM

Array Logic)
Programming AND and OR planes Only the AND plane is Pre-programmed
programmable programmable
Flexibility High Moderate None
Cost Relatively higher Lower Lowest for mass
production
Applications Complex, customized Simpler logic designs Fixed data storage
logic
 1.

2.

Programmable Array Logic (PAL):

Definition:
A Programmable Array Logic (PAL) is a type of digital device used to implement
combinational logic circuits. It is similar to a PLA but with a simpler structure. In a PAL,
only the AND plane is programmable, while the OR plane is fixed. This trade-off makes
PALs faster, easier to design, and less expensive compared to PLAs.
Structure of a PAL:

A PAL has the following key components:

1. Input Buffers/Inverters:
o Inputs are passed through buffers and inverters, allowing both the input signal
and its complement to be available for programming.
2. Programmable AND Plane:
o A matrix of programmable connections that allows the designer to create
custom product terms by selecting combinations of inputs.
3. Fixed OR Plane:
o A non-programmable array of OR gates where each gate combines specific
product terms (outputs from the AND plane) to generate the desired output
logic.
4. Output Logic:
o Outputs may have additional features such as output enable controls or
optional flip-flops for sequential logic.

Working of a PAL:

1. Input Processing:
o Inputs (and their complements) are fed into the programmable AND plane.
2. AND Plane:
o Connections in the AND plane are programmed to form desired product terms
by combining selected input conditions.
3. OR Plane:
o The fixed OR plane combines these product terms as predefined logic
functions to generate the final output.
4. Output:
o The outputs represent the implemented logic functions, which can either be
purely combinational or include optional sequential behavior.

Key Features of PAL:

1. Partially Programmable:
o Only the AND plane is programmable; the OR plane is fixed.
2. Simplified Design:
o Fixed OR plane reduces complexity and makes the device easier to design and
use.
3. Speed Advantage:
o Faster than PLAs because the fixed OR plane is optimized for performance.
4. Cost-Effective:
o Less expensive than PLAs due to reduced programmability.
Applications of PAL:

1. Logic Function Implementation:

o Used to design custom combinational logic circuits like decoders, encoders, or
multiplexers.
2. Embedded Systems:
o For creating application-specific control logic in small electronic devices.
3. Digital Circuit Prototyping:
o A quick and cost-effective way to test logic designs before moving to ASICs
(Application-Specific Integrated Circuits).

Advantages of PAL:

1. Flexibility:
o Allows programming of the AND plane for custom logic functions.
2. Simplicity:
o Fixed OR plane simplifies design and reduces the chance of programming
errors.
3. Performance:
o Optimized for faster operations compared to fully programmable devices like
PLAs.
4. Cost:
o Lower manufacturing cost compared to more complex programmable devices.

Limitations of PAL:

1. Limited Flexibility:
o Since the OR plane is fixed, the range of logic functions that can be
implemented is constrained compared to PLAs.
2. Restricted Scalability:
o Suitable for simpler designs; complex logic may require multiple PALs or
other devices like FPGAs.
3. Non-Reprogrammable:
o Once programmed, PALs cannot be reprogrammed, making them less
versatile than modern reprogrammable devices.
Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs)
Definition:
A Complex Programmable Logic Device (CPLD) is an advanced programmable logic
device that combines the simplicity of PALs (Programmable Array Logic) with the flexibility
of FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Arrays). CPLDs are used to implement complex digital
logic functions and are well-suited for applications requiring moderate levels of logic and fast
response times.

Structure of a CPLD:

1. Logic Blocks:
o A CPLD consists of several logic blocks, which are the basic units for
implementing logic functions.
o Each block contains a programmable AND-OR array (similar to PALs) and
optional flip-flops for sequential logic.
2. Programmable Interconnects:
o Logic blocks are connected through a programmable interconnect matrix,
which allows signals to flow between blocks as per the design.
3. I/O Blocks:
o CPLDs have input/output (I/O) pins for interfacing with external devices.
Each I/O pin is programmable for specific functions, such as input, output, or
bidirectional signals.
4. Non-Volatile Configuration Memory:
o Unlike FPGAs, CPLDs are non-volatile, meaning they retain their
configuration even after power is turned off.

