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Smart Sensor Networks
Using AI for Industry 4.0
Advances in Intelligent Decision-Making, Systems Engineering, and Project
Management

This new book series will report the latest research and developments in the field of
information technology, engineering and manufacturing, construction, consulting,
healthcare, military applications, production, networks, traffic management, crisis
response, human interfaces, and other related and applied fields. It will cover all
project types, such as organizational development, strategy, product development,
engineer-to-order manufacturing, infrastructure and systems delivery, and industries
and industry sectors where projects take place, such as professional services, and the
public sector including international development and cooperation etc. This new
series will publish research on all fields of information technology, engineering, and
manufacturing including the growth and testing of new computational methods, the
management and analysis of different types of data, and the implementation of novel
engineering applications in all areas of information technology and engineering. It
will also publish on inventive treatment methodologies, diagnosis tools and tech-
niques, and the best practices for managers, practitioners, and consultants in a wide
range of organizations and fields including police, defense, procurement, communi-
cations, transport, management, electrical, electronic, and aerospace requirements.

Blockchain Technology for Data Privacy Management

Edited by Sudhir Kumar Sharma, Bharat Bhushan, Aditya Khamparia, Parma Nand
Astya, and Narayan C. Debnath

Smart Sensor Networks Using AI for Industry 4.0

Applications and New Opportunities
Edited by Soumya Ranjan Nayak, Biswa Mohan Sahoo, Muthukumaran Malarvel,
and Jibitesh Mishra

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Advances-in-Intelligent-Decision-Making-Systems-Engineering-and-Project-
Management/book-series/CRCAIDMSEPM
 Smart Sensor
Networks Using AI
for Industry 4.0
Applications and New Opportunities

Edited by

Soumya Ranjan Nayak,

Biswa Mohan Sahoo,
Muthukumaran Malarvel, and
Jibitesh Mishra
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not
warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB®
software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a
particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.

First edition published 2022

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2022 selection and editorial matter, Soumya Ranjan Nayak, Biswa Mohan Sahoo, Muthukumaran
Malarvel, and Jibitesh Mishra; individual chapters, the contributors

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher
cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors
and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication
and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any
copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any
future reprint.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Nayak, Soumya Ranjan, 1984- editor.
Title: Smart sensor networks using AI for industry 4.0 : applications and
new opportunities / edited by Soumya Ranjan Nayak, Biswa Mohan Sahoo,
Muthukumaran Malarvel, and Jibitesh Mishra.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2022. | Series:
Advances in intelligent decision-making, systems engineering, and
project management | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021018338 (print) | LCCN 2021018339 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367702120 (hbk) | ISBN 9780367702137 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003145028 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Industry 4.0. | Artificial intelligence. | Wireless sensor networks.
Classification: LCC T59.6 .S63 2022 (print) | LCC T59.6 (ebook) | DDC
658.4/038028563--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021018338
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021018339
ISBN: 978-0-367-70212-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-70213-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-14502-8 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003145028

Typeset in Times
by SPi Technologies India Pvt Ltd (Straive)
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................vii
About the Editors.......................................................................................................ix
Contributors...............................................................................................................xi

Chapter 1 Optimization of Wireless Sensor Networks using Bio-Inspired

Algorithm.............................................................................................. 1
Ayusee Swain, K. P. Swain, G. Palai, and Soumya Ranjan Nayak

Chapter 2 An Improved Genetic Algorithm with Haar Lifting for Optimal

Sensor Deployment in Target Covers Based Wireless Sensor
Networks............................................................................................. 25
T. Ganesan and Pothuraju Rajarajeswari

Chapter 3 Lifetime Enhancement of Wireless Sensor Network Using

Artificial Intelligence Techniques.......................................................45
Jayashree Dev and Jibitesh Mishra

Chapter 4 Research Issues of Information Security Using Blockchain

Technique in Multiple Media WSNs: A Communication
Technique Perceptive........................................................................... 65
Nihar Ranjan Pradhan and Akhilendra Pratap Singh

Chapter 5 Modified Artificial Fish Swarm Optimization Based

Clustering in Wireless Sensor Network............................................... 77
Biswa Mohan Sahoo, Ramesh Chandra Sahoo, Nabanita Paul,
Abhinav Tomar, and Ranjeet Kumar Rout

Chapter 6 Survey: Data Prediction Model in Wireless Sensor Networks

Using Machine Learning and Optimization Methods......................... 89
S. Ramalingam, K. Baskaran, and Umashankar Subramaniam

Chapter 7 Strategic Sink Mobility Based on Particle Swarm

Optimization in Wireless Sensor Network........................................ 101
Ramandeep Kaur and Roop Lal Sharma
v
viContents

Chapter 8 A Study on Outlier Detection Techniques for Wireless Sensor

Network with CNN Approach........................................................... 115
Biswaranjan Sarangi and Biswajit Tripathy

Chapter 9 NEECH: A Novel Energy-Efficient Cluster Head Selecting

Protocol in a Wireless Sensor Network............................................. 133
Shelly Bhardwaj and Gurpreet Singh Saini

Chapter 10 An Efficient Model for Toxic Gas Detection and Monitoring

Using Cloud and Sensor Network..................................................... 145
A. M. Senthil Kumar, Yamini Pemmasani,
Haritha Venkata Naga Siva Sruthi Addanki, Vasantha Sravani,
and Dama Srinu

Chapter 11 Particle swarm Intelligence-Based Localization Algorithms

in Wireless Sensor Networks............................................................. 157
Ravichander Janapati, Ravi Kumar Jatoth,
A. Brahmananda Reddy, and Ch. Balaswamy

Chapter 12 A Review on Defense Strategy Security Mechanism for Sensor

Network............................................................................................. 179
Amara SA L G Gopala Gupta and G. Syam Prasad

Chapter 13 Securing Wireless Multimedia Objects through Machine

Learning Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks.......................... 193
Rakesh Ahuja, Purnima, Ambuj Kumar Agarwal, Saira Bano,
and Manish Sharma

Chapter 14 Low Power Communication in Wireless Sensor Networks and IoT....... 221
Pawan Kumar Sharma, Jaspreet Singh, Yogita, and Vipin Pal

