Unit 6

Cleaner Production and life cycle Analysis

• Cleaner Production (CP) is the continuous application of an integrated preventive environmental strategy to
processes, products, and services to increase overall efficiency, and reduce risks to humans and the environment.

• Cleaner Production can be applied to the processes used in any industry, to products themselves and to various
services provided to society. For production processes, Cleaner Production results from one or a combination of
conserving raw materials, water and energy; eliminating toxic and dangerous raw materials; and reducing the
quantity and toxicity of all emissions and wastes at source during the production process.

• For products, Cleaner Production aims to reduce the environmental, health and safety impacts of products over
their entire life cycles, from raw materials extraction, through manufacturing and use, to the 'ultimate' disposal of
the product.

• For services, Cleaner Production implies incorporating environmental concerns into designing and delivering
services. Therewith, Cleaner Production is the international term for reducing environmental impacts from
processes, products and services by using better management strategies, methods and tools.

• Related terms include green business, sustainable business, eco-efficiency, and waste minimization. United Nation
Environmental Programme (UNEP) has been providing leadership and encouraging partnerships to promote the
concept of Cleaner Production on a worldwide scale, especially through the creation of National Cleaner
Production Centres (NCPCs) together with the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).
Currently, more than 1000 cleaner production demonstration projects have been launched.
• Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) – also called Life-Cycle Analysis – is a tool for examining the total
environmental impact of a product through every step of its life – from obtaining raw materials all the way
through making it in a factory, shipping it, selling it in a store, using it in the workplace or at home, and
disposing of it.
• According to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Environmental Management
series, life cycle assessment is defined as a “compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and the
potential environmental impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle.”

• While the number of stages can vary, LCA typically involves six major stages:

1. Product Design: Focuses on designing with sustainability in mind, potentially including material selection,
resource efficiency, and waste reduction.
2. Raw Material Extraction and Processing: Involves obtaining raw materials from the earth, such as metals,
minerals, or renewable resources, and preparing them for manufacturing.
3. Manufacturing of the Product: Includes the production processes, energy use, and emissions associated
with converting raw materials into the final product.
4. Packaging and Distribution: Encompasses the packaging needed to protect the product and its
transportation to stores or consumers, both of which involve material use and emissions.
5. Product Use and Maintenance: Examines the impact of the product’s use phase, including energy or
resources it may require, maintenance needs, and emissions during its useful life.
6. End-of-Life Management: Covers the processes at the end of the product’s life cycle, including options for
reuse, recycling, or disposal, and any associated environmental impacts.
Importance of LCA in Sustainable Development
LCA has become a critical tool for sustainable development. It allows organizations and policymakers to make informed
decisions by quantifying environmental impacts associated with various stages in the life of a product or service. This capability
is increasingly valuable in the development of eco-labels, green procurement standards, and environmental management systems.
variety of acronyms will be used. Below is a list of the most commonly used acronyms:

• Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) – Compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental
impacts of a product system throughout its life cycle.
• Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) – A phase of LCA involving the accounting of inputs and outputs across a given
product or process life cycle.
• Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) – A phase of LCA aimed at understanding and evaluating the magnitude
and significance of the potential environmental impacts of a product or system.
• Life Cycle Cost (LCC) – A product’s initial costs plus all future costs (operating, maintenance, repair and
replacement costs, and functional-use costs) minus the product’s salvage value (i.e., value of an asset at the end of
economic life or study period). All costs are discounted to adjust for the time value of money.

Types of LCA
1. Cradle to Gate: considers raw materials to finished goods but does not consider its use or end life
2. Cradle to Grave: Considers from harvesting of materials to final disposal of finished goods
LCA Methodology:
The standard approach to LCA follows the ISO 14040 series, which provides a systematic framework divided
into four main phases:
1. Goal and Scope Definition (ISO 14041)
2. Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCI) (ISO 14041)
3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) (ISO 14042)
4. Interpretation (ISO 14043)
Each phase is integral to the overall assessment and involves specific activities and considerations that contribute
to a robust LCA.
Goal & Scope
Definition

Inventory Interpretation
Analysis

Impact
Analysis
Applications of Life Cycle Approaches

• Life Cycle Approaches are applied in diverse fields to promote sustainability:

• Product Development: Integrating life cycle thinking during product design helps companies
develop more sustainable products by minimizing environmental impacts across the product lifecycle.
• Corporate Sustainability: Organizations use Life Cycle Approaches to benchmark their
environmental performance, manage their environmental and social footprints, and communicate
sustainability performance transparently.
• Policy and Regulation: Governments use Life Cycle Approaches in developing eco-labels, green
procurement policies, and resource efficiency regulations, often mandating or incentivizing LCAs for
compliance.
• Consumer Transparency: Life Cycle Approaches provide a basis for eco-labels, certifications, and
Environmental Product Declarations, enabling consumers to make informed choices based on a
product’s lifecycle impacts.
• Resource Management: By using approaches like MFA, industries and municipalities can better
manage material resources, reduce waste, and improve circularity within the economy.
Here are the names of popular LCA tools:

During the last decade, several LCA tools have emerged which attempt to quantify the relative potential environmental
impacts of building materials. These tools were developed to help users choose building materials and building designs.
During the workshop, the group assessed the capability of five such tools that have been developed around the world:
• LCAid TM (Australia)
• ATHENATM (Canada)
• Building Research Establishment (BRE) Green Guide to Housing Specification (United Kingdom)
• Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability (BEES 2.0) (United States)
• Life Cycle Explorer (United States)

Choosing the Right Tool

When selecting an LCA tool, consider:
•Scope of Analysis: Some tools are more suited to broad product lifecycle assessments (e.g., SimaPro, GaBi), while others
focus on specific stages or industries (e.g., GREET for transportation).
•Data Requirements: Tools with integrated, robust databases (e.g., Ecoinvent in GaBi, SimaPro) simplify data collection but
may be costly. OpenLCA is an open-source alternative for budget-constrained projects.
•Complexity and Usability: Academic research may require more detailed tools with scenario analysis capabilities (e.g.,
GaBi, OpenLCA), while business applications may benefit from user-friendly tools like Umberto for process optimization.
•Regulatory Compliance: Tools that support Environmental Product Declarations (e.g., GaBi, EPD software) are valuable for
industries with strict environmental reporting requirements.
Each tool has unique strengths, making it essential to match the tool’s capabilities with the specific requirements of your LCA
study, budget, and sector.
 Environmental Impact Assessment

• Environmental Impact Assessment is a tool designed to identify and predict the impact of a project on the
bio-geophysical environment and on man's health and well-being, to interpret and communicate information
about the impact, to analyze site and process alternatives and provide solutions to sift out, or abate/mitigate
the negative consequences on man and the environment.
• EIA is always necessary for a pulp and paper project (whether it is a new mill or the expansion of an existing
facility), as for any industrial project of importance. The EIA is a means of avoiding environmental
disturbances that are always much more expensive to correct after their occurrence than before. It is also
important to underline that very few projects have been deemed not viable merely because of the cost of
pollution control and that modern environmental control, in a new plant, is less than 3% of the initial
investment.
• Today, there is world-wide evidence that man cannot ignore the quality of the environment. Thus
environmental issues must be addressed as soon as possible during project planning. There should not be any
hesitation in abandoning a project or a process at an early stage, or in proposing alternatives to any project
which would have very detrimental impact on the environment, as is the case for projects which are not
economically or financially viable. In the same way as economic, financial, institutional, or technical
analyses, EIA is an integral part of the project.
The basic objectives of EIA are to:
• Consider environmental factors in the decision-making process of any project
• Identify potential environmental, social and economic impacts of proposed activities
• Take steps at initial stages to minimize adverse environmental impacts
• Promote sustainable development through environmental management plan by either alternatives or
mitigation measures.
• Public participation in the decision making of the establishment of proposed activity.
 Steps in the EIA Process

1. Screening: Determines whether a project requires an EIA and its level of assessment based on criteria such
as project type, scale, and location.
2. Scoping: Identifies which potential impacts should be considered and the study boundaries, including
environmental, social, and economic factors.
3. Impact Prediction and Evaluation: Quantitatively or qualitatively estimates the potential environmental
impacts of the project, covering areas like air, water, soil, and biodiversity.
4. Mitigation Measures: Proposes actions to avoid, minimize, or compensate for adverse effects, such as
pollution control measures or habitat restoration plans.
5. Public Consultation: Involves stakeholders, especially local communities, to gather feedback and address
concerns, promoting transparency.
6. Reporting: The findings are compiled into an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), which includes the
predicted impacts, mitigation plans, and alternatives considered.
7. Decision-Making: Based on the EIA report, authorities decide whether to approve, reject, or modify the
project proposal.
8. Monitoring and Compliance: Once the project is approved, monitoring ensures that mitigation measures are
implemented and that impacts remain within acceptable levels.
 EIA in India

• The foundation of EIA in India was first laid in 1976-77. The Planning Commission instructed
the Department of Science and Technology (DST) to examine the river- valley projects from an
environmental angle. However, this was informal and inactive.

• The first consolidated step for EIA was EIA notification 1994 by Union Ministry of
Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India, under EPA Act 1986.

• The notification made the Environmental Clearance (EC) mandatory for any modernization
activity or setting up new projects. Further, depending on the need and to strengthen the EIA
process, EIA notification 1994 was amended almost 13 times in 11 years. The major
amendments came in the year 1997, 2000, 2002, 2003 and 2005, 2006, 2020.

• The EIA notification has been amended several times and latest notification was published in
2006. The EIA notification 2006 has been again amended several times.
 Environmental Audit
• An environmental audit (EA) is a systematic, independent internal review to check whether the results of
environmental work tally with the targets. It studies whether the methods or means used to achieve the goals or
ends are effective. EA involves studying documents and reports, interviewing key people in the organisation, etc.,
to assess the level of deviations between targets and results. It is defined as a systematic and documented
verification process of objectively obtaining and evaluating evidence to determine whether an organization’s
EMS conforms with audit criteria set by the organization, and for communicating the results of this process to
management (ISO 14001). Environmental audits are being used as a tool and an aid to test the effectiveness of
environmental efforts at local level.

• The objectives of an environmental audit are to evaluate the efficiency and efficacy of resource utilization (i.e.,
people, machines and materials), to identify the areas of risk, environmental liabilities, weakness in management
systems and problems in complying with regulatory requirements and to ensure the control on waste/pollutant
generation.

• The scope of an environmental audit can fall under either of the following two options:
(i) To limit scope of the audit to an assessment only of the degree of compliance with policies, requirements-type
documents and procedures.
(ii) To assess the adequacy of the policies, requirements-type documents and procedures to begin with and, given
their adequacies, to assess the degree to which compliance with these documents is achieved.
ISO- International Organization for Standardization
Types of Environmental Audits

1. Objective-based types
2. Client-driven types

Steps in an Environmental Audit:

1. Audit Planning: Define the audit scope, objectives, and criteria, including the areas to be examined and relevant
regulations or standards.
2. Data Collection: Gather information through document reviews, interviews, and onsite inspections to assess
environmental performance against audit criteria.
3. Evaluation and Analysis: Compare findings with regulatory requirements, standards, or best practices to identify non-
compliance issues and performance gaps.
4. Reporting: Document audit findings, detailing compliance status, areas of non-compliance, and recommended
improvements.
5. Corrective Action and Follow-Up: Implement corrective actions to address deficiencies and conduct follow-up audits
to ensure that improvements are effective.
Typical Audit Procedure: Basic Steps
ISO 14001 is a voluntary international standard for environmental management systems ("EMS"). ISO
14001 provides the requirements for an EMS and ISO 14004 gives general EMS guidelines. An EMS meeting
the requirements of ISO 14001 is a management tool enabling an organization of any size or type to:
• Identify and control the environmental impact of its activities, products or services;
• Improve its environmental performance continually, and
• Implement a systematic approach to setting environmental objectives and targets, to achieving these and to
demonstrating that they have been achieved.
Organizations implementing ISO 14001 usually seek to obtain certification by independent Certification Bodies.
Certification indicates that the documentation, implementation and effectiveness of the EMS conform to the
specific requirements of ISO 14001. The ISO 14000 family of international standards has been updated to
include ISO 14044 Life cycle assessment and top management amongst other changes.
Audit tools and technology
• Current technology supports many versions of computer-based protocols that attempt to simplify the audit process by
converting regulatory requirements into questions with "yes", "no" and "not applicable" check boxes. Many companies
and auditors find these useful and there are several such protocol systems commercially available.
• The term "protocol" means the checklist used by environmental auditors as the guide for conducting the audit activities.
There is no standard protocol, either in form or content.
• During the past 20 years, advances in Information and communications technology (ICT) have had major impacts on
auditing. Laptop computers, portable printers, CD/DVDs, the internet, email and wireless internet access have all been used
to improve audits, increase/improve auditor access to regulatory information and create audit reports on-site.

• At one point in the 1990s, one major company invested significant resources in testing "video audits" where the auditor
(located at the corporate headquarters) used real-time video conferencing technology to direct staff at a site to carry live
video cameras to specific areas of the plant. While initially promising, this technology/concept did not prove acceptable.

• An emerging technology in environmental auditing is the use of Satellite imagery and Geographic Information Systems
(GIS).

Environmental auditing in India

• The Supreme Audit Institution (SAI) in India is headed by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India who
is a constitutional authority. The CAG of India derives his mandate from Articles 148 to 151 of the Indian Constitution.
The CAG‟s (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971 prescribes functions, duties and powers of the CAG.
While fulfilling his constitutional obligations, the CAG examines various aspects of government expenditure and
revenues. The audit conducted by CAG is broadly classified into Financial, Compliance and Performance Audit.
• The audits can be divided into five categories—(i) Air issues (ii) Water issues (iii) Waste (iv) Biodiversity (v)
Environment Management System.
 Comparison of EIA and Environmental Audit

Environmental Impact
Aspect Environmental Audit
Assessment (EIA)
Predict and assess potential Evaluate compliance and improve
Purpose
impacts of new projects existing practices
Conducted before project
Timing Conducted on ongoing operations
implementation
Focused on proposed projects or Focused on current practices and
Scope
plans compliance
High, with public consultation Low, typically involves internal
Stakeholder Involvement
required stakeholders
Environmental Impact Statement Audit Report with
Outcome
(EIS) recommendations
New projects, policy planning, Existing operations, regulatory
Applications
infrastructure compliance