Working of a CPLD:

1. Design Entry:
o The desired logic functions are written using a hardware description language
(HDL) like VHDL or Verilog, or through graphical tools.
2. Synthesis and Mapping:
 o The design is compiled, and the logic is mapped onto the CPLD’s logic
blocks.
3. Programming:
o The CPLD is programmed using specialized tools (like JTAG) to configure
the AND-OR arrays and interconnects according to the design.
4. Execution:
o Once programmed, the CPLD executes the desired logic functions at high
speeds.

Features of CPLDs:

1. Non-Volatile Memory:
o CPLDs retain their configuration even when power is turned off, unlike
FPGAs.
2. High Speed:
o With simple and predictable routing, CPLDs provide fast and deterministic
timing.
3. Moderate Logic Density:
o CPLDs can implement designs with a moderate number of logic gates,
typically ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand.
4. Scalability:
o Designs can include both combinational and sequential logic, supporting more
complex circuits than PALs.
5. Low Power Consumption:
o CPLDs are energy-efficient, making them suitable for battery-powered
devices.

Applications of CPLDs:

1. Glue Logic:
o Used to connect and manage communication between different subsystems in
electronic devices.
2. Control Systems:
o Employed in industrial and consumer electronics for control logic.
3. I/O Expansion:
o To expand input/output capabilities in microcontroller-based systems.
4. Prototyping:
o For developing and testing digital circuits before moving to fixed hardware
implementations.
5. Embedded Systems:
o Commonly used in systems requiring moderate logic complexity with fast
response times.

Advantages of CPLDs:
 1. Non-Volatile:
o Retains its configuration without requiring reprogramming at startup.
2. Fast and Deterministic Timing:
o Predictable delays due to simple interconnect structures.
3. Easy to Use:
o Simple architecture compared to FPGAs, making it easier for designers to
implement and debug logic.
4. Reliable:
o Robust performance in harsh environments, making them suitable for
industrial applications.
5. Cost-Effective:
o Less expensive than FPGAs for applications with moderate complexity.

Limitations of CPLDs:

1. Limited Logic Density:

o Cannot handle designs requiring a large number of logic gates or complex
interconnections (compared to FPGAs).
2. Less Flexible:
o Offers less flexibility in terms of logic resources and routing compared to
FPGAs.
3. Lower Integration:
o Not suitable for designs requiring high integration or complex signal
processing.

CPLD vs. FPGA Comparison:

Feature CPLD FPGA

Configuration Non-volatile Volatile (requires reprogramming
at startup)
Logic Density Moderate (few hundred to High (millions of gates)
thousands of gates)
Speed Faster for small designs Slower due to complex routing
Flexibility Less flexible Highly flexible and scalable
Power Lower Higher
Consumption
Cost Less expensive More expensive
Applications Glue logic, control systems Signal processing, complex
systems

Example of CPLD Usage:

Suppose a CPLD is used in a traffic light control system.

  Inputs: Sensor signals (e.g., pedestrian request, vehicle detection).
 Logic Design: Implements state transitions based on traffic conditions and timing.
 Outputs: Control signals to the traffic lights (e.g., green, yellow, red).

The CPLD efficiently manages the control logic, ensuring a reliable and fast response to real-
time inputs, making it ideal for this type of application.

Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)

Definition:
A Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is a highly flexible, reprogrammable
integrated circuit that allows designers to implement complex digital logic circuits. Unlike
fixed-function chips, FPGAs can be configured to perform any desired logic function, making
them ideal for a wide range of applications.

Structure of an FPGA:

1. Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs):

o These are the basic building blocks of an FPGA.
o Each CLB contains lookup tables (LUTs), flip-flops, and multiplexers that can
be programmed to implement logic functions.
2. Programmable Interconnects:
o Interconnects provide flexible routing between CLBs, allowing them to
communicate and form complex logic structures.
3. I/O Blocks:
o These blocks manage the FPGA's interaction with external devices by serving
as interfaces for input and output signals.
4. Clocking Resources:
o FPGAs include dedicated clock management resources (e.g., PLLs and clock
trees) for precise timing and synchronization.
5. Memory Blocks:
o FPGAs often have embedded RAM (Block RAM or BRAM) for temporary
data storage, as well as distributed memory across CLBs.
6. DSP Blocks:
o Specialized blocks optimized for high-speed arithmetic operations, such as
multiplication and accumulation, are common in modern FPGAs.
7. Configuration Memory:
 o This memory stores the FPGA's configuration bitstream, which defines the
logic and interconnections.

Working of an FPGA:

1. Design Entry:
o The desired functionality is designed using a hardware description language
(HDL) like Verilog or VHDL, or with schematic tools.
2. Synthesis and Implementation:
o The design is synthesized into a gate-level representation, mapped onto the
FPGA's resources, and optimized for timing and area.
3. Programming the FPGA:
o The design is converted into a configuration bitstream, which is loaded into
the FPGA's configuration memory.
4. Execution:
o The FPGA executes the desired logic functions in real-time, based on the
programmed configuration.

Features of FPGAs:

1. Reprogrammable:
o FPGAs can be reconfigured multiple times, making them versatile for
prototyping and iterative design.
2. Massive Parallelism:
o FPGAs can execute multiple operations in parallel, unlike processors that
perform tasks sequentially.
3. High Flexibility:
o Designers can implement a wide variety of functions, from simple logic gates
to entire systems on a chip (SoC).
4. Deterministic Timing:
o FPGAs provide predictable timing, which is crucial for real-time applications.

Applications of FPGAs:

1. Prototyping:
o Used to test and validate designs before creating fixed-function ASICs.
2. Embedded Systems:
o Employed in applications requiring custom hardware acceleration, such as
robotics and IoT.
3. Digital Signal Processing (DSP):
o Ideal for high-speed data processing tasks like image processing, audio
processing, and wireless communication.
4. Data Centers:
 oAccelerate workloads like machine learning, big data analytics, and network
processing.
5. Aerospace and Defense:
o Used in applications requiring high reliability and reconfigurability, such as
radar systems and secure communications.
6. Automotive:
o Power advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and autonomous vehicle
functions.

Advantages of FPGAs:

1. Reconfigurability:
o Designs can be modified without changing the hardware.
2. High Performance:
o Parallel processing capabilities enable faster execution of complex algorithms.
3. Time to Market:
o Faster development cycles compared to fixed-function chips.
4. Customization:
o Supports the implementation of application-specific architectures.
5. Scalability:
o Can accommodate designs ranging from simple to highly complex systems.

Limitations of FPGAs:

1. Cost:
oHigher unit cost compared to ASICs for high-volume production.
2. Power Consumption:
o FPGAs typically consume more power than fixed-function chips.
3. Complexity:
o Requires specialized skills and tools to design and implement functionality.
4. Size:
o Larger and less area-efficient than custom-designed chips.

Example of FPGA Usage:

Image Processing in Drones:

FPGAs are used in drones for real-time image processing to detect obstacles, recognize
objects, and stabilize flight. The parallel processing capability of FPGAs enables fast image
analysis, which is critical for autonomous navigation.

1. Inputs: Camera feeds from multiple sensors.

2. Processing: Algorithms for edge detection, object recognition, and depth estimation.
3. Output: Control signals to adjust the drone's path or stabilize its position.

This demonstrates how FPGAs handle complex, real-time tasks efficiently.

7. Design Implementation Using CPLDs and FPGAs
Design implementation using CPLDs (Complex Programmable Logic Devices) and FPGAs
(Field-Programmable Gate Arrays) refers to the process of using these hardware devices to
create digital circuits. Both are programmable devices that offer flexibility in creating custom
logic designs, but they are used in different scenarios based on their capabilities.

CPLDs vs. FPGAs Overview

 CPLDs are smaller devices with a limited amount of logic resources, typically used for simpler
tasks like controlling logic, glue logic, or simple state machines.
 FPGAs are more powerful, offering a huge amount of programmable logic blocks and
memory, ideal for complex applications like signal processing, high-speed communications,
or even soft processors.