Chapter 15 Localization Using Bat Algorithm in Wireless Sensor Network....... 235

Ramandeep Kaur and Gurpreet Singh Saini

Index....................................................................................................................... 247
Preface
The applications of the wireless sensor network (WSN) increase rapidly due to three
basic goals such as availability, confidentially, and integrity. WSN is a collection of a
large number of sensor nodes. Each sensor node contains a battery having limited
energy capacity. The purpose of this node is to receive, process, and send the data and
information. Based on this purpose, there are several challenges in WSN, such as
deployment, design constraints, energy constraint, limited bandwidth, node costs,
and security. The factors that influence these challenges are coverage, dependability,
range, reliability, scalability, security, speed, etc. It causes several types of uncertain-
ties and imprecise information. Hence, there is a need for some innovative, intelli-
gent, nature-inspired techniques in the area of WSN, so that the aforementioned
issues are estimated efficiently. Therefore, the proposed book effectively helps aca-
demicians, researchers, computer professionals, industry people, and valued users.
The influence and recent impact of the wireless sensor network using artificial
intelligence on modern society, technology, and the telecom sector are remarkable.
Many activities would not be performed without the sensor network, which has
become such an important part of current research and technology. WSN is a truly
interdisciplinary subject that draws from synergistic developments involving many
disciplines, and it is used in medical diagnosis, telecommunication, computer net-
work vision, and many other fields.
Gaining high-level understanding from WSN is a key requirement for in-depth
analysis. One aspect of study that is assisting with this advancement is AI in the sen-
sor network. The new sciences like 5G, energy hole problem, optimized multipath
routing protocol, multiple sinks, energy clustering, etc., have gained momentum and
popularity, as they have become key topics of research in the area of wireless sensor
network. This book has put a thrust on this vital area.
This is a text for use in a first practical course in implementation of wireless sen-
sor network using recent artificial intelligence technology and its analysis, for final-
year undergraduate or first-year postgraduate students with a background in
biomedical sensor engineering, computer intelligence, remote sensing, radiologic
sciences, or physics. Designed for readers who will become ‘end users’ of WSN in
various domains, it emphasizes the conceptual framework and the effective use of
WSN tools and uses mathematics as a tool, minimizing the advanced mathematical
development of other textbooks.
Featuring research on topics such as maximum lifetime of sensor networks,
energy hole problem, no-inspired algorithm, efficient clustering analysis, and
AI-based WSN, this book is ideally designed for system engineers, computer engi-
neers, professionals, academicians, researchers, and students seeking coverage on
problem-oriented processing techniques and sensor technologies. The book is an
essential reference source that discusses wireless sensor network applications and
analysis, including optimization technique, AI-based approaches, node clustering,
and network life span, as well as recent trends in other evolutionary approaches.

vii
viiiPreface

This book is intended to give the recent trends on sensor analysis using AI for
network life span, node clustering, and many more related applications, and to under-
stand and study different application areas. It focuses mainly on stepwise discussion,
exhaustive literature review, detailed analysis and discussion, rigorous experimenta-
tion results, and application-oriented approach.
Matter: this book contains some artificial intelligence algorithms for optimizing
several issues of WSN. The main aim of this book is to solve or innovate different
problems of WSN in terms of several applications.

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The Math Works, Inc.

For product information, please contact:
The Math Works, Inc.
3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
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Web: http://www.mathworks.com
About the Editors
Soumya Ranjan Nayak is Assistant Professor at Amity School of Engineering and
Technology, Amity University, Noida, India. He received his PhD degree in com-
puter science and engineering under MHRD Govt. of India fellowship from CET,
BPUT Rourkela, India; with preceded degree of MTech and BTech degrees in com-
puter science and engineering. He has published over seventy articles in peer-
reviewed journals and conferences of international repute like Elsevier, Springer,
World Scientific, IOS Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Inderscience, IGI Global, etc.
Apart from that, he has 12 book chapters, six books, three Indian patents (one
granted), and two international patents to his credit. His current research interests
include medical image analysis and classification, machine learning, deep learning,
pattern recognition, fractal graphics and computer vision. His publications have
more than 400 citations, an h-index of 12, and an i10 index of 15 (Google Scholar).
He serves as a reviewer of many peer-reviewed journals such as IEEE Journal of
Biomedical and Health Informatics, Applied Mathematics and Computation, Journal
of Applied Remote Sensing, Mathematical Problems in Engineering, International
Journal of Light and Electron Optics, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems,
Future Generation Computer Systems, and Pattern Recognition Letters. He has also
served as Technical Program Committee Member of several conferences of interna-
tional repute.

Biswa Mohan Sahoo is a Senior IEEE member and received his BTech and MTech
degrees in computer science and engineering from Biju Patnaik University of
Technology, Odisha, India, and his PhD degree in computer science and engineering
from the Indian Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad, India. He is currently
Assistant Professor at Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, India. He has published more
than 15 articles in prestigious international peer-reviewed journals and conferences
in the area of wireless sensor networks, swarm intelligence, and image processing.
He currently focuses on artificial intelligence approaches on sensor networks. His
research interest area is the wireless sensor network with evolutionary algorithm and
artificial intelligence.

Muthukumaran Malarvel is a researcher and academician working as Associate

Professor in the Centre for Research and Innovation Network (CURIN), Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Punjab, India. His 17+ years of
experience includes the information technology industry, teaching, and rich research
experience. He received a doctoral degree in computer science and engineering and
was awarded a Senior Research Fellowship (SRF) under the funded project of Board
of Research in Nuclear Sciences (BRNS), Government of India. He has published
more than 20 research articles indexed in SCI, SCIE, and SCOPUS journals and
conferences. He is an editor and reviewer of reputed journals and has also edited
three books with a reputable publisher. He has filed four intellectual property patents
in India and received one patent grant. His research interests are digital image

ix
x About the Editors

processing, pattern recognition, quantum image processing, and machine learning

techniques.

