3-26 ENG/NEE/UNG MATIIEMAr,C&,,

<1l The req11i1l'd dm,ctcd walk i• A, a, fl, b, C, c, D, d, E : -

g. n, I,, II, J, C. ' 0,
(it) .-t IJ, C, II. /), E, G, F (shown by vertices only) is 8
but not directt'd (of length 8) "II
(iii) C, c, D, Ii , II, j, C is a directed cycle of length 3.
Ex. -4. ul G be a di-graph with an odd number of vert'
each l'<'rtc?x of G has art odd out-degree then prove that ,;:,-J
re 11
an odd number of vertices of G with odd in-degree.
From Theorem 8 ( actually it is given later) we have
Sum of out-degree of all vertices = Sum of in-degree ofall verticee
... (I)
Since out-degree of each vertex is odd and number of verticea
is odd so Sum of out-degrees of all vertices
= Sum of odd number of odds = An odd number
:. Sum of in-degree of all vertices = An odd number
or, Sum of even in-degree + Sum of all odd in-degree = An
odd number
or, An even number + Sum of all odd in-degree = An odd
number
or, Sum of all odd in-degree = An odd number
:. there are odd number of odd in-degree. Hence proved.
~-1> Theorems of Graph.
Jfieor em. 1 Prove that the maximum degree of ariy vertu in a
simpk graph with n vertices is n - I·
Let G be the simple graph and· A be a vertex of G. Let
deg(A) = ll. Sok number of edges are incidence to A. Since there
are no self loops or para11el edges so other ends of these ed.-
are di.Hticnt. So there exist k number of vertices apart from A. So
we frnd /,+ 1 numbe r of vertices in the graph. So, n ~ i+l
:. /, s ,, - 1,i.c. deg(A)s (n - 1)
Maximum degree of the vertex A is n -1 ·
orem. 2 The maximum ,uunbcr of edges in a con-,, ,l
11(11 - 1) AIIM)
si1111;fe graph with ,i vertices is - •)- - , (W.B.U.Tech ~
Let C be the cunnt!Ct(\d simplo g;nph. Now maximum numlll'
of edv;e1s in G
-= Number of edges joining any two vertices of ·a
Jf there are no parallPI edges or ~wlf loop, there exists one ....
corresponding to any two verticu~.
 DJ-GRAPH & ITS FUNDMfENTi\L
S 3-27
H
GR-v' .._,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
~
So 111aximum number of edges in G
_ Number of all possible selection of two vertices out of n
- n(n-1)
=="C2 :: 9
.., •

Theorem, 3. (First ~he~rem of G~ap~ Theory) : The sum of

the degrees of all vertices m a graph 1s twice the number of edges
in the graph. · ·
Proof: Let G be_ a graph. Let e be an edge of G. If e is a self-
loop then it cont_nbutes 2 to '.su?l of degrees o~ a~ vertice~•- If e is
0
ot a self-loop, 1t would be mc1dent to two d1stmct vertices say
. and v • Then e contributes 1 to the degrees of v and 1 to
9 1
~e degree of V2 ' that is e contributes 2 to the 'sum of degrees of
all vertices'.Therefore 2 x (Number of all edges) = Sum of the
degrees of all vertices. Thus
Sum of the degrees of all vertices = 'I\vice the number of edges in
the graph. .
Illustration : For the graph shown in Fig. 3.1.19 sum of the
degrees of all vertices

A Fig. 3.1.19
= deg(A) +deg(B) +deg{C) + deg( D)

Th=l+3+1+3 =8=2x4=2x Numberofedges.

Pro:o~ern. 4_ The number of odd vertices in a~y _graph is even.
of ii· Let m a graph, O = Set of all odd vertices and E = Set
a even vertices. [WBUT 2011]
Let, Ld(vi) = Sum of the degrees of all odd vertices
0

and ~d(vi) = Sum of the degrees of all even vertices

iM =An even number [ ·: d(ui) is even for every vi
"II(Se)-14 in E]
3-28 _ _EERING
____ ____ _......_.,_......,....,.....,...ENGIN ~~"Ge..//
_ _MA7'Jr,
_ _ MATHE

Ld(1·,) + Ld(1·,)= Sum of the degrees of all verticee '

" f
= 2 " Numhcr of edges [ From the previous theorem J •A
e,·en numh<' r. ll

:. Ldtr,) =
<)
difference of two even numbe r = An evell

number (1)
!\ow, d(t 11 ) is odd for every vertex vi in 0.
Since only a sum of even number of some odd numbers ia
even, so, we can say there are even number of terms in the
summation of Ll/S of (I). That is the number of odd vertices in
the graph is even.
Note : The number of even vertices may be odd or even. (See
the folloicing two examples)
lllustr ation :
(i) In the graph shown in Fig. 3.1.20 (a} the number of odd
vertex = 2 (which are v1 and v5 )

VJ

Fig. 3.1.20 (a)

Here the number of even vertices = 3 = odd.
(ii) In the graph shown in Fig. 3..1.20 (b} the number of odd
vert<!x =2 (A an<l B }. a

F D

£
Fig. 3.1.20 (b)
 H,rc th<' nnmllf'r nf l'\"'l'n \'l'r11<'f't11 e 4 • •wn {C, D. E. F,
<•iil Or:1• " t"Ph "1th IIM-"l'n '°"""'" tuinnc df-lff"tl l. 5. :.,
.
• . ' .f.. 8.
Wt~ th<'"-' :t"-' thtt-e odd \"t'rt1ttt1 an the i,aph. But •t know
,n,· ~rh ronta m8 a n l'\1.'n hnumhcr of odd vertacee. So ,a • DOC
r - ~ ~ r a" r !I UCh a grap .
~ m . 5 Prot ~ that a romplcte grnph u·ith n t~rlict, co,u11,,I•
of " ·ri - l ) numbrr of edges (H'.B.U.Ttch, 2010, 200,,1
-
"}

Since the graph is complete and since there is no loop/paralkl

f'G+t 6lO t\·ery vertex of the graph has n - I adJncent vert~ i.e.
de~ of each vertex is n - l .
. . Sum of all dc>grecs of the graph = n(n -1) .
or. 2 x No. of edges of the graph = n(n -1)
11(11 -1)
·. r-:o. of edi:rr~ of the graph =
-
9
•

Tbronm.6 17rt' minimum number of edg,a in a connttlftl irapl&

tnLh n (>erlu:ti is n - 1, ,,v.B.V.T«A :0CU I
P,~4: I.kt m i::: number of l'dgca of such a 1raph.
Wt h.ave to "how n, ~ 11 - J .
Wt- prove tJw, hy m~thod of induction on "'· If •=O th.a
o!A·1outily n=J (otll<'rA ~ G will be diatconnc-ded). L"loar~ thea
"' 2 11 - J (u~ 0 ~ 1 - I ).
Let the rei;ult l,c.• true fur"' i:: O, I,:?, 3, ...,t. Wt .W ahow
that the rt.·bult is tru~ for· "' ;:: k + l . l~t G be a craph wilh i+ l
edgfs. u-t t be liO e<l~~ o( G. Then the 1ubcrapb G-, (i.e. the
graph oLtaineJ hy ddt-tina: only t ft'OIU a ) ...... eel... aad II
:umLer of vertH:t>s. If l, - e itt •l•o connect-,d .1he1 by ou
Ypocilei;u; k ? ,, - l , i.e. k * I i 11 :> 11 ~ 1,

00
If G - e becomei, diijconnttcted then i& would have lwo
unected
nu be colllJh>ne ut~. l ~t t ho two component1 ... L. L --..J "'
ve •• . . . •i
by~ \ of edge1:, and " 1 , "J num~,· of vttrtiat• re11ptteliwly. So.
k ... ~r 1>'Putheb11, k 1 :2'. ,, 1 - 1 and k~ ~ 11 - 1. Tht,-, lwo illply
i.!., k~~11 1+n : - :.! that id, k ~ ,i - 2 (·: £,+ki•k, n1 +M1 •a)
+1~11 - J.
 1
: _0_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _E_N_G_1N_E_E_n_rN..:G..:A.:f'.:.:'T:1/::E:M.::A~T/~C~S-~11

Thus the result is true for m = k + 1.

Theorem. 7 . The minimum number of edges in a simple graph
(not necessarily connected) with n vertices is n - h whe k .
the numbe r of connected components of the graph. ' re 18

Proof: Left to the 1eader.

Illustration . ' ·,
y'Let a connected simple graph has 7 vertices.
7(7 -1)
Then 7 -15 No. of edges ~
i.e. 6 ~ No. of edges
;
9
5 21- So, minimum and maximum n""umber of erlges o( this·graph
are 6 and 21 respectively.
(ii) To short n number of pins together, we need at least n -1
pieces of wire.
Theorem. 8 In a di-graph, the sum of the out-degrees of all
vertices = the sum of the in-degrees of all vertices = number of
edges.in the di-graph.
Proof: In a di-graph every edge is incident into at least some
vertex. So every edge contributes in-degree 1 in the di-graph.
So sum of all in-degrees= Number of edges.
. Similarly every edge is incident out of at least some vertex.
So sum of all out degrees= Number of edges.
Th~ completes the proof.
Theorem. 9 A graph G with vertex set Vis disconnected if and
only if there exist two non-empty disjoint sets ½ and V2 such
that V = Vi uV2 and there exists no edge in G whose one end
vertex belongs to Vi and other end belongs to V2 • ·
Proof: First, let where V = V1 u V~ and V1 n V2 = and
V ~ ♦, V ~ ♦ and there exists no edge in G whose one end
+
2
1
vertex belongs to V1 and other end belongs to V:!. Let
a and~
be two arbitrary vertices of G such that "e Vi and b e l':!. Let, if
possible, there exists a path ·P ={a, e1.11 1e:! , ... ,u"e~.,"k•l<'k+t•"'b}
joining a and b [u i s' arc vertices, ei 's al'e edges] where Uk e Va
and uk+l eV2 • Then e" is the edge joining u," and "t+t'
contradicting our hypothesis. So there exists no path between a
and b. So G is disconnected.
GR-.\Pll, DT-GR.APII & ITS FUNDMIENTALS J-31

Conversely, let G be disconnected. So there exist at least two

vertices say a and b w h~ch are not connected by any path. Let
V be the set of all vertices of G which are connected to a by a
~th. Let V2 = G - Vi (Set of all vertices of G which are not in
~11 ). Since bi Vi s_o be ~ 2 •• _:. V 2 ~ ♦ By definition of V1 we
can say no vertex 1n V1 1s Jomed to any vertex in V2 • So, no
vertex of V1 is connected to any vertex of V2 by an edge. Hence
the converse part is proved.
Theorem. 10 If a graph has exactly two vertices of odd degree
there must be a path joining these two vertices. [i.e. the two
vertices are connected] ·
Proo/: Let G be the graph with all even vertices except the two
say a and b which are the only two odd-vertices. If G is a
connected graph then there exists a path joining a and b (by
definition of connected graph) and the theorem is proved. If G is
not connected then suppose GI and G2 are two of the components
of G such that a e G1 and be G2 • Then G1 itself becomes a
graph having only one odd vertex (a). But we know number of
odd vertex in a graph is even. So, this is not possible. So both of
a and b must belong to same component, say G1 • Since
component GI is itself a c9nnected graph so there is a path
joining a and b.
Theorem. 11 A simple graph with n number of vertices and k
"
(n-kXn-k+l)
number of components can have maximum
2
number of edges. [W.B. U. Tech 2008 ]
Proof : Let each of the k number of components of the graph
contains n1, n 2 , ••• , nk number of vertices respectively. So,
~1 + n2 +·.. + nk = n and ni ~ 1 . Now we shall prove the following
mequality
II

}:n; s; n2 - (k- I)(2n-k) (1)

I::}

k k k
Now, ~(ni-1} =In;-l)=n-k
I::} i::l izl
k .
2
or, t(ni-1) +~~ (ni-l)(ni-l)=n 2 +k 2 -2nk
. l :::l i ~ J
3-3:t

or, L• n,: - 21. + k s n + k 2nk 2 2

- [·: ni - I ~ 0, n i -1 ~ o]
''"''
•
~ % .,
or. L..- n, n- + k- - 2nk + 2n - k
?

..... $

or, L n, 2
$ n
2
- (k- 1)(2n - k), thus (I) is proved.
••l
Let G, be the component of G having n, num ber of vertices.
ble
~ow ma.ximum num ber of edges in Gi = Number of possi
edge s join ing any two vertices.
ii
Since there are no parallel edges or self loop ( ·: the graph
diq
simple) so t here exists exactly one possible edge correspon
to any two verti ces of G;.
:. M.ax number of edges in G,
= Number o( selection of two vertices from "i

,, 11 1 (n ; - 1)
= 'Ci ::
..
?

:. the maximum number of edge s in G iat

L(n,2 - 11,) :: ,..I { Ln, - L",

I ~- 2 }
Lt n'(n2' - 1) : : -2,:;;I
J;; I

s; !{n 2
- (k - IX211 - k) - 11}, by (I)

1
= (n-k)(n - /,+1) .
2
GJHPEI, DJ-GRAI'll & ITS FUND,UIENTALS 1-33

ThcoreDl• 12. A bipartite graph cannot contain _a cycle of odd

1cogth.
p,-oo/.' 1.£t_ G be a bipartite graph. V be its vertex set. We can
ex-press ,, = Vi u Y2 where Vt and V 2 are disjoint. ·Each edge
c.onoects one vertex of V1 with one vertex of y 2 •
Let C = { t '1, e 1, V2 , e2, V3 •·· v,t1 e,,, v 1} be a cycle contained in G.
We shall show that C contains even number of edges i.e. n is
e,·en.
As e1 connects v1 and v2 so v1 and v2 cannot belong to same
set of V1 and V2 •
Suppose U1 E vl and V2 E \12.
Similarly, as e2 connects v2 · and Va therefore v2 e V2 and
l's E \11
Similarly, as e3 connects v3 and v4 therefore v3 e V1 and
L'4 E V2
Similarly, V4 E V2 and V5 E vl and so on
Thus we see if vr e V2 then r is even.
Nor since e,1 connects vri and v1 and since v1 e V1 therefore
v,, e V2 : So n is even. Hence proved.
Theorem. 13 (Converse of the above theorem)
If a simple graph does not contain any cycle of odd length then
the graph is a bipartite graph.
Proof.· Beyond the scope of this book. •
111ustration. Using the above two theorems we can say that the
following simple graph cannot be a bipartite graph as it contains
the cycle {D, i,G, g, F, f , E, e, I, d, D} of length 5 (odd)
C

Theore
A

F
----~
EI
JI--,, . . dt .
. rn. 14 Every vertex, except the origin an erm1nus
Vertices
v · Trail) 1s
Of a walk whose all edges are distinct (1.e. · even
ertex.
1;1,. ..... lfJtlNlr•-- ------~-~ ----.. . . . . •
·t...~~;;;.. ,,""1_..~.....
'<

3.34 ENGINEERING MATHEM.

-------------- -~~7?~
P'l'oof : Let be a walk. Let v". be a vertex of this \Ji
11 - p

'
that l',_. ~ u. and r". -:1- v . If v". occurs only once in the \Ji alk "
.. thl't"C must exist one edge preceeding vk and one edge sualk ~
t 't . Clearly then v". becomes a 2-degree vertex. Next let CCe~
more than once in the walk, say p times. At each''1,~
occurence vk gets 2-degree (since no edge lJlle Of
repeats in a walk so the degree of v". is 2p
). Thus in any case any vertex has degree
even. (In our example figure vk has degree
2 X 3 = 6 ,)
Theorem. 15 Every u - v Trail contains a u
u-v path.
Proof: In the z1, -v Trail, u is the origin .
and v is terminus. Both u and v are of I-degree. We know eve
vertex, except u and v is of even-degree u and v vertex. So t~
u - v Trail contains only two odd vertices. By Theorem 10 u e
trail has a path joining u and v because we can think th~~
• u - v itself as a graph ( ·: the vertices and edges other than those
in u. - v trail have no influence in this proof)
Theorem. 16 A connected graph is an Euler graph if and only
if all vertices of Gare of even degree. ·
Proof: Beyond the scope.
3.1.6. Illustrative Examples
Ex. 1. State which of the fallowing graphs are bipartite graph:

(i) (ii)
a
A-----,,B

C
(iii) X ___x_ _ _ y .

w T
 GR},Pll, nr-GTU f>ll & ITS ro,,·IM,\lf.STALS 3.35

(i) This ~:\ph cannot be a bi~artic c 5Zra~h. L(•l t h1~ be a bipa,:tite

p-aph. Thrn the vertex set i = {A. 0 ,( } ca n 1Jc pnrtit1oned mto
f"'O ~•~ \ •1 and \ •2 . Since the l'dge a connects A and B 10 A
;1nd B c;1nnot belong to same set. Suppose , \ e V1 and B e V2 •
Again ~ince t ~e edge b ~onnccts B and C so they cannot belong
to same set. Smee B e \, 2 therefore C belongs to Vi . Again since
t.he ed~ c connects A and C therefore they ca nnot belong to same
set. Since C E \/1 so A e V2 • This contradicts the fact that A e V1 •
(ii) This is a bipartite graph because the vertex set
{i;.r:!!.r., .r, .1·:;} can be partitioned into two sets ½={LJi,½,L:), t.~}
and l~ = {c5 } and we see each edge of the graph is incident to
one vertex of V1 and one vertex of V2 • ·
(iii ) This is a bipartite graph since its vertex set
1· = {X. Y. Z , H', T} can be partitioned into two sets Vi= {Y,Z}
and V: = {X, W, T} and each edge joins a vertex of Vi to a
\'ertex in \:~ .
EL 2.. Does there exist a simple graph u·ith tu,·o or more vertices
such that all the vertices are of different degree?
Let there be n number of vertices. Then from Theorem 1 we
see the maximum degree of any vertex is n -1.If n vertices have
t.o take n integral values from I, 2, 3, ..., n - 2, n-1 then two
vertices must take equal values. So all vertices cannot have
different de~rce.
E~Find the minimum and maximum m1111ber of edges of a
simp/,e graph with JO vertices and 3 compo11<•11ts.
From Theorem 7 and Theorem 11 we know 10-3 s Number
(10 - 3)(10 - 3+1)
of edges s - - - -- -
2 7x8
or, 7 s Number of edges ~-;;-
"'
or, 7 s Number of edges s 28
So, minimum number of edges i::: 7 Maximum number oC edpa
=28 .
!x.4. __ Draw a connected graph with JO vertices (i) having 1
ges (u) having 50 edges.
ed (i) . Impossible ; since, by Th 6., the minimum number of
ges is IO - 1 = 9 .
---~~----------..::"~r,c~
3-36 ENG/NEERING MATIIEM

(ii) Impossihle ; Since, by Th 5., the maximum n

urn
he'-
l'
10(10 - l) Of
edges is = •t5.
-
9

Ex. 5. Drow a simple graph having a vertex of degre .

2 1
tiertices of degree 3 each and three vertices of degree 4 ea:h.' Wo
Vt ~---, ~-7tV 3

V5

The graph is drawn above.

Here deg(v1 ) =deg( v2 ) =deg( v3 ) =4; deg( v4 ) =deg(v ) = 3 and
5
deg(v6 )=2. ,
Ex. 6. Prove that there exist no simple graph with five vertices
having degrees 4, 4, 4, 2, 2.
Let, if possibl e. there exists a graph having vertices
v1 , v., , v3 , v4 and v5 such that deg( vi) = deg( v2 ) = deg( v ) = 4 and
3
deg(v4 ) = deg(v5 ) = 2. Since the graph has no parallel edge or
loop so each of v1 , v2 and v3 has four adjacent vertices. So both
of v4 and v3 must be adjacent vertex of v1 , v2 and v3 .So, deg(v,)
is at least 3. ( deg( v5 ) is also so). ' .#
This contradicts our hypothesis. Hence there exists no such
graph.
Ex. 7. Prove that there exists no graphs with four edges havif
vertices of degree 4, 3, 2, 1. ·
Let, if possible, there exists a graph, G with the 1i~
propert ies.The n the sum of degrees of all vert1~
= 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 1o. But we know the sum of degrees of all verticiJI
= 2 x Number of edges = 2 x 4 = 8. This is a contradiction.
Ex. 8. Draw, if possible, a simple graph with five vertices ha
degrees 2, 3, 3, 3, 3. ·
Let, v1 , v2 , V:1 • v 1 , t'r, be the vertices where deg( v1) = 2·
there is no loop so v1 must be connected with two of the
say v2 and v3 • So removing v1 with all its incidence edges

' ,f::ilJ.1:11:l:l!!!ltllnil1r •
GR.,.PH, Di-GRAPH & ITS FUNDAMENTALS 3.37

are left with the graph with vertices· v2, va, v 4, vs where
deg( v2 ) == deg( V3 ) = 2 ; deg( V 4) = deg( u5 ) = 3 .This can be drawn as
follow

So, the required graph is

where deg(v1) = 2,deg(v2 ) = 3,deg(v3 ) =3,deg(v4 ) = 3,deg(v5 ) = 3.

Ex/F[nd the number of vertices in a graph with 15 edges if
each vertex has degree 2. ·
l.€t n = number of vertices. So, sum of the degree of all vertices
= 2n, By Theore~ 3, 2n = 2 x Number of edges. :. n = 15 ·
:. Number of vertices is 15.
Ex. 10 . Let G be a graph with n vertices and e edges. P,-ove
2e
that Ghas a vertex of degree m such that m 2: - ,
n
By Theorem 3 we have,
Sum of the degrees of all vertices = 2 x Number of all
d
e ges= 2e (1)
Let be that vertex of G whose degree is maximum, say m
vk

:. Sum of the degrees of all vertices Sm+ m +···+m (n times)

== mn.

• :. from (1) we get mn 2: 2e , i.e., m 2:: 2e

. . n
where m = deg( vk) , greatest of all degrees.
a-.~~ Et\"GINEERING MATIIEM.47'~

Ex. 11. In a group nf Nine Persons it i.9 impossible that

/1·icrid.,;h ip with exactly fit:e in the group - Prove it.
Let r..
Ollf I._
P2 • ~, .... P.q be the persons. If P,· has friendshi .
'
P; then \\·e draw an edge joining ~ and P1 • Consider thep --
who.._~ vertices are P, s having above type of edges. If eve ll'aM
bas friendship with exactly five then in the graph each ; GIie
\\·ould ha,·e degree 5, i.e. each vertex is odd. So this grap::
an odd number (9) of odd vertices. This is impossible (by Theore
4a~~) •
Ex. 12. Let G be a r-regular graph where r is an odd inteier:
Shou· thal: the number of edges of G is a multiple of r. ·
\re know there exist an e_ven number of odd vertices in 1
graph (Theorem 4). Since this is r-regular so each vertex baa
degree r which is odd. So number of vertices is even say 2k, k ia
an inte ger. Therefore 2kr = Sum of degrees of all vertices of
G = 2 x Number of edges (by Th 3 above). Thus, Number of
edges = k x r = A multiple of r.
EL 13. Let G be graph having n number of vertices and n-1
num ber of edges. Prove that G has either a pendant vertexoraa
isowted vertex.
If l 'i , i ·2 , • .. , vn be the vertices then by Th 3 Id( u;) = 2(n -1)
Let, if possible, G has no vertex whose degree is 1 or 0. So;
n II

deg(vJ ~ 2 for all i. :. Ld(u;) ~ I 2 = 2n

tal i• I

So, from above, 2.(n-1)~2n, i.e., -22:0, which i1 4

contradiction.
Thus G would have at least cne vertex whose degree
1 or O ; i.e., G would have at least one vertex which is pen
is•=
or isolated.
Ex. 14. If a simple regular graph has n tiertices and 14~
find all possible values of n. Draw a.graph against each of
values. [ W.B. U. Tech
Let k = degree of every vertex. Therefore the sum ot I
48
degrees of all vertices = nk. So nk = 2 x 24 :: n = k
 • r,H DT-GIUPII & ITS l l'.\'DA,\IF.XTAl,S
r,R.11 . '

crt w
On the othe r band we know the maximum num her of 5 • 8
. n(n - 1) . n(n - 1) ?
rn a simple graph LS 'J. 2 :? .. I

:. n{n - 1) ~ 48 . (2)
\ (I\\. k is positive intc~ cr. From (I)
t, == 1::, n = 48 and this satit dies (2)
i.· ~ ~::,,, = 24 and this satis fies (2)
1, == 3::, n = 16 and this satis fies (2)
~· == 4::, n = 12 but this satis fies (2)

I. == 5::, n is not integ er.

i: == 6 ⇒ n = 8 and this satisfies (2) and so on.
'- = ; == n is not inte ger
k = s ~ n = 6 but this does not satis fy (2) and so on.
:. the possible valu es of n are 48, 24, 16, 12, 8.
Ei. 15. Let G be a simp le grap h with n vertices and
G' be its
( v) in
complement. For an arbi trary verte x v of G, prove that deg
G~ ( r) in G' = n - I.
of v in
Let deg (u) in G = h. So ther e are k adja cent verti ces -1)- k
(n
G ( ·: G is simple). So in the grap h G ther e are
the grap h
number of vertices whic h are not adja cent to v. So, in
to v. So,
(,'' these n-k - 1 num ber of vert ices would be adja cent
lll the graph G', deg( v) = n - lz - 1. Hen ce
prov ed.
EL 16. Let G be a simple grap h with n vertices and G' ybeodd
its .
comflement. If G has exac tly one even vertex, how man
vertu:es does G' have ?
L Now G has exactly n - l number
of odd vertices. So, n -1 must
~eve n.So n mus t be odd.
We get, deg (u) in G' ;; n - 1 - dPg(1:) in G. (from the prc,·ious
t-xami,le)
Son _ve•~!c.x
whf.0h•~eg et ~eg(u) in 0' = 011 even No. - de,:(1 ·) hii~JHG.even
n, · a vert ~ whic 11\ (, 1s
~en
c. 18 odd m G is odd in t, '
m G' and (n - I) No. of odd vertices.
So, G' has exactly one even vort ex .
t~/ 1· Proue that if t.h~ number of edg,~s i,i a co1u1t.cted ,:1:uph
t/io ng at least two vertices' is less tlum the mu11ber
of wrt,ces.
"' graph I ias pend ant vertex.
ktc'bif ~oss1'ble, the gtaph G has no pendan~ vertex, 1.e. . no·
v~rte,
avmg degree 1. Smco, G is connected so 1t has no vertex
 3. 40
ENGINEERING 11 ...
'"Ul'/'/ft_

having degree 0. So degree of every vertex ~

2
number of vertices and d, is degree of i-th Verte · Let 0
n
x.
:. Su1n of all degrees = L d, ,
t= l

or, 2 x No. of edges ~

:. No. of edges ~n
L" 2
r~l
(·: di ~ 2)
.. 2 x No. ofed
.. ~,
This contradicts the hypothesis that the No. of ed .
than n. gea•-.
Ex. 18. Sh?w that a connected graph is a cycle if the
~~~u~ ~~

Let G be the connected grap~ each of whose vertices .

degree 2. Let A and B be two arbitrary vertices of G. Sin • ~
connected t.hPre is a path from A to B. ce 0 •
Let G 1 i,e the sub graph consisting of all the vertices andepa
of this path. Similarly ifwe take any other distinct pairofver:&..
C, D we get a pa th from D to C . Let G2 be the subgraph
by this pa th. Since G is connected so, C, A and B, D are co
by path, say G3 and G4 respectively.
Now, ·0 1 ,G 4 ,G2 and G3 togetherly form a closed walk
So there exists a cycJe from this walk. Now we shall pro
every vertex of G belongs to this cycle say X.Let v be any
' of G that does not belong to X. Since G is connected so
an edge whose one end is v and other end is a vertex
u. So degree of u becomes 2+1=3, . which contradi
hypothesis. So every vertex, consequently every edp
included in the cycle, i.e. the graph G becomes itself a
Ex. 19. Suppose G is a non-directed graph with 11
has 6 vertices each of degree 3 and the rest have degrn
3, find the minimum number of ve,·tices G can have.
[U. Tech, M
Let the number of vertices= 6+k.
Le t x,, x 2 • · • • , x,.. be the degrees of rest of the
respectively. ·
:. Sum of degrees of all vertices = 6 x 3 + x1 +X2 +···+s
 Pll D!-GRAPll & ITS FUNDAMENTAl,,S 3.41
GN.4 ~• . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - •
~

. 2 X 12 = 18 + X1 + X2 +. •. + X1,
~~ x, + X:z + ... + x~. = 6 or, 6 = Xi + X:.i + ... + X
11
' G<3+3+ ···+3 (ktimes) [·: x; <3 Vi]
or, k 9 s· k
or, 6 < 3k :. > ... _. mce can get only integral valus so the
. ·mum value of k 1s 3.
nunt
. the minimum number of vertices= 6+3==9.
~ Show that a simple graph having n number of vertices
be connected if it has more than (n- l)(n- 2) edges ·
m~·t, 2 .
Let G be the graph. By problem the number of edges of G
2
:> (n-l)(n- ). Let G has k number of components. We know G
? . .
- {n - k )( n - k +1)
can have at most 2 number of edges (see Th 11)

(n -1)(n - 2) (n - k )(n - k +1)

So, 2 < 2 .
i.e., (n-I)(n -2} < (n- k)(n-k +1) , where k must be a positive
integer. We see this inequality is satisfied only for k = l. This is
not satisfied for k = 2, 3, · · · etc. Thus number of component of G
is one. So G is a connected graph. ·
EL 21. Let G be a graph with 15 vertices and 4 components·.
Show that G hqs at least one component having at least 4 vertices.
Find the largest number of vertices that a component of G can
have.
If the four components contain n1 , n2 , n3 and n4 number of
vertices then n1 + n2 +n3 +n4 = 15 (1)
If each of n1,n2 ,n3 and n4 is ~ 3 then n1 + n 2 +n8 +n4 s 12
which contradicts (I). So at least one of n1 ,n2 ,n3 and n4 must be 4.

If one component contains exactly 4 vertices then the other

components togetherly contain 15- 4 = 11 vertices. So, component
among the remaing three must contain at least 4 vertices (can
be discussed as above). If one component of those three contains
exact!y 4 vertices then the remaining two components togetherly
contains 15- (4 + 4} = 7 vertices. Now these two components would
!~are between themseleves {I, 6), (2, 5), (3, 4). (4, 3), (5, 2) ~nd (~, 1)
mber of vertices. So the maximum number of vertices 1n a
component is 6.
 3-41 ENGIN EERIN G MA 1,

Ex. 22. Let G br a simpl e graph havin g atnios t 2

'! co
the degre e of et•ery r·ertcx of G ~ n then prove that, O_, 18 1Jer1·
Let, if possib le. G he not conne cted. Then G "
finite nun1b er of compo ne nts, say ,,~1 , k 2 , • •• , I?- m'• ni--'rnW ou)d h
U8t he
Since degre e of each , ·ertex is at least n and sin
has no loop or para llcl edges so each vertex has at
of adjac ent vertic es . So each comp onent has at
1e:~ j
~2.
the ~
11 nu._

numb er of vertic es. So G has at ]east m(n + I) numb er :1~t ~+t

Now since m~2 , so m(n+ 1)~2( n+l)> 2n.Th us G has m ~
2n numb er of vertic es. This contra dicts a given condit io oreSoi-.
graph is conne cted. n. fie

E~ 23. Prove that if A be an o_dd verte~ of_ a graph then ,-,......

exists an another od d vertex, B in G which is connected wii'i('A
by a path.
Let G' be a compo nent_ of G co~ta inin~ A as one of its vertia!a.
G' is a conne cted graph itself. Since A 1s an odd vertex in G•
so the graph G' conta ins at least one more odd vertex , say j
becau se the numbe r of odd vertic es in a graph is even. Since G'
in connect.eel so there exists a path conne cting the vertice s A andB.

EXE RCI SE
(I] SHO RT ANSW ER QUE STIO NS

L Defin e vertex -set of a graph . Give an examp le.

2. Defin e edge- set of a graph . Give an examp le.
3. Defin e parall el edges . Draw a graph showi ng three P
edges .
4. Defin e simpl e graph . Give an examp le.
5. Defin e adjace nt edges in a graph . Draw a graph show·
adjace nt edges .
6. Draw a graph ~hf,wi ng the existe nce of no adjace nt e
7. Defin e even and odd vertic es of a graph .
8. Draw a regula r graph with five vertic es.
9. Draw a graph , which is not simpl e, havin g two isolated
10. Draw a regula r graph havin g at least one isolat ed ve
11. Draw a non-si inple regula r graph with three vertice•
12. Define penda n_t vertex . Draw a graph with five vertices
four penda nt vertic es. Indica te the penda nt edges.
.•
 DJ-GRAP// & ITS FVNDAAIENTALS
fl 3.43
r,t4P'~•
~
;_....---------------....i1111111111111--
When two edges are said to be in series. Explain with an
1s.·alllP}e. . ·
e:s pefinc complete graph. Give an example with five vertices
1'·5 praw a grap1l w h'ic h.is regu1ar but not complete.
1 · D ,.w a supergraph of the graph
16. ro

~c
• praw a graph which is a spanning subgraph of the graph
17
B
E
A

C
18. Draw, with explanation, two edge disjoint graphs which are
not vertex disjoint

19. If G be the graph A~; then find G -A

20. Define a walk in a graph. Show an example.

b C

21. In the graph a c find a walk whose origin and

A
e
terminus are A and C respectively.
22· Give an example of a walk which is not a Trail.
23• Define path. Give an example of a walk which is not a path.
24· Define length of a path. Give an example of a path oflength 4.
£ .

25
· In the graph A ~--~ G (i) construct a path
With or· · l F
With igm A and terminus C of length 4. o~· ~~ an another path
same lengt.h.
tM. ll(Sc)-J ~
 F
-(ii ) fin d the dis tan ce bet we en A and
C
(iii ) fin d the dis tan ce bet we en D and
and thr ee com pon enta.
26. Dr aw a gra ph wi th fou r ver tic es
a con nec ted gra ph which .
27. De fin e con nec ted gra ph . Dr aw . 18
no t com ple te.
Co nst ruc t tw o gra ph s wh ich are no t iso mo rph ic. Giv e reasona.
28.
of any ver tex in a sun le
29. Pro ve tha t the ma xim um deg ree
[ Hi nt : Th eor em ~]
gra ph wi th 3 ver tic es is 2.
hav i~g 5 ver tice s. Fin d the
30 . (! be a sim ple con nec ted gra ph
[ Hi nt : Fol low Th eor em 2)
ma n~ um nu mb er of edg es o~ G.
31. Fin d the nu mb er of edg es 1n
a com ple te gra ph wi th 6 vertices
_ [ Hi nt : Fol low Th 3)
32 . Pro ve tha t the sum of the deg
ree s of all ver tic es in a graph
[S ee the pro of of Th eor em 6.)
wi th IO edg es is 20.
a gra ph ma y be eve n or odd _
33. Th e nu mb er of eve n ver tic es of
les .
Sh ow thi s by exh ibi tin g two exa mp
34. Dr aw a gra ph wi th 9 ver tic es
_h avi ng deg ree 1,5,2, 7,1 0,8 .
wi th 6 nod es (ve rtic es) , two of
35. De t.e rm ine the nu mb er of edg es
[W .B. U.T ech 2005]
deg ree fou r an d 4 of deg ree 2 .
ph wi th 12 edg es. If G has 6
36. Su pp ose G is a non -di rec ted gra
hav e deg ree les s tha n 3, find
ver tic es eac h of deg ree 3 an d res t
f W. B.U .Te ch 200Gj
the mi nim um nu mb er of ver tic es in G.
37 . A gra ph G is giv en bel ow :
Vi

f
Vi
G: l I
V6 115 V4

(a) Fin d the dis tan ce bet we en V. and

V, of {;.
(b) Fin d the dim (G) [W.B.U.Tech 8()()61
(c) Fin d on e cir cui t wh ich inc lud es V. .
AN SW J~ RS
•B
19. •C 25. (ii) 2 (iii) 2 30. 10 31. 15
•D
 ,
:-<
GRAPH & ITS FUNDMIENTALS 3. 45
.04ffi,Vl·-'~;,.....-----------.....- - - - -
~'ble 36. 9
JtttPosst .
S'- (b) 3
. {Yi, ½,~J, ¼, Yc;, ½}etc.
TT\ anot her OllC 1S
S7• (8) .3 r1i, ½,\'5, \{,,vu,
(c) one is
LONG .ANSWER QUESTIONS

(ll] ,aph representing two houses and four utilities : gas

Draw at,•
01
.. ,
1. water and electr1c1ty.
Draw a simple grap h wit. h. (i') t hree .(.11') one (iii) four vertices.
telephone,
~ Draw graphs of the following chemical compounds (i) c,;H,; .

(u) cH •.
(a) Draw the complement of the following graph :
L VJ- V
4

[W.B. U. Tech, 2003].

V3 V5 . v, . .
(b)Find the complement of the graph vr<J>iv, .
6

V5 '<l)Jv3
. V4
[ ,W.B. U. Tech 2007, 2012]
(c) Draw a self complementary graph with 4 vertices.
5. Stat.e which of the following graphs are simple

(a) (b) (c)

6. Find the degree of each vertex of the following three graphs .

. .

(i)
(ii)
'l". Dr••· • ,impk vr.111h hM·inR four vertict-8 each of do.._
(1)
On•" ,. eonn('<'h~ tzra ph ~·1th 3 wrt1cc1 Rnd 4 ed
(11) a
(m) r,nd I h, mini mum !so. of connected compo~-=·
..,mrle i:r•r h • 11 h I 6 n ·rt ,cc• and 10 edRcs. If•
8. (i) Dra•· a ~1mple ~raph with five vertices having delJlt (
3. 3. 3. l
t. f md th~ t-uhgraphs of the followi ng graph

.f C

10. r,nd three eubgrapbs of the following graph

C
L----'------~
,· D
£
11. Consid~r the foll<Jwing graph :
H

' ., ('

,·
J
' ,. ,.
IJ

"
 0
vr-GIUPTI & ITS FUND.1MENTAT..S 3.47
GllAP1,_:•J.:..,..__.---------- ------
~
. d (i) the subgi·aph removing the vertices D, G, Band F
F111(ii) the subgrap h ~-emovmg
. t hc edges g, e, ll, i, f nnd j.
(iii) the subgraph induced hy the vertices A, G, E, and F (i.e.
brrraph having vertices A, G, E, F and those edges of the
t.he sll t,
gi,·en graph that hav~ both ends as the given vertices)
(i'r) the subgraph induced by the edges d, g, i and c
(v) the subgraph which is complete with three vertices
(vi) the isomorphic gra?h (if exists) to the subgraph of G
which is complete with four ·vertices.
(vii) a simple subgraph ; all possible simple subgraphs.

12. From the graph:E ___

.f---"' A

g a
e
D.,__..,.. B
b
C
You are given some walks. Determine which are (a) path (b) trail
(c) a closed walk (d) a circuit
(i) A, a, B
(ii) B, b, C, c, D, d, C
(iii) B, b, C, c, D, d, C, b, B
(iv) D, d, C, c, D, e, B, a, A, f, E, g, D
, 13 -(a) From the graph :

rs U4
x~

~~-
a cl given some walks. Determine which are a path, a trail,
.
osed
. walk . . ;
, a circuit
(l) X a
i, l• X2, 02, X3, 05, X5/l4' X4
- - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~ "~
3-48 ENGINEER/NG MATll!Jt4

(iii) x(i. o 7 • x 2 , a;1, xJ, aa, x~ o•. X0 , Or,, ,t'3, a.,;, X11
(iv) .r1• <1 1, .r2 • a 2 , .t:_i , Or,, .Yr,
'
(v) X 2, 0 ;1, X ;1, 0r,,Xa, O.-i, X1f11 ,.t'2

(b) Find all the cy)es in the following graph. Hen

it is a bipa rtite grap h : ·
ce find -~1.
- • ..,
A-----B

D, J,F --- --- w

th so it ia 1
[ Hin t : Since the grap h contains no cycle of odd leng
bipartite graph]
14. From the following grap h
(a) find a closed walk of leng th 6. Is this walk a trail
?
(b) find an open walk of leng th 12. Is it a path ?
Find if
(c) Find the leng th of the longest path in the graph.
length.
possible , ano ther path in the grap h having the same

(d) Find the length of the longest cycle (circuit) in the

graph.
(e) Find a closed trai l of leng th 6. Is.y our trai l a circu
it?
(f) Find whe ther the grap h is bi-partite.

15. From the graph :

find (i) a path of length 9 (ii) a trail of length 5

(iii) a c·
leng th 8 (iv) a cycle of length 6.
oJW'-~ ·;;..------------- ---
fl

.,,,,,,,,
DJ-GRAPII & ITS FUNDAMENTALS 3.49

F' d three cycles from v:, to v:1 in the following graph. Hence
16· inhether it is a bipartite graph .
find w v6

v.,
17
. In the following graph S~d the following :

013

012

(a) a walk of length 5 from A:1 to A 4 •

(b) a trail of length 9 from A 1 to A3 •
(c) a cycle of length 7 from A5 to A5 •
(d) Whether the graph is bi-partite graph.
18. From the following graph, find
A B C D

E F------' ·
Wili
(A, B) e subgraph after deleting the vertex F, G and the ·edge
. that the sum of degrees
(b)allthevede~ree_ of each vertex and verify
of
(c) all ~ices 1s equal to the twice the number of edges. ·
(d) ll su~ple paths from A to G
a trails fr B
(e) the d' om to C
(Q the d~tance between A and C
(g) ll iameter of the graph .
a cycles
 3-50 ~'NGJNEE.'IUN r• •1
., ,r.lA TIJeA,.

( h) Find the subgraph spanned by (i) {II C" ]) J'

' ,, • ' J•'}
-~ J

(ii) { ..-t, C, E , G, II} (iii) {D, D , E , 1-J} (iv) {C, J,', G, JI}.
19.. Among the foHowing three graphs find
( i) which are connected ? For dis-connecte d
number of connected components . graph 8114 tie
(iii) Which are simple
(ii) \Vhich are loop-free ?
• grapha,
(iv) Which are without any circuit? If they have c· . ·
find the number of circuit. _ _ ircuit, ti...

20. Draw a connected graph that becomes disconnected when any

edge is removed from it.
21. (a) Below you are given a graph. Find its components :
V4

V3
(b) Below you are given a graph. Find its components :

I I
22. Find the union 0 1 uG 2 when
v, V

(i) G1 :
V'JL..--...J i---