Atomic Structure

Updated for the New

A’ Level Chemistry
Periodic Table
 What do I
need to know
about atomic
structure?
Atomic Structure – Knowledge and Skills

Atomic structure
(a) State the relative charges and approximate relative masses of a
proton, a neutron and an electron.
(b) Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of an atom as
containing protons and neutrons (nucleons) in the nucleus and
electrons arranged in shells (energy levels). A copy of the
Periodic Table will be given in all examinations.
(c) Define proton (atomic) number and nucleon (mass) number.
(d) Interpret and use symbols such as 126C.
(e) Define the term isotope.
(f) Deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in
atoms and ions given proton and nucleon numbers.

• Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board

• University of Cambridge International Examinations
• Ministry of Education, Singapore
What is special
about the new
A’ Level
Chemistry
Periodic Table?
 O’ Level Periodic Table of the
Chemical Elements
• The Groups are numbered in
Roman numerals from I to VII and 0.

• The relative atomic masses are almost all

whole numbers.

• The relative atomic mass is written above

the symbol of the chemical element, while
the atomic number is written below the
symbol of the chemical element.
New A’ Level Periodic Table of
the Chemical Elements
• The Groups are numbered in
Arabic numerals from 1 to 18.

• The relative atomic masses are all written

to one decimal place.

• The atomic number is written above the

symbol of the chemical element, while the
relative atomic mass is written below the
symbol of the chemical element.
 What is the
modern theory
of atomic
structure?
Introduction to Atomic Structure
Introduction to Atomic Structure

• An atom is the smallest part of a

chemical element that demonstrates
all of the typical chemical properties
of that element.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure

The atom is composed of a small, dense nucleus that contains

protons and neutrons.
• Relative mass of a proton = 1 a.m.u.*
• Relative mass of a neutron = 1 a.m.u.*
• Relative charge on a proton = +1.
• Relative charge on a neutron = 0.
*a.m.u. is an abbreviation for atomic mass unit.
Introduction to Atomic Structure

Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels called

electron shells. The outermost electron shell is called the
valence shell.
• Relative mass of an electron = 1 / 1836 a.m.u.
• Relative charge on an electron = –1.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure

• The inner electron shell can hold a maximum number of 2 electrons.

• The second electron shell can hold a maximum number of 8 electrons.
• The third electron shell can hold a maximum number of 8 electrons.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure

• Atoms are electrically neutral because the number of electrons (which

carry a charge of –1) orbiting the nucleus equals the number of protons
(which carry a charge of +1) located in the nucleus.
Introduction to Atomic Structure
Introduction to Atomic Structure
Introduction to Atomic Structure

Particle’s Particle’s
Particle’s
Particle Location in Relative
Charge
the Atom Mass

Proton

Neutron

Electron
Introduction to Atomic Structure

Particle’s Particle’s
Particle’s
Particle Location in Relative
Charge
the Atom Mass

Proton Nucleus

Neutron Nucleus

Orbits the
Electron
Nucleus
Introduction to Atomic Structure

Particle’s Particle’s
Particle’s
Particle Location in Relative
Charge
the Atom Mass

Proton Nucleus +1

Neutron Nucleus 0

Orbits the
Electron –1
Nucleus
Introduction to Atomic Structure

Particle’s Particle’s
Particle’s
Particle Location in Relative
Charge
the Atom Mass

Proton Nucleus +1 1 a.m.u.*

Neutron Nucleus 0 1 a.m.u.*

Orbits the
Electron –1 1/
1836 a.m.u.*
Nucleus

*a.m.u. is an abbreviation for atomic mass unit.

Introduction to Atomic Structure
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
• Mass (Nucleon) Number
number of protons + neutrons

7 • Symbol of
Nuclide
Notation
3
Li  the element
Li = lithium

• Atomic (Proton) Number

number of protons
• number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
number of neutrons = 7 – 3 = 4
• number of electrons = number of protons = atomic number
number of electrons = 3
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
• Mass (Nucleon) Number
number of protons + neutrons


19 • Symbol of
Nuclide
Notation
9 
F  the element
F = fluorine

• Atomic (Proton) Number

number of protons
• number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
number of neutrons = 19 – 9 = 10
• number of electrons = number of protons = atomic number
number of electrons = 9
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
• Mass (Nucleon) Number
number of protons + neutrons


23 • Symbol of
Nuclide
Notation
11 
Na  the element
Na = sodium

• Atomic (Proton) Number

number of protons
• number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
number of neutrons = 23 – 11 = 12
• number of electrons = number of protons = atomic number
number of electrons = 11
 How is atomic
structure
related to an
element’s
position in the
Periodic Table?
 1
Hydrogen 1 H Atomic Number 1

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 1

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 1
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 1
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (1) = 1
• The electron configuration of hydrogen = 1
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (1) + number of neutrons (0) = 1
 4
Helium 2 He Atomic Number 2

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 2

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 2
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 1
• The number of electrons in the valence shell of helium = 2 (complete)
• The electron configuration of helium = 2
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (2) + number of neutrons (2) = 4
 7
Lithium 3 Li Atomic Number 3

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 3

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 3
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 2
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (1) = 1
• The electron configuration of lithium = 2,1
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (3) + number of neutrons (4) = 7
 9
Beryllium 4 Be Atomic Number 4

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 4

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 4
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 2
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (2) = 2
• The electron configuration of beryllium = 2,2
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (4) + number of neutrons (5) = 9
 11
Boron 5 B Atomic Number 5

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 5

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 5
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 2
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (13) = 3
• The electron configuration of boron = 2,3
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (5) + number of neutrons (6) = 11
 12
Carbon 6 C Atomic Number 6

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 6

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 6
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 2
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (14) = 4
• The electron configuration of carbon = 2,4
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (6) + number of neutrons (6) = 12
 14
Nitrogen 7 N Atomic Number 7

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 7

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 7
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 2
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (15) = 5
• The electron configuration of nitrogen = 2,5
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (7) + number of neutrons (7) = 14
 16
Oxygen 8 O Atomic Number 8

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 8

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 8
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 2
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (16) = 6
• The electron configuration of oxygen = 2,6
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (8) + number of neutrons (8) = 16
 19
Fluorine 9 F Atomic Number 9

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 9

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 9
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 2
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (17) = 7
• The electron configuration of fluorine = 2,7
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (9) + number of neutrons (10) = 19
 20
Neon 10 Ne Atomic Number 10

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 10

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 10
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 2
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (18) = 8 (complete)
• The electron configuration of neon = 2,8
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (10) + number of neutrons (10) = 20
 23
Sodium 11 Na Atomic Number 11

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 11

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 11
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 3
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (1) = 1
• The electron configuration of sodium = 2,8,1
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (11) + number of neutrons (12) = 23
 24
Magnesium 12 Mg Atomic Number 12

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 12

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 12
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 3
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (2) = 2
• The electron configuration of magnesium = 2,8,2
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (12) + number of neutrons (12) = 24
 27
Aluminium 13 Al Atomic Number 13

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 13

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 13
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 3
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (13) = 3
• The electron configuration of aluminium = 2,8,3
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (13) + number of neutrons (14) = 27
 28
Silicon 14 Si Atomic Number 14

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 14

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 14
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 3
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (14) = 4
• The electron configuration of silicon = 2,8,4
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (14) + number of neutrons (14) = 28
 31
Phosphorus 15 P Atomic Number 15

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 15

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 15
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 3
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (15) = 5
• The electron configuration of phosphorus = 2,8,5
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (15) + number of neutrons (16) = 31
 32
Sulfur 16 S Atomic Number 16

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 16

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 16
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 3
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (16) = 6
• The electron configuration of sulfur = 2,8,6
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (16) + number of neutrons (16) = 32
 35
Chlorine 17 Cl Atomic Number 17

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 17

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 17
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 3
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (17) = 7
• The electron configuration of chlorine = 2,8,7
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (17) + number of neutrons (18) = 35
 40
Argon 18 Ar Atomic Number 18

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 18

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 18
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 3
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (18) = 8 (complete)
• The electron configuration of argon = 2,8,8
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (18) + number of neutrons (22) = 40
 39
Potassium 19 K Atomic Number 19

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 19

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 19
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 4
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (1) = 1
• The electron configuration of potassium = 2,8,8,1
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (19) + number of neutrons (20) = 39
 40
Calcium 20 Ca Atomic Number 20

• The Atomic Number equals the number of protons = 20

• For a neutral atom, the number electrons equals the number of protons = 20
• The number of electron shell equals the Period number = 4
• The number of valence electrons can be derived from the Group number (2) = 2
• The electron configuration of calcium = 2,8,8,2
• The Mass Number equals number of protons (20) + number of neutrons (20) = 40
 So the number
of protons in
the nucleus of
the atom
defines which
chemical
element the
atom belongs to!
What evidence
is there to
support this
model of atomic
structure?
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

• Energy is required to remove an electron from an atom.

The energy is used to overcome the electrostatic force of
attraction between the negatively charged electron and
positively charged nucleus.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

• If all of the electrons are removed from a single atom of

phosphorus, one after the other, and the energy required
to remove each electron is plotted on a graph, we obtain
the result shown above.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

1st Ionisation: P(g) → P+(g) + e–

2nd Ionisation: P+(g) → P2+(g) + e–
3rd Ionisation: P2+(g) → P3+(g) + e–
4th Ionisation: P3+(g) → P4+(g) + e–
…and so on…
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

• The graph is not linear, but can be divided into three

distinct regions, which reflect the three electron shells:
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

(a)

• The graph is not linear, but can be divided into three

distinct regions, which reflect the three electron shells:
(a) Removal of the five electrons in the valence shell.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

(b)

(a)

• The graph is not linear, but can be divided into three

distinct regions, which reflect the three electron shells:
(a) Removal of the five electrons in the valence shell.
(b) Removal of the eight electrons in the second shell.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

(c)

(b)

(a)

• The graph is not linear, but can be divided into three

distinct regions, which reflect the three electron shells:
(a) Removal of the five electrons in the valence shell.
(b) Removal of the eight electrons in the second shell.
(c) Removal of the two electrons in the inner shell.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

(a)

(a) The five electrons in the valence shell are furthest

from the nucleus, and so the electrostatic force of
attraction between the nucleus and negatively charged
electrons is weakest. A relatively small amount of energy
is required to remove the five valence electrons.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

(b)

(b) There is a significant increase in energy between (a)

and (b) as electrons are now being removed from the
second electron shell which is closer to the nucleus,
hence electrostatic forces of attraction are stronger, and
need more energy to overcome.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

(c)

(c) There is a substantial increase in energy between (b)

and (c) as electrons are now being removed from the
innermost electron shell which is closest to the nucleus,
hence electrostatic forces of attraction are very strong,
and need the most energy to overcome.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