Jibitesh Mishra has interests in research, consultancy, working on new technolo-

gies, and projects. He has continuously worked for the College of Engineering and
Technology, Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Rourkela, India, since 1994.
After completing his PhD in 2001, he has completed projects like Orissa Tourism
Information Systems. One of his papers “On calculation of fractal dimension of
images” has been cited by many researchers. His first book, Design of Information
Systems: A Modern Approach, was widely published in China as well. He previously
worked in function point metrics in association with Infosys Ltd. He has written
another book, L-systems Fractal, published by Elsevier. He started introducing the
concept of web engineering in India in 2006 after organizing the International
Conference on Web Engineering and Applications (ICWA 2006). On the social front,
he coordinated the training program for SC & ST graduate engineers in 2008. He was
on sabbatical leave during 2008–2010 at King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia.
He wrote a book on e-commerce published by Macmillan during that period which
was later purchased by Laxmi Publisher. Currently he is head of the Department of
Computer Science and Application in CET. His current research initiatives are in the
areas of data analytics, engineering for mobile apps, and ontology engineering.
Contributors
Haritha Venkata Naga Siva Sruthi T. Ganesan
Addanki Department of Computer Science and
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Engineering Koneru Lakshmaiah Education
Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation
Foundation Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
Amara SA L G Gopala Gupta
Ambuj Kumar Agarwal Department of Computer Science and
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering
Engineering and Technology Koneru Lakshmaiah Education
Chitkara University Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
Punjab, India

Rakesh Ahuja Ravichander Janapati

Chitkara University Institute of SR University
Engineering and Technology Warangal, Telangana, India
Chitkara University
Punjab, India Ravi Kumar Jatoth
National Institute of Technology
Ch. Balaswamy Warangal, Telangana, India
Gudlavalleru Engineering College
Gudlavalleru, Andhra Pradesh, India Ramandeep Kaur
St. Soldier Institute of Engineering and
Saira Bano Technology
Department of Computer Science and Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Engineering
Vel Tech University A. M. Senthil Kumar
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Department of Computer Science and
Engineering
K. Baskaran Koneru Lakshmaiah Education
Alagappa Chettiar Government College Foundation
of Engineering and Technology Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India
Jibitesh Mishra
Shelly Bhardwaj College of Engineering and Technology
St. Soldier Institute of Engineering and Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Technology
Jalandhar, Punjab, India Soumya Ranjan Nayak
Amity School of Engineering and
Jayashree Dev Technology
College of Engineering and Technology Amity University Uttar Pradesh
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
xi
xiiContributors

Vipin Pal S. Ramalingam

National Institute of Technology Alagappa Chettiar Government College
Meghalaya, India of Engineering and Technology
Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India
G. Palai
Department of Electronics and A. Brahmananda Reddy
Communication Engineering VNR VJIET College
GITA Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Ranjeet Kumar Rout
Nabanita Paul
National Institute of Technology
International Institute of Information
Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Technology
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Biswa Mohan Sahoo
Yamini Pemmasani Amity University
Department of Computer Science and Uttar Pradesh, India
Engineering
Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Ramesh Chandra Sahoo
Foundation Utkal University
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Nihar Ranjan Pradhan Gurpreet Singh Saini

Department of Computer Science and St. Soldier Institute of Engineering and
Engineering Technology
National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Meghalaya, India
Biswaranjan Sarangi
G. Syam Prasad
Biju Patnaik University of Technology
Department of Computer Science and
Odisha, India
Engineering
Narasaraopeta Engineering College
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India Manish Sharma
Chitkara University Institute of
Purnima Engineering and Technology
Department of Computer Science Chitkara University
Sri Guru Gobind Singh College Punjab, India
Panjab University
Chandigarh, Punjab, India Pawan Kumar Sharma
National Institute of Technology
Pothuraju Rajarajeswari Meghalaya, India
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering Roop Lal Sharma
Koneru Lakshmaiah Education St. Soldier Institute of Engineering and
Foundation Technology
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Contributors xiii

Akhilendra Pratap Singh Ayusee Swain

Department of Computer Science and Department of Electrical Engineering
Engineering College of Engineering and Technology
National Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Meghalaya, India
K. P. Swain
Jaspreet Singh Department of Electronics and
National Institute of Technology Communication Engineering
Meghalaya, India GITA
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Vasantha Sravani
Department of Computer Science and Abhinav Tomar
Engineering Netaji Subhas University of Technology
Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Delhi, India
Foundation
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India Biswajit Tripathy
GITA
Dama Srinu Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Department of Computer Science and
Engineering Yogita
Koneru Lakshmaiah Education National Institute of Technology
Foundation Meghalaya, India
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India

Umashankar Subramaniam
College of Engineering
Prince Sultan University
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Many slaves on this continent are oppressed, [Sidenote:
and their cries have reached the ears of the Woolman on
most High. Such are the purity and certainty of slave holding]
His judgments, that He can not be partial in our
favor. In infinite love and goodness He hath opened our
understandings from one time to another concerning our duty
to this people; and it is not a time for delay. Should we now be
sensible of what He requires of us, and through respect to the
interest of some persons, or through a regard to some
friendships which do not stand on an immutable foundation,
neglect to do our duty in firmness and constancy, still waiting
for some extraordinary means to bring about their
deliverance, it may be by terrible things in righteousness, God
may answer us in this matter.[1164]
Man is born to labor, and experience abundantly sheweth
that it is for our good; but where the powerful lay the burden
on the inferior, without affording a Christian education, and
suitable opportunity for improving the mind, and a treatment
that we in their case should approve, that themselves may
live at ease and fare sumptuously, and lay up riches for their
posterity, this seems to contradict the design of Providence
and, I doubt not, is sometimes the effect of a perverted mind;
for while the life of one is made grievous by the rigor of
another, it entails misery to both.[1165]

While speaking of the life and work of the two [Sidenote:

above mentioned Quaker reformers, one other Anthony Benezet;
person seems to call imperatively for attention. His his influence
through books,
work was equally widespread and the public was pamphlets, etc.]
kept open to his influence through several of his
books and pamphlets published on the subject of slaves and
slaveholding.[1166] A French Hugenot by birth, Anthony Benezet
came early to America, where he was a staunch member of Friends,
and in whose society he performed a continuous service for the
freedom and education of the Negroes, until the time of his death in
1784.[1167] His immediate connection with the Negro School,
established by Friends in 1770[1168] will be considered more fully
elsewhere. The arguments advanced by him against slavery are
based on the grounds of practicality and justice. The system is
injurious to the slave and the master, and inconsistent with the ideals
of a free community. We, ourselves, must agree with him in his
position as set forth in the following selection.
[Sidenote: Extract
The bondage we have imposed on the from Benezet]
Africans is absolutely repugnant to Justice. It is
highly inconsistent with civil policy: First, as it tends to
suppress all improvements in arts and sciences, without
which it is morally impossible that any nation should be happy
or powerful. Secondly, as it may deprave the minds of the free
men, steeling their hearts against the laudable feelings of
virtue and humanity. And lastly, as it endangers the
community by the destructive effects of civil commotions;
need I to add to these what every heart, which is not callous
to all tender feelings, will readily suggest—that it is shocking
to humanity, violative of generous sentiment, abhorrent utterly
from the Christian religion; for as Montesquieu very justly
observes, “We must suppose them not to be men, or a
suspicion would follow that we ourselves are not Christians.”
There can not be a more dangerous maxim than that
necessity is a plea for injustice. For who shall fix the degree of
this necessity? What villian so atrocious who may not urge
this excuse; or, as Milton has happily expressed it,—“and with
necessity, the tyrants plea, excuse his devilish deed”?[1169]

Besides the three representatives mentioned, [Sidenote: George

there were a host of others, many of them still Keith and other
earlier but perhaps none who exercised so great an antagonists
slavery]
of
influence. Among those worthy of mention were
George Keith, a dissenter among Quakers, but one of the earliest
teachers in Philadelphia, and a very ardent antagonist of slavery.
Others, whose zeal outran their discretion, such as Ralph Sandiford,
Benjamin Lay,[1170] and William Southeby, might be profitably
discussed here, but lack of space eliminates their consideration. Still
other itinerant ministers, Banks, Pennington, and Chalkley, though
not so precipitous in their actions as the three above named, were
none the less worthy spokesmen of the cause.

THE CHURCH ORGANIZATION AND THE NEGRO

QUESTION
Under this head it is intended to present, (1) the [Sidenote: Study
activity of the society as an organization, and (2) of the meeting
the establishment of Negro education in the various records
to Negro
referring

meetings where any record of it remains. In doing education]

so, let the reader keep in mind the principles set
forth previously by the three representatives who have been
mentioned as leaders in the cause of Negro education and liberation.
As is quite naturally expected, after this brief [Sidenote: The
introduction to the belief of the Quaker leaders, we meeting
find that the society placed itself as a unit opposed organization
against slave
to the perpetuation of bondage among the Blacks. traffic]
Friends were astonished to find, when they arrived,
that slavery existed in Penn’s colony, and as early [Sidenote:
Germantown
as 1688 those settled at Germantown entered a memorial against
memorable protest against it.[1171] Five years later it]
George Keith, a Quaker who a few years later
came into disfavor with the society, entered a vigorous denunciation
of the practice of holding slaves.[1172] The general tenor of these
protests is against perpetual bondage, their idea being that since it
already existed, there should be a time limit set at the expiration of
which all those held should become free.
It would have been possible for individual protests and those of
smaller meetings to have gone on indefinitely and still have
accomplished but little in the way of influencing others. Similar
expressions from a central organization, speaking with some
semblance of authority, could have accomplished much more, and
did so, though not till some years later. The advices issued by the
yearly meeting were usually in the nature of reproof, scarcely or
never mandatory. One of the earliest was drawn up at the yearly
meeting in 1727 and sent to the meetings subject thereto.
[Sidenote: Yearly
It is the sense of this meeting that the Meeting regarding
importation of negroes from their native country slave trade]
and relations by Friends, is not a commendable
or allowable practice, and is therefore censured by this
meeting.[1173]

It is difficult to understand how any communication of this nature

could have force in a situation that seemed to demand something in
the way of command. But when it is recalled with what persistence
such advices were given, and again repeated in the appropriate
meetings, and that they were received by the monthly and
preparative meetings very much as dutiful children would listen to
the advice of father or mother, then the influence exerted by them
does not seem so strange.
Moreover, there is ample evidence in the reports [Sidenote:
of various meetings at all times that the advices of Reports made to
the yearly meeting were being followed with yearly meeting
concerning
considerable success. Philadelphia reported (1756) slaves]
that they knew of no Friends who had been
concerned in importing Negroes or other slaves.[1174] By 1772 the
yearly meeting reported by way of letter that, due to the
discouragement of the practice of slaveholding on the part of Friends
in the colonies, it had greatly diminished in some parts, and in others
disappeared almost altogether, as was true in the case of
Pennsylvania.[1175] For the sake of more complete illustration of the
type of expression issued, the following is quoted more at length.
[Sidenote:
We fervently warn all in profession with us Warning of 1758
that they be careful to avoid being in any way against being
concerned with
concerned in reaping the unrighteous profits slaves]
arising from the iniquitous practice of dealing in
 Negroes and other slaves; whereby in the original purchase
one man selleth another, as he doth the beast that perisheth,
without any better pretension to a property in him than that of
superior force; in direct violation of the gospel rule, which
teaches all to do as they would be done by and to do good to
all; being the reverse of that covetous disposition, which
furnishes encouragement to those poor ignorant people to
perpetuate their savage wars, in order to supply the demands
of this unnatural traffic, whereby great numbers of mankind,
free by nature, are subjected to inextricable bondage; and
which hath often been observed to fill their possessors with
haughtiness, tyranny, luxury, and barbarity, corrupting the
minds and debasing the morals of their children, to the
unspeakable prejudice of religion and virtue, and the
exclusion of that holy spirit of universal love, meekness, and
charity, which is the unchangeable nature, and the glory of
true Christianity. 1758.[1176]

The reader will have noticed that the chief [Sidenote:

emphasis is placed upon the wrongfulness of Freedom had to
bartering slaves; this may be explained by saying come before their
education]
that that was the first problem they had to face. Not
until they were able to secure the Negroes’ [Sidenote: Local
freedom could an education be of much value to meetings
persistent in their
him, for all that he made of his life belonged to his investigation of
master. But as soon as he became free, there slave conditions]
arose other needs, other desires. New prospects
opened before him, and there was a possibility that he might
accomplish something for himself and his posterity. This was
realized by the church organization and it followed the move for
freedom by emphatic requests that the meetings take care of the
spiritual and intellectual education of the negroes. The following will
illustrate very clearly the insistence with which the local church
investigated the activity of its members, and the penalty levied on the
disobedient one. In 1759, it was reported that ... had purchased
several Negroes; this being a breach of discipline, two members
were appointed to speak with him on the subject, according to their
custom. The final report on his case was made in 1762. They may
be praised for longsuffering and condemned for inefficiency.

