I

1.NTRODUCTI
ONTOLANGUAGE
LANGUAGE:
1. Language i s a symbolsyst em based on pur e or ar bi
trar y
conventions….( syaneandj indal
2007:1)
2. Languagei sthei nstit
utionwher ebyhumanscommuni cateandinteractwi th
eachot herbymeansofhabi tuall
yusedor alaudi
toryar bi
tr
ary.(Hall,1969
(i
bid)
3.Languagei sasyst em ofar bit
raryvocalsymbol sbymeansofwhi chasoci al
groupcooper at
es( BiochandTr ager,
1942)
4. Languagei sasyst em ofvocalsymbol susedf orhumancommuni cations.
(wardaugh-1972)
5. Languagei sacol l
ectionofsignswhi char earbi
tr
arychosenandor gani zed
accordingt ocertainfixedprinciplest
hatareaccept ablebythesoci ety.
6. Languagei sasyst em ofar bit
raryvocalsymbol sbywhi ch thoughti s
conveyed f rom onehuman bei ng (aspeakerorwr it
er)to anot her( a
li
stenerorr eader)
7. Languagei saconvent i
onalsyst em habitual
lysystem ofvocalbehavi orby
whichmember sofacommuni tycommuni catewithoneanot her.
8. Languagei sal earnedandshar edhabi t
ualsystem ofvocalsymbol st hrough
whichhumanbei ngsi nthesamespeechcommuni tyint
eractandhence
communi catei n t erms oft hei
r common cul turalexper i
ences and
expectati
ons.

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 9. Languagei
sthesystem ofcommuni
cat
ioni
nspeechandwr
it
ingt
hati
s
usedbyhumanbeings.

NOTE:-wit
hr egar
dt ot heabovedefini
ti
ons,themostpossibl
edefini
ti
onof
l
anguage may be t his“Language is a system of arbi
tr
ary and
convent
ionalvocalsymbol
sthroughwhich
t
hought(message)isconveyedfrom onehumanbeingtoanotheri
.e.
:
fr
om thespeakerorordert
othelist
enerorreader
.

ELEMENTSOFLANGUAGE
Thedef i
nit
ionoflanguageconsi st
sofsever alkeyt erms/el
ement sasfoll
ows.
1.System
(
a) Languageisasyst em inthesenset hatiti
sacol lecti
onofsi gnorsymbol si
.e.It
assemblest oget
hert hesmal l
eruni t
stof ormt hel argerunit
sandt heseuni t
s
arearrangedi nar egularorderforexampl e:
-phonemes- syl
labl
e-morphemes-
words-phrases-
clauses-sent
ences-paragraph-compr ehensi
on.

(
b) Languagei sconst i
tutedbysever
alel
ement swhicharearrangedi
nar egul
ar
fixed order,such elementsincl
ude subj
ect,verb,obj
ect
,complementand
adverbial.
Forexampl e:-Theboyhasbeenheresinceyester
day
S V A A
Helef
tyourbookinmyroom lastweek
S V O A A

(
c) Languagebei
ngasyst em isalsoconst
it
utedbyvar
ioussubsyst
emssuchas
soundsystem,st
ruct
uralsystem andmeani
ngsyst
em.

2.Ar bi
trary
Thear bi
trari
nessofl anguageisprovenbyt hef oll
owingfacts.
(
a)I
nl anguaget herei snocor respondence(si
mi l
ar i
ty)bet weenthesymbol s( sound
orl et
ters)andt her eal
iti
es, meani
ngsorobj ectswhi char erepresent
edbyt hose
symbol s.
Forexampl e:-t hewor ddogwi ththefourl eggedani mal,t
ableasapi eceof
furniture.
Howeverl anguagei sarbitraryduetothefactt hatthel i
nguist
icsymbol susedi n
languagewer ej ustpickedhaphazar dl
y(withnopar ticul
arplanoror ganizati
on)
i.
e.t herewasnoanyf ormalmeet i
ngbyanyspeechcommuni tywhi chsatt o
form l anguage.Eachspeechcommuni tyhasi t
sownsymbol srepr esenti
ng
differentreali
ti
es.