Design Flow for CPLDs and FPGAs

1. Specification
o Define what the circuit should do. This could be anything from simple logic
operations to more complex functions like a data processor.
2. Design Entry
o You describe the logic design using Hardware Description Languages (HDLs) like
VHDL or Verilog. This is how you define the behavior and structure of the circuit.
3. Synthesis
o This step converts your HDL code into a netlist, which is a representation of your
design in terms of basic logic gates.
4. Place and Route
o The netlist is mapped to the actual hardware resources inside the CPLD or FPGA. In
FPGAs, this means deciding which logic blocks to use, how to connect them, and
where to place them on the chip.
5. Programming
o Once the design is ready, it is programmed (downloaded) onto the CPLD or FPGA.
For CPLDs, this is a one-time programming (in many cases), while FPGAs are
reprogrammable.
6. Testing and Verification
o The final step is to test the design to ensure that it works as expected. Simulations
are usually done before programming to verify functionality.

Applications

 CPLDs: Simple controllers, I/O expanders, glue logic in systems where low power and size are
important.
 FPGAs: Data processing, video/image processing, high-speed communications, prototyping
of large digital systems.
In essence, CPLDs are better suited for simpler, more fixed-function logic, while FPGAs
excel in more complex, flexible applications where high performance is needed.

COMPUTER MODEL
Explain the basic building blocks of Computer model.

The basic building blocks of a computer model represent the core components that allow a
computer system to perform its functions. These blocks interact to process, store, and communicate
information effectively.

1. Input Unit

 Function: Captures data and instructions from the user or external devices.
 Examples:
o Keyboard
o Mouse
o Scanner
o Microphone
o Sensors
 Process: Converts user inputs into a digital format understandable by the computer.

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the "brain" of the computer, where all processing takes place. It consists of the following
sub-components:

a. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

 Function: Performs arithmetic (e.g., addition, subtraction) and logical operations (e.g., AND,
OR, NOT).
 Role: Handles all mathematical computations and decision-making processes.

b. Control Unit (CU):

 Function: Directs the flow of data and instructions between other components.
 Role:
o Fetches instructions from memory.
o Decodes instructions to understand actions required.
o Executes instructions by coordinating with ALU and other parts.

c. Registers:

 Function: Temporary storage inside the CPU for instructions, data, or intermediate results.

3. Memory Unit
Stores data and instructions for processing. It has two main types:

a. Primary Memory (Volatile):

 Examples: RAM (Random Access Memory)

 Function: Temporarily holds data and instructions currently in use.
 Characteristics:
o Fast access.
o Loses data when power is turned off.

b. Secondary Memory (Non-Volatile):

 Examples: Hard Drive, SSD, Optical Discs.

 Function: Long-term storage for data, programs, and the operating system.
 Characteristics:
o Slower than primary memory.
o Retains data even without power.

c. Cache Memory:

 Function: A small, fast memory located close to the CPU to store frequently accessed data.
 Role: Speeds up data retrieval and reduces latency.

4. Output Unit

 Function: Converts processed data into a human-readable or machine-usable form.

 Examples:
o Monitor (displays results visually).
o Printer (produces hard copies).
o Speaker (outputs audio).

5. Storage Unit

 Primary Function: Retains data for future use.

 Types:
o Short-term storage: RAM, Cache (temporary).
o Long-term storage: HDD, SSD (permanent).

6. System Bus

 Function: Facilitates communication between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices.
 Types:
o Data Bus: Transfers actual data.
o Address Bus: Transfers memory or device addresses.
o Control Bus: Carries control signals (e.g., read/write operations).
7. Input/Output Devices

 Devices interfacing with the user or external systems.

 Input Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Sensors.
 Output Examples: Monitor, Printer, Actuators.

8. Communication System

 Enables interaction between computers or between different devices in a network.

 Examples: Routers.

Basic Computer Model Workflow

1. Input: Data and instructions enter via input devices.

2. Storage: Data is temporarily stored in memory.
3. Processing: The CPU processes data and instructions.
4. Output: Processed data is delivered via output devices.
5. Feedback/Communication: Interacts with other systems if necessary.

Processor, and Memory Model

The Processor and Memory Model in digital system design (DSD) focuses on how the
processor (CPU) interacts with memory to execute instructions and manage data. This
interaction is central to the operation of any computing system.

Processor Model

The processor is the brain of a computer, responsible for executing instructions and
performing computations. It consists of several key components:

1. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

 Performs arithmetic operations (e.g., addition, subtraction) and logical operations

(e.g., AND, OR).
 Executes data processing tasks.

2. Control Unit (CU):

 Directs the operation of the processor by decoding instructions and generating control
signals.
 Coordinates the flow of data between the processor, memory, and I/O devices.

3. Registers:
  Small, fast storage locations within the CPU.
 Types of registers:
o Accumulator: Stores intermediate results of calculations.
o Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
o Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction being executed.
o General-Purpose Registers: Used for temporary storage during
computations.

4. Clock:

 Synchronizes all processor operations.

 Determines the speed of instruction execution.

5. Pipeline:

 Divides instruction execution into stages (e.g., fetch, decode, execute).

 Improves performance by overlapping instruction execution.

Memory Model

Memory in a computer system is used to store data and instructions. It is organized

hierarchically to balance speed, cost, and capacity.

1. Hierarchy of Memory:

 Registers: Fastest, smallest, located in the processor.

 Cache Memory: Faster than main memory, stores frequently accessed data.
 Main Memory (RAM): Stores currently used programs and data.
 Secondary Memory (HDD/SSD): Large, slower storage for long-term data.

2. Memory Addressing:

 Direct Addressing: The instruction specifies the address directly.

 Indirect Addressing: The address is stored in a register or memory location.
 Virtual Addressing: Uses a virtual memory system for efficient program execution.

3. Memory Operations:

 Read: Retrieve data from a memory location.

 Write: Store data in a memory location.

4. Memory Access Time:

 Latency: Time taken to access memory.

 Bandwidth: Amount of data transferred per unit time.
Processor-Memory Interaction

1. Fetch-Execute Cycle:
o The processor fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and executes
them.
o Steps:
1. Fetch: The program counter provides the address of the next
instruction to fetch.
2. Decode: The control unit interprets the instruction.
3. Execute: The ALU performs operations, or data is moved between
memory and registers.
2. Memory Bus:
o Address Bus: Specifies the memory address.
o Data Bus: Transfers data between processor and memory.
o Control Bus: Sends control signals (e.g., read/write).

Applications

 Embedded Systems: Specialized processor-memory models for real-time tasks.

 Performance Optimization: Balancing memory hierarchy for faster data access.
 Parallel Computing: Designing processors and memory for high-speed
computations.

RTL and Data Path Part

RTL (Register Transfer Level)

 Definition: RTL is a design abstraction used to describe the operations, data flow, and control
flow in a digital circuit. It specifies how data moves between registers and how operations are
performed using combinational logic.
 Key Elements:
o Registers: Store data.
o Combinational Logic: Implements arithmetic, logical, and control functions.
o Control Signals: Dictate when and how data is transferred or processed.

The data path is a crucial part of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) and defines the
route that data follows through the system. It consists of various components that are
responsible for processing instructions and moving data between the CPU and memory. The
data path essentially handles the actual computation within the processor.

Key Components of the Data Path

1. Registers
o Small storage locations inside the CPU that hold data temporarily during processing.
o Common registers include:
 Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction.
  Accumulator: Stores the result of arithmetic and logic operations.
 General-purpose Registers: Store operands and intermediate results.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o The ALU is the core part of the data path that performs all arithmetic (addition,
subtraction, etc.) and logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) operations.
o It takes inputs from registers, processes them according to the operation specified
by the instruction, and outputs the result back to the registers.
3. Multiplexers (MUX)
o Multiplexers are used to select between different data inputs. For example, a MUX
might select whether the data fed into the ALU comes from one register or another.
o They ensure that the correct data moves through the data path depending on the
instruction being executed.
4. Memory Access
o The data path interacts with both main memory (RAM) and cache memory to fetch
data or store results.
o The CPU accesses memory through the load and store instructions, where it
retrieves data from memory or writes data to it.
5. Instruction Decoder
o This component decodes the instruction fetched from memory and determines what
actions need to be taken.
o It tells the data path which operation to perform, which registers to use, and
whether to fetch or store data in memory.
6. Control Signals
o Control signals direct the flow of data within the data path, specifying which
registers to use, which operation the ALU should perform, and how to route the
data.
7. Buses
o Buses are the pathways that carry data, instructions, and control signals between
components.
o There are usually multiple buses:
 Data bus: Transfers actual data.
 Address bus: Specifies the memory locations of data.
 Control bus: Carries control signals that manage data flow and operations.

Data Path Operations

 Fetch: The CPU fetches an instruction from memory. The address of the next
instruction is stored in the Program Counter (PC).
 Decode: The instruction is decoded to determine what operation is required (e.g.,
ALU operation, load/store operation).
 Execute: The ALU or other functional unit performs the operation, using data from
registers, and places the result back into a register.
 Memory Access: If the instruction involves reading or writing data to memory, the
data path will either fetch data from memory or store the result in memory.
 Write-back: The result of the operation is written back to a register, and the process
repeats for the next instruction.

Simplified Example
Let’s say the CPU needs to execute an addition operation (ADD R1, R2, R3 which adds the
values in registers R2 and R3, and stores the result in R1):

1. Fetch: The instruction is fetched from memory.

2. Decode: The instruction decoder determines that it’s an ADD operation.
3. Execute: The values from registers R2 and R3 are sent to the ALU, which performs the
addition.
4. Write-back: The result is stored in register R1.

Summary

The data path is the core mechanism that allows the CPU to process instructions and move
data. It consists of registers, the ALU, multiplexers, memory access units, and buses, all
coordinated by control signals to fetch, decode, execute, and write back data.

Control Part
The control part of a CPU, also known as the control unit (CU), is responsible for directing
the operations of the processor. It ensures that all components of the CPU work together in
harmony by generating control signals that manage the flow of data through the data path.
Essentially, the control unit tells the CPU what to do at every clock cycle, dictating which
operations should be performed and in what order.

Functions of the Control Unit

1. Instruction Fetching
o The control unit fetches instructions from memory by generating the
appropriate signals. It retrieves the instruction stored at the address in the
Program Counter (PC), which holds the location of the next instruction.
2. Instruction Decoding
o After fetching the instruction, the control unit decodes it to understand what
operation needs to be performed. This decoding process involves interpreting
the opcode (the part of the instruction that specifies the operation) and
identifying the data or registers involved.
3. Control Signal Generation
o Based on the decoded instruction, the control unit generates control signals
that direct the various components of the data path. These signals tell:
 Which operation the ALU should perform (e.g., addition, subtraction).
 Which registers should be used for inputs and where to store the result.
 Whether to fetch data from memory or store data into memory.
 When to increment the Program Counter to fetch the next instruction.
4. Synchronization
o The control unit ensures that all operations are synchronized with the clock
signal. Each operation (fetch, decode, execute, etc.) is completed within a
clock cycle, and the control unit coordinates the timing of these actions to
prevent errors.
 5. Control Flow (Branching and Jumping)
o The control unit handles branch and jump instructions, which alter the normal
sequential flow of execution. For instance, if an instruction tells the CPU to
jump to another location in memory (like in a function call or a loop), the
control unit updates the Program Counter accordingly.

Types of Control Units

There are two primary types of control units based on how they are implemented:

1. Hardwired Control Unit

o In this approach, the control signals are generated through fixed hardware
logic circuits (combinational logic). The control unit is designed as a finite
state machine, where different states correspond to different phases of
instruction execution.
o Advantages:
 Fast, since the control signals are generated directly from hardware.
 Efficient for simple and well-defined operations.
o Disadvantages:
 Difficult to modify or expand since it requires changing the hardware.
 Complex instructions can be hard to implement.
2. Microprogrammed Control Unit
o In this approach, the control unit uses a small memory (called control
memory) to store a set of microinstructions that define the control signals for
each step of an instruction. Each instruction is broken down into a series of
micro-operations, and the microprogram generates the required control
signals.
o Advantages:
 Easier to modify or extend since changing the microprogram does not
require hardware changes.
 Can handle complex instructions more easily.
o Disadvantages:
 Slower than hardwired control units due to the need to fetch and
execute microinstructions.

Control Unit’s Role in the Instruction Cycle

The control unit governs the steps of the instruction cycle, which can be broken down into
the following stages:

1. Fetch:
o The control unit sends signals to the memory to fetch the next instruction
based on the address in the Program Counter (PC). The instruction is loaded
into the Instruction Register (IR).
2. Decode:
o Once the instruction is fetched, the control unit decodes it by interpreting the
opcode and figuring out which operands are required and what operations
need to be performed.
3. Execute:
 oBased on the decoded instruction, the control unit sends the appropriate
control signals to the ALU, registers, and memory to perform the desired
operation (e.g., an arithmetic operation or a memory access).
4. Write-back:
o The control unit ensures that the result of the executed instruction is written
back to the appropriate register or memory location.

Example: How the Control Unit Works in Practice

Let's break down how the control unit might handle a simple instruction like ADD R1, R2,
R3 (which adds the contents of registers R2 and R3 and stores the result in R1):

1. Fetch:
o The control unit generates a control signal to fetch the ADD instruction from
memory and loads it into the Instruction Register (IR).
2. Decode:
o The control unit decodes the instruction and determines that it’s an addition
operation. It identifies the source registers (R2, R3) and the destination
register (R1).
3. Execute:
o The control unit sends a signal to the ALU to perform the addition of the
values in R2 and R3.
4. Write-back:
o The control unit sends a control signal to store the result of the addition back
into register R1.
5. Next Instruction:
o The control unit increments the Program Counter to point to the next
instruction and repeats the cycle.

Summary

The control part or control unit is the brain of the CPU that manages and coordinates the
execution of instructions. It generates control signals to direct the data flow in the data path
and ensures that all operations are carried out in a synchronized and orderly fashion.
Depending on the implementation, it can be hardwired for speed or microprogrammed for
flexibility.

Adding CPU Verilog Description

Verilog can be used to model the entire CPU architecture, including both the data path and
control units.

Example of CPU Verilog Description:

module simple_cpu (
input wire clk,
input wire rst,
input wire [7:0] instruction,
output reg [7:0] result
);
 reg [3:0] opcode;
reg [3:0] operand1, operand2;

always @(posedge clk or posedge rst) begin

if (rst) begin
result <= 0;
end else begin
opcode <= instruction[7:4];
operand1 <= instruction[3:2];
operand2 <= instruction[1:0];
case(opcode)
4'b0000: result <= operand1 + operand2; // Addition
4'b0001: result <= operand1 - operand2; // Subtraction
// Additional operations can be added here
endcase
end
end
endmodule

This code describes a simple CPU that can perform addition and subtraction based on an 8-bit
instruction.

CPU Design and Test

CPU Design and Test

CPU design and test involve creating, implementing, and validating the central processing unit's
architecture and functionality. The process ensures that the CPU meets performance, functionality,
and reliability requirements.

1. CPU Design

CPU design involves the following stages:

a. Specification

 Define the features, instruction set, and performance requirements.

 Example: Number of cores, clock speed, supported operations (e.g., arithmetic, logical,
branch instructions).

b. Architectural Design

 Design the high-level structure of the CPU, including:

o Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): Specifies supported instructions and their
formats.
o Pipeline Design: Breaks instruction execution into stages to improve throughput.
o Memory Hierarchy: Defines cache levels, registers, and main memory interaction.

c. Microarchitecture Design

 Design the internal components:

o Control Unit: Directs operations based on instructions.
 o Data Path: Handles data processing (ALU, registers, etc.).
o Bus System: Enables data transfer between components.
o Timing and Clocking: Synchronizes operations across the CPU.

d. RTL Implementation

 Translate the design into a hardware description language (HDL) like Verilog or VHDL.
 Define components at the register-transfer level (RTL).

e. Physical Design

 Transform the RTL design into physical layouts for fabrication:

o Placement of logic gates.
o Routing of interconnections.
o Power optimization.

2. CPU Testing

Testing verifies the correctness, performance, and reliability of the CPU. It is conducted in various
stages:

a. Functional Testing

 Ensures the CPU performs correctly according to its specifications.

 Methods:
o Simulation: Verify RTL designs using testbenches.
o Emulation: Use FPGAs to mimic the CPU design and test its behavior in real-world
scenarios.

b. Timing Analysis

 Ensures the CPU operates correctly within timing constraints.

 Static Timing Analysis (STA): Verifies clock cycle timings without running the design.
 Dynamic Timing Simulation: Tests the CPU design under specific inputs to check timing
behavior.

c. Synthesis Testing

 Check if the RTL design can be successfully converted to gate-level hardware.

 Identify and fix logic and timing errors during synthesis.

d. Manufacturing Test

 After fabrication, ensure the CPU is free from physical defects:

o Scan Testing: Insert test points to check internal logic.
o Built-In Self-Test (BIST): Embed self-check mechanisms to detect faults.
o Burn-In Test: Operate the CPU under high-stress conditions to detect early failures.

e. Performance Testing

 Measure the CPU's speed, throughput, and power efficiency under real workloads.
  Tools: Benchmarking software and performance profilers.

f. Debugging

 Fix issues identified during testing:

o Functional bugs (e.g., incorrect outputs).
o Timing issues (e.g., race conditions).
o Hardware defects.

Steps to Design and Test a Simple CPU

1. Define Requirements

 Example: A 4-bit CPU with a simple instruction set (add, subtract, load, store).

2. Design RTL

 Write Verilog/VHDL code for:

o Control Unit.
o Data Path (ALU, registers).
o Memory (instruction and data memory).

3. Create Testbench

 Write a testbench to simulate the CPU in different scenarios:

o Test all instruction types.
o Test edge cases (e.g., zero input, carry/overflow).

4. Simulate

 Use HDL simulators like ModelSim or Vivado to verify behavior.

5. Synthesize

 Convert the RTL design to a gate-level netlist and check for synthesis issues.

6. Verify on FPGA

 Implement the design on an FPGA to test its functionality in hardware.

7. Fabrication Testing

 Test the physical CPU after manufacturing using scan testing and BIST.

Example of Simple CPU Testing in VHDL

Here’s how you might write a simple testbench for a CPU:

library IEEE;
use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL;
use IEEE.NUMERIC_STD.ALL;

entity CPU_Testbench is
end CPU_Testbench;

architecture Test of CPU_Testbench is

signal clk, reset : STD_LOGIC;
signal Instr : STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(15 downto 0); -- Instruction
signal Result : STD_LOGIC_VECTOR(7 downto 0); -- Output from CPU
begin
-- Instantiate the CPU
CPU_Inst: entity work.CPU
Port map (
clk => clk,
reset => reset,
opcode => Instr(15 downto 12),
A_in => Instr(11 downto 8),
B_in => Instr(7 downto 0),
Result => Result
);

-- Clock generation
clk_process: process
begin
clk <= '0';
wait for 10 ns;
clk <= '1';
wait for 10 ns;
end process;

-- Test sequence
test_process: process
begin
reset <= '1';
wait for 20 ns;
reset <= '0';

-- Test 1: Add instruction

Instr <= "0000" & "0001" & "0010"; -- opcode: 0000 (add), A:
1, B: 2
wait for 20 ns;

-- Test 2: Subtract instruction

Instr <= "0001" & "0100" & "0010"; -- opcode: 0001 (sub), A:
4, B: 2
wait for 20 ns;

-- Test 3: Default instruction

Instr <= "1111" & "0000" & "0000"; -- opcode: invalid
wait for 20 ns;

wait; -- Hold simulation

end process;
end Test;
Summary

 CPU Design: Involves specifying, implementing, and optimizing the architecture (control
unit, data path, memory).
 CPU Testing: Validates correctness, performance, and robustness at various stages
(functional testing, synthesis, manufacturing).
 Tools like VHDL/Verilog simulators and FPGAs are essential for design and testing
processes.