... appeared at this meeting and after much weighty advice

given him in that affair, it is left for him weightily to consider
whether he can not find freedom to bring up such of his
negroes as are young in useful learning, endeavoring to
instruct them in the principles of Christianity, and at a proper
age, if they desire it, to set them free, and if otherwise, that he
can not have the unity of Friends.[1177]

Instances similar to this one are almost without number; reference

is made to a few of them only.[1178] The work of each of the
particular meetings is more completely brought out in the following
pages.
Of all meetings in the Philadelphia Yearly [Sidenote: No
Meeting, there were none which accomplished early school
more for the education of the Negro than did recorded]
Philadelphia Monthly. As has already been noted [Sidenote:
elsewhere in this work, there was quite early a Meetings for
considerable interest manifested by the meeting in Negroes]
regard to the question of servitude, and also the
masters’ care in giving them Christian instruction.[1179] There is no
record to show that at these early dates there was any permanent
school; all care was, without question, left to those who had Negroes
in their employ, education being tutorial entirely. The master’s care
was well guarded by the meeting’s committee on Negroes, however,
and in this way a central responsible party was provided. In addition,
there was also established a meeting which was held once each
three months in the interest of Negroes.[1180]
In 1770 there came to the front a definite [Sidenote:
movement for the establishment of a systematic Committee
means of educating Negro children. The proposal appointed
Negroes]
on
for its consideration, made first month, 26th, was
referred to the meeting in second month for action.[1181] On that
occasion, there being expressed a definite sentiment in favor of
action, a committee was appointed consisting of twenty-two
members with permission for any other Friends to attend its
deliberations who cared to do so.[1182] The date for the committee
meeting was set by the monthly meeting. At the subsequent monthly
meeting, the committee made its first report, which being acceptable
to all was approved, and further steps were taken to secure
immediate action. A digest of the report and proposals of the
committee is here presented.[1183]
1. The instruction of Negro and mulatto children [Sidenote: Digest
in reading, writing, arithmetic, and other useful of committee’s
learning—sewing and knitting, according to their report]
capacity, is to be provided.
2. The instruction is to be under the care of Friends.
3. The monthly meeting to nominate a committee of Friends,
whose duties are:

a. To employ a suitable master or mistress for not more

than thirty children at once.
b. To have the charge of admitting pupils to the school.
c. A subscription of £100 a year for three years to be
promoted.
d. To employ another master or mistress if necessary and
funds adequate.
e. To visit the school at least once a month, and to observe
the improvement and conduct of the pupils.
f. Rules to be prepared for teachers and pupils; provision
for attendance at religious services at least on Sunday.
g. The committee to appoint a treasurer from its number
who is to make payments upon an order signed by at least
four of them.
 h. Four members are sufficient number to transact
business; in difficulties, they are advised to consult the
monthly meeting.
i. To keep a record of proceedings, receipts, and
expenditures, and make a report to the meeting once a year
or more.

4. The children of free Negroes and mulattoes are to be given

preferment.
5. Tuition to be free of any expense to the parents.
6. If enrollment of such children is not large enough, the committee
may admit others according to their judgment.
Acting upon the recommendations incorporated [Sidenote:
in the report, a subscription paper was at once Subscriptions for
school solicited]
prepared, and the campaign for funds began.[1184]
A committee of the following named Friends was [Sidenote: Moses
appointed to assume the direction of the school Patterson in the
agreeable to the articles of the report, viz.; Israel Negro school]
Pemberton, Samuel Emlen, James Pemberton,
Richard Blackham, John Drinker, Hugh Forbes, and Edward Jones.
[1185] Their term of service was stated as “until a new nomination be
made by this meeting” and any vacancy occurring in the meantime
was to be filled in the same way.[1186] Only three months later (sixth
month) the committee of seven reported they had agreed with Moses
Patterson as teacher, hired a house, and that a number of children
were already admitted for instruction.[1187] In first month of the
following year the committee requested permission to erect a school
for the use of the Blacks, on the same lot occupied by the
almshouse. The request was at once granted.[1188]
Though it was originally stated that the [Sidenote: Full
committee should report once a year to the monthly yearly reports not
meeting, there was by no means a full report made]

recorded in the minutes each year. They are

adequate enough, however, to furnish some idea of the progress
made with the school.
The details of a few reports will be presented. It [Sidenote:
appears from the records that the committee’s Reports taken as
reports were always made the basis of judgment as aschool’s measure of the
success]
to whether the meeting would continue the school
or abandon it.[1189] Fortunately, the reports were usually favorable,
excepting in matters of financial consideration; in this respect there
was quite often a shortage.[1190] In the report of the first twelve years
there is little that deserves repetition. The school continued regularly,
according to statements made at intervals, and all things seemed to
convince Friends that it was worthy of their support. Let us note the
condition of the school at the end of twelve years, 1782.
For the five years preceding the instruction had [Sidenote: John
been under the care of John Houghton, who, Houghton and
unfortunately, had to retire because of failing Anthony Benezet]
health.[1191] His place was taken two months later
by Anthony Benezet, a teacher of great merit, and one who perhaps
had the welfare of the Negro more at heart than any other man in the
colony.[1192] At his suggestion, the school was removed from the
house erected for that purpose and established in his own home.
Great tribute was paid to the character of the work done by
Houghton, with special reference to his painstaking visiting of
families, seeking thus to increase the interest of parents, and
ultimately the school attendance. It is stated that during the five
years he was employed, two hundred and fifty children and grown
persons had entered the school.[1193] The chief value derived,
according to the committee’s view, was the increased appreciation
aroused among the Whites for the Blacks. They were forced to
realize that the Negro had talents which might be developed as their
own, giving him an insight into greater possibilities which were not
beyond his reach.
The report on the financial status was not so [Sidenote:
hopeful. The fees for the master, for the years Financially the
1779, 1780, and 1781 were eighty, ninety, and one school was no
success]
hundred pounds respectively; in addition, there was
the expense of odd jobs of work, wood for winter [Sidenote:
Payments in
use, and also the item of books.[1194] To increase depreciated
the difficulties arising from mere items of expense, money]
there was introduced another factor, the payment [Sidenote:
to the treasurer of paper money which had greatly Legacies and
depreciated in value since it was subscribed.[1195] subscriptions
used for support]
The result of the experiment, up to date, financially,
was a deficit of £74/7/10. A part of this amount was covered by
outstanding subscriptions, a considerable number of which could not
be collected.[1196] The meeting was appealed to, to make up the
deficit as usual by subscription. This method, though commonly
resorted to, was in most places supplemented by special legacies
left to trustees for any purpose the donor might designate.[1197]
Legacies for schools were particularly urged by the quarterly and
yearly meetings.
In 1784 there seems to have been but one [Sidenote:
school for the Blacks, the one taught by Benezet. Irregular
The report stated that there was a decided need for attendance]
another one in the near future; in 1786 it appears
by answers to the queries that the school has been added and that
both are supported by the voluntary contributions of Friends.[1198]
The attendance problem was evidently not yet solved satisfactorily; it
would perplex a teacher to-day. About one hundred were under the
instruction of Benezet in 1784, but only fifteen to thirty-five generally
attended.[1199] The progress of this number in reading, writing, and
arithmetic was deemed satisfactory, though it was admitted it might
be improved with more regular attendance.
The salary paid Benezet at this time was £100 [Sidenote: Salary
plus the £20 which was allowed as the rent for his paid Benezet]
dwelling, which he continued to use as a school
house.
From 1786 two schools continued. In 1790 the [Sidenote: Two
incumbent of the master’s position was Daniel Britt; Negro schools
the mistress of the other was Sarah Dougherty. The under Daniel Britt,
latter served only to sixth month, 1790, at which Sarah Dougherty,
time she was replaced by Elizabeth Meccum who and Elizabeth
Meccum]
later became the wife of Daniel Britt.[1200] Though
there was a very large enrollment at this time, the [Sidenote: School
receives gift from
actual attendance was between eighteen and thirty England]
in each of the schools.[1201] The instruction
continued as above stated and was recognized on the whole as
satisfactory, its only failure being due to irregular attendance,
occasioned by illiberal masters, who detained the Negroes in their
service. The master’s salary for the year, £100, was double that paid
to the mistress. Finances were generally in a bad state, though they
had been considerably augmented by a generous gift of £175 from
England, and a special donation by William Craig.[1202] In spite of
this, the committee was still indebted to the estate of Anthony
Benezet to the extent of about £100.[1203] These difficulties do not
seem to have been insuperable, however; the regular annual income
(about 1784) was fairly well established, being derived from the
rental of property and grounds.[1204]
Under the direction of Daniel Britt and his wife [Sidenote:
the school continued to progress; most gratifying Regular
was the increase of the regular attendance to about attendance
eighty]
about

eighty, which was as large as could be conveniently

accommodated in the two schools.[1205] The [Sidenote: Elisha
services of Britt and his wife ceased in the period Pickering, master]
from 1795 to 1798, the latter having died and the
former being aged and infirm. The master’s place was taken by
Elisha Pickering, at a salary now grown to £150 per year. That of the
mistress still remained at the mark of former years, £50. The amount
of annual rents had increased to £190/9/11 and besides this there
was an interest from £146/7 which was a part of the bequest of
Anthony Benezet.[1206] The annual expenditures were estimated at
£230, which considerably exceeded the income. It was customary to
require tuition for the children whose masters were “bound by
indenture to give them school learning,” and from this source was
eked out the sum necessary to defray expenses.[1207] There is found
no statement in the committee’s reports to indicate the amount of
tuition usually demanded. The following bill may be of interest,
however, since it shows various items of expenditures of the school
committee.[1208]
Committee of education, to Othneil Alsop, Dr.

1797 9-23. Cash advance to Bustill $ 10.00

9-30. Paid J. Schæffer for 4 benches for North
Liberties School 3.50
24 printed alphabets .27
6 spelling books 1.50
10-2. Paid A. Williams quarter’s salary 25.00
10-28. Advanced Cyrus Bustill 10.00
11-6. Two cords of wood, hauling, etc. 12.35
Total $62.62

From available records it is impossible to give [Sidenote:

more than an elementary knowledge of how the Summer and
school was run. Nothing is found concerning the winter sessions]
inner organization. We can know its purposes, its
means at command for attaining them, and approximately the
number of children it was able to reach. The length of school term is
not quite clear; it seems evident that there were summer and winter
sessions, how long we do not know, and that there was scarcely any
interruption of their continuity. Occurrences which caused an
interruption of the session usually were commented on in the
committee’s reports.[1209] A summary of the report showing the
status of the schools in 1800 is given below.[1210] At that time they
were under the direction of committees of the northern, central, and
southern districts.
1. Benjamin Mears, master at $500 a year; [Sidenote: Status
Elizabeth Meccum, mistress at £50 per year. of Negro schools
in 1800]
2. Schools have been kept open throughout the
year 1798-99 with the exception of twelve weeks on account of
sickness.
 3. The attendance, from seventy to eighty day scholars, winter and
autumn.
4. Some applicants for admission have been refused because of a
lack of room; room enough for all in summer.
5. Finance:

a. Total bequest of Anthony Benezet, plus that which

was owing to him at the time of his death, makes
an income of £193/4
b. Annual amount of donations from other sources £117/5/11
Total £220/9/11
In hands of treasurer £ 8/12/6

For two reasons it has been thought advisable to present as fully

as possible the situation in regard to the Negro’s education in
Philadelphia. First, they were present in Philadelphia in so
considerable numbers that it necessitated a complete organization
on the part of the society if any aid was to be offered; second, the
method of dealing with them was closely followed in other localities,
in case there were sufficient numbers to warrant it. The activity of
other monthly meetings in this question of oversight and education of
the Negro will be touched upon briefly.
As was above suggested, and will be shown [Sidenote: Not
more explicitly hereinafter, there were many of the enough Negroes
country districts where the Negro problem scarcely for a separate
school]
existed.[1211] In many others the number of the
race was so small that a separate school was entirely out of the
question; but more was needed than the mere presence of a White
school, to make certain that they received even the rudiments of an
education. A constant readjustment of the general ideal of attitude
toward them was necessary for each individual community. The
details of information concerning the work of each meeting was
interesting enough, but perhaps it will be more instructive to point out
and illustrate the general characteristics which applied to most, or at
least a large number of them.
 As a general rule, if Negro inhabitants were [Sidenote: Negro
numerous, a committee was delegated to the education usually
delegated to a
service of their care and education.[1212] In some committee]
places this was made a standing committee having
specified duties; in others, the committees were appointed only to
investigate conditions and make a report, so that further action might
be taken by the meeting. It may be well to note the type of this
service which the committees were required to perform. The duties,
performed by the two kinds of committees, were but slightly
differentiated; the chief difference lay in the length of the term of
service.
The first task for them was to actually visit the [Sidenote: Seven
Negro families within the compass of the particular duties for the
committees to
meeting;[1213] the second, to determine as exactly perform]
as possible the economic status of the home;[1214]
the third, to ascertain the number of children capable of receiving
schooling;[1215] fourth, to inform themselves as to the attitude of the
parents towards their children’s education;[1216] fifth, to deal with
members of Friends who possessed slaves or paid servants,
endeavoring to point out to them the obligation for their education,
and also for their freedom;[1217] sixth, to inform themselves as to the
occupation pursued by the Negroes, if any;[1218] and finally, to make
a report of conditions, in such shape that it might be transmitted to
the quarterly meeting, and outline the plan of procedure, according
to the demands of the situation.[1219] From such a range of
information, considering the characteristic thoroughness of the
people, it must be inferred that they were able to understand the
needs, which is always a first requisite for their satisfaction.
Moreover, the knowledge that the quarterly meetings demanded
written statements of what they had done always worked to facilitate
prompt action as soon as the situation was defined. Rather late in
the century, 1779, the yearly meeting became insistent as to the
treatment of those who held slaves, though the punishment for
failure to educate them was not so drastic. Extracts sent to the
meetings in that year required that all members holding slaves
should be disowned.[1220] Instances where this punishment was
used are not wanting.[1221]
The financial burden of Negro education usually [Sidenote:
fell on the local meeting. Those owning slaves Support similar to
were required to pay for their education, but when that of other
schools]
they became free, as most of them did by the time
of the Revolution, it was impossible for them to pay for themselves.
This burden, which the society assumed, was usually met: (1) by
subscription,[1222] (2) by special legacies, and (3) by income from
investments in property. In the smaller localities, the first was the
predominate means; in the larger, such as Philadelphia, a larger
proportion was derived from the second and third,[1223] though the
first was common to all.
The situation at Exeter Monthly Meeting seems [Sidenote: Negro
to have been well disposed of, if one may judge by education at
the brevity of their annals. Writing, 1764, in answer Exeter]
to an inquiry on the part of Philadelphia Quarterly
Meeting, to which they belonged, they report:

But one negro amongst us, who has sufficient food and
raiment, but his religious education is still neglected, which is
now under notice.[1224]

In 1758 they had reported two Negroes only, and with substantially
the same comments.[1225] The report may either mean they had no
problem at the outset, or that they were remarkably successful in
their attempt to solve it.
Radnor Monthly Meeting reported in 1756 that [Sidenote:
they were clear with respect to buying, importing, Radnor]
disposing of, or holding slaves,[1226] and continued [Sidenote: No
substantially the same report until 1768.[1227] They early mention of
were all, according to reports, well fed and clothed their schooling at
Radnor]
and many attended meetings,[1228] but no
statement is made at that early date concerning any attempt to
educate them. From sundry reports after 1768 it seems necessary to
assume that the earlier reports were not entirely accurate in stating
that the meeting was “clear” of slaves. Without this assumption, it is
difficult to understand the great increase in the cases of discipline for
that offense. This increase was doubtless due to a closer scrutiny of
the Negro question than had been formerly customary.
Beginning with 1768, there were several cases [Sidenote: Report
reported of dealing in slaves, either buying, selling, of committee on
slaves]
or holding. First, there was “one slave sold,”[1229]
and two years later the records state “none imported but some
purchased and some sold since last account.”[1230] It was further
admitted (1770) that “nothing has yet been done by us in visiting
those who hold slaves,”[1231] but a few years later (1776) there is
ample evidence cited that they attended to each individual case;
there are several instances where expulsion from the society was
threatened,[1232] and actually carried into execution.[1233] In 1778
the committee on slaves reported: (1) they had visited all members
holding slaves, (2) obtained manumissions from David Harvard for
two slaves, (3) Anthony Tunnis also released a slave, and (4)
mentioned two other cases for consideration—(a) that of John
Harvard, holding one slave though he admits it to be wrong, and (b)
that of Samuel Harvard who refuses to set free a Negro man aged
forty, though he condemns the slaveholding practice.[1234] In 1780
the meeting reported none imported, sold, or purchased, and almost
none held,[1235] and by 1790 even the latter had disappeared.[1236]
There was at this time constant oversight of the [Sidenote: Some
freed Negroes and some of the children were given schooled without
the opportunity of schooling without charge to the charge]

parents.[1237]
Negro slavery flourished early in Bucks County, [Sidenote: Slavery
[1238] and still continued to persist until after the in Bucks County]

abolition in 1780,[1239] which resulted in a gradual

diminution of slavery throughout the state. A little later we shall
notice the distribution of slaves as indicated by the registration which
was required by the law in 1782.[1240]
The presence of Negroes in the compass of [Sidenote: Slaves
Middletown is first made known through the record mentioned at
of 1703 which stated that Robert Heaton and Middletown 1703]
Thomas Stackpole were appointed to fence off a
portion of the ground to bury Negroes in.[1241] The first reference to
their liberation (other than by death) is the case of Jeremiah
Langhorne, who in 1742 freed all of his Negroes, the entire number
being about thirty or forty.[1242] Just how frequently such liberations
occurred and how generally they were participated in by Friends is
not accurately ascertainable from the records, but by the year 1782
just following the stringent abolition act we have the following report:
[Sidenote: No
We have none to charge with buying or slaves held; the
holding slaves, and care is taken to give the children schooled]
young ones learning and some care has been
taken to encourage them in a religious and virtuous life.[1243]

