PAMPANGA STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

Magalang, Pampanga

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

General Education Course

UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Prepared by:

Joyce Anne G. Belza Ella M. Roque

Sally B. Trinidad Norman. C. King

Clemente O. Boleche, Jr. Camille Rose Carl R. Mendoza

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UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

General Education

PART ONE: The Self from Various Perspectives

Module 1. Philosophical Perspective of the Self

A. Socrates
B. Plato
C. St. Augustine
D. Rene Descartes
E. John Locke
F. Sigmund Freud
G. David Hume
H. Gilbert Ryle
I. Paul Churchland

Module 2. Socio-Anthropological Self

A. The Self and the society
B. The self as a product of modern society
C. Culture and the self

Module 3. Psychological Self

A. Me self and I self
B. Real self and Ideal self
C. Multiple and Unified self
D. True vs. False self
E. Freud’s Construction of Self and Personality
F. Erickson’s Theory of the self

Module 4. The Self in Western and Eastern Thought

A. Self in the Eastern thought
B. Self in the Western thought
C. Individualistic self
D. Collective self

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PART TWO: Unpacking the Self

Module 5. The Physical Self

A. The concept of beauty
B. Importance of beauty

Module 6. Sexual Self

A. Human Reproductive System
B. Erogenous Zones
C. Biology of Sexual Behaviour
D. Understanding the chemistry of lust, love and attachment
E. Gender sensitivity, awareness and appreciation
F. Sexually transmitted diseases
G. Methods of contraception

Module 7. Spiritual Self

A. Spirituality
B. Nurturing the Spiritual Self
C. Logo therapy
D. Finding Meaning
E. Belief in Spirits

Module 8. Material/Economic Self

A. Effects of Material Possession
B. The Shopaholic

Module 9. Political self

A. Origins of Political Self

Module 10. Digital Self

A. Digital technology
B. Social Networking in the Philippines

PART THREE: Managing and Caring for the Self

Module 11. Learning to be a better student

A. What happens during learning
B. Meta cognition and study strategies
C. Managing your own learning; self-regulated learning

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Module 12. Setting Goal for Success

A. Importance of Goals
B. Goal Setting theory

Module 13. Taking care of one’s health

A. Stress
B. Stress Management
C. Stress and Filipinos

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INTRODUCTION TO
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
As a person, we always have our own definition of who we are. We may see ourselves as
someone better than the others, or sometimes we would interpret our actions and abilities
to being behind or lesser compared to others. On the other hand, the people around us
see as different from how we see ourselves.

Understanding the Self is a General Education course for tertiary education. It aims to
help the students comprehend the concept of identity by exposing them to different
perspectives on how “self” is defined and the factors that influence or shape personal
identity. The course is designed to integrate the concepts and theories which were
discussed and learned inside the classroom to the students, personal daily experiences.

Photo Credit: https://icebreakerideas.com/who-am-i-game/

The course is divided into three parts namely;

The Self from Various Perspectives. The first part discusses the different representations
and conceptualizations of the self from various disciplinal perspectives. It aims to
compare and contrast how the self has been represented across different disciplines and
perspectives. Students will be exposed to examining the different influences, factors, and
forces that shape the self. At the end of this part, the students should be able to
demonstrate critical and reflective thought in analysing the development of one’s self
and identity by developing their own theory of the self.

Unpacking the Self. The second part explores the different aspects of self and identity. It
will help students know how to demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the
various aspects of self and identity. This part also shows the different forces and institutions
that impact the development of various aspects of self and identity. Students should be
able to examine one’s self against the different aspects of self.

Managing and Caring for the Self. The final part will help students the theoretical
concepts in relation to managing and caring for the different aspects of the self. Students
should be able to acquire and hone new skills and learnings for better managing of one’s
self and behaviours. Finally, they should be able to apply these new skills to one’s self
and functioning for a better quality of life.

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MODULE 1

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Learning Outcomes

At the end of the topic, you are expected to:

1. Explain the role of philosophy in understanding the self.

2. Discuss the different concepts of the self from the philosophical perspective.
3. Differentiate the various concepts of the self and identify their similarities.
4. Develop your own philosophy of the self.
What is the Philosophical Self?
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The etymological definition of philosophy is love of wisdom. Philosophy employs

the inquisitive mind to discover the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles of
everything.

The nature of the self is a topic of interest among philosophers. The philosophical
framework for understanding the self was first introduced by ancient Greek
philosophers. What is self and the qualities that define it? Philosophers have
different philosophical views what self is. Is it the soul, the body, the mind, your
actions or your consciousness?

SOCRATES: AN UNEXAMINED LIFE IS NOT WORTH LIVING

Born: Alopece 469–399 B.C.E.

Socrates was a Greek philosopher from Athens
who is credited as one of the founders of Western
philosophy, and as being the first moral
philosopher of the Western ethical tradition of
thought.
Philosophical era: Ancient philosophy Works
written: The Symposium, Apology, The Cavalry
Commander

http://digjamaica.com/m/blog/30-days-of-inspiration-14-
cultivate-self-awareness/

For ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, the self is synonymous with the soul. The
soul is immortal. Socrates believed that every human possessed an immortal soul.

According to Socrates, the care for the soul is the main task of Philosophy. He
asserted that in life, self-knowledge or examining one’s self is essential. This is
because by knowing yourself, you can make the right decisions and eventually
find the path to improving your life. Thus, he coined the phrase “The unexamined
life is not worth living.”

Soul searching must begin at the source of all knowledge and significance – the
self. The Socratic method, the so-called introspection, is a method of carefully
examining our thoughts and emotions – to gain self-knowledge.

Human life does not end at one’s death. Socrates explained that death is the
departure of the soul for the eternal world. One continues to live in the world after
death. In Socrates' concept of Reality, it consists of two dichotomous realms:
physical realm and ideal realm. The physical realm is changeable, transient, and
imperfect. The body belongs to the physical realm. The ideal realm is unchanging,
eternal, and immortal. The soul belongs to the ideal realm. This is also similar to the

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concept of having two types of existence; the visible (physical) and the invisible
(soul). Our preoccupation with bodily needs such as food, drink, sex, pleasure,
material possessions, and wealth keep us from attaining wisdom.

Socrates was the first thinker to focus on the full power of reason on the human
self: who we are, who we should be, and who we will become. The soul strives for
wisdom and perfection, and reason is the soul’s tool to achieve an exalted state
of life.

Life is all about striving to be happy. A person can have a meaningful and happy
life only if he becomes virtuous and knows the value of himself that can be
achieved through constant soul-searching. For him, this is best achieved when
one tries to separate the body from the soul as much as possible. Thus, for
Socrates, the virtuous man is a happy man.

PLATO: THE SOUL IS IMMORTAL

Plato, (born 428/427 BCE, Athens, Greece—died 348/347,

Athens), ancient Greek philosopher, student of Socrates (c.
470–399 BCE), teacher of Aristotle (384–322 BCE), and founder
of the Academy, best known as the author of philosophical
works of unparalleled influence.

https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/
contributors/plato

Plato was a student of Socrates and he believed that the self is synonymous with
the soul. Plato’s philosophy of the self can be explained as a process of self-
knowledge and purification of the soul. His philosophical method was “collection
and division”. In this method, the philosopher would “collect” all the generic ideas
that seemed to have common characteristics and then divide them into different
kinds until the subdivision of ideas become specific. He is best known for his
“Theory of Forms” that asserted the physical world is not really the “real” world
because ultimate reality exist beyond the physical world.

The “soul” is the most divine aspect of the human being. The self/soul/mind is the
aspect of human beings by which ideas (forms) are known.

The self consists of three-parts: reason (the rational), spirit or passion (the spirited)

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and physical appetite (the appetitive). Reason is the divine essence that enables
us to think deeply, make wise choices, and achieve a true understanding of
eternal truths. The spirit or passion includes basic emotions such as love, anger,
ambition, aggressiveness, and empathy. The physical appetite includes our basic
biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and sexual desire.

These three elements of our selves are in a dynamic relationship with one another,
sometimes in conflict. When conflict occurs, Plato believes that it is the
responsibility of our Reason to sort things out and exert control, restoring a
harmonious relationship among the three elements of our selves.

Plato believes that genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who
consistently make sure that their Reason is in control of their Spirits and Appetites.

QUESTION:

Using Plato's view, which part of the body could represent each part of the soul?

ST. AUGUSTINE: I AM DOUBTING, THEREFORE I AM

St. Augustine, also called Saint Augustine of Hippo, original

Latin name Aurelius Augustinus, (born November 13, 354,
Tagaste, Numidia [now Souk Ahras, Algeria]—died August 28,
430, Hippo Regius [now Annaba, Algeria]; bishop of Hippo from
396 to 430, one of the Latin Fathers of the Church and perhaps
the most significant Christian thinker after St. Paul.

Source: brittanica.com

St. Augustine was deeply influenced by Plato's ideas. He integrated the ideas of
Plato and Christianity, and gave the “Theory of Forms” a Christian perspective.
Self for St. Augustine is an immaterial but rational soul. His concept of the “self” is
an inner, immaterial “I” which had self-knowledge and self-awareness. He
developed a more unified perspective on the body and soul. The soul is what
governs and defines the human person or the self. The soul is an important
element of man. The soul is united with the body so that man may be entire and
complete. The physical body is different from and inferior to its inhabitant, the

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immortal soul. Also, the body possessed senses, such as imagination, memory,
reason and mind through which the soul experienced the world
Augustine described that humankind is created in the image and likeness of God.
He believed that God is transcendent and everything created by God who is all
good is good. Therefore, the human person being a creation of God is always
geared towards the good. The goal of every human person is to attain this
communion and bliss with the Divine by living his life in virtue.

The self is known only through knowing God. Self-knowledge is a consequence of

knowledge of God. For Augustine, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth
that dwells within us.” The truth of which Augustine spoke refers to the truth of
knowing God.

God is transcendent and that the self seeks to be united with God through faith
and reason. In Augustine's mission to discover the truth on the existence of God,
he developed the fundamental concept of the human person and thus,
provided the philosophical principle, “I am doubting, therefore I am.”

QUESTION:
If the soul (which knows the “Truth”) governs the body, then why does evil exist?

RENE DESCARTES: I THINK THEREFORE I AM

René Descartes, (born March 31, 1596, La Haye, Touraine,

France—died February 11, 1650, Stockholm, Sweden), French
mathematician, scientist, and philosopher.
He formulated the first modern version of mind-body dualism,
from which stems the mind-body problem, and because he
promoted the development of a new science grounded in
observation and experiment, he has been called the father of
modern philosophy.

Source: brittanica.com

Rene Descartes is regarded as the 1st thinker to emphasize the use of reason to
describe, predict, and understand natural phenomena based on observational
and empirical evidence. He proposed that “doubt” was a principal tool of
diciplinary inquiry, methodolical skepticism, which is a systematic process of being
skeptical about the truth of one's belief to determine which belief could be
ascertained as true

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Descartes famous line is “cogito ergo sum” which means “I think, therefore I am”.
The phrase “I think therefore I am” is the keystone of Descartes’ concept of self.
He asserted that everything perceived by the senses could not be used as proof
of existence. He added that there could only be one thing we could be sure of
in this world and that was everything could be doubted. Therefore, by doubting
our own existence, he proved that there is a thinking entity that is doing the act
of doubting.

For him, the act of thinking about the self – of being self-conscious – is in itself proof
that there is self. For Descartes, the essence of the self – a thinking entity that
doubts, understands, analyzes, questions, and reasons.

Descartes’ claims about the “self” are: (1) it is constant, not prone to change and
not affected by time, (2) only the immaterial soul remains the same throughout
time and (3) the immaterial soul is the source of our identity.

There are two dimensions of the self: (1) the self as a thinking entity and (2) the self
as a physical body. The thinking self (or soul) is the nonmaterial, immortal,
conscious being, and independent of the physical laws of the universe. The
physical body is the material, mortal, non-thinking entity, fully governed by the
physical laws of nature. The soul and body are independent of one another and
each can exist and function without the other.

The self as a thinking entity is distinct from the self as a physical body. In other
words, the thinking self can exist independently of the physical body.

QUESTION:

If it is “I think therefore I am” then what can you say about those who chose not
to doubt?

JOHN LOCKE: THE SELF IS CONSCIOUSNESS

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John Locke, (born August 29, 1632, Wrington, Somerset,

England—died October 28, 1704, High Laver, Essex), English
philosopher whose works lie at the foundation of modern
philosophical empiricism and political liberalism. He was an
inspirer of both the European Enlightenment and the
Constitution of the United States.

Source: brittanica.com

For Locke, the human mind at birth is tabula rasa or blank slate which means that
knowledge is derived from experience. He asserted that the self, or personal
identity, is constructed primarily from senses – or more specifically, what we see,
hear, smell, taste, and feel. These experiences shape and mold the self
throughout a person’s life.

As Descartes described the “self” as a thinking thing, Locke expanded the

definition of “self” to include the memories of that thinking thing. Since “self”
consist of memory, the person now is the same as the person he is yesterday. A
person's memory provide continuity of experience that allows him/her to identify
him/herself as the same person over time. This theory of personal identity allows
Locke to justify a defense of accountability. Therefore, a person who remembers
is always accountable to his past behaviors.

Self-consciousness is necessary to have a coherent personal (self) identity or

knowledge of the self as a person. Consciousness is what makes possible our belief
that we are the same identity in different situations. Using the power of reason
and introspection enables people to understand and achieve accurate
conclusions about the self.

EXERCISE:

Relate John Locke's perspective of the “self” on crimes involving people with
mental illness.

SIGMUND FREUD: THE SELF IS MULTILAYERED

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Sigmund Freud, (born May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Moravia, Austrian

Empire [now Příbor, Czech Republic]—died September 23, 1939,
London, England), Austrian neurologist and the founder of
psychoanalysis.

Source: brittanica.com

Sigmund Freud’s most important contribution is psychoanalysis which is a practice

devised to treat mental illness through dialogue. The “self” according to Freud is
an entity in itself characterized as the subject (the subject, the doer, the topic) of
the physical and mental actions and experiences. He asserted that the self is an
entity that is unified, single, undivided and unaffected by time.

Freud’s work in the field of psychoanalysis as he tackles the concept of the

“psyche” is essential. Psyche is the totality of the human mind, both conscious and
unconscious (Watson, 2014).

The “psyche” (the human soul, mind or spirit) is divided into three levels of
consciousness.
a. Conscious - deals with awareness of what is present
b. pre/sub conscious - data that can readily be brought to consciousness
c. unconscious - data retained but not easily available to the individuals
consciousness

The conscious self is governed by the reality principle and is organized in ways
that are rational, practical, and appropriate. The unconscious contains the basic
instinctual drives that would be considered socially taboo and is governed by the
pleasure principle. Much of the self is determined by the unconscious. The
preconscious is located between the conscious and unconscious part of the self
that is not threatening and is easily brought to mind.

Psychoanalytic Theory is a personality theory based on the notion that an

individual acts due to unseen forces which are governed by the conscious and
rational thought. Freud further structures the psyche/mind into three parts;
a. ID – the id operates on the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920) which is the
idea that every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless

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of the consequences. When the id achieves its demands we experience

pleasure when it is denied we experience ‘unpleasure’ or tension.
It’s that little devil that sits on your shoulder, whispering temptations
and spurring you on. Whenever you see a selfish, spoiled child in the grocery
store demanding a toy and throwing a tantrum if he doesn’t get his way,
you’ll know that’s the id in action!

b. EGO – The ego converts, diverts, and transforms the powerful forces of
the id into more useful and realistic modes of satisfaction. It attempts to
regulate the id in order to achieve satisfaction despite the limits of reality.

c. SUPEREGO - Superego is another name for your conscience. It expects

your ego to be strong and effective in its struggles against the id’s force.
Usually, our conscience comes from our parents or a parental figure.
As we grow, we internalize their standards, those same standards that make
us feel so guilty when we tell a lie or cheat on our taxes. But does everyone
have a conscience?

Source: verywellmind.com

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Source:powerofsubconsciousmindblog.wordpress.com

EXERCISE:

Explain the works of each part of the psyche/mind when you are courting
someone.

DAVID HUME: THERE IS NO SELF

David Hume, (born May 7 [April 26, Old Style], 1711,

Edinburgh, Scotland—died August 25, 1776, Edinburgh),
Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist
known especially for his philosophical empiricism and
skepticism.

Source: brittanica.com

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David Hume is identified with the “bundle theory” wherein he described the “self”
or person as a bundle or collection of different perceptions that are moving in a
very fast and successive manner. He believed that human intellect and
experiences are limited, therefore, it is impossible to attribute it to an independent
persisting entity (soul). For him, the “self” is made up of successive impressions.
Two divisions of mind's perceptions:
1. impressions
2. ideas

Hume asserted that the “self” cannot be verified through observation and what
we directly know are mere objects our senses are experiencing. The “self” is
nothing but a series of incoherent impressions received by our senses thus
perceptions are only active for as long as you are conscious. The “self” is just a
passive observer similar to watching one's life pass before the eyes.

Hume suggests that if people carefully examine their sense experience through
the process of introspection, they will discover that there is no self.

According to Hume, what people experience is just a bundle or collection of

different perceptions, impressions, sensations, ideas, thoughts, and images.

The idea of personal identity is a result of imagination.

QUESTION:

Is love an impression or an idea?

GILBERT RYLE: THE SELF IS THE WAY PEOPLE BEHAVE

Gilbert Ryle, (born August 19, 1900, Brighton, Sussex, England—

died October 6, 1976, Whitby, North Yorkshire), British
philosopher, leading figure in the “Oxford philosophy,” or
“ordinary language,” movement.
Ryle’s first book, The Concept of Mind (1949), is considered a
modern classic. In it he challenges the traditional distinction
between body and mind as delineated by René Descartes.

Source: brittanica.com

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The self is best understood as a pattern of behavior, the tendency or disposition

for a person to behave in a certain way in certain circumstances. Ryle’s concept
of the human self thus provided the philosophical principle, “I act therefore I am.”

In short, the self is the same as bodily behaviour.

PAUL CHURCHLAND: THE SELF IS THE BRAIN

Born October 21, 1942 Vancouver, B.C., Canada

University of Pittsburgh
Main interests Neurophilosophy Philosophy of science
Philosophy of mind Artificial intelligence Epistemology

The self is inseparable from the brain and the physiology of the body. All we have
is the brain and so, if the brain is gone, there is no self. For Churchland, the physical
brain and not the imaginary mind, gives us our sense of self. The mind does not
really exist. It is the brain and not the imaginary mind that gives us our sense of
self. The self is the brain.

ACTIVITY

Reflect on and make a narrative essay on the different philosophical

perspectives.

Which of the philosophy of the self relates to your own belief and explain how
each view impact your self-understanding? What is your own philosophy of self?

MODULE 2

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Learning Outcomes

At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

1. Recognize what sociology and anthropology tells about understanding the

self and others.
2. Understand how individuals view the self as a product of socialization.
3. Explain the theories of the social self.
4. Discuss the self as a product of modern and postmodern societies.
5. Define what is culture, its components and how culture influences the self.
6. Identify different cultural perspectives
7. Appreciate own social and cultural experiences that have been particularly
helpful in understanding the self.

The Self and the Society

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The self is not present at birth. It develops only with social experience wherein
language, gestures, and objects are used to communicate meaningfully. The
sociological perspective of the self is based on the assumption that human
behaviour is influenced by group life.

A particular view of oneself is formed through interactions with other people,

groups, or social institutions. For sociologists like George Herbert Mead and
Charles Horton Cooley, the self is not dependent on biological predispositions;
rather, it is a product of social interaction.

Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley introduced the looking-glass self to highlight

that the people whom a person interacts become a mirror in which he views
himself. Since these perceptions are subjective, there might have wrong
interpretations of how other people evaluate him. It would be critical if he thinks
others judge him unfavorably because he could develop a negative self-image.

George Herbert Mead’s theory of the social self, explained that the self has
two divisions: the “I” and the “me”. The “I” is the subjective element and
the active side of the self. It represents the spontaneous, and unique traits of the
individual. The "I" is the response of the individual to the “Me”. The “Me” is the
objective element of the self. It represents the “internalized” attitudes,
expectations, and demands of other people.

The "Me" is what is learned in interaction with others and with the environment.
The full development of the self is attained when the “I” and the “me” are
united.