Note: The energy required to remove electrons from the same

electron shell gradually increases. This is because the
phosphorus ion is steadily becoming more positively charged,
hence more energy is required to overcome the stronger
electrostatic force of attraction between the negatively
charged electron and increasingly positive phosphorus ion.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies

Increasing 7th Ionisation: P6+(g) → P7+(g) + e– Increasing

amount of 8th Ionisation: P7+(g) → P8+(g) + e– electrostatic
positive force of
charge on 9th Ionisation: P8+(g) → P9+(g) + e– attraction
phosphorus 10th Ionisation: P9+(g) → P10+(g) + e– between
Ion. …and so on… e– and ion.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
Evidence of Atomic Structure – Successive Ionisation Energies
 Can I tell
whether an
atom belongs to
a metallic or a
non-metallic
element from
its electron
configuration?
 Introduction to Atomic Structure

• Atoms of metallic elements tend to have only

one, two or three electrons in their valence shell.
• Atoms of non-metallic elements tend to have
four, five, six, seven or eight electrons in their
valence shell.
• Note: This is only a general rule and there are
some exceptions.
 Is there
anything special
about atoms
that have a
complete
valence shell?
 Introduction to Atomic Structure
• Helium (He), neon (Ne) and argon (Ar) are noble gases
in Group 18 of the Periodic Table. Their atoms all have a
complete or full valence shell which is referred to as the
noble gas electron configuration.

• Chemical elements whose atoms have noble gas electron

configurations are very stable and very unreactive, and are
often described as being chemically inert.
Introduction to Atomic Structure

• USS Macon flying over New York harbour ca. 1933.

 Introduction to Atomic Structure

• Historically, airships were filled with hydrogen

gas. Although hydrogen is less dense than air, it
is also highly flammable.
 Introduction to Atomic Structure

• The Hindenburg disaster – New York – 6 th May 1937.

 Introduction to Atomic Structure

• There were many disasters when airships filled

with hydrogen gas caught fire. The highly
flammable hydrogen burned very quickly and the
entire airship was engulfed in flames in a matter
of seconds.

hydrogen + oxygen → water

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

Introduction to Atomic Structure
 Introduction to Atomic Structure

• Modern airships are filled with helium gas.

Helium is less dense than air and is also
completely unreactive (inert) making it a perfect
choice to fill airships with.
 Can atoms of
the same
chemical
element have a
different
number of
neutrons?
 Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same chemical element with
the same Atomic Number (the same number of protons)
but a different Mass Number (a different number of
neutrons).

• Because they have identical electron configurations,

isotopes will have the same chemical properties, i.e. they
will react in the same way.

• Because they have different mass numbers, isotopes

will have different physical properties, e.g. different
densities, different melting points and different rates of
diffusion.
Isotopes
 Isotopes

Isotope of Number of Number of Number of

Carbon Protons Electrons Neutrons

12
6 C
13
6 C
14
6 C
 Isotopes

Isotope of Number of Number of Number of

Carbon Protons Electrons Neutrons

12
6 C 6
13
6 C 6
14
6 C 6
 Isotopes

Isotope of Number of Number of Number of

Carbon Protons Electrons Neutrons

12
6 C 6 6
13
6 C 6 6
14
6 C 6 6
 Isotopes

Isotope of Number of Number of Number of

Carbon Protons Electrons Neutrons

12 12 – 6 =
6 C 6 6 6
13 13 – 6 =
6 C 6 6 7
14 14 – 6 =
6 C 6 6 8
 Why does
chlorine have a
Mass Number of
35.5? Is there
such a thing as
0.5 of a proton
or neutron?
 Isotopes
• Naturally occurring chlorine has two common isotopes,
35 Cl and 37 Cl.
17 17

• 3517Cl contains 17 protons and 35 – 17 = 18 neutrons

while 3717Cl contains 17 protons and 37 – 17 = 20
neutrons.
• The two isotopes of chlorine do not occur in equal
quantities. 75% is 3517Cl and 25% is 3717Cl.
• This means that if 100 atoms of chlorine were sampled
at random, 75 would be 3517Cl and 25 would be 3717Cl.
• The mass of 100 chlorine atoms would therefore be:
(75  35) + (25  37) = 3550.
• The average mass of a single chlorine atom would
therefore be 3550  100 = 35.5 (3 s.f.).
 So chlorine’s
Mass Number of
35.5 is simply
the average
mass of its two
main isotopes!

• The average mass of

the isotopes of a
chemical element is
correctly known as the
relative atomic mass.
 Isotopes
Definition of Relative Atomic Mass
• Relative atomic mass is the average mass of the
isotopes of a chemical element compared to 1/12th the
mass of a single atom of 126C.
• Because it is a ratio, relative atomic mass is
dimensionless i.e. it does not have any units.
• The 126C isotope has a mass of exactly 12.000.
Therefore, 1/12th the mass of a single atom of 126C is
exactly 1.000. This is known as the atomic mass unit.
• Note: The 11H isotope is not used as the reference
used to define relative atomic mass because it actually
has as mass of 1.008 and not 1.000!
 Isotopes
Question: There are two naturally occurring isotopes of
copper, 6329Cu and 6529Cu.

69.2% of naturally occurring copper is 6329Cu.

30.8% of naturally occurring copper is 6529Cu.

Using this information, calculate the relative atomic mass

of copper.
 Isotopes
Question: There are two naturally occurring isotopes of
copper, 6329Cu and 6529Cu.

69.2% of naturally occurring copper is 6329Cu.

30.8% of naturally occurring copper is 6529Cu.

Using this information, calculate the relative atomic mass

of copper.
• Mass of 100 copper atoms = (69.2  63) + (30.8  65).
• Mass of 100 copper atoms = 6361.6.
• Average mass of 1 copper atom = 6361.6  100.
• Average mass of 1 copper atom = 63.6 (3 s.f.).
Isotopes
Question:
A sample of
naturally occurring
magnesium was
analysed using a
mass spectrometer.
The results
obtained from the
machine are
shown. Briefly
interpret the results.
Isotopes
Question:
A sample of
naturally occurring
magnesium was
analysed using a
mass spectrometer.
The results
obtained from the
machine are
shown. Briefly
interpret the results.
24
12Mg
= 78.6%
25 Mg = 10.1%
12
26 Mg = 11.3%
12
 Isotopes
Question: There are three naturally occurring isotopes
of magnesium, 2412Mg, 2512Mg and 2612Mg.

78.6% of naturally occurring magnesium is 2412Mg.

10.1% of naturally occurring magnesium is 2512Mg.
11.3% of naturally occurring magnesium is 2612Mg.

Using this information, calculate the relative atomic mass

of magnesium.
 Isotopes
Question: There are three naturally occurring isotopes
of magnesium, 2412Mg, 2512Mg and 2612Mg.

78.6% of naturally occurring magnesium is 2412Mg.

10.1% of naturally occurring magnesium is 2512Mg.
11.3% of naturally occurring magnesium is 2612Mg.

Using this information, calculate the relative atomic mass

of magnesium.
• Mass of 100 Mg atoms = (78.6  24) + (10.1  25) + (11.3  26).
• Mass of 100 Mg atoms = 2432.7.
• Average mass of 1 Mg atom = 2432.7  100.
• Average mass of 1 Mg atom = 24.3 (3 s.f.).
 Why do atoms
react?
How do atoms
react?

• Atoms of the different

chemical elements react
in order to obtain the
stable electron
configuration of a noble
gas (Group 18).
 Ions – Anions and Cations

Sodium
Atom

• Atoms of metallic elements lose their valence

electron(s) in order obtain the stable electron
configuration of a noble gas.
• If a neutral sodium atom with 11 protons and
11 electrons loses its single valence electron…
 Ions – Anions and Cations

Sodium
Ion

…the resulting particle will have 11 protons and

10 electrons. Adding up the charges on all of the protons
and all of the electrons [(+11) + (-10)] results in an overall
charge on the particle of +1. The particle is described as
a cation or positive ion.
 Ions – Anions and Cations

Magnesium
Atom

• Atoms of metallic elements lose their valence

electron(s) in order obtain the stable electron
configuration of a noble gas.
• If a neutral magnesium atom with 12 protons and
12 electrons loses its two valence electrons…
 Ions – Anions and Cations

Magnesium
Ion

…the resulting particle will have 12 protons and

10 electrons. Adding up the charges on all of the protons
and all of the electrons [(+12) + (-10)] results in an overall
charge on the particle of +2. The particle is described as
a cation or positive ion.
 Ions – Anions and Cations

Chlorine
Atom

• Atoms of non-metallic elements gain electrons in order to

obtain the stable electron configuration of a noble gas.
• If a neutral chlorine atom with 17 protons and
17 electrons were to gain a single electron…
 Ions – Anions and Cations

Chloride
Ion

…the resulting particle will have 17 protons and

18 electrons. Adding up the charges on all of the protons
and all of the electrons [(+17) + (-18)] results in an overall
charge on the particle of -1. The particle is described as
an anion or negative ion.
 Ions – Anions and Cations

Oxygen
Atom

• Atoms of non-metallic elements gain electrons in order to

obtain the stable electron configuration of a noble gas.
• If a neutral oxygen atom with 8 protons and
8 electrons were to gain two electrons…
 Ions – Anions and Cations

Oxide
Ion

…the resulting particle will have 8 protons and

10 electrons. Adding up the charges on all of the protons
and all of the electrons [(+8) + (-10)] results in an overall
charge on the particle of -2. The particle is described as
an anion or negative ion.
 Simple Covalent Molecules

Two fluorine atoms – 2  F

• Atoms of two or more non-metallic elements can also

obtain the stable electron configuration of a noble gas by
sharing electrons.
 Simple Covalent Molecules

A single molecule of fluorine – F2

• A pair of electrons shared between two atoms is
referred to as a covalent bond.

• A small number of atoms of non-metallic elements that

are held together by covalent bonds is referred to as a
simple covalent molecule.
What are the
more advanced
theories of
atomic
structure?
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• Richard Feynman,
1918 – 1988.
Winner of the 1965
Nobel Prize in Physics.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• The modern scientific understanding of atomic structure
– in which electrons are assumed to behave like waves,
and orbit the nucleus of the atom in atomic orbitals – is
based on quantum mechanics.
• Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics that deals
with mathematical descriptions of how subatomic
particles behave and interact.
• Richard Feynman introduced volume III of The
Feynman Lectures on Physics with the words: “I think I
can safely say that nobody understands quantum
mechanics”.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Fortunately, following the rules of quantum mechanics
is far simpler than trying to visualise what they actually
mean. The ability to follow through the consequences of
a particular set of assumptions carefully, without getting
too hung up on the philosophical implications, is one of
the most important skills a scientist can learn.

• When deriving theories related to quantum mechanics,

scientists set out their initial assumptions and compute
their consequences. If they arrive at a set of predictions
that agree with their observations of the natural world
around them, then they accept the theory as good.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Many problems in quantum mechanics are far too
difficult to solve in a single mental leap, and deep
understanding rarely emerges in eureka moments.
• The trick is for scientists to make sure that they
understand each little step and, after a sufficient number
of steps, the bigger picture starts to emerge. If this is not
the case, then the scientists need to go back to the
drawing board and start to derive a new theory.

• This is true for a scientific understanding of the atomic

orbital structure of the atom. It should be attempted one
step at-a-time until the big picture of how electrons orbit
the nucleus of the atom starts to emerge.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• Schrödinger
and Dirac
mathematically
treated electrons
as waves instead
of particles and
formulated
Schrödinger’s
Wave Equation.

Erwin Schrödinger Paul Dirac

1887 – 1961 1902 – 1984
Awarded the Nobel Prize for Awarded the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1933. Physics in 1933.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Schrödinger’s Wave Equation
• In 1924, Louis de Broglie made the bold suggestion
that electrons may have the properties of waves as well
as the properties of particles.
• Schrödinger and Dirac mathematically treated electrons
as waves instead of particles and formulated
Schrödinger’s Wave Equation.

2  2  2  8m2
+ + + (E – V) = 0
x2 y2 z2 h2
• Graphical solutions for this complex equation give rise
to atomic orbitals.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Atomic Orbitals
• An atomic orbital is the volume of space around the
nucleus of an atom in which there is a high probability
(95%) of finding an electron.
• An atomic orbital can hold a maximum number of two
electrons.

• The location of an electron in an atom (i.e. which

atomic orbital it belongs to) is given by four electron
quantum numbers.
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons
in the same atom can have the same set of electron
quantum numbers.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• In simple terms, the four electron quantum numbers are:
→ First (n): Principle quantum number – the principle
quantum shell that the electron occupies.
→ Second (l): The sub-shell within the quantum shell that
the electron occupies, e.g. s-orbitals, p-orbitals or d-orbitals.
→ Third (m): The orbital within the sub-shell that the
electron occupies, e.g. p-orbitals are always arranged in
groups of three, so if an electron occupies a p-orbital,
this electron quantum number states exactly which one,
the px-orbital, the py-orbital or the pz-orbital.
→ Fourth (s): For two electrons to occupy exactly the
same orbital, they must have opposite spin. This electron
quantum number states whether the electron has a spin
of +1/2 or –1/2.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• Different numerical values for the various

electron quantum numbers give rise to
orbitals with different shapes and different
properties.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• A graphical solution to
Schrödinger’s Wave Equation – s-orbitals.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• A graphical solution to Schrödinger’s Wave Equation –

s-orbitals.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• A graphical solution to Schrödinger’s Wave Equation –

p-orbitals. The orbitals have been drawn separately for
clarity. In reality, it is assumed that the three p-orbitals
are superimposed on top of each other.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• A graphical solution to Schrödinger’s Wave Equation –

d-orbitals. The orbitals have been drawn separately for
clarity. In reality, it is assumed that the five d-orbitals are
superimposed on top of each other.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Shapes and Occurrence of Atomic Orbitals

• Diagram showing the various orbitals that arise from different

values of the electron quantum numbers n, l and m.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• Diagram showing the energy levels of the various orbitals.

Note: Orbitals fill from the lowest energy to the highest energy.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• Diagram showing the order in which atomic orbitals fill-up

with electrons.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Rules for Filling Atomic Orbitals
• Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle – It is not
possible to determine both the position and the
momentum of an electron at the same time. This
gives rise to the idea that an electron’s position in
an atom is uncertain, and therefore scientists can
only identify where there is the highest probability
of finding an electron – which is how the atomic
orbital is defined.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Rules for Filling Atomic Orbitals
• The Aufbau Principle – Electrons fill-up atomic
orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. Left undisturbed, objects will tend to their
lowest possible energy.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

→ Low Energy →

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

        

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Rules for Filling Atomic Orbitals
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle – No two electrons
within the same atom can have the same four
quantum numbers. Every electron in the same atom
must have a unique combination of quantum
numbers. Electrons in the same orbital must spin in
opposite directions. In atomic orbital diagrams, the
spin quantum number is represented by an arrow
( or ). Two arrows pointing in opposite directions
represent two electrons with opposite spin ( and ).
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

→ Low Energy →
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Rules for Filling Atomic Orbitals
• Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity – When
placed in atomic orbitals of equal energy, electrons
will remain unpaired. Electrons carry a charge of
–1. There will be an electrostatic force of repulsion
between electrons in the same orbital. Placing
electrons in different atomic orbitals of the same
energy will reduce the electrostatic force of
repulsion between the electrons and make the
system more stable.
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

        

→ Low Energy →
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Shapes and Occurrence of Atomic Orbitals
• Each principle quantum shell is divided into one or
more sub-shells.

Maximum
Principle
Sub-shell (l) Number of
Quantum Shell (n)
Electrons
1 1s 2
2 2s, 2p 8
3 3s, 3p, 3d 18
4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f 32
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Shapes and Occurrence of Atomic Orbitals
• There are four sub-shells, arranged in increasing
energy s → p → d → f. Each sub-shell holds a different
number of electrons
Maximum
Principle
Sub-shell (l) Number of
Quantum Shell (n)
Electrons
1 1s 2
2 2s, 2p 8
3 3s, 3p, 3d 18
4 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f 32
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Shapes and Occurrence of Atomic Orbitals

Orbital Shape Occurrence

1 in every
s (sharp) spherical
principle level
dumb-bell or 3 in every level
p (principle) hour glass from 2 onwards
complex and 5 in every level
d (diffuse) various from 3 onwards
complex and 7 in every level
f (fundamental) various from 4 onwards
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 1
• Name: Hydrogen
• Symbol: H
• Electron Configuration: 1s1 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 2
• Name: Helium
• Symbol: He
• Electron Configuration: 1s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s



→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 3
• Name: Lithium
• Symbol: Li
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s1 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

 

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 4
• Name: Beryllium
• Symbol: Be
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

 

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 5
• Name: Boron
• Symbol: B
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p1 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

  

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 6
• Name: Carbon
• Symbol: C
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

   

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 7
• Name: Nitrogen
• Symbol: N
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p3 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 8
• Name: Oxygen
• Symbol: O
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p4 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 9
• Name: Fluorine
• Symbol: F
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p5 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 10
• Name: Neon
• Symbol: Ne
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p6 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 11
• Name: Sodium
• Symbol: Na
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s1 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

     

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 12
• Name: Magnesium
• Symbol: Mg
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

     

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 13
• Name: Aluminium
• Symbol: Al
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p1 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

      

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 14
• Name: Silicon
• Symbol: Si
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

       

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 15
• Name: Phosphorus
• Symbol: P
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p3 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

        

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 16
• Name: Sulfur
• Symbol: S
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p4 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

        

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 17
• Name: Chlorine
• Symbol: Cl
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p5 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

        

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 18
• Name: Argon
• Symbol: Ar
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p6 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

        

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 19
• Name: Potassium
• Symbol: K
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

         

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Why is the electron configuration of potassium…
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

         

…instead of…
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

         

• Although the 4s sub-shell is further from the nucleus than the 3d

sub-shell, the 4s sub-shell is lower in energy than the 3d sub-shell.

• According to the Aufbau Principle (electrons fill-up atomic orbitals

from lower energy to higher energy) the lower energy 4s sub-shell
will fill with electrons before the higher energy 3d sub-shell.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 20
• Name: Calcium
• Symbol: Ca
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

         

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 21
• Name: Scandium
• Symbol: Sc
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d14s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

          

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 22
• Name: Titanium
• Symbol: Ti
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

           

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 23
• Name: Vanadium
• Symbol: V
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

            

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 24
• Name: Chromium
• Symbol: Cr
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Why is the electron configuration of chromium…
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

…instead of…
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

             

• Completely filled sub-shells are more stable than partially filled

sub-shells.
• A sub-shell that is exactly half-filled is more stable than a sub-shell
that is not exactly half-filled.
• An electron in the 4s orbital is transferred to an empty 3d orbital so
as to obtain two stable half-filled sub-shells (3d5 and 4s1) instead of
one incomplete sub-shell (3d4) and one complete sub-shell (4s2).
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 25
• Name: Manganese
• Symbol: Mn
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 26
• Name: Iron
• Symbol: Fe
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 27
• Name: Cobalt
• Symbol: Co
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 28
• Name: Nickel
• Symbol: Ni
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d84s2 • Lower
energy
than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 29
• Name: Copper
• Symbol: Cu
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1 •energy
Lower

than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Why is the electron configuration of copper…
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

…instead of…
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

• Completely filled sub-shells are more stable than partially filled

sub-shells.
• A sub-shell that is exactly half-filled is more stable than a sub-shell
that is not exactly half-filled.
• An electron in the 4s orbital is transferred to a 3d orbital so as to
obtain one stable complete sub-shell (3d10) and one stable half-filled
sub-shell (4s1) instead of one incomplete sub-shell (3d9) and one
complete sub-shell (4s2).
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
• Atomic Number: 30
• Name: Zinc
• Symbol: Zn
• Electron Configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 •energy
Lower

than 3d

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

→ Low Energy → → Higher Energy →

• Electrons are represented by arrows ( and ) which fill atomic orbitals

that are represented by boxes.
• Electrons occupy atomic orbitals from the lowest energy to the highest
energy. This is known as the Aufbau Principle.
• A single electron will occupy a single atomic orbital before two electrons
are forced to spin pair-up with each other in the same orbital.
 How are the
electron
configurations
of ions drawn
using orbital
notation?
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Nitrogen Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    

Electron Configuration of a Nitride Ion – N3–

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Nitrogen Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    

Electron Configuration of a Nitride Ion – N3–

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of an Oxygen Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    

Electron Configuration of a Oxide Ion – O2–

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of an Oxygen Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    

Electron Configuration of a Oxide Ion – O2–

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Chlorine Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

        

Electron Configuration of a Chloride Ion – Cl–

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Chlorine Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

        

Electron Configuration of a Chloride Ion – Cl–

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

        
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Magnesium Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

     

Electron Configuration of a Magnesium Ion – Mg2+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Magnesium Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

     

Electron Configuration of a Magnesium Ion – Mg2+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of an Aluminium Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

      

Electron Configuration of a Aluminium Ion – Al3+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of an Aluminium Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

      

Electron Configuration of a Aluminium Ion – Al3+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

    
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Titanium Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

           

Electron Configuration of a Titanium(III) Ion – Ti3+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Titanium Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

           

Electron Configuration of a Titanium(III) Ion – Ti3+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

         

Note: When atoms of the transition metals react to form ions, electrons from
the 4s orbital are the first to be removed.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Chromium Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

Electron Configuration of a Chromium(III) Ion – Cr3+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Chromium Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

Electron Configuration of a Chromium(III) Ion – Cr3+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

           

Note: When atoms of the transition metals react to form ions, electrons from
the 4s orbital are the first to be removed.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of an Iron Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

Electron Configuration of a Iron(III) Ion – Fe3+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of an Iron Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

Electron Configuration of a Iron(III) Ion – Fe3+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

             

Note: When atoms of the transition metals react to form ions, electrons from
the 4s orbital are the first to be removed.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Copper Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

Electron Configuration of a Copper(II) Ion – Cu2+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Copper Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

Electron Configuration of a Copper(II) Ion – Cu2+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

             

Note: When atoms of the transition metals react to form ions, electrons from
the 4s orbital are the first to be removed.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Zinc Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

Electron Configuration of a Zinc Ion – Zn2+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Electron Configurations of Ions

Electron Configuration of a Zinc Atom

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

              

Electron Configuration of a Zinc Ion – Zn2+

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s

             

Note: When atoms of the transition metals react to form ions, electrons from
the 4s orbital are the first to be removed.
How is bonding
between atoms
represented
using orbital
notation?
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure

• The atomic orbitals of two or more atoms can combine

together to form molecular orbitals.
• The following diagrams show how the
atomic orbitals of two atoms combine to form covalent
bonds known as a -bonds (sigma-bonds) and -bonds
(pi-bonds).
• Note: To pair-up in a molecular orbital, electrons must
have opposite spin.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
The Molecular Orbitals in Diatomic Nitrogen – N2
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
The Molecular Orbitals in Diatomic Fluorine – F2
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Pi-Bonds and Sigma-Bonds

• Examples of -bonds and -bonds in a molecule of

ethene, C2H4.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Pi-Bonds and Sigma-Bonds

• A -bond is formed when two atomic orbitals overlap,

and the region of overlap lies on an imaginary straight
line that connects the nuclei of the two bonding atoms.
Advanced Theories of Atomic Structure
Pi-Bonds and Sigma-Bonds

• A -bond is formed when two atomic orbitals (usually

p-orbitals) overlap, and the region of overlap lies above
and below an imaginary straight line that connects the
nuclei of the two bonding atoms.
What are some
periodic trends
that can be
explained using
orbital theory?
 Periodic Trends
• The force of attraction between oppositely charged
particles is given by Coulomb’s Law:

1 q1  q2
F = 
4    0 r2
F = force of attraction between oppositely charged particles, N
0 = permittivity of free space, C2 m–2 N–1
q1 = charge on particle one, C
q2 = charge on particle two, C
r = distance between particle one and particle two, m
 Periodic Trends
• The force of attraction between oppositely charged
particles is given by Coulomb’s Law:

1 q1  q2
F = 
4    0 r2

• The force of attraction (F) between a proton and an

electron in an atom is related to their charge (q1 and q2),
and it decreases rapidly as the distance between the
particles (r) increases (inverse square law).
Periodic Trends
 Periodic Trends

Across a Period (left to right)

• Moving across a Period, there is an increase

Down a Group

in the number of protons in the nucleus

(increase in nuclear charge) but the number of
electron shells remains constant.
• Due to the increasing nuclear charge, the
electrostatic force of attraction between the
nucleus and electrons in the valence shell
increases across a Period from left to right.
 Periodic Trends

Across a Period (left to right)

• Moving across a Period, there is an increase

Down a Group

in the number of protons in the nucleus

(increase in nuclear charge) but the number of
electron shells remains constant.
• Due to the increasing nuclear charge, the
electrostatic force of attraction between the
nucleus and electrons in the valence shell
increases across a Period from left to right.
 Periodic Trends

Across a Period (left to right)

• Moving down a Group, there is an increase in

Down a Group

the number of protons in the nucleus (increase

in nuclear charge) and also an increase in the
number of electron shells.
• Although there is an increase in nuclear
charge, the increasing distance between the
nucleus and valence electrons is more
significant. The electrostatic force of attraction
between the nucleus and electrons in the
valence shell decreases down a Group.
 Periodic Trends

Across a Period (left to right)

• Moving down a Group, there is an increase in

Down a Group

the number of protons in the nucleus (increase

in nuclear charge) and also an increase in the
number of electron shells.
• Although there is an increase in nuclear
charge, the increasing distance between the
nucleus and valence electrons is more
significant. The electrostatic force of attraction
between the nucleus and electrons in the
valence shell decreases down a Group.
Periodic Trends
Periodic Trends

• Atomic radii increase from the top to

the bottom of any Group of the Periodic
Table.
• The number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom (nuclear charge) and the
number of electron shells around the
nucleus of the atom both increase down
a Group.
Periodic Trends

• Atomic radii increase from the top to

the bottom of any Group of the Periodic
Table.
• The number of protons in the nucleus
of an atom (nuclear charge) and the
number of electron shells around the
nucleus of the atom both increase down
a Group.
 Periodic Trends
• An increase in nuclear charge means that there is an
increase in the electrostatic force of attraction between
the protons in the nucleus and electrons orbiting the
nucleus. On its own, this variable would cause atomic
radius to decrease down a Group.
• However, the addition of a new electron shell to the
atoms is more significant, causing the atomic radius to
increase. Also, with the addition of a new electron shell,
electrons in the valence shell are more shielded from the
electrostatic force of attraction of the nucleus by the
electrons of the inner electron shells. Consequently,
atomic radius increases down a Group.
 Periodic Trends