3.Vocal
Languagei
ssai
dtobevocalsi
nceeachl
anguagei
sbasedonspeech

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 soundsthatareproducedbythevocalorgans,(
organofthemout
h,nose
andthroat)i
.e.i
nspokenf or
ml anguageispresentedt
hrought
hevocal
sounds(soundsfrom t
hemouth)

4.Symbol
Language i
s symbol
icint he sense t
hatl
anguage uses si
gns or
symbolstorepr
esentr
eal
it
ies,
object
orideas.

Therearetwomaj ortypesofsymbol susedi

nlanguage
(a)Theacoustici
mages( thesounds)
(b)Thegraphicsigns( ort
hographyletter
s1spel
li
ngs)
Thesesymbolsr epresentreal
it
ies,obj
ect
sorideasi
nspokenlanguage;
weuset heacoust i
cimages( sounds)whereasinwrit
tenl
anguagewe
usethegraphi
csi gns(let
ters)

5 Conventional
Languageisconventi
onalduetot
hefactt
hatanyhumanlanguage(system
ofcommuni cati
on)oughttobemutual
lyaccept
abl
eandunderstoodbya
parti
cularspeechcommuni t
yi.
e.allmember swhouset hatparti
cular
language.

6.Message
Messagei st hekeywor dl anguagehast hemessagesi ncei tisthe
messaget hatisconveyedfrom onehumanbei ngtoanotheri.
e.language
isusedast hemedium throughwhi chideas,opi
nionsorthoughtiscarri
ed
from thespeakerorwr it
ertot hel i
stenerorreader.Thepar t
ici
pantsin
languagecommuni catethemessaget oeachotherthusmessagei sthe
central element in any communi cati
on system ( no message,no
communi cati
on)

7.Humanbeing
Languagei
susedbyhumanbei ngsi.
e.i
thasbeenprovedt hati
tisonlyt
he
human being among allcreatur
es who communi cate by t
he use of
l
anguage othercr
eature do communi cat
e usi
ng diff
erentsyst
ems or
for
msbuttheyneveruselanguageast heremeansofcommuni cat
ion.

ALANGUAGE/ ACOMMUNI TYLANGUAGE

ALANGUAGEi saspeci fi
cfrom (
system)ofspeechwhi chisconventi
onal
andmutual
lyunder st
oodbyaspeci ficspeechcommuni tyi.
e.i
trefer
st o
onepar
ti
cularlanguageasusedandspokenbyapar ti
cul
arcommuni t
y.
Thespeechcommuni t
ycanbeet hnicgroup,atribe,anati
onorevent he
whol
econtinentforexampleKichaggaisal anguageofchaggapeopleof

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 Kil
imanj
aroregi
on,Kingonia languageofngoniasat r
ibe,
Swahi
lia
l
anguageofTanzani
aasanat i
on,Engli
shal
anguageofEur
ope,Ameri
ca
andAustr
ali
aasconti
nents.

Feat
ur esofaLanguage
Al anguagehassever alfeat uresorchar act er i
stics:-
1.I tisaspeci f
icconceptr eferri
ngt oonepar t
icularf orm ofspeech
(system ofcommuni cati
on)t hati smut ual l
yusedandunder stoodbya
par ti
cul arspeechcommuni ty.
2. A l anguagei susedt oexpr esst hecul tureofapar t
icularspeech
communi t
yi .e.al anguagei sthecent r alel ementofapar ticularcul tur
e
henceal anguageandcul turear e
insepar able.
3.Al anguagechangesanddevel opswi tht hechangeanddevel opmentof
culturei .e.dynami sm ofal anguagei susual l
yi nf l
uencedbycul ture.
4.Al anguagecanal sochangeoncont actwi tht hef oreigner st hrough
differentact i
viti
essuchast rade,tours, col onial domi nationet c.
5.Al anguageusual l
ymayhavescr ipt( formsorspel l
ings)di f
ferentf rom
otherl anguagesi .e.eachl anguagehasdi fferentor thographyspel lings.
6.A l anguage may have phonol ogi caland gr ammat icalsyst ems
(pronunci ati
onandst ructure)di f
ferentf rom ot herl anguages.
7.Al anguagemaybel ongt oagr oupwi thot herl anguageswhi chst em
from t hesameanci entlanguagef orexampl eKi swahi l
i,Kisukuma, Kihaya,
Kinyakyusaet careamong
t
heBant ulanguageshenceeachl anguagebel ongst oBant ul anguage.