The Self as a Product of Modern Societies

According to Gerry Lanuza, in modern societies the attainment and stability of

self identity is freely chosen. It is no longer restricted by customs and traditions. In
postmodern societies, self-identity continuously change due to the demands of
multitude of social contexts, new information technologies, and globalization.

These freedom and changes offer opportunities for self-cultivation but problems
may also arise (e.g. alienation and dehumanization). For instance, it limits the face
to face, close relationships with others especially among family members. It limits
close contact and communication with others.

According to Sociologist Jean Baudrillard, in postmodern societies, individuals

achieve self-identity through prestige symbols that they consume. The cultural
practices of advertising and mass media greatly influence individuals to consume
goods not for their primary value and utility but to give them a feeling of goodness
and power when compared with others.

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The postmodern person has become an insatiable consumer and may

never be satisfied in his life. Thus, the self may be a never-ending search for
prestige in the postmodern society.

Culture and the Self

Culture is that complex whole which consists of knowledge, beliefs, ideas, habits,
attitudes, skills, abilities, values, norms, art, law, morals, customs, traditions, feelings
and other capabilities of man which are acquired, learned and socially
transmitted by man from one generation to another through language and living
together as members of the society.

Characteristics of Culture

Culture is learned. It is acquired through education, training and experience.

Culture is socially transmitted through language. It is transmitted from one
generation to another through the medium of language, verbal or non-verbal
through gestures or signs, orally or in writing.
Culture is adaptive. Through inventions and discoveries, man has been able to
overcome his limitations to outdo other animals.
Culture is material and non-material. Material culture, such as buildings and
machines, are products or outputs of the application of man’s knowledge and
skills, which are basically non-material.
Culture has sanctions and controls. These sanctions could be formal or informal.

Components of Culture

Norms. These are guidelines people are supposed to follow in their relation with
one another; they are shared rules that specify what is right or wrong and the
appropriate and inappropriate behavior. They indicate what people should do
or should not do in a specific situation. They indicate the standards of propriety,
morality, legality and ethics of a society that are covered by sanctions when
violations are made.
Folkways. These are everyday habits, customs, traditions, and conventions people
obey without giving much thought to the matter. People who violate folkways are
labeled as slobs or eccentric but as a rule they are tolerated. Example: barrio folks
eat with bare hands and walk bare footed, city folks eat using spoon and fork
and walk with slippers or shoes.
Mores. These are the norms people consider vital to their well-being and most
cherished values; they are special customs with moral and ethical significance,
which are strongly held and emphasized.

Ideas, Beliefs, Values

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Ideas are non-material aspects of culture and embody man’s conception of his
physical, social and cultural world. Example: idea of a model community, idea of
an educated person, idea of alternative marriage. Beliefs – refers to a person’s
conviction about a certain idea; it embodies people’s perception of reality and
includes the primitive ideas of the universe as well as the scientist’s empirical view
of the world. Example: belief in spirits, belief in gravity, belief in life after death.

Values are abstract concepts of what is important and worthwhile. They are the
general ideas that individuals share about what is good or bad, right or wrong,
desirable and undesirable. They provide the foundation that underlies a people’s
entire way of life.

Different viewpoints/Perspectives on Culture

Cultural Relativism. The concept of cultural relativism states that cultures differ, so
that a cultural trait, act, or idea has no meaning or function by itself but has a
meaning only within its cultural setting. (Horton and Hunt, 1985). Culture is relative,
and no cultural practice is good or bad by itself. Every cultural element must be
received in terms of its meanings, function or significance in the culture which it is
a part. Example: Marriage is monogamy among Christians but polygamy among
Muslims.

Culture Shock. It refers to the feeling of disbelief, disorganization, and frustration

one experiences when he/she encounters cultural patterns or practices which
are different from his. He becomes so accustomed to his/her cultural milieu that
he finds himself/herself disgusted, unsettled, troubled and disoriented when
he/she enters another society with a different culture.

Ethnocentrism. It refers to the tendency to see the behaviors, beliefs, values and
norms of one’s own group as the only right way of living and to judge others by
those standards. It is the feeling of superiority for one’s own culture and to consider
other cultures as inferior, wrong, strange or queer.

Xenocentrism. This refers to the idea that what is foreign is best and that one’s
lifestyle, products or ideas are inferior to those of others.

Noble savage mentality. It refers to the evaluation of one’s culture and that of
others based on the romantic notion that the culture and the way of life of the
primitives or other simple cultures is better, more acceptable, and more orderly.
Example: Some urbanites say that rural lifestyle is better because they have simple
need.

Causes of cultural change

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Discovery. It refers to the process of finding a new place or an object, artifact or

anything that previously existed. It also refers to the initial awareness of existing
but formerly unobserved relationships of elements of nature to human life.
Example: discovery of fire led to the art of cooking, discovery of oil, sources of
energy, diseases, etc.

Invention. It implies a creative mental process of devising, creating and

producing something new, novel or original. It also implies the utilization and
combination of previously known elements to produce an original or novel
product. Example: Invention of government system, language, democracy,
religion, alphabet, etc.

Diffusion. It refers to the spread of cultural traits (e.g., religious beliefs,

technological ideas, language forms, etc.) or social practices from a society or
group to another belonging to the same society or to another through direct
contact with each other and exposure to new forms.

Colonization. It refers to the political, social and political policy of establishing a

colony which would be subject to the rule or governance of the colonizing state.
It is politically termed as imperialism. Example: Hispanization of Filipino culture,
American global hegemony.

Rebellion and Revolutionary Movements. These aim to change the whole social
order and replace the leadership. They challenge the existing folkways and mores
and propose a new scheme of norms, values, and organization. Revolutionary
movements involve more radical, if not violent, changes in the community.
Example: 1986 Philippine Revolution, EDSA Revolution, Oakwood mutiny.

ACTIVITY

Write a reflection paper on the documentary enitled “Ang Huling Prinsesa”

which was created by GMA 7’s by Kara David.

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MODULE 3

http://www.madorbad.com/introduction-to-self-psychology/

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, you are expected to:
1. Define and describe the different concepts of self.
2. Differentiate the various concepts of the self and identify their interrelationships.
3. Explain how the concepts of self-influence behavior.
4 Apply concepts of self in one’s life to develop self-awareness and self-
understanding.

This topic presents the psychological theories that influence the way people
understand the self and the growth process to live life to the full. Understanding

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of the self is highest when the different parts of the self becomes integrative. An
important aspect of understanding the self is self-awareness.

WILLIAM JAMES' CONCEPT OF SELF: THE ME-SELF AND THE I-SELF

The self is divided into two categories: the "I-Self" and the "Me-Self". The "I-Self"
refers to the self that knows who he or she is. James believed that the "I-Self" is the
thinking self. The “I-Self” reflects the soul of a person or what is now thought of as
the mind and is called the pure ego.
The "Me-Self" is the empirical self. It refers to describing the person’s personal
experiences and further divided into subcategories: material self, social self, and
spiritual self.

The material self consists of things that belong to a person such as the body,
clothes, house etc. The social self refers to whom and how a person acts on social
situations.

The spiritual self refers to the most intimate and important part of the self that
includes the person’s purpose, motives, emotions, values, conscience, and moral
behavior.

James believed that the path to understanding the spiritual self is through
introspection.

CARL ROGERS’ SELF THEORY: REAL AND IDEAL SELF

Another aspect of self-understanding is self-concept. Self-concept refers to the
image of oneself. Psychologist Carl Rogers defined the self as a flexible and
changing perception of personal identity.
The self develops from interactions with significant people and self-awareness.
According to Rogers, human beings are always striving for self-fulfillment, or self-
actualization.

When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety may result. Central to
achieving self-actualization is the development of self-concept. Rogers suggest
that there are two components of self-concept: real self and ideal self.
Real self consists of all the ideas, including the awareness of ‘what I am’ and ‘what
I can do’.

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The ideal self is the person’s conception of what one should be or wanted to be
that includes one’s goals and ambitions in life. The closer (congruent) the ideal
self is to the real self, the more fulfilled and happy the individual becomes. The
farther (incongruent) the ideal self is to the real self leads to unhappy and
dissatisfied person.
MULTIPLE VERSUS UNIFIED SELF
Self-understanding in adolescents also includes conceptualizing the self as
multiple or unified and true or false. The construction of multiple selves varies
across different roles and relationships.
Coping with different selves constitutes a formidable task among adolescents.
These challenges contribute heavily to the young person’s struggle for a unified
self.

TRUE VERSUS FALSE SELF

Winnicott suggests that the self is composed of the true self and the false self. The
function of the false self is to hide and protect the true self. People tend to display
a false self to impress others. The self can change depending on situations.
THE SELF AS PROACTIVE AND AGENTIC
Albert Bandura suggests that humans have the ability to act and make things
happen. In his theory of the self, people are viewed as proactive agents of
experiences. Agency embodies the endowments, belief systems, self-regulatory
capabilities, and structures and functions through which personal influence is
exercised, rather than residing as a distinct entity.
The main agentic features of human agency are: intentionality, forethought, self-
reactive ness, and self-reflectiveness. Intentionality refers to acts done
intentionally. Forethought enables the person to anticipate the likely
consequences of prospective; actions.
Self-reactiveness enables the person to make choices and choose appropriate
courses of action, as well as motivate and regulate their execution. Self-
reflectiveness gives the person the ability to reflect upon oneself and the
adequacy of one's thoughts and actions.
People are not only agents of action but self-examiners of their own functioning.
Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of human agency. Self-efficacy refers to the
individual’s belief that he or she is capable to perform a task. It influences whether
people think pessimistically or optimistically and in ways that are self-enhancing
or self-hindering. Efficacy beliefs play a central role in self-regulation.

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THE SELF AS THE CENTRAL ARCHETYPE

Jung suggested that the psyche continues to develop throughout life, but the
psyche starts to show a definite form and content during adolescence. Jung
conceived the structure of personality (psyche) as a complex network of
interacting systems that strive toward harmony. The main systems are: ego,
personal unconscious, and collective unconscious.
The ego is one's conscious mind, the part of the psyche that includes perceptions,
thoughts, feelings, and memories that may enter consciousness. It is through the
ego that we establish sense of stability.
Personal unconscious includes the repressed and forgotten experiences. The
collective unconscious consists of the fundamental elements of the human
psyche that includes experiences all humans share or in common.
Within the collective unconscious lie archetypes. Central to Carl Jung’s theory of
the self is the concept of archetype. An arechetype is a universal thought form
or predisposion to respond to the world in certain ways. The archetype represents
the hidden potentialities of the psyche, or total personality. For Jung, there are
four major archetypes: persona, shadow, animus/anima, and self.
The persona refers to social roles that individuals present to others. The shadow
refers to the repressed thoughts that are unacceptable. This archetype is often
considered as the dark side of the psyche.
The anima is the feminine side of the male psyche while the animus is the
masculine side of the female psyche. The self is the central archetype that unites
all parts of the psyche. The ego is the individual’s conscious perception of the self.
SIGMUND FREUD’S CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND PERSONALITY
According to Sigmund Freud, there are three structures of personality: id, ego,
and superego. The id is the pleasure-seeking side, immature, impulsive, child-like
and
cannot delay gratification. It has no regard of others and the law. The ego refers
to the “I” and works on the reality principle, controls the id, and can delay
pleasure. The ego can conform with existing societal consideration. The superego
refers to the “conscience” and “moral judge” of conduct. Violation of rules lead
to guilt feelings. It strives for perfection rather than pleasure.
It appears that the id is the devil within the self, the superego is the angel, and
ego is the person in the middle. The id, ego, and superego are often in conflict
with each other. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego's ability to
resolve the conflict between the three structures. If this constant state of conflict
is unresolved, personality problems may arise.

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In Freud’s view, the id, ego, and superego develop in a series of stages. Freud
called these the psychosexual stages of development that progresses through
five stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Each of the stage is
associated with conflicts that the individual must resolved so that he or she can
successfully forward to the next stage.
Freud also believed that each stage has needs and dissatisfaction of needs may
result in fixation which could have lasting negative effects on personality.
The first stage is the oral stage, which lasts from birth up to the first year of life.
During this stage, babies derive pleasure from oral activities like sucking and
biting. Overindulgence of the oral needs may lead to oral incorporative
personality disorder such as overeating, smoking, and alcoholism while
dissatisfaction may lead to oral aggressive personality disorder such as sarcasm
and tactlessness.
The next stage is anal stage, which occurs around the second year of life. During
this stage, the child derives pleasure from the elimination of body wastes. Through
toilet training, the child learns the basic rules of society. Anal fixations can lead to
anal retentive personality disorder such as obsession with cleanliness or anal
expulsion personality disorder such as clumsiness.
Freud called the third stage, phallic stage, which usually occurs around the ages
of 3 and 6. Children during this stage derive pleasure from examining, touching,
fondling, or displaying their genitals, or others. These behaviors are likely
motivated by curiosity on the differences between the anatomy of man and
woman. Sex curiosity will remain high during the elementary years and children
tend to ask questions with regard to anatomical structures, sex, and how babies
are made. During this stage, parents and teachers need to properly educate the
children about sexuality. Fixations at this stage may lead to abnormal sex
behaviors in later life.
The fourth stage is the latency stage, which lasts from 7 to 1 2. At this stage, sexual
energy is repressed because children become busy with school.
The last stage is genital stage, which starts from adolescence to adulthood.
During this stage, pleasure is again derived from the genital area and individuals
seek to satisfy their sexual drives from sexual relationships. Sexual problems may
result as a consequence of inappropriate sex behaviors.

THE ROLE OF ERIK ERIKSON’S THEORY IN UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Another important aspect of self-understanding involves views of identity
development of the self.

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In Erik Erikson’s theory, adolescence stage is a period of identity development.

Identity formation is usually viewed as a process that requires adolescents to
distance themselves from the strong expectations and definitions imposed by
parents and other family members
To achieve an individual identity, one must create a vision of the self that is
authentic and having hold of one’s destiny in an effort to reach goals that are
personally meaningful. Erikson’s theory proposes that individuals go through eight
psychosocial stages of development.
While Erikson believed that each stage is important, he gave a particular
emphasis on the development of the ego. The ego is the positive force that
contributes to identity formation and lay the foundation for certain strengths and
virtues in life. Each stage consists of developmental tasks that one needs to
accomplish in order to develop successfully.
During each stage, the person experiences life crisis which could have negative
consequences if not properly resolved.

ACTIVITIES
Which of the basic concepts described in the preceding theories that you think
applies to you the most. Did your study of the different theories of the self leads
you to change any of your perceptions about yourself? Did the theories of the self
leads you to recognize your strengths and weaknesses? How does the lesson
foster self-understanding and development?
One way to learn about the self is by using self-assessment measures.
Understand more about yourself and gain insights about your strengths by taking
the survey of character strengths.

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MODULE 4.

http://outlookafghanistan.net/topics.php?post_id=9140

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, you are expected to:
1. Know the difference between the self in Eastern versus Western though
2. Have exposure to individualistic culture.
3. Know the collective culture.
4. Identify the difference between and individualistic versus collective self.

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The Self in Eastern Thought

If we assume that the religious tradition was the mainstream in the east, accepting
the concept of a superior being (Allah, Nibbana, Ha Shem, Lord, etc) was a
necessity for being religious. As a follower, you should live in a way that God
demands.
Every single aspect of a follower's life will be defined by the concepts of
obedience, submission, and dedication. They should surround their will to the
Lord’s irresistible one. The ultimate aim of a worshiper is the contentment and the
satisfaction of the worshiped. How? By eliminating their will and following His
commandments. Denial of their personal self and becoming a God-
oriented self is the first step toward His eternal and glorious kingdom.
As an eastern, the concept of the "self" stands for something which always exists
somewhere out of you. You are not an individual person anymore, but a servant
who serves along with His other servants. So in the east, the community of the
followers is always more important than individuals. The Ummah of Islam, the
nation of the Jehovah, the Church of Christianity, the Sangha of Buddhism are
some of these communities which their interests always come first, so the followers
need sometimes even sacrifice themselves to protect it. In one word, "self"
direction in the east is outward.

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The Self in Western Thought

The Self in the Western thought is generally seen as possessing no belief in kind of
personal god(s) or at least not a god who is able to change the human ways of
life. Their approach to the world was formed around a materialistic view with a
rational realism that seeks the reality of the nature of everything by studying their
attributes and properties.
The human being was part of this world, the only difference about human was his
cognition and awareness. The human is the only creature who can be studied by
very him/herself. The journey of the western people into the depth of their most
inner labyrinth of "self" started right here.
Looking to the ancient Greek and its political system based on a kind of
democracy (although slaves, women, and a majority of low-level citizens couldn't
vote!) shows the importance of the concept of individuality. Even the aristocracy
of Plato had a kind of self-oriented approach to governing over the political
system, however, it wasn't based on the people votes but it is highly depended
on elite individual's opinions over the issues.
While in the east the vote only belongs to the God or His messengers or a council
of his chosen servants which decided based on His will which interpreted through
His revealed message, not based on worshipper's opinion. We can see the sparks
of what we call humanism in the enlightenment era back in ancient Greek. The
well-being and joyful life of the individuals (not the society unless we consider
society a gathering of the individuals) are the main priority of western societies.
You should make yourself happy in this world, It's the ultimate goal of life. In one
word, "self" direction in the west is inward.

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Individualistic Cultures
Individualistic cultures, such as North American and Western European countries,
are characterized by a cultural perspective that emphasizes the uniqueness of
the individual’s personal characteristics, needs, and motives as the focal point of
predicting and understanding the individual’s actions.
In contrast to collectivistic cultures, individualistic cultures place more emphasis
on the expression and satisfaction of the individual’s needs than on conformity to
public norms. These cultures are sometimes described as ‘complex’ societies
because people have considerable societal flexibility to join many different
groups and exercise a wide range of choices in the expression of various social
roles. For example, in American society, although parents might have certain
expectations of their children to go to college, the children are relatively free to
choose a major that reflects their personal needs and interests. Due to their
emphasis on the expression of the needs and desires of the individual, such
complex, individualistic cultures illustrate the proverb ‘the squeaky wheel gets the
grease’.
Collectivistic Cultures
In contrast to individualistic cultures, collectivistic cultures such as Japan, India,
and China tend to be characterized by a cultural perspective that places less
emphasis on the uniqueness of the individual’s personal characteristics as the
focal point of predicting and understanding the individual’s actions. Instead, such
cultures place more of an emphasis on the person’s identification with a group,
such as family, country, occupation, or caste, and the expectations, duties, and
roles associated with being a member of a group as the primary source for
understanding the individual. These cultures appear as ‘tight’ societies because
of the high expectations they place on people to conform to societal values,
roles, and norms. For example, even though she may not like studying economics,
a young Japanese college student may pursue a career as an economist to fulfill
the wishes of the elder members of her family. Due to their restrictive nature, such
tight, collectivistic cultures illustrate the proverb ‘the nail that stands out gets
pounded down’.
These descriptions of individualistic and collectivistic cultures represent general
patterns of thinking and behavior associated with certain cultural guidelines. As a
point of clarification, within any given culture there will be personal expression by
individuals who do not conform to such cultural guidelines. More specifically,
even in tight, collectivistic cultures there will be those individuals whose actions
reflect to a greater degree their personal needs, motives, and values. For
example, even in highly repressive cultures, there will be those individuals who will
pursue their academic interests (e.g., study forbidden texts), creative passions

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(e.g., play music), and/or political views (e.g., anti-government protesting) that
are at odds with the cultural guidelines.

ACTIVITY
Write about;
1. your own experience in visiting another province or region. Describe the
differences in culture that they have observed.
2. your shared experiences with the people they visited in other towns or
provinces.

References:
https://www.quora.com/What-are-Eastern-and-Western-perspectives-about-
self
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2304/plat.2012.11.3.413

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MODULE 5

Photo Credits: http://marell-lawfirm.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/mirror-image-rule-pic.jpg

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, you are expected to:

1 . Understand the stages of life and explain the physical changes that occur
during each stage.
2. Identify the contributions of genetic and environmental factors on physical
development of the self.
3. Describe the factors that affect body image.
4. Examine the impact of culture on body image and self.
5. Develop a positive body image.

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THE PHYSICAL SELF

The physical self refers to the body. The basic parts of the bod y are the head,
neck, chest, arms, and legs. It is also made up of other organs such as the brain,
heart, lungs, stomach, intestines, bones, and muscles. These organs work together
to perform many of its functions such as breathing, walking, and dancing. The
body's ability to perform its functions gradually changes through the years. In
general, the body performs its functions least well during infancy and old age.
Physical efficiency generally peaks in early adulthood between the ages of
twenty and thirty, and then slowly declines into the middle age. Physical
development and growth during childhood continues at a slow rate compared
with rapid rate of growth in babyhood.
Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty. This stage is characterized by
rapid physical changes that includes the maturation of the reproductive system.
Each individual goes through a succession of developmental stages.
Life span is the development from conception to death. Elizabeth B. Hurlock
outlined the stages in the life span:

Stage Age
Prenatal fertilization to birth
Infancy birth to 2 weeks of life
Babyhood 2 weeks of life to 2nd year
Early Childhood 2 to 6
Late Childhood 6 to 10 or 12
Puberty 10 or 12 to 14
Adolescence 14 to 18
Early Adulthood 18 to 40
Middle Adulthood 40 to 60
Late Adulthood or senescence 60 to death

Two Factors Affecting Physical Growth and Development

Physical growth and development is the product of heredity and environment.
Heredity is the biological process of transmission of traits from parents to
offspring.
Environment refers to the factors to which the individual is exposed after
conception to death which includes learning and experiences.
Environmental factors such as diet, nutrition, and diseases play an important role
in physical development.

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The sex and other physical traits are determined by the combination of
chromosomes and genes during fertilization.
Fertilization is the union of egg and sperm cell. Chromosomes are thread like
tissues that carries the genes, and are usually found in pairs. There are 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
Chromosomes are classified as autosomes or trait chromosomes (22
pairs) and gonosome or sex chromosome. The sex of the offspring depends on
the pairing of the sex chromosomes (23rd) from the father and mother.

Genes are the basic carrier of hereditary traits. Genes are classified as dominant
(strong genes) and recessive (weak genes).
BODY IMAGE
Body image refers to how individuals perceive, think, and feel about their body
and physical appearance. Appearance refers to everything about a person
that others can observe such as height, weight, skin color, clothes, and hairstyle.
Through appearances, people show others the kind of persons they are. It
appears that body image is related to self-esteem.
Self- esteem is a person's overall evaluation of his or her own worth. Adolescents
worry about different parts of their bodies. Younger women and girls tend to
have poor body image. Body image can affect both the adolescent’s physical
and psychological well being.
Causes of Poor Body Image
Parents emphasis on thin ideal body lead girls to experience body dissatisfaction.
Bullying and peer pressure have been associated with greater body
dissatisfaction. Media such as television, advertisements, music, and movies. They
are filled with good-looking faces, making women and men more concerned
with physical attractiveness. The result is that it can cause a great deal of money
to pay for the physical attractiveness that women and men want to achieve. The
reality, however, is that the standards of beauty presented in the media are so
unrealistic.
Effects of Poor Body Image
Girls who have higher body dissatisfaction are likely to experience depression,
low self-esteem, and eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in
which the person refuses to eat for fear of gaining weight which can result in
severe starvation and death. The disorder mostly afflicts females between the
ages of 1 2 and 40, although men may also develop it. A related disorder is

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bulimia in which the person induces purging after binging on large quantities of
food.
Body Modification
Some people desperately change their physical appearance through body
modification. Tattooing, permanent makeup, body piercing, cosmetic surgery
are forms of body modification.
CONCEPT OF BEAUTY
In Egyptian art, beauty is portrayed in women with slim, high waist, narrow hips,
and long black hair. Women with full figure and rounded hips was considered
beautiful during the renaissance period.
Some tribes (e.g., Africa) during the medieval age consider chubby, fat, or plump
women beautiful. People in Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia considered flat
noses to be the most attractive.
THE IMPORTANCE OF BEAUTY
Standards of beauty have changed over time based on changing cultural
values. All cultures have, more or less, the same concept standards of beauty
have changed over time based on changing cultural values.
Generally, humans who have clean and unblemished skin, thick shiny hair, well
proportioned bodies, and symmetrical faces, have traditionally been considered
the most beautiful.
Beauty is considered important throughout history. This is because these features
indicate youth, health, good genes, and fertility. Beauty is important in all
societies. Attractive people have a lot of advantages in life. For example, men
tend to seek attractive women as mates.
Studies have shown that men and women who are physically attractive have
more opportunities such as job, promotion, and income. Also, people tend to
view attractive people as good, happier, smarter, and better people.
Generally, unattractive people are less liked and assisted. Above all things
physical, it is more important to be beautiful in the inside.

ACTIVITY:
Interview 5 persons and have them define what is physical beauty.

MODULE 6

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https://i0.wp.com/www.naturalhealthfertility.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/baby-making-vs-love-making.jpg?fit=1000%2C668&ssl=1

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, you are able to:

1.Explain the development of sex characteristics and human reproductive system

2.Describe the erogenous zones and understand human sexual response
3.Understand attraction, love, and attachment
4.Explain sexual orientation
5.Identify the causes and consequences of sexually transmitted infections and
early pregnancy.
6.Reflect on the importance of contraception and Reproductive Health Law.

At the outset, it should be clear that when approaching this topic on the sexual

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self, it should not just be as a biological process, but as a preparation to entering

into and sustain an intimate, happy, and long-time relationships in the future.

DEVELOPMENT OF SEX CHARACTERISTICS AND THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The beginning of adolescence is marked by rapid physical changes, including

the maturation of the reproductive system and development of the primary and
secondary sex characteristics.

The primary sex characteristics are physical characteristics that are present at
birth.

In women, these characteristics include the vagina, uterus, and ovaries.

In men, the primary sex characteristics include the penis, testes or testicles, and
the scrotum.

The secondary sex characteristics develop during the onset of puberty. For
females is the onset of the menstrual cycle, widening of hips, enlargement of
buttocks, and growth of pubic hair. Testicular growth, sperm production,
appearance of facial, pubic, and other body hair, and deepening of voice are
some of the first signs of puberty in men.

During puberty, testosterone and other androgens stimulate the development of

primary and secondary sex characteristics and also increase sex drive. The level
of testosterone production is fairly constant.

In women, the ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone as well as small

amount of testosterone. Estrogen promotes female reproductive capacity and
secondary sex characteristics.
The production of female sex hormones follows a cyclical pattern, on an
approximately 28-day monthly cycle.

The greatest production/n occurs during ovulation period, when an egg is

released from the ovaries. The two ovaries produce, store, and release egg cells
during ovulation. Ovulation period can occur 14 days after the beginning of the
menstrual period.

The reproductive system is a system of sex organs designed for reproduction or

sexual function.

The female reproductive system comprises the two ovaries, the fallopian tubes,
the uterus, the vagina, and the clitoris.

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The male reproductive system includes the penis, the testes, the scrotum, the
prostate gland, the seminal vesicles, the vas deferens, and the epididymis.

SEXUAL AROUSAL AND EROGENOUS ZONES: WHAT TURNS PEOPLE ON

Human sexual arousal may be produced by direct stimulation of the body’s

erogenous zones.

According to Freud, erogenous zones are areas of the body that provide
pleasure. Erogenous zones include the genitals, mouth, breast, ears, anus, and to
a lesser degree, the entire surface of the body.

One of the most basic sexual stimulation is masturbation or self-stimulation that

causes sexual pleasure or orgasm. Other sexual activities such as intimate kissing,
cuddling, necking, petting, or touching the erogenous zones may be uniquely
important to sexual arousal.

In many species, sexual arousal is loosely tied to variations in hormonal levels; in

humans, however, hormones play less of a role. In one sense, the brain is where
sexual desire originates and where sexual behavior is controlled.

Cognitive factors thus play an important role in sexual arousal in humans. Culture
also influences the expression of sexual desire.

THE PHASES OF SEXUAL RESPONSE

William Masters and Virginia Johnson use the term sexual-response cycle to
describe the changes that occur in the body as men and women become
sexually aroused. They divide the sexual -response cycle into four phases:
excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

The excitement phase is the beginning of sexual arousal and can last from one
minute to several hours. Pulse rate increases, blood pressure rises, breathing
quickens, and the skin shows a rosy flush particularly on the chest and breast areas
during this phase. The nipples harden and erect in both men and women. In men,
the penis becomes erect, the skin of the scrotum thickens, and the testes increase
in size. In women, the clitoris swells, the lips of the vagina open, and the inside of
the vagina moistens in preparation for sexual intercourse.

In the plateau phase, the changes in the body are continued. In men, the penis
becomes more erect, the circumference of its head increases, and releases few
drops of fluid. In women, the outer part of the vagina swells
with increased amounts of blood to that area, while the clitoris retracts under the

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clitoral hood but remains highly sensitive. The outer lips of the vagina become
redder in color. Breathing becomes more rapid, heart rate increases, body
temperature rises, and blood pressure increases during this stage.

During the orgasmic phase, the orgasmic contractions of the muscles in and
around the penis stimulate the release of the semen which contains the sperm
cells. Men usually achieve one intense orgasm. In women, orgasm involves the
contraction of the pelvic muscles that surround the vaginal walls and can happen
multiple times.

In the resolution phase, the body returns to its normal state after orgasm. In men
the erection is lost, the testes decrease in size, and the skin of the scrotum thins
again. In women, the clitoris, the color of the outer lips of the vagina, and the lips
of the vagina return to its normal state.

ATTRACTION, LOVE, AND ATTACHMENT

During adolescence, dating and courtship emerge and become increasingly

important. Puberty is a stage when many boys and girls experience their first
sexual attraction.

Romantic love is especially important among college students. Attraction is a

positive attitude held by one person toward another person. Initial attraction is
influenced by social norms, physical attractiveness, and process of interpersonal
exchange.

Psychologist Robert Sternberg suggests that there are three components of love:
intimacy, passion, and commitment. The intimacy component refers to the
feelings of closeness, connectedness, and bondedness.

The passion component refers to the drives that lead to romance, physical
attraction, and sexual consummation. Commitment component refers to th9e
decision to love and the commitment to maintain that love. Attachment may
also be called affectionate or companionate love.

SEXUAL ORIENTATION

Sexual orientation refers to a person’s sexual and romantic interests either people
of the opposite sex or people of the same sex. The most common sexual
orientation is heterosexual, in which people are sexually attracted to members of
the opposite sex. In homosexual orientation, people are attracted to and
interested in relationship with people of the same sex.

Men with a homosexual orientation are referred to as gay while women with

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homosexual orientation are referred to as lesbians. Bisexual people are attracted

to both men and women. Transgender people are those who believe they were
born with the body of the opposite sex. Thus, some seek sex change operation.
Transsexual people are those whose genitals are surgically removed and are
fashioned as the genitals of the desired gender.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STIs) AND EARLY PREGNANCY

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) or sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are

diseases that are contracted primarily through sexual contact (vaginal, oral, or
anal sex). STIs are increasing health problems. Some STIs affect the sex organs
themselves, whereas others have broader and more life-threatening effects.

The bacterial infections are treatable with antibiotics, but those caused by viruses
are more difficult to treat and are often incurable such as HIV/AIDS. STIs
commonly include human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (HIV/AIDS), gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, genital herpes, and genital
warts.

Anyone who is sexually active is at risk to sexually transmitted infections. Hence,

sexually active persons should practice safe sex.

However, it is important to remember that not having sex can be the safest sex
method to avoid all forms of sexually transmitted infections as well as other sexual
problems such as early pregnancy.

METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION AND THE REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH LAW

Contraception refers to methods that are used to prevent pregnancy. Some

methods of contraception such as condom can also be used to prevent some
sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Other common methods of contraception
available in the Philippines include intrauterine device or IUD, birth control
injection, withdrawal method, calendar method, cervical mucus or the Billings
method.

Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012 or otherwise known

as Reproductive Health Law or RH Law, is a law that guarantees universal access
to methods of contraception, fertility control, sexual education, and maternal
care.

The RH bill provides for "prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS and other, STIs/STDs"
The Reproductive Health Law or RH Law aims to keep couples and especially
women, well-informed about available family planning methods that they can
freely use depending on their needs and beliefs. As well, it aims to promote

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adolescent and youth health and propagate information on sexuality and

reproductive health through proper care and sex education.

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MODULE 7.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PmuFF36uIxk

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the chapter, you are able to:

1. Demonstrate understanding of the spiritual self.

2. Explain the importance of spirituality in one’s life.
3. Discuss how spirituality is connected to religion.
4. Describe how spirituality develops.
5. Identify the different spiritual beliefs of indigenous people in the Philippines.

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Spirituality

The root meaning of spirituality is taken from the Latin word spiritus, meaning
breath or life force. Spirituality can be understood as a search for the sacred, a
process through which people seek to discover, hold on to, and, when necessary,
transform whatever they hold sacred in their lives. The sacred could refer to God
and transcendence.

The term "spirituality" originally developed in early Christianity. Christians use the
term " Spirit" to describe the Holy Spirit. In Christian Ethics, the experience of the
sacred is characterized by reverence, faith, fear, trust, love and admiration
which is intimately connected to God.

Worship is regarded as an essential act to realize the ultimate meaning of

transcendence and human life. Acts of worship may include prayer, reading the
bible, attending sacraments, and doing sacrifices. Through acts of faith, hope,
and love, man is able to encounter God and understand God’s words of
salvation.

Spiritual Self

The spiritual aspect of the self is the inner essence, the part of the self that
connects the person to the sacred, the supernatural, and the universe. People
develop spirituality through interaction, observation, and imitation. The family,
school, and church play a very important role in the child’s spiritual development.

The Importance of Understanding and Nurturing the Spiritual Self

Understanding and nurturing the spiritual self is as important as the other aspects
of the self. Understanding and developing awareness of the spiritual self gives the
person a feeling of oneness with God and the universe. It also gives a deeper
purpose or meaning of one’s life.

All religions recognize the importance of spirituality in one’s life. Spirituality is

connected with religion. To know God is the central function of
religion. Religious beliefs and practices make people closer to God.

Logotherapy and the Search for Meaning of Life

Viktor Frankl’s personal experiences in the Nazi concentration camps during World
War II led him to develop the basic tenets of logotherapy.
Frankl embraced both the bright and darkside of human existence and believed

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that human sufferings could contribute to human achievement and meaning in

life.

Logotherapy is also the pursuit of human existence as well as on mans’ search for
such a meaning. Logos is a Greek word that denotes meaning.

In logotherapy, man can discover the meaning in life in three different ways: by
doing a deed, by experiencing a value, and by suffering.

Belief in Spirits

Spirituality is also associated with animism. As the child embodies spiritual beliefs
about God and the sacred; it also includes the primitive concept about
animism.

Animism or the belief that creatures, objects, and places possess spirits. Despite of
all the scientific progress and technological advancements, existence of
animism still remains. Among the sources of animism is ignorance or lack of
education especially in distant and isolated places.

The other source of animism is the lack of faith in God. However, one must admit
that there are forces in this world that are unusual and cannot be explained by
science and modern technology.

ACTIVITY

Choose between the movies “Life of Pi” and “The Da Vinci Code”. Watch it and
write a reflection paper about the movie. Focus your discussion on the concepts
of religion and spirituality.

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MODULE 8

Photo Credits:https://www.wintrustbank.com/small-business/resources/financial-education/2018/02/eight
-steps-to-stop-overspending-when-you-dont-know-where-to-start.html

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the students are able to:
1. Develop understanding about material self.
2. Describe the basic components of material self.
3. Discuss the influence of media in material possessions.
4. Develop qualities of a wise buyer.

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Material Self
According to William James, the material self is the: “sum total of all that he can
call his, not only his body and his psychic powers, but his clothes and his house,
his wife and children, his ancestors and friends, his reputation and works, his lands,
and yacht and bank-account. All these things give him the same emotions. If they
wax and prosper, he feels triumphant; if they dwindle and die away, he feels cast
down - not necessarily in the same degree for each thing, but in much the
same way for all.”
A person’s possessions like the body, family, clothes, money, house, car, and other
tangible objects make up the material self. The basic component of the material
self includes the body. One of the tasks of adolescents is that of accepting and
appreciating the physical characteristics of their body.
Few adolescents are able to do this successfully. Adolescents tend to worry about
their bodies and physical appearance. Another component of the material self is
the clothes that people wear.
Clothes represent the self. The style and brand of clothes becomes a symbolic
significance. The material component of the self can include books, bed, money,
car, house and other things that a person can call his own possession. The material
components of the self also includes people such as immediate and extended
family members (my family) as well as close friends (my friend) that the person
feels psychologically connected. These people are likely to shape and influence
the development of self and identity.
Pets could also symbolically define a person’s identity. A person’s pet could be
an expression of one’s social status, pride, and prestige.
Effects of Material Possessions
Regardless of how much or how little material possessions people have, they
are interested in material possessions. Possessions can be used as status symbol.
Cars, house, gadgets, and clothes are the most valuable possessions because
they are the most visible in the eyes of others.
The more expensive, the more other people are impressed. Material possessions
can be a reflection of hard work and success.
People tend to measure success through material possessions. Material
possessions can make people more motivated to work harder to achieve
them.

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Defining the self by material possessions can also contribute to feelings of well-
being , including a sense of personal growth and purpose or meaning in life.
However, lack or loss of material possessions can be disruptive to the mental
health of some people.
The strong desire for material possessions could have negative effects. Materialism
is the importance people give on material possessions. Someone with a high level
of materialism is called materialistic.
A materialistic person is excessively concerned with the acquisition of material
possessions. The strong desire for material possessions could lead to psychological
dysfunction or impairment in functioning such as compulsive buying disorder
(CBD) which is characterized by an obsession with shopping and buying
behaviors that causes adverse consequences (e.g. debts).
Psychologists are identifying social and cultural factors that seem strongly
implicated in the etiology of materialism.
According to Shopaholics Anonymous, there are different types of shopaholics,
and they are as follows:
1. Compulsive shopaholics who shop when they are feeling emotional distress
2. Trophy shopaholics who are always shopping for the perfect item
3. Shopaholics who want the image of being a big spender and love flashy items
4. Bargain seekers who purchase items they don’t need because they are on sale
5. Bulimic shoppers who get caught in a vicious cycle of buying and returning
6. Collectors who don’t feel complete unless they have one item in each color or
every piece of a set

As they shop, their brain releases endorphins and dopamine, and over time, these
feelings become addictive. Some people develop shopping addictions because they
essentially get addicted to how their brain feels while shopping.

Some of the other emotional symptoms you may notice from a shopaholic
include the following:
1. Spending more than they can afford
2. Shopping as a reaction to feeling angry or depressed
3. Shopping as a way to feel less guilty about a previous shopping spree
4. Harming relationships due to spending or shopping too much
5. Losing control of the shopping behavior

Lack or loss of material possessions could lead to anxiety, insecurity, and

depression. Thus, when a person is about to make a purchase, he should ask
himself/herself a very important question: DO I REALLY NEED THIS?!

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ACTIVITY
Watch and reflect on the movie entitled, “Confessions of a Shoppaholic”.

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MODULE 9

http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2014/07/28/1351269/group-seeks-50-cut-power-rate?nomobile=1

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, you are able to:

1. Describe the nature, functions, and origins of political self.

2. Discuss the role of family, school, church, peer groups, and media in the
development of political self.
3. Determine the importance of social interaction in political self.
4. Identify and describe the theoretical perspectives in the development of
political self.

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What is the Political Self?

As an essential part of the self, the political self organizes self-relevant information
about politics. The political self is an essential part of the self because it constitutes
knowledge about the Constitution, government, and governance.
The political self helps in defining the structure and functions of the government;
in telling the relationship between the State and the citizens; and in describing
their rights, freedom, and obligations as citizens. It also exemplifies the ideals and
aspirations of the people; embodies the rules and principles of the State; and
determines the status and power of the people.
One important component of political self is identity, the person’s understanding
of who and what he is or she is. Thus, citizenship becomes a salient basis for
political self.
The political self is often defined by citizenship and is also in part defined by
reference to other members in the political group or community where one
belongs.
Through socialization, the political self is developed. Social interaction may
significantly influence a person’s understanding of politics, and perhaps a
person’s political actions in the future. Also, through social interaction, people
learn the status, duties, rights, and power necessary to interact successfully with
other people in the group or community.
The Origins of Political Self
The family has a hierarchical structure, which requires that each member
performs their roles. From an early age, individuals are taught to obey and treat
parents with respect and conform to their rules. This shows that authority is
necessary in the development of the political self and identity, which is
established by the father and mother.
Schools have the responsibility to teach the moral, spiritual, and political values
that will develop the students to become patriotic and morally upright citizens.
The Church also helps shape the ideals of citizenship and democracy through
their teachings, homily, and pastoral letters.
Peers become increasingly important in influencing the political self. Mass media
could also be a key source of information of politics.

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ACTIVITIES

The life of national heroes is a great source of inspiration. Choose one national
hero in the Philippines. Identify his courageous and heroic acts, which made this
day worthy of respect and emulation. Like the national hero you have chosen,
identify your characteristics and the things that you can do for the country.

Watch the movie Dekada 70. Reflect on and make a narrative essay on the three
most important things you learned from the movie. What are your insights and
how are you going to apply your insights in understanding and developing your
political self and identity as a Filipino?

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MODULE 10

https://www.adweek.com/digital/how-social-media-can-help-your-startup-grow/

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the topic, you are able to:
1. Define digital self
2. Explain the role of mobile phones, internet, and social networking in digital self.
3. Identify the Filipino values of social networking.
4. Explain the role of the government, school, and church in the prevention of
identity theft, false information, and fake news.
5. Describe the provisions of Data Privacy Act of 2012.

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What is the Digital Self?

Among Filipino youth, the use of digital technology has now become
part of the self – the digital self. The digital self is the aspect of the self that is
expressed or shared to others through the use of digital technology especially the
internet and social networking.
On networking sites, users normally disclose personal information such as name,
age, birthdate, address, and contact number. Some users provide very personal
information about themselves such as likes and dislikes etc. This sharing of personal
information on social networking sites may be related to the adolescents’ strong
desire for social approval and acceptance. Similar can be said about adults.
Digital Technology
Digital technology includes all types of electronic equipment and applications
that use information in the form of numeric code. It also includes the use of
devices that process and use digital information. Forms of digital technology
include the use of mobile phones. The rise of mobile phones has resulted in the
widespread use of internet and social networking.
Mobile phones are ever more becoming part of the daily life of today’s youth.
Digital technology allows the users to keep in touch, connect with people, and
be updated on the activities and whereabouts of others.
However, the use of digital technology limits the face to face interaction with
others and drawn people away from meaningful and intimate communication
with families and friends.
The growing use of the internet and social networking changes the social
behaviors of individuals, families, and societies.

Social Networking in the Philippines

The Philippines has the fastest growing internet population in Southeast Asia. The
rise is attributed to social networking. Majority of the Filipinos use the internet
primarily for social networking.
The Filipino youth are the biggest users of social networking in the past few
years. They mostly use social networking for communication, information, and
entertainment
However, it is al so through social networking that identity theft, false information,
and fake news circulate. Thus, the Church, schools, and government in the
Philippines make efforts stop, prevent and effectively manage the spread of
identity theft, false information, and fake news in the country.

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ACTIVITY

Answer the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) by Dr. Kimberly Young.

You may download the test at http://www.globaladdiction.org/dldocs/GLO
BALADDICTION-ScalesInternetAddictionTest.pdf.
What are your insights on the outcomes of the test?

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MODULE 11

Photo Credits: http://www.hoft.edu/esl/learn-english-usa/

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the students are able to;

1. Explain learning and explain how it works in humans.

2. Identify the parts of the brain involved in learning.
3. Describe the importance of neuroplasticity and its implications to learning.
4. Discuss the influence of metacognition and self-regulation in learning.
5. Choose and apply strategies to improve learning.

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Learning
Behaviorists define learning as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a
result of practice or experiences. Cognitive psychologists define learning as a
process that leads to change as a result of experience.
Learning is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes through experience.
It is a transformational process that leads to personal growth and development.
Learning helps the individual to adapt in the environment. Learning is a constant
process.

What happens to the brain during learning?

Learning new knowledge and skills everyday keeps the structures of the brain
changing and increase its ability to learn. The process of neuroplasticity is the
ability of the brain to change that involves the addition of new neurons, new
interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information
processing areas.
The process of neuroplasticity or changes in the structure and functions of the
neurons in the brain usually happen in the cerebral cortex which is the wrinkled
layer of the brain. The cerebral cortex is packed with neurons and is responsible
for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain.
The cerebral cortex plays a key role in human learning, thought, memory, and
language

Metacognition and studying strategies

Metacognition is the awareness of one's thinking and the strategies one is using
to learn. The ‘meta’ in metacognition refers to higher-order cognition about
cognition. Metacognition is simply defined as cognition about cognition or
thinking about thinking. Psychologist John Flavell identified two components of
metacognition: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation.
Metacognitive knowledge includes knowledge of one’s own cognitive abilities,
knowledge of cognitive tasks, and knowledge of the strategies to complete the
cognitive tasks. Metacognitive regulation refers to how the individual monitors
and control one’s cognitive processes.
Barry J. Zimmerman defines self-regulated learning (SRL) as the process in which
students systematically direct their thoughts, feelings, and actions toward the
attainment of their academic goals.

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Self-regulated describes a process of taking control of and evaluating one's own

learning and behavior.
In simple words, self-regulated learning is a process of taking control of and
evaluating one's own learning.

Suggested Activities
A. To discover your strengths and weaknesses, answer the Multiple Intelligence
Inventory. The test may be downloaded at,
http://www.kerstens.org/alicia/planning10/Multiple%20Intelligences%20Inv
entory.pdf

B. Answer the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory. The test may be

downloaded at,
https://www2.viu.ca/studentsuccessservices/learningstrategist/documents
/MetacognitiveAwarenessInventory.pdf

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MODULE 12

Photo Credits: https://twincitiesview.com/plan-action-achieve-successreach-goals/

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the students are able to:
1. Know the types of motivation.
2. Identify their short-term and long-term goals.
3. Understand the importance of goal setting.
4. Apply the ways on how to achieve their goals.

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Goals
Motivation directs a person’s behaviour toward a particular goal. A goal is the
object toward which the behavior is directed, usually within a specified period of
time. Goals motivate people to develop strategies that will enable them to
perform better.
Goals can be classified into two categories: short-term goals and long-term goals.
Generally, short-term goals are those that can be achieved in a day, week, or
year. Long-term goals are usually achieved over a year or more.
Values
Values are those which the person considers personally important and worthy. It
could be the basis of what is desirable, correct, and good.
Needs
Needs also activate and direct behavior. Motivation is usually aroused by a need
or lack of something that may propel a person to act. There are two classifications
of needs: physiological and psychological needs.
Physiological needs are innate needs of the body such as food, water, air, sleep,
and sex.
Psychological needs arise from relationship with other people such as affiliation,
achievement, altruism, esteem, and status.
The theory of psychologist Abraham Maslow suggests how needs motivate
behavior. Maslow developed the theory of hierarchy of needs. In his theory, he
suggests that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy. The hierarchy of needs
is illustrated in the shape of a pyramid with the biological needs at the bottom
and the need for self-actualization at the top.
The Motivational Impacts of Self Efficacy and Mindset
The motivational impact of goals may be affected by moderators such as self-
efficacy and mind set. Psychologist Albert Bandura defined self-efficacy as the
people’s belief that they can successfully perform behaviors that will produce
desired effects.
According to Psychologist Carol Dweck, there are two categories of mind set. In
a fixed mind set, people believe their basic qualities, like their intelligence or
talents, are simply fixed traits. In a growth mind set, people believe that their most
basic abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work.

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Goal Setting
Goal setting is the process of improving work performance of individuals. For goal
setting to be most successful, goals should possess the characteristics represented
by the acronym SMART: specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and
time-bound.
The acronym SMART embodies the fundamental practices necessary for
achieving increased motivation. Individuals perform at higher levels when asked
to meet a specific and concrete goal. Properly set goals can be measured,
attainable, and relevant. Lastly, goals work best when there is time frame for their
completion.
ACTIVITY
Fill up this SMART Goal Setting worksheet.

Photo Credits: https://www.teacherspayteachers.com/Product/SMART-Goals-Worksheet-Smart-Goal-Worksheet-Setting-Goals-SMART-

Goals-3272935

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MODULE 13

Photo Credits: https://ivemovedon.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/running-212.jpg

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the chapter, the students are able to:
1. Define stress and enumerate its causes and signs.
2. Contextualize stress in the Filipino culture.
3. Discuss stress management.

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What is Stress?
Stress is a feeling that is established when individuals react to specific events. It is
the body’s approach of rising to a challenge and getting ready to face a tough
situation with focus, stamina, strength and sensitive awareness. In the Filipino
language, there is no existing and definite word for stress. However, it is a fact
that Filipinos acknowledge the concept of stress as part of living.
Stress can be categorized into two types as it can be beneficial or overwhelming.
Eustress is the kind of stress that “helps a person perform at a higher level and
achieve their goals”. For example, the demands of an upcoming exam or project
can create stress which can influence the person to work harder in order to pass
the exam or accomplish the project.
On the other hand, distress is the kind of stress which can be described as
“overwhelming and hinders performance and overall well-being”. In this case,
stress affects the person negatively as to having a mental-breakdown when
having a deadline or exam.
Causes of Stress
Stressors refer to the factors that can cause stress to a person. It can be an
incident or event which can trigger a flow of stress hormones that create well-
orchestrated physical changes. In this case, it is important to note that stressors
are not universal as it can vary from one person to another. What is stressful to one
person, may not be the case for another.
In specific, these are example of stressors:
TYPE EXAMPLE
Physical Noise, weather, drought, typhoon, traffic, bright lights
Social/Relational Loneliness or solitude, rudeness, aggressiveness or conflict
with others, lack of time in spending with significant
people, lack of social and moral support
Financial Insufficient salary or allowance, taxes, unplanned
expenses, bills
Organizational School/work culture, deadlines, rules and regulations,
getting a passing grade
Life Events Disease, starting college or work, death of family
member, child-birth, marriage
Lifestyle Choices Insufficient sleep, increased intake of caffeine, alcohol or
drugs, poor time management, procrastination,
unhealthy diet
Physiological Illness, pregnancy, injury, poor health

Experiencing stress can be caused by a single or combination of any of these

stressors. For Filipinos, stressors are often located in work and livelihood

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environments. In the case of farmers, they tend to worry about unpredictable

weather conditions. For those who go to school and office setting, they can be
stressed due to oppressive bosses or leaders, or gossipy colleagues.
Signs of Stress
Stress can be manifested in in several ways. In this case, stress response or the
body’s reaction will only be triggered when a person perceives danger. Filipinos
determine that they are stressed when it produces both mental and physical
diseases which can be simple or serious life-threatening ones. It is recognized that
stress affects the body’s immune system and so having asthma, singaw (canker
sores) and even cardiovascular and infectious diseases are perceived signs and
effects of stress.
In specifics, here are the signs of stress categorized into physical, behavioral,
mental and emotional.
PHYSICAL SIGNS BEHAVIORAL SIGNS
Increased heart rate Increased smoking, drinking,
Chest pains drug use (increase or
Dry mouth decrease)
Headaches Changes in eating habits
Muscle aches, stiffness or Indigestion Yelling
pain (especially in the neck, shoulders Changes in sleeping habits
and, lower back) (increase or decrease)
Constipation Swearing
Sweating Aggression
High blood pressure Nervousness (e.g., nail biting,
Nausea fidgeting, pacing)
Frequent colds or flu
Trembling
Stomach cramps
Worsening of an existing
Fatigue
Illness (e.g., asthma, skin rashes)
Weight gain or loss
MENTAL SIGNS EMOTIONAL SIGNS
Difficulty concentrating Anxiety
Confusion Short Temper
Decreased memory Anger
Loss of sense of humor Frustration
Difficulty making decisions Irritability
Decreased libido Worry
Mind going blank or mind racing Impatience
Inattentiveness Fear
Bad dreams
Stress Management Tips

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Now that the concepts on stress are discussed, the last part of this module will
serve as guide on how to manage stress. In this guide, there are five steps one
can follow to be able to cope up with stress.
Step 1: Identify if you are experiencing stress.
One can identify if he/she is experiencing stress if there are signs evident. One can
look at the previously enumerated signs of stress in order to determine if the person
is stressed. It is not necessary that all the signs are present. Individuals have their
own specific reactions to stress which can be referred to as a “stressprint”.

Step 2: Determine the stressor.

After recognizing that a person is stressed, the next step will be to determine the
cause of the stress. In identifying the stressors, at times it can be an easy task while
it can be difficult for others. In identifying the stressor, a person can be guided on
the categories above for the causes of stress and list his/her own stressor.
Step 3: Know the reason for the stressor.
After identifying the stressor, it is now time to determine why it is causing stress. This
is significant for it can enable an individual to choose the best strategy in
managing the stress. Note that the stress response is activated when there is
perceived danger. Generally, a person can describe a situation as dangerous
when they think that they have insufficient resources to effectively handle the
demands of the situation. In this case, there are two concepts: perceived
demands and perceived resources.
In this sense, if the perceived demands are greater than the perceived resources,
then the person can be stressed by thinking that he/she cannot handle the
situation. In an opposite manner, if the person thinks that the perceived resources
are greater than the perceived demands, then it would not cause stress.
In this step, the question to be asked is: “Why is this situation a threat or danger for
me?” Answering this question can be done by identifying the demands and
resources available.
Step 4: Choose an appropriate stress management and apply it.
Being able to determine that a person is stressed and the reasons behind it, the
last step is to apply an identified stress management strategy. Selection of a stress
management strategy is dependent on the situation. In this case, one must
identify a strategy that either address the symptoms of stress or a strategy that
would address the stress itself.
In this sense, stress management strategies can be physical, behavioral and/or
social.

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Physical Strategies
Physical activities can be a form of relaxation response in managing stress. In this
case, stress can be countered by using a combination of methods that create
the relaxation response. There have been researches which state that relaxation
response can counter chronic stress for people with heart diseases although it is
not a cure for all. Still, these techniques which can be any of the following are
worth trying:
Breathing exercises. Breathing exercises are scientifically proven to induce
relaxation. These can include abdominal breathing, meditation, and yoga,
focusing on a soothing word such as peace or calm, repetitive prayer, and tai
chi.
Massage. Having tensed muscles can be a result of experiencing stress. In this
case, massage can be an effective method to relax tense muscles. However, this
is a short-term approach in stress management. In this method, one can do self-
massage or be massaged by others.
Exercise. There have been researches which revealed that doing physical
exercises can bring a person to a relaxed state. During exercises, the body
releases adrenaline which is a hormone that enables the body to get and keep
the body moving. In this case, exercises can also bring body awareness and body
control which extends the benefit more than stress management.
Hobby. Having a personal hobby is proven to enable a person to take his/her
mind off stress-producing thoughts which can also be relaxing. Still, one must
recognize that having a hobby that is too demanding, costly or time-consuming
can also be a stressor. As such, it is best to avoid hobbies which are very
stimulating such as games or gambling. It is better to engage in hobbies which
can establish contentment and satisfaction as well as those that are productive,
creative or enable skill-building. These can be gardening, crafts, and non-
competitive sports, instrument-playing, singing, writing and dancing.
Healthy Diet and Good Quality Sleep. Taking care of one’s self translates to lower
stress levels. In this case, one can ensure that he/she is treating their body well if
they engage in healthy diet and have a good quality of sleep. In having a healthy
diet, it is essential to keep in mind that under stressful conditions, it is better to eat
foods that restore vitamins and minerals. Although alcohol and drugs may seem
to relieve stress, it may lead to substance abuse as a way to ease stress. On the
other hand, getting enough sleep enables the body and mind to be in top shape.
As such, it makes a person more equipped to deal with negative stressors. In this
way, a good night’s sleep is associated with better grades and improved mood.

Behavioral and/or Social Strategies

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Realistic Thinking. Being realistic pertains to acknowledging the limits of every

person. This also includes proper task management which can avoid
overscheduling. Once overwhelmed with a lot of tasks, it is good to cut out
activities and choose to do the most important ones first. Being able to solve
problems one by one can make a person gain control which can enable them
to calmly analyze the problem, think about the options and take charge in having
solutions. Another way is to watch out with personal thoughts. In this case, trying
to be perfect and expecting others to be the same way can add to stress. It is
also good to keep in mind that it is better to have an optimistic outlook in life to
help in making the best out of stressful circumstances.
Social Support. Social networks such as relatives, spouses, friends, acquaintances,
co-workers, and companions can provide a life-enhancing social net. Though the
reason is unclear, it is known that people who are able to enjoy close relationships
with their families and friends which bring emotional support can help them at
times of stress and crisis.
Stress and Filipinos
In the Philippine setting, the social pressures can be counterproductive and force
people to internalize the stress. The notion that Filipinos are happy and resilient
people can limit the person’s capability to express their stress. It is also situated in
the gender context as existing stereotypes dictate stress management.
For Filipinas who are thought of to be more expressive, they are more likely to deal
with stress through endurance (tiis) and repression (kimkim). On the other hand,
men are tend to deal with stress in the forms of merriment such as drinking
(inuman) sessions. In a similar way, men are expected to keep their feelings to
present masculine values of strength and endurance; so as to the notion that they
are not allowed to cry which makes them more vulnerable to cardiovascular
diseases.
With all these concepts on stress, it should be highlighted that stress management
is a great way of taking care of one’s health. Being able to determine the root
causes of stress and applying stress management strategies can help a person in
living a more comfortable life.

Learning Activity 1
Create a list based on your personal observations of the stressors at your
home.
Guide Questions:

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Answer the following to check what you learned from the discussions so far.
Check your answers from the provided answer key at the end of this unit.
1. What is stress?
2. What are the two types of stress?
3. What are the steps in stress management?

Answers to Guide Questions:

Question 1: Stress is a feeling that is established when individuals react to specific
events. It is the body’s approach of rising to a challenge and getting ready to
face a tough situation with focus, stamina, strength and sensitive awareness.
Question 2: Stress can be categorized into two types as it can be beneficial or
overwhelming. Eustress is the kind of stress that “helps a person perform at a higher
level and achieve their goals”. For example, the demands of an upcoming exam
or project can create stress which can influence the person to work harder in
order to pass the exam or accomplish the project.
On the other hand, Distress is the kind of stress which can be described as
“overwhelming and hinders performance and overall well-being”. In this case,
stress affects the person negatively as to having a mental-breakdown when
having a deadline or exam.
Question 3: Here are the steps for stress management:
Step 1: Identify if you are experiencing stress.
Step 2: Determine the stressor.
Step 3: Know the reason for the stressor.
Step 4: Choose an appropriate stress management and apply it.

Key Points

1. Stress is a feeling that is established when individuals react to specific

events. It is the body’s approach of rising to a challenge and getting ready
to face a tough situation with focus, stamina, strength and sensitive
awareness.
2. Stress can be categorized into two types as it can be beneficial or
overwhelming. Eustress is the kind of stress that “helps a person perform at
a higher level and achieve their goals”. Distress is the kind of stress which
can be described as “overwhelming and hinders performance and overall
well-being”.
3. Stressors refer to the factors that can cause stress to a person. It can be an
incident or event which can trigger a flow of stress hormones that create
well-orchestrated physical changes.

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4. Stress can be manifested in in several ways. In this case, stress response or

the body’s reaction will only be triggered when a person perceives danger.
The signs of stress categorized into physical, behavioral, mental and
emotional.
5. Here are the steps for stress management: Step 1: Identify if you are
experiencing stress; Step 2: Determine the stressor; Step 3: Know the reason
for the stressor; Step 4: Choose an appropriate stress management and
apply it.
References and Supplementary Materials
Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. Tan, M. 2006. Stress and the Filipino. Philippine Center For Investigative
Journalism. https://old.pcij.org/stories/stress-and-the-filipino/
2. Harvard Health Publishing Harvard Medical School. 2020. Understanding
the Stress Response. https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-
healthy/understanding-the-stress-response
3. Villanova University Student Life. 2020. Stress Management.
https://www1.villanova.edu/villanova/studentlife/health/promotion/goto/
resources/stress.html
4. Villanova University Office of Health Promotion. Stress Management: A
Practical Guide.
https://www1.villanova.edu/content/villanova/studentlife/health/promoti
on/goto/resources/stress/_jcr_content/pagecontent/download/file.res/Str
ess%20Management%20Workbook.pdf

Assessment
Name: Course, Year and Section:

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Direction: Following the steps in stress management, fill out the work sheet
below:
Step 1: My signs of stress are:
Identify if you
are
experiencing
stress.

Step 2: The cause of my stress is:

Determine
the stressor.

Step 3: Know Demands Resources

the reason for To handle this In this situation/event, I have:
the stressor. situation/event, I need:

Step 4: To address my stress- To address my stress, I will:

Choose an related signs, I will:
appropriate

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stress
management
and apply it.

Understanding the Self