• Atomic radii decrease from the left-hand-side to the

right-hand-side of any Period of the Periodic Table.
• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
(nuclear charge) increases across a Period, while the
number of electron shells is constant (remains the same).
 Periodic Trends

• Atomic radii decrease from the left-hand-side to the

right-hand-side of any Period of the Periodic Table.
• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
(nuclear charge) increases across a Period, while the
number of electron shells is constant (remains the same).
 Periodic Trends

• An increase in nuclear charge means that there is an

increase in the electrostatic force of attraction between the
protons in the nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus.
• This increasing nuclear charge exerts a stronger
electrostatic force of attraction on the orbiting electrons and
causes a steady decrease in atomic radius across a Period.
 Periodic Trends
• First ionization energy is the energy required to
convert 1 mole (6  1023) of gaseous atoms into one
mole (6  1023) of unipositive (1+) gaseous ions.
E(g) → E+(g) + e–
 Periodic Trends
• Essentially, first ionization energy gives an
indication of the amount of energy that is required to
remove a single electron from the valence shell of
a single atom.
 Periodic Trends
• First ionization energy decreases down a Group.

• The number of protons in the nucleus of an

atom (nuclear charge) and the number of
electron shells around the nucleus of the
atom both increase down a Group.

• An increase in nuclear charge means that

there is an increase in the electrostatic force
of attraction between the protons in the
nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus.
On its own, this variable would cause first
ionization energy to increase down a Group.
 Periodic Trends
• First ionization energy decreases down a Group.

• The number of protons in the nucleus of an

atom (nuclear charge) and the number of
electron shells around the nucleus of the
atom both increase down a Group.

• An increase in nuclear charge means that

there is an increase in the electrostatic force
of attraction between the protons in the
nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus.
On its own, this variable would cause first
ionization energy to increase down a Group.
 Periodic Trends
• First ionization energy decreases down a Group.
• However, the addition of a new electron
shell to the atoms is more significant. The
addition of a new electron shell means that
electrons in the valence shell (lost during
ionization) are i) further from the nucleus and
are ii) more shielded from the attractive force
of the nucleus by the electrons of the inner
electron shells. These two effects combine to
reduce the electrostatic force of attraction
between the positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged electrons in the valence
shell. Less energy is required to remove an
electron from the valence shell, therefore first
ionization energy decreases down a Group.
 Periodic Trends
• First ionization energy increases across a Period.

• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (nuclear

charge) increases across a Period, while the number of
electron shells is constant (remains the same).

• An increase in nuclear charge means that there is an increase

in the electrostatic force of attraction between the protons in the
nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus.
 Periodic Trends
• First ionization energy increases across a Period.

• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom (nuclear

charge) increases across a Period, while the number of
electron shells is constant (remains the same).

• An increase in nuclear charge means that there is an increase

in the electrostatic force of attraction between the protons in the
nucleus and electrons orbiting the nucleus.
 Periodic Trends
• First ionization energy increases across a Period.

• This increasing nuclear charge exerts a stronger electrostatic

force of attraction on electrons in the valence shell of the atom
(the electrons that are lost during ionization). Therefore, more
energy is required to remove an electron from the valence shell
of the atom, resulting in an increase in first ionization energy
across a Period.
 Periodic Trends
• First ionization energy decreases slightly between Group 2
and Group 13 elements.
• Moving from Group 2 to Group 13, the additional electron
enters a p-orbital of the same principle quantum shell.
• An electron in a p-orbital is higher in energy than an electron
in the s-orbital of the same principle quantum shell.
Consequently, less energy is required to remove the p-orbital
electron (ionization) compared to an electron in the
corresponding s-orbital, and first ionization energy decreases
slightly between Group 2 and Group 13.

Beryllium 1s 2s 2p Boron 1s 2s 2p

Group 2   Group 13   

→ Higher Energy → → Higher Energy →

 Periodic Trends
• First ionization energy decreases slightly between Group 15
and Group 16 elements.
• Moving from Group 15 to Group 16, the additional electron
must spin pair with an existing electron in one of the atom’s
p-orbitals.
• An electrostatic force of repulsion between the two spin
paired electrons that share the same p-orbital means that less
energy is required to remove (ionization) an electron from the
p-orbital, and first ionization energy decreases slightly
between Group 15 and Group 16.

Nitrogen 1s 2s 2p Oxygen 1s 2s 2p

Group 15      Group 16     

→ Higher Energy → → Higher Energy →

 Periodic Trends – Summary
Elements
of Third Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Period Group 1 Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17

Atomic
Number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

0.157 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.104 0.099

Atomic
Radius /
nm

First
Ionization
Energy / 494 736 577 786 1060 1000 1260
kJ mol-1
 Periodic Trends – Summary
Elements
of Third Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Period Group 1 Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17

• Number of protons within the nucleus of the atom increases.

Atomic • Positive charge within the nucleus of the atom increases.

Number • Electrostatic force of attraction between the positive nucleus and negative
electrons orbiting the nucleus increases.

0.157 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.110 0.104 0.099

Atomic
Radius /
nm

First
Ionization
Energy / 494 736 577 786 1060 1000 1260
kJ mol-1
Atomic Structure
Presentation on
Atomic Structure
by Dr. Chris Slatter
[email protected]
Nanyang Girls’ High School
2 Linden Drive
Singapore
288683
Updated for alignment with the 2017
A’ Level Chemistry Periodic Table
8th January 2017
Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure