GALVANIZING

Galvanizing is one of the most widely used methods for protecting metal from
corrosion. It involves applying a thin coating of zinc to a thicker base metal, helping to
shield it from the surrounding environment. This protective layer of zinc acts as a
barrier, preventing moisture and other corrosive elements from reaching the metal
underneath, thus greatly extending its lifespan. The process is effective and relatively
economical, making it a popular and cost-effective choice across various industries,
from construction to automotive manufacturing.

HOW DOES IT WORK?

Zinc has corrosion-resistant properties and the ability to form a strong, long-lasting
bond with the underlying metal. Using zinc as a galvanizing material allows steel and
iron to withstand harsh environmental conditions without rusting.

Galvanizing can protect metal in several ways. First, it creates a protective coating
that shields the metal from the surrounding environment. The layer of zinc prevents
water, moisture, and other elements in the air from corroding the steel underneath.
Should the zinc coating be scratched deep enough, the metal would become exposed
and susceptible to corrosion.

Galvanizing can also protect metal through a process called “galvanic corrosion”.
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two metals of a different electrochemical makeup are
placed in contact with one another with an electrolyte present, such as salty water.
Depending on the atomic structure of the two metals, one metal is the anode, and the
other is the cathode. The anode corrodes more rapidly than it would by itself, and the
cathode corrodes at a slower pace than it would by itself. Zinc is used for galvanizing
because it has an affinity towards being the anode when in contact with many
different types of metals. Since the zinc coating in contact with the base metal is
usually the anode, it slows the corrosion of the base metal or the cathode.

PROCESS

The most common galvanization method is hot-dip galvanizing, in which parts are
submerged in a bath of molten zinc. There are three fundamental steps in the hot dip
galvanizing process
 1. Surface Preparation – The material moves through three cleaning steps to
prepare the steel to be galvanized.
a) Degreasing is the first step, removing dirt oil and organic residues. The
structure is then rinsed.
b) The second step is a mild acid or pickling bath, removing mill scale, iron
oxide, and etch the steel. Hydrochloric acid is most commonly used for this
purpose, although sulphuric acid is also used. Then rinsed again.
c) The third preparation step is fluxing, removing any remaining oxides and
then coating the steel with a protective layer to prevent any further oxide
formation prior to galvanizing.

2. Galvanizing – Once the structure is clean and dry it is dipped into a bath of
molten zinc. As the material is immersed, the zinc will flow in and around the
entire structure protecting all surfaces. While in the bath, chemical reactions
take place between the zinc and the iron and the steel to form the series of zinc-
iron intermetallic layers and an outer layer of pure zinc.

With proper venting and draining design, the molten zinc covers corners and
welds, seals edges, and penetrates recesses to give complete protection to
areas which are potential corrosion spots with other coating systems. The
galvanized coating is usually slightly thicker at corners and narrow edges, giving
greatly increased protection compared to organic coatings which thin out in
these critical areas. Complex shapes and open vessels may be galvanized inside
and out in one operation.

The period of immersion in the galvanizing bath varies from a few minutes for
relatively light articles, or longer for very heavy structural members.

3. Inspection – Inspection and Quality Assurance is the last step of the

galvanizing process. A visual inspection of each structure ensures proper
coverage and that the item meets the project requirements.
OTHER TYPES OF GALVANIZING
 Pre-galvanizing: It is a method that is found to be quite similar to that of hot
dip galvanizing. However, it is at a steel mill that it gets performed, typically on
materials, which have already a particular shape. This method involves metal
sheet being rolled through a cleaning process, which is similar to hot dip
galvanizing procedure. Then, this metal is passed through pool of liquid hot zinc
to be recoiled. A major benefit derived from this particular method is that steel
sheet in large coils could be galvanized within a short span of time having more
uniform coating, unlike that of hot dip galvanizing. However, the cons are that
after pre-galvanized metal fabrication takes place, the uncoated, exposed areas
become present. It effectively means, when long sheet coil is cut to small sizes,
its edges where metal gets cut remains exposed.

 Electro Galvanizing: This type is said not to make use of molten zinc bath.
Rather, the process uses electrical current within an electrolyte solution for
transferring the zinc ions into base metal. It involves the electrically reducing
zinc ions that are positively charged into zinc metal that gets deposited onto
positively charged material. also can be included grain refiners to ensure steel
getting smooth zinc coating. This method is applied typically to sheet metal roll.
The benefits to be derived from it are precise coating thickness and uniform
coating. But the coating may be thinner than zinc coating that is achieved
through hot dip galvanizing process, thus resulting in diminished corrosion
protection.

ALUMINUM SHEETS & PLATE

S
Mining
The first step in the process of making aluminum sheets is mining. Aluminum is
abundant in the earth’s crust, but it is typically combined with other elements such as
oxygen, silicon, and bauxite. Bauxite, which is the raw material where aluminum
comes from, is in clay-like type soil. This is usually found only a few meters
underneath the ground and is most abundant around the equator.

Bauxite (Aluminum Ore)

Refining
Once the bauxite is mined, it is washed off of any clay sticking to it then ground up
and prepared for the extraction of aluminum oxide, or alumina. In order to extract the
alumina from the crushed bauxite, a process that involves a mixture of hot caustic
soda and lime is used. The result of the heating of the crushed bauxite and the
purification of the resulting crystals is the alumina needed for the creation of
aluminum metal.

Smelting
The next step in the process is smelting. In smelting, the refined aluminum is placed
in a furnace and heated to over 1,000 degrees Celsius. This high temperature causes
the aluminum to liquefy and allows impurities to be removed.

Casting
The next step in this process is the creation of the aluminum metal. This is done with
the help of carbon and electricity. In a process called electrolysis, using negative and
positive cathodes made of carbon, the alumina is then converted to a liquid state with
the creation of CO2. This liquid aluminum is then poured into different forms that
produce sheet ingots or slabs, which are then used to create aluminum plates and
sheets.

Hot Rolling:

After casting, the aluminum undergoes hot rolling. Hot rolling involves passing the
aluminum through a series of rolling mills at high temperatures. The purpose of hot
rolling is to reduce the thickness and refine the grain structure of the aluminum.

The hot rolling process consists of multiple passes through the rolling mills, with the
thickness progressively reduced at each pass. The aluminum is heated to a
temperature suitable for hot rolling, typically above 300°C (572°F), to ensure it
remains ductile during the process.

Hot rolling significantly elongates the aluminum and improves its mechanical
properties. It also enhances the sheet/plate's surface finish and eliminates defects
from the casting process.

Cold Rolling:

After hot rolling, the aluminum sheet/plate undergoes cold rolling. Cold rolling
involves passing the sheet/plate through a series of rolling mills at room temperature.
Cold rolling further reduces the thickness, refines the microstructure, and imparts
desired mechanical properties to the aluminum.

Cold rolling can be performed in multiple passes, with each pass reducing the
thickness by a smaller amount compared to hot rolling. The aluminum sheet/plate is
typically annealed intermittently during cold rolling to relieve internal stresses and
enhance workability.

Cold rolling results in a smoother and more uniform surface finish, increased strength
and hardness, and improved dimensional accuracy of the sheet/plate.

Heat Treatment:
Heat treatment is often applied to aluminum sheet/plates to modify their mechanical
properties. Common heat treatment processes for aluminum include solution heat
treatment and precipitation hardening.

Solution Heat Treatment: The sheet/plate is heated to a specific temperature and held
for a certain time to dissolve the alloying elements uniformly. This improves the
alloy's workability and prepares it for subsequent aging or precipitation hardening.

Precipitation Hardening: After solution heat treatment, the sheet/plate is rapidly

cooled to room temperature and then artificially aged at a controlled temperature.
This process allows the alloying elements to precipitate and form fine particles,
resulting in improved strength and hardness.

The specific heat treatment process and parameters depend on the aluminum alloy
composition and desired properties.

Finishing Operations:

After the primary manufacturing processes, the aluminum sheet may undergo several
finishing operations:

1. Trimming and Cutting: The sheet/plate is trimmed or cut to achieve the desired
dimensions and remove any excess material.
2. Surface Treatment: Surface treatments like grinding, polishing, or shot blasting
can be applied to improve the sheet/plate's surface finish and remove any
surface defects.
3. Surface Coating: Aluminum sheet/plates may be coated or anodized for
protection against corrosion or to enhance their aesthetic appearance.
4. Inspection and Quality Control: The finished sheet/plates undergo rigorous
inspection to ensure they meet the required specifications and quality
standards.
5. Packaging and Shipping: The sheet/plates are then properly packaged for
protection and shipped to customers or further downstream processes.

PSI
Pounds per square inch (PSI) is the pressure that results when a 1-pound force is
applied to a unit area of 1 square inch. It is the measurement of pressure used in the
imperial unit system of measurement.

PSI is commonly used to measure the pressure of gases, known as pneumatic

pressure, or liquids, also called hydraulic pressure. PSI is also used as a measure of
tensile strength, defined as resistance to pulling forces, and elastic modulus strength,
defined as resistance to deformation, which controls the stiffness of materials

ELABORATION AND CONTEXT

PSI is widely used in multiple fields such as material testing, fluid dynamics, and
automotive engineering. It helps to evaluate the performance and safety of
equipment and materials under specific pressure conditions. PSI is crucial in
determining the strength and durability of materials, especially when assessing their
ability to withstand pressure without deformation or failure.

EXAMPLES

Tire Pressure:
The pressure in car tires is often measured in PSI. For example, a typical passenger
car tire might have a recommended pressure of 30-35 PSI. This means each square
inch of the tire’s surface experiences 30-35 pounds of force.

Concrete Strength:
The compressive strength of concrete is expressed in PSI. A standard concrete mix
might have a strength rating of 3,000 PSI, which indicates the maximum compressive
load it can handle before failing.

Hydraulic Systems:
Hydraulic equipment, like excavators or car lifts, operates under high pressure. A
typical hydraulic system might function at 1,500-3,000 PSI. This pressure allows
hydraulic machinery to lift or move heavy loads efficiently.

Water Pressure:
The water pressure in household plumbing is often measured in PSI. A typical home
may have water pressure between 40-60 PSI, ensuring a sufficient flow for showers,
faucets, and appliances.

TYPES OF LOADS/STRESS IN RELATION TO

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
 Types of Loads/ Stress

 Dead Loads (DL): These are permanent or stationary loads that are relatively
constant over time. They consist of the weight of the structure itself and other
fixed building elements like walls, roofs, beams, and columns. Dead loads are
essential in the design as they provide a base for calculating other load effects

 Live Loads (LL): These are temporary or movable loads that can vary over
time. Live loads include the weight of people, furniture, and movable
equipment. They are significant in the design of floors and horizontal structures,
as they impact the bending and shear forces on beams and slabs

 Wind Loads: Wind loads are horizontal forces caused by wind pressure on
buildings and other structures. They are especially critical for tall buildings and
exposed structures. Wind loads can induce bending and lateral displacement in
columns and beams, and they must be considered to prevent overturning or
structural failure

 Earthquake Loads: These loads arise from ground motion during seismic
events. Earthquake loads cause horizontal and vertical forces, leading to shear
and torsional stress in columns and beams. Special design considerations like
base isolation or damping are used to counteract these forces

 Snow and Rain Loads: These environmental loads are considered for roofs
and horizontal surfaces. The accumulation of snow or water can increase the
weight on structural elements, affecting both bending moments and shear
forces
  Cyclic and Fatigue Loads: Cyclic loads, such as repeated traffic on bridges,
can cause fatigue in structural components. These loads lead to cumulative
damage and may eventually cause failure if not properly accounted for

 Load Combinations: In practice, multiple loads often act simultaneously on a

structure. Engineers use "load combinations" with specific safety factors to
ensure the structure can withstand various loading scenarios, such as dead load
plus live load, or wind load combined with earthquake load

Impact on Structural Elements

Footings: Footings transfer loads from the structure to the soil. They must be
designed to handle dead and live loads from columns, as well as horizontal forces like
wind or seismic loads.

Beams: Beams primarily resist bending forces. They are subjected to dead and live
loads and may also experience wind and earthquake forces, depending on their
orientation and position.

Columns: Columns support vertical loads and are critical in resisting axial stress.
They also need to be designed to withstand horizontal forces, which can cause
buckling or torsional stress.

Trusses: Trusses distribute loads evenly and resist bending. They are commonly used
in roofs and bridges, where they can efficiently handle both live and environmental
loads.

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