In 1783 a similar report issued from the monthly meeting, stating

that a noteworthy care was evident among them for the Negroes,
both old and young, but that a more considerable care was
necessary to be taken in regard to their education.[1244]
In 1759 Buckingham Meeting appointed John Ely [Sidenote:
and Isaac Pickering to speak with one of their Buckingham]
members who had purchased slaves.[1245] This [Sidenote: Negro
was done because it was a conflict with the to be educated
discipline. The burden of their advice is that he and given
should bring up the young Negroes in useful religious instruction]
learning and Christianity, and later set them free if
they desired it. There is nothing further to indicate [Sidenote: No
the nature of the education, and since there is no evidence of
separate Negro
evidence of a school for them, it was probably in school]
their homes or in connection with the White
schools. No other references are found which point to any progress
until 1778 when the meeting appointed Thomas Watson and Oliver
Paxson to advise and assist the free Negroes in their religious duties
and also in regard to their school education.[1246] This appointment
was made in accordance with the more stringent regulations which
were given out by the quarterly and yearly meetings in 1777.[1247]
These regulations requested only that committee be appointed to
look into the status of the Negroes and seek to better their
conditions, but the one next following, 1779, required those holding
slaves to be disowned.[1248]
The records of Bucks Quarterly Meeting are in [Sidenote: Slave
very substantial agreement with those of the holding debated
individual meetings, Falls, Wrightstown, Middletown in meeting]
and Buckingham, which constituted it.[1249] The
question of the rightfulness of buying or owning slaves seems to
have come first to a conscious consideration about 1730, when it
was debated in the meeting.[1250] They were unable to come to a
decision in the matter and accordingly referred it back to the yearly
meeting.[1251] Though unsuccessful in debating the question
satisfactorily, their practical success seems to have been very
commendable, for in 1766 there is reported only one Negro
purchased lately throughout the quarter.[1252] This does not mean
that no Negroes were held, for as will be shown later there were
many in that region; it does mean, however, that their control of any
increase in slaves was very satisfactory to the yearly meeting’s
demands. By 1772 the record has still been greatly improved, as
they report:

clear of importing or buying negroes as far as appears, but

their religious education is not so strictly attended to as the
import of the query seems to require.[1253]

Though all indications are to the effect that slave purchasing was
near the minimum, the meetings were clearly not satisfied.
Committees were at all times kept by both the quarterly and monthly
meetings,[1254] to visit with those who held slaves to persuade them
to give them their freedom. The committee for this service in the
quarterly meeting reported in 1777:
[Sidenote: Report
We of the committee appointed by the of committee on
quarterly meeting in order to treat with our slaves]
members who hold their fellowmen in bondage,
in connection with the several meetings committees, now
report that there has been considerable time spent in laboring
with them in order to convince them of the evil of the practice,
which labors of love have been by some kindly received, and
they have complied so far as to give those they had in
bondage their liberty by instruments of writing ... but there are
others who still persist in holding them as slaves,
notwithstanding the repeated care and labor of Friends
extended towards them.[1255]

The next report made in the eleventh month of [Sidenote:

the year is substantially the same, several slaves Meetings set up
having been “manumitted or set free,” and, also, for Negroes]
the defiant attitude being still present among some
members.[1256] The similarity of these reports continues till the very
last years of the century, with however a few additions. At some time
prior to 1795, not more than three years, there were established
meetings for Negroes which were held at stated times, always under
the direction of Friends.[1257] In 1799 the quarterly meeting was able
to report “no slaves among us” and that “some care” is extended to
those set free.[1258]
Very early, the meetings were urged to give their [Sidenote: No
attention to the religious and school education of mention made of
separate school]
the negroes that were in their possession,[1259] but
a majority of the reports from meetings are to the [Sidenote: Social
effect that this did not receive satisfactory attention. approval given
[1260] No evidence remains in any records to show those who freed
slaves]
that there was a separate school ever established
for Negroes, and it is quite possible that there never was during the
18th century. The demands transmitted through Bucks Quarterly
were not so strictly enforced in regard to education as in regard to
liberation, and it is more than probable that it was in most cases
determined by the individual conscience than by the group. In regard
to forcing liberation by public opinion, there are many examples
where individuals were singled out and threatened with ejection from
the society if they refused their slaves freedom,[1261] but there are
few references to such action taken for failure to educate them; there
are, however, occasional ones mentioned. Most references to their
education were in the nature of advice, which doubtless was
followed in many cases,[1262] and disregarded in many more.
In spite of the continuous exertions of the [Sidenote:
Friends’ meetings to keep down the number of Registration of
slaves purchased, and to increase the number of 1782 showed
large proportion of
liberations among those already possessed by their slaves in Quaker
members, it appears from an investigation of the townships]
matter made by Davis, that almost one-third of the
total number of slaves in 1782 (Bucks County) were to be found in
the townships Falls, Middletown, Lower and Upper Makefield, Bristol
and Wrightstown, where the Quakers were most numerous.[1263]
The entire number of slaves registered in 1782 was five hundred and
twenty, and this may be regarded as fairly accurate since failure to
register them meant the loss of the slave.[1264] The number
registered in the townships where Baptists and Presbyterians were
settled, Warwick, Warrington, New Britain, Newtown and Bedminster,
was very small, while the German districts registered but thirty-two.
[1265]

The meetings constituting Western Quarterly [Sidenote: Early

Meeting (Chester County), Kennett, London Grove, records of slave
and New Garden have very meagre references to holding meagre]
slaves or slave holding up to about 1770. One of
the monthly meetings, London Grove, was not established until
1792,[1266] and between that date and 1800 made no reports of any
consequence.