THEBASI
CDI
FFERENCEBETWEENLANGUAGEANDALANGUAGE

1.LANGUAGEIsauniver
salconcepti
.e.i
tref
erst
oal
llanguagei
nthewor
ldas
usedbyhumanbei
ngs.

Whi l
e
ci
fi
cconcepti
.e.i
tr efer
stoonlyoneparti
cul
arsyst
em ofCommuni
cat
iont
hati
susedbya
part
icularspeechcommuni
ty.

2.Languagedoesnotbel
ongt oapart
icularspeechcommunityi
.e.I
tdoesn’
t
haveanyspeci
fi
cgroupof
peopl
ewhoregar
ditasthei
rownitbelongstoallhumanbei
ngsingener
al.

Whil
e
A Languagebelongstoapar t
icul
arspeechcommuni tythatusesitasthe
meansofcommuni cat
ionamongthemselves.I
.e.alanguageisownedbya
part
icul
arspeechcommunitye.
g.Engl
ishbyt heBri
ti
sh,FrenchbytheFr
ench

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et
c.

3.Languagehasnoli
nkwi
ththecul
tur
eofapar t
icul
arcommuni
tyi.
e.i
tcannot
beusedtoexpr
esst
hecul
tur
eofonepart
icul
arspeechcommuni
ty.

Whi l
e
Al anguagehasadi rectl
inkwi t
ht hecult
ureofaparti
cularspeechcommuni
ty
thatusesi ti.
e.Eachpart
icularlanguageisusedtoexpresst hecul
tur
eofthe
peoplewhousest hatparti
cularlanguagee.g.Engl
ishfortheEngli
shcul
ture,
Swahi l
ifortheSwahil
icul
tureetc.

4. Languageisstati
ci.
e.I
tdoesn’
tchangewi
tht
hechangeofcul
tur
eand
cont
actwit
hfor
eigner
s.

Whi le
Al anguageisdynamicasitusual
lychangesanddevel
opswi
tht
hechangeof
cul
tureaswell
ast hecont
actwithf
orei
gners.

UNIQUEPROPERTI ES/FEATURESOFHUMANLANGUAGE
Humanl anguagehasanumberofdef inedpr operti
eswhi chuniquely
dist
inguishitf r
om communi cati
onsystems( for
m)ofot hercreatur
esuch
asani malsandi nsect
s.i.e.t
her eareseveralfeatureswhichar euni
quely
mani fest
ed( f
ound)i nhumanl anguageandar eunli
kelytobef oundinthe
communi cati
onsyst em ofothercreatures,thi
sact sasapr ovetothefact
thatitisonlyhumanbei ngswhocommuni catethroughlanguagewher e
asot hercreaturesdonotusel anguageast heirmeansofcommuni cati
on.

Thefol
lowi
ngar
etheuni
quechar
act
eri
sti
csorpr
oper
ti
esoft
hehuman
l
anguage.

1.Duality/Doubl earticul
ation
Humanl anguageisor ganizedorproducedatt wolevelssi
multaneousl y
(
a)Sound l evelatwhi ch human bei ngsar ecapableofpr oducing the
i
ndivi
dualsoundswhi chdonotconveyanyi ntr
insi
cmeani ngwhent heyoccur
separat
ely.
(
b) Gr ammat ical
/st ructurall
evelatwhi chahumanbei ngpr oducest he
Meaningfuluni t
ssuchaswor dsorphrases.Thi
si sachievedwhent hesounds
combinet ogethertofor mthe
meani ngfulandgr ammat i
calunitssuchaswor dsorphr ases.Atthis
l
evelitispossi bl
ef ort hesamesoundst oform dif
ferentwordswi thdiffer
ent
meaning
f
orexampl e/i,b,n/cancombi net oform nibandbi n/ e,t,a/can

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combinet of orm eat
,ate,t
ea.Thuswit
hal i
mitednumberofdistinctsounds,
we
arecapableofpr oducinga
verylargenumberofwor dswhicharedi st
incti
n meaning.Thismakes
human bei ngseconomi calint heuseofl anguage.Thi
sf eaturecannotbe
manifestedint hecommuni cati
on
system ofothernon- humancreat
urei.e.
Theresi
gnal
sar eusedatonly
onlevel.

2.Pr
oduct
ivi
ty/Cr
eat
ivi
ty

Thisist hefeat ureofal lhumanl anguagest hatnovel /new utterancesar e

conti
nuallybeingpr oducedorcr eatedi .
e.l anguageal l
owsspeaker sorwr i
ter s
toproduceandunder standnew ut terances/sent encest hattheyhavenever
producedorhear dbefore.
Thisimpl i
esthatduet ot heuseofl anguage,humanbei ngsarecapabl eof
produci
ngandunder standingthenewsent encespr oducedbyot hers.
Thismakeshumanl anguagedynami cbecauseal lthet i
meheorshest rivest o
produce orcr eat e new wor ds,sent ences oran ut ter
ance thati s bei ng
understoodbybot haspeakerorwr it
erandt hehearorr eader.
Howeveratchi ldhood, chil
drentrytherel evelbesttopr oducenewut ter
ancesor
words.Thef eat uresthatcannotbef oundamongcommuni cat
ionsyst emsof
othercreatur
es,t hesecr eatur
espr oducet hesignalsthatar eusuall
ystat i
ci .e.
theyarethesameandt hiscannotbepr oducedi not herformstocommuni cat e
experi
enceandevent s.

3.Ar bi
trariness
Allhumanl anguageshavear bitrari
nessinthesenset hatthereisnodi r
ect
ornat uralconnect i
onorsimilarit
ycor respondencebetweent helinguisti
c
symbol sandt hemessage,
meani ngorconceptbei ngr epresent edbythosesymbol s.I
.e.thelinguistic
si
gnsorsymbol shavearbit
raryrelationshipwiththereal
it
yormeani ng( objects
orconcept s)t hey
representori ndi
cate.Forexampl ethewordt abl
ehasnosi mi l
arit
ywi tht he
objectknownast able.
Howeverf orthemaj or
it
yofanimalsignal ,
theredoes
appearacl earconnection
betweent heconveythatmessage.Forexampl eahungr ycatpr oducest he
crythatr epresentstheactualstate.

4.I
nter
changeabil
ity/Reci
proci
ty
Humanl anguageisuniquebecauseanyper
sonusi
ngthel
ingui
sti
csyst
em
canbothsendandr eceivet
hemessage.I.
e.humanl
anguageall
ows

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 communi cat
ortojoinhereexchange
posit
ion.Atonet i
met hecommuni catorisaspeakerandal i
stenerat
anothertime.Thisimplythatwhenoneper soni
st alki
ng, t
heotherisli
steni
ng
andwhent heli
stenerstarts
responding,heorshebecomest hespeakerandt hepersonwhowas
previ
ouslyaspeakerbecomesal i
stener.Howevert hisfeatur
ecannotbe
manifestedamongot hercreat
ures
becauset hereisnor oom f
oranimal sandot hercr eat
urestointer
change
posit
ionsast heyusuallyproducetheirsignalsatthesamet ime.

5.Di splacement
Humanl anguagei sdisplacedi nt hesenset hatthehumanl anguageuser s
(humanbei ngs)ar ecapableofpr oduci ngandunder standingt hemessagei n
relationt otimeandpl ace.I.
e.
Humanbei ngsar eabl et ocommuni catet hemessageoft heevent sof
differentt imesandpl aces.Thi smeanst hat humanbei ngscanconveyt he
messageofpