2

The Components of the System Unit

– The microchips

The system unit is a fundamental and crucial part of any computer sys-
tem. It serves as the central hub where the key components responsible for
processing data, executing tasks, and managing overall system functionality
are housed. Often referred to as the computer’s case or chassis, the system
unit is the physical enclosure that organizes, connects, and protects these
components, ensuring the computer functions properly.

Figure 2.1: Desktop Computers vs. Portable Devices

10
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 11

Desktop Computers vs. Portable Devices

1. In desktop computers, the system unit typically takes the form of a box
(often called a tower) that contains components like the motherboard,
central processing unit (CPU), power supply, hard drive, and memory
(RAM). This enclosure is designed to keep these components secure,
cool, and efficiently connected.

2. For laptops and other portable devices, the system unit is integrated
directly into the device’s body. While compact, it retains the same
essential functions as a desktop system unit, housing the critical parts
responsible for data processing, information storage, and connectivity,
but in a more efficient, space-saving design. Whether in a desktop,
laptop, or even a compact smartphone, the system unit remains vital
to ensuring that a computer operates e↵ectively.

2.1 Microchips: The Core of Modern Elec-

tronics
Microchips, also known as integrated circuits (ICs) or semiconductor
chips, are tiny yet sophisticated electronic components primarily made from
silicon, a semiconductor material capable of controlling electrical currents.
These microchips serve as the backbone of all modern electronics, powering
everything from smartphones and computers to cars and household appli-
ances.
Microchips contain millions to billions of miniature transistors, resistors,
capacitors, and other electronic elements densely packed into a small silicon
wafer. These components are intricately interconnected, forming complex
circuits that allow the microchip to perform a wide range of tasks. The
miniaturization of these electronic elements enables microchips to process
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 12

data, execute instructions, and manage functions within electronic devices

with remarkable efficiency.
These integrated circuits are essential to the operation of nearly every
modern technological device, acting as the ”brains” behind their function-
ality and enabling seamless performance in today’s increasingly connected
world.

2.1.1 Structure and Function of Microchips

1. Microchips are constructed on thin silicon wafers, a semiconductor
material that plays a crucial role in controlling electrical currents. Sil-
icon’s unique properties allow it to act as both a conductor and an
insulator, making it ideal for use in microchips. The silicon wafer
serves as the foundation upon which all other components, such as
transistors and circuits, are built. This substrate is typically very thin
to allow for high-density packing of components.

2. Transistors are the fundamental building blocks of microchips. These

microscopic switches control the flow of electrical signals, enabling the
microchip to perform essential tasks like processing data or storing
information. When a transistor is ”on,” it allows electrical current to
pass through; when it is ”o↵,” it blocks the flow of electricity. By
manipulating the on/o↵ states of billions of transistors in rapid suc-
cession, microchips can carry out complex calculations and execute
instructions.

3. Transistors are interconnected to form complex circuits that enable

the microchip to perform specific functions, such as data processing,
memory storage, or signal amplification. These circuits are designed to
carry out tasks like arithmetic operations in the CPU, temporary data
storage in RAM, or communication between components in system-on-
chip (SoC) designs. The connections between transistors allow for the
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 13

formation of logic gates, which make decisions based on input signals

and dictate the output behavior of the microchip.

2.1.2 Key Characteristics

1. Size: Microchips are incredibly compact, with many being no larger
than a grain of rice, yet they can perform billions of operations per sec-
ond. Their tiny size is achieved through advancements in nanotechnol-
ogy and semiconductor manufacturing processes. Microchips are built
using a process called photolithography, where intricate patterns are
etched onto a silicon wafer at a microscopic scale. Today, microchips
are manufactured using nodes as small as 3 nanometers (nm), with
each nanometer being one-billionth of a meter. This allows billions of
transistors to fit onto a single chip, reducing both physical size and
power consumption. Example: The Apple A17 Pro chip, used in the
latest iPhones, is produced using a 3nm process, making it smaller,
more efficient, and more powerful than its predecessors. It can handle
demanding tasks like 4K video editing and real-time AI processing, all
while fitting within the slim body of a smartphone.

2. Complexity: Modern microchips are marvels of engineering, capable

of housing over 10 billion transistors on a single chip, enabling them
to perform highly complex tasks with incredible speed and efficiency.
Transistors act as tiny switches that control the flow of electrical cur-
rents, enabling microchips to perform logical operations. The more
transistors packed into a chip, the more powerful and efficient it can
be. However, increasing transistor density requires overcoming chal-
lenges such as heat management and electrical interference. Exam-
ple: The Apple M2 chip, found in MacBooks, integrates over 20 billion
transistors. This high transistor count allows it to deliver superior per-
formance in multitasking, graphics rendering, and machine learning,
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 14

all while maintaining low power consumption. Another example is the

NVIDIA H100 Tensor Core GPU, used in data centers for AI and deep
learning. It packs an astonishing 80 billion transistors, enabling it to
handle highly complex AI computations like training large language
models (LLMs) efficiently.

3. Functionality: Microchips are versatile components that can process

data, execute instructions, store information, control devices, and man-
age communication between hardware components.

(a) Data Processing and Execution: Microchips, particularly CPUs

(Central Processing Units) and GPUs (Graphics Processing Units),
are responsible for executing billions of instructions per second.
This enables devices to run applications, process inputs, and gen-
erate outputs in real-time. Example: The Qualcomm Snap-
dragon 8 Gen 3 chip powers Android smartphones, enabling seam-
less gaming experiences, 4K video recording, and real-time AI
enhancements for photos.

(b) Memory and Storage:Microchips also function as memory units,

like RAM (Random Access Memory) or flash storage, which store
data temporarily or permanently for quick access by the CPU.
Example: High-speed DDR5 RAM chips used in gaming PCs
can significantly boost system performance by providing faster
data access speeds, resulting in smoother gameplay and faster
application load times.

(c) Device Control: Microchips are embedded in various devices to

control their functions. This includes everything from smart
home devices like thermostats to automotive systems like anti-
lock brakes (ABS). Example: Cars use microchips to control
everything from fuel injection to collision detection systems, en-
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 15

abling features like adaptive cruise control and lane-keeping as-

sist.

(d) Communication Management: Microchips also play a key role in

enabling communication between di↵erent hardware components
within a system and with external devices through ports and
wireless connections. Example: Wi-Fi and Bluetooth chips in
smartphones enable connectivity, allowing users to transfer files,
stream content, or connect to wireless peripherals.

What are the advantages of these characteristics?

2.1.3 Future of Microchips

1. Continued Miniaturization: One of the most notable trends in mi-
crochip development is miniaturization. As manufacturing technolo-
gies advance, chip makers are increasingly able to pack more transis-
tors into smaller areas, pushing the boundaries of performance and
efficiency. Over the past several decades, we’ve seen the transition
from 10nm processes to as small as 3nm in some of the latest chips.
This reduction in size allows for faster processing speeds, lower power
consumption, and increased overall performance, while maintaining
the same physical footprint. However, this trend is approaching physi-
cal and technical limits, and beyond a certain point, challenges related
to heat dissipation, quantum e↵ects, and manufacturing precision may
require entirely new approaches to chip design and production. Ex-
ample: The Apple A17 Pro chip, produced using a 3nm process, rep-
resents the cutting-edge of current miniaturization. The result is not
only a faster and more powerful chip, but one that is also more energy-
efficient, fitting a remarkable amount of performance into a small form
factor.
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 16

2. Emerging Technologies in Microchips: While miniaturization will con-

tinue to drive progress, the future of microchips also lies in emerging
technologies that could revolutionize how data is processed and com-
putation is performed. Some of the most promising advancements
include:

(a) Quantum Computing: Quantum computing represents a paradigm

shift in computing technology, utilizing quantum bits (qubits) in-
stead of classical bits. This allows quantum computers to process
vast amounts of data simultaneously by taking advantage of quan-
tum superposition and entanglement. While still in its infancy,
quantum computing holds the potential to solve complex prob-
lems that are currently intractable for classical computers, such as
advanced cryptography, drug discovery, and optimization prob-
lems. Quantum microchips are being developed to harness quan-
tum phenomena and could drastically reduce computation time
for specific tasks. Example: Companies like IBM and Google
are making strides in quantum chip development with their quan-
tum processors, such as IBM’s Eagle chip and Google’s Sycamore,
aiming to demonstrate quantum advantage over traditional com-
puting for certain types of problems.

(b) Neuromorphic Chips: Neuromorphic computing is inspired by the

structure and function of the human brain. Neuromorphic chips
are designed to simulate the way neurons and synapses work,
enabling more efficient processing for tasks that involve pattern
recognition, learning, and decision-making. These chips could
dramatically improve artificial intelligence (AI) applications, such
as machine learning, robotics, and autonomous systems, by en-
abling devices to learn and adapt in ways that are more akin to
biological intelligence. Example: Intel’s Loihi chip is a neu-
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 17

romorphic processor designed for AI and cognitive computing,

mimicking the brain’s ability to process information in parallel
and learn from

(c) Photonic Chips: Photonic microchips use light, rather than elec-
trical signals, to transmit data through photons. Because light
travels faster and generates less heat than electricity, photonic
chips could drastically improve speed and efficiency, especially
in fields requiring high-speed data processing and long-distance
communications. This technology is expected to play a criti-
cal role in future data centers, enabling faster and more energy-
efficient data transmission, and also in applications like opti-
cal computing and telecommunications. Example: Companies
like Lightmatter are already developing photonic processors, with
chips designed to accelerate AI and machine learning workloads
by using light to process data.

2.2 The Central Processing Unit (CPU): The

Brain of the Computer
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), often referred to as the brain
of the computer, is the most critical component responsible for executing
instructions, performing calculations, and managing the flow of data within
the system. It is the heart of the computer, enabling it to run programs and
carry out operations that allow for everything from basic tasks to complex
computing. Understanding how the CPU works and the roles of its core
components helps explain why computers are able to perform calculations
quickly and efficiently.
The CPU is located within the system unit and handles the majority
of the computer’s processing activities. It coordinates with other parts of
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 18

the computer to ensure smooth operation. The CPU consists of several key
components that work together seamlessly to perform these tasks:

1. The Control Unit (CU) acts as the manager of the CPU, orchestrat-
ing all its operations. It is responsible for directing the flow of data
between the CPU, memory, and input/output devices. The CU re-
trieves instructions from memory, decodes them, and determines what
actions need to be taken. It then coordinates the execution of these
actions, ensuring that the various components of the CPU, such as the
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Registers, work together in sync.
In essence, the CU ensures that the CPU executes instructions in the
correct sequence and that data flows to the appropriate components,
making sure that operations are carried out efficiently and accurately.

2. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is where the actual computing

happens within the CPU. This component handles arithmetic opera-
tions (e.g., addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) as well
as logical operations (e.g., comparisons like greater than, less than,
and equal to). The ALU is the part of the CPU that performs cal-
culations and makes decisions, allowing the computer to process data
and complete tasks. It’s where the CPU ”thinks,” performing the core
computational work that powers applications, games, and more.

3. Registers are small, ultra-fast storage locations within the CPU. They
temporarily hold data and instructions that the CPU is actively work-
ing on, such as intermediate results of calculations or memory ad-
dresses. Registers enable the CPU to access and manipulate data
quickly, without needing to retrieve it from slower main memory (RAM).
These registers significantly boost the CPU’s performance by ensur-
ing that frequently used data is immediately available for processing.
Since registers are located within the CPU itself, they o↵er the fastest
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 19

possible access speeds, which helps the CPU execute instructions more
efficiently.

2.2.1 How the CPU Works: The Four-Step Instruc-

tion Cycle
The CPU operates in a continuous, repetitive cycle to process instructions
and carry out tasks. This cycle, often referred to as the Fetch-Decode-
Execute-Store cycle (or F-D-E-S cycle), is the core process that allows a
computer to run programs and perform operations. Each step of this cycle
plays a vital role in ensuring the CPU executes instructions efficiently. Here’s
a detailed breakdown of the four main steps:

1. The fetch phase begins when the CPU retrieves an instruction from
the computer’s memory (RAM). Instructions are written in machine
code, a binary language that the CPU can understand directly. These
instructions could represent tasks such as calculations, data manip-
ulation, or system commands. The CPU uses the Program Counter
(PC), a special register, to keep track of the address in memory where
the next instruction is located. Once the instruction is fetched, the
Program Counter is updated to point to the next instruction in the se-
quence. Example: If a program is adding two numbers, the fetch step
might retrieve the instruction that tells the CPU to ”add the numbers
located at memory addresses X and Y.”

2. Decode: After fetching the instruction, the CPU moves to the decode
phase, where the Control Unit (CU) interprets the instruction to deter-
mine what action needs to be taken. The CU decodes the binary code
of the instruction and breaks it down into commands for the CPU’s
various components. This step is crucial because it enables the CPU to
understand the task at hand, whether it’s performing an arithmetic op-
eration, moving data, or interacting with hardware components. The
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 20

Opcode (operation code) part of the instruction is what tells the

CPU what kind of operation to perform, while the Operand refers to
the data or memory location involved in the operation. Example: In
a simple instruction like “ADD X, Y,” the CU decodes the operation
(ADD) and the data (X and Y) to determine that the CPU needs to
add the contents of two memory addresses.

3. Execute: Once the instruction is decoded, the CPU proceeds to the

execute phase, where the actual action takes place. During this phase,
the CPU carries out the operation specified in the instruction. De-
pending on the task, the CPU might use its Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) to perform calculations (such as addition, subtraction, or multi-
plication) or transfer data to/from memory, registers, or input/output
devices. If the instruction involves performing a mathematical opera-
tion, the ALU performs the calculation and produces a result. If the
instruction requires moving data, the Memory Management Unit
(MMU) may be involved to handle memory access. Example: In
the “ADD X, Y” instruction, the CPU would use the ALU to add the
values stored at memory addresses X and Y and produce a result.

4. Store: The final step of the cycle is the store phase. After executing
the instruction, the CPU may need to store the result of the operation.
This could involve saving the result to a register for immediate use or
writing it back to memory (RAM) for future access. Storing results
ensures that the CPU has access to them when needed for subsequent
instructions.

The CPU also updates the Status Register at this stage to reflect any
changes in the system, such as carry-over from an arithmetic operation
or flags indicating errors. Example: After adding the values from the
previous step, the CPU might store the result in a memory location
or register for later use.
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 21

2.2.2 Clock Speed and Performance

The clock speed of a processor (CPU) is a key factor in determining how
quickly it can execute tasks. The CPU’s internal clock synchronizes and
regulates its operations, setting the pace at which it completes cycles of work.
These cycles, measured in hertz (Hz), represent how many basic operations
the CPU can perform per second, such as processing instructions or accessing
memory. A higher clock speed generally leads to faster processing.

Key Points on Clock Speed:

1. 1 Hz means the CPU completes 1 cycle per second.

2. 1 GHz (gigahertz) means the CPU completes 1 billion cycles per sec-
ond.

Importance of Clock Speed: Thus, a processor with a higher clock speed

can perform more cycles in a given time, resulting in better performance for
tasks that require rapid processing, such as gaming or video editing. For
instance, a CPU with a clock speed of 3 GHz can perform 3 billion cy-
cles per second, which is faster than a CPU with a clock speed of 2 GHz.
However, clock speed alone doesn’t determine overall performance, as other
factors—such as core count, architecture, and efficiency—also play a signif-
icant role.

2.2.3 Cores and Multitasking

A core in a CPU acts as an independent processing unit capable of execut-
ing its own instructions. Traditionally, processors had a single core, which
meant they could only process one task (or thread) at a time. As a re-
sult, multitasking could be slow, as each task had to take turns using the
processor.
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 22

Today, most modern CPUs are multicore, meaning they contain multiple
cores that can handle di↵erent tasks simultaneously. The number of cores
in a processor directly impacts its ability to perform multitasking and
parallel processing.

Examples of Core Configurations:

1. A dual-core processor has two cores, enabling it to handle two tasks

at once.

2. A quad-core processor has four cores, allowing it to manage four

tasks simultaneously.

3. Hexa-core and octa-core processors, with six and eight cores, respec-
tively, provide even more multitasking power.

The power of multicore processors lies in how these cores work together to
improve performance, especially for demanding applications that can use
parallel processing and load balancing.

2.2.4 Multicore Processing: Parallel Processing, Load

Balancing and Threading and Multitasking
In multicore processors, multiple cores work together to enhance perfor-
mance and efficiency. Here’s a breakdown of how they collaborate, focusing
on concepts like load balancing, parallel processing and Threading:

1. Parallel processing refers to breaking down a complex task into smaller,

independent parts, which can then be processed simultaneously across
multiple cores. This method significantly speeds up tasks that are
designed for parallel execution, such as 3D rendering, video editing,
or scientific simulations. Example: Think of parallel processing as
a team of workers constructing a house. Instead of one person doing
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 23

all the tasks sequentially (laying bricks, painting, roofing), the work is
divided among specialists who perform their tasks at the same time.
This leads to a much faster completion time. Similarly, in 3D render-
ing, an animation can be split into frames, with each core rendering
a portion of the animation. This dramatically accelerates the process
compared to a single-core system.

2. Load balancing ensures that tasks are distributed evenly among the
CPU’s cores. If one core is overloaded while others are idle, the system
becomes inefficient. Load balancing dynamically assigns tasks to pre-
vent any core from sitting idle and optimizes performance by keeping
all cores active. Example: Imagine you are baking multiple cakes,
and you have four ovens (representing the cores). Instead of putting
all the cakes in one oven and leaving the others empty, you distribute
the cakes evenly so that each oven works on one cake at a time. This
ensures all cakes are baked faster. In computing, if you are running
several applications (e.g., a browser, a music player, and a file down-
load), a multicore processor can assign each task to separate cores,
ensuring smooth performance across all applications.

3. Threading and Multitasking: Modern applications, especially those

designed with multithreading, can take full advantage of multicore
processors. Multithreading allows a single program to split its tasks
into multiple threads, which can then be processed on di↵erent cores
simultaneously. Example: Web browsers, games, and video editing
software are optimized for multicore processing. In a web browser, each
tab can be run as a separate thread, allowing for faster switching be-
tween tabs and better performance when multiple tabs are open. Sim-
ilarly, video editors can process di↵erent parts of a project (like video
rendering, audio editing, and e↵ects application) in parallel across
cores, speeding up the overall workflow.
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 24

Example in Practice: Imagine you’re working on your computer and

decide to open several programs at once—like a web browser, a word pro-
cessor, and a music player.

1. Single-Core Processor: A single-core processor can only handle one

task at a time. As you launch multiple programs, it processes them
sequentially. This means that each program must wait its turn, leading
to noticeable delays and slower performance. For example, if you open
a web browser, and then a word processor, the single-core processor
will first process the browser, then move on to the word processor,
leading to lag when switching between programs.

2. Quad-Core Processor: A quad-core processor, on the other hand,

can handle multiple tasks simultaneously. Each core can be assigned
a separate task, so the web browser, word processor, and music player
can all run independently without slowing each other down. This
leads to smooth multitasking and a much more responsive computing
experience. For example, the web browser might run on one core, while
the word processor uses another, and the music player runs on a third,
leaving the fourth core to handle other background tasks, like updates
or file management.

2.2.5 The Balance Between Clock Speed and Cores

While multicore processors o↵er great advantages in multitasking, it’s cru-
cial to understand that more cores do not always guarantee better perfor-
mance. The e↵ectiveness of the processor depends on how the workload
is distributed and how software is designed to use the cores.

1. Single-Core Dependent Applications: Some applications, like

older software or certain types of games, are not optimized to take
full advantage of multiple cores. These applications rely primarily on
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 25

the clock speed of a single core to perform tasks quickly. In these

cases, a high clock speed is more beneficial than adding more cores. A
processor with higher GHz (clock speed) can run these single-threaded
applications faster than one with many cores but lower clock speed.

2. Multithreaded Applications: On the other hand, applications such

as video editing software, 3D rendering programs, and scientific simu-
lations are designed to utilize multiple cores. These applications can
divide their workload into smaller tasks and run them in parallel across
several cores. For these types of programs, a multicore processor with
a lower clock speed may still outperform a single-core processor with a
higher clock speed because the workload can be divided and processed
concurrently.

For example: Let’s assume two processors with di↵erent specifications:

1. Processor A: 1 core, 4 GHz clock speed.

2. Processor B: 4 cores, 2 GHz clock speed.

Now, let’s break down the performance for two types of applications:

1. Single-Core Dependent Application: A single-core dependent applica-

tion (like an older video game) relies primarily on the clock speed, as
it doesn’t know how to take advantage of multiple cores. For such an
application, only one core is actively used, so the clock speed of the
core is the main factor in performance.

Performance Calculation for Single-Core Dependent Applica-

tion:

(a) Processor A (1 core, 4 GHz): Since the application uses only one
core, the processor will operate at 4 GHz.
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 26

(b) Processor B (4 cores, 2 GHz): Even though there are 4 cores, the
application can only utilize 1 core. Therefore, it will e↵ectively
be running at 2 GHz (the clock speed of a single core).

In this case: Processor A performs better because 4 GHz is faster

than 2 GHz for a single-core workload.

2. Multithreaded Application: Now, let’s consider a multithreaded appli-

cation (like video editing or 3D rendering) that can divide its work-
load across multiple cores. Performance Calculation for Multi-
threaded Application:

(a) Processor A (1 core, 4 GHz): The application can only use 1

core, so the performance is limited to 4 GHz.
(b) Processor B (4 cores, 2 GHz): The application can use all 4 cores
simultaneously. Here, the total processing power is distributed
across the cores, and we can calculate the performance by adding
up the processing power of each core:

i.
Total processing power: 4 cores ⇥ 2 GHz = 8 GHz

ii. Processor B will be able to handle the multithreaded tasks

more efficiently, as it can process data in parallel across the
cores.

In this case: Processor B outperforms Processor A because it

has 8 GHz of total processing power spread across 4 cores, allow-
ing it to handle the workload more e↵ectively in a multithreaded
environment.
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 27

Discussion Points and End-of-Lecture Questions

1. What is another name for the system unit in a computer?

2. In what way does the system unit di↵er between desktop computers
and laptops?

3. How does the system unit contribute to a computer’s ability to process

data and store information?

4. Can the system unit be considered the main body of a computer? Why
or why not?

5. How does the Control Unit manage the flow of data between the CPU,
memory, and input/output devices?

6. What tasks does the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) handle?

7. How does the ALU perform arithmetic operations?

8. What types of logical operations does the ALU execute?

9. Why are registers important for the CPU’s performance?

10. How do registers facilitate fast execution of tasks by the CPU?

11. In what way do registers di↵er from other types of memory in the
computer system?

12. What is the relationship between the components of the CPU in exe-
cuting instructions?

13. How does the CPU retrieve an instruction from the system’s RAM?

14. What happens during the decode phase of CPU operation?

15. What types of actions can the CPU perform during the execute phase?
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 28

16. What is the purpose of the CPU’s internal clock?

17. How is clock speed measured, and what does it indicate about the
processor’s performance?

18. What does a higher clock speed imply about a CPU’s capabilities?

19. How are modern processors typically measured in terms of clock speed?

20. How do multicore processors enhance performance and efficiency?

21. What is parallel processing in relation to multicore processors?

22. What is load balancing in the context of multicore processors?

23. Who manages load balancing, and how is it implemented?

24. What happens when one core is busy processing a heavy task in a
multicore processor?

25. What are the advantages of multicore processors over single-core pro-
cessors?

26. What are the di↵erent levels of cache memory, and how do they di↵er?

27. Where is the L1 cache located, and what are its characteristics?

28. What happens during a cache miss?

29. What process does the CPU follow to fetch data from the main mem-
ory?

30. What is the First In, First Out (FIFO) replacement policy?

31. How does the 32-bit architecture limit the amount of RAM that can
be addressed?
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 29

32. What advantages does 64-bit architecture provide over 32-bit archi-
tecture?

33. Why do processors generate significant heat during operation?

34. Explain why the CPU is referred to as the ”brain” of the computer.

35. Describe the roles of the Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) in the CPU.

36. Why are registers important for CPU performance?

37. Why is the coordination between the Control Unit, Arithmetic Logic
Unit, and Registers critical for the CPU’s performance?

38. Explain the role of the Fetch-Decode-Execute-Store cycle in CPU op-

erations.

39. Why is the Decode phase essential for proper CPU functioning?

40. Discuss how the Program Counter (PC) contributes to the Fetch phase.

41. Compare and contrast the roles of the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
and the Memory Management Unit (MMU) in the Execute phase.

42. Explain the importance of clock speed in CPU performance.

43. Discuss the advantages of multicore processors for multitasking and

parallel processing.

44. Why is load balancing necessary for optimal multicore processor per-
formance?

45. Why might a processor with a higher clock speed outperform a multi-
core processor in single-threaded applications?
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 30

46. What types of tasks or applications benefit most from multicore pro-
cessors?

47. How would you decide between a high-clock-speed single-core processor

and a lower-clock-speed multicore processor for a specific workload?

48. Discuss the trade-o↵s between clock speed and core count in modern
CPUs. How do they impact overall performance?

49. If you were building a PC for gaming, which typically requires high
single-thread performance, would you prioritize clock speed or core
count? Why?

50. For professional tasks such as video editing or 3D rendering, explain

why multicore processors might be a better choice, even if their clock
speed is lower.

51. Why is the system unit considered the most crucial part of a computer
system?

52. Why is the system unit sometimes referred to as the computer’s ”case”?

53. How does the system unit’s design di↵er between desktop computers
and portable devices like laptops?

54. What role do microchips play in enhancing the performance and effi-
ciency of modern computers?

55. In what ways does integrating the system unit into the body of portable
devices a↵ect their design and functionality?

56. How do microchips impact industries beyond computing, such as health-

care, automotive, and space exploration?
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 31

57. What is typically contained within the system unit of a desktop com-
puter? A) Monitor and keyboard. B) Printer and scanner. C) Moth-
erboard, CPU, and RAM. D) Mouse and speakers

58. In portable devices like laptops, the system unit: A) Is separated from
the main body of the device. B) Is integrated directly into the device’s
body. C) Requires an external power source to function. D) Contains
only the hard drive.

59. Which component serves as the fundamental building block for modern
computing?A) Power supply. B) Monitor. C) Microchips. D) Hard
drive.

60. The Apple M2 chip and Intel Core i9 are examples of: A) External
storage devices. B) Microprocessors. C) Cooling systems. D) Display
technologies

61. What process is primarily used to manufacture microchips? A) Elec-

troplating. B) Photolithography. C) Etching. D) Soldering

62. Which microchip is manufactured using a 3nm process and powers the
latest iPhones?A) Intel Core i9. B) Apple A17 Pro. C) Qualcomm
Snapdragon 8 Gen 3. D) NVIDIA H100 Tensor Core

63. What is the primary function of transistors in microchips? A) Storing

data permanently. B) Controlling the flow of electrical currents. C)
Generating power for the device. D) Cooling the microchip.

64. What type of microchip is primarily responsible for executing billions

of instructions per second in devices? A) RAM. B) CPU. C) Flash
Storage. D) Power Supply

65. Which of the following is NOT a component of the CPU? A)Control

Unit (CU) B)Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), C) Registers, D) Graphics
Processing Unit (GPU)
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 32

66. True or False Questions:

(a) The system unit is sometimes referred to as the computer’s case.

(b) Laptops have a separate system unit that connects externally to

the device.

(c) Microchips are primarily responsible for cooling the computer’s

components.

(d) Modern microprocessors can integrate AI acceleration features to

enhance computing tasks.

(e) Microchips are made primarily from aluminum, a highly conduc-

tive material.

(f) The complexity of modern microchips is due to the high density of

transistors, with some chips containing over 10 billion transistors.

(g) Photolithography is a process used to manufacture microchips by

etching intricate patterns on a silicon wafer.

(h) Modern GPUs like the NVIDIA H100 are used only for graphical
rendering, not for AI computations.

(i) Microchips are essential for managing communication between

hardware components within a device.

(j) The Control Unit (CU) is responsible for performing arithmetic

and logical operations.

(k) Registers are slower than main memory (RAM) in terms of access
speed.

(l) The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs logical operations

such as comparisons.

(m) The Fetch-Decode-Execute-Store (F-D-E-S) cycle is essential for

the CPU to process instructions
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 33

(n) The Program Counter (PC) keeps track of the memory address
of the next instruction.
(o) The Decode phase involves performing the calculations specified
in the instruction.
(p) The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is used during the Store phase.
(q) A CPU with a clock speed of 3 GHz can perform 3 billion cycles
per second.
(r) The clock speed is the only factor determining a CPU’s perfor-
mance.
(s) Multicore processors allow parallel processing, improving efficiency
and performance.
(t) Threading allows a single program to split its tasks into multiple
threads.

67. Fill-in-the-Blank Questions

(a) ......... are tiny silicon-based integrated circuits that perform bil-
lions of calculations per second.
(b) In portable devices like laptops, the system unit is..... into the
device’s body.
(c) The process used to manufacture microchips, where patterns are
etched onto a silicon wafer, is called .......
(d) Devices like smartphones use ........ chips to enable wireless con-
nectivity, such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
(e) The CPU is often referred to as the ....... of the computer.
(f) The ........ retrieves instructions from memory, decodes them, and
determines the actions required.
(g) The component of the CPU that performs calculations and logical
operations is called the ...... .
Computer Science Dr. Humam M. Abdulsahib Page 34

(h) .........are small, ultra-fast storage locations within the CPU that
temporarily hold data.

68. Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of integrating the system
unit into portable devices.

69. What are the primary components that make up a microchip?

70. Why is transistor density important for the performance of microchips?

71. How do microchips enable communication between hardware compo-

nents within electronic devices?

72. Processor X has 1 core with a clock speed of 3.5 GHz. Processor Y
has 6 cores with a clock speed of 2 GHz. A single-core dependent
application is being used. Question: Which processor will perform
better for this application, and why?

73. Processor A has 1 core running at 5 GHz, while Processor B has 4

cores at 2.5 GHz. Question: What is the e↵ective clock speed for a
single-core dependent application on each processor? Which one is
faster?

74. Processor M has 4 cores at 3 GHz each, and Processor N has 1 core
at 5 GHz. Questions: Which processor performs better for a single-
threaded application? Which processor performs better for a multi-
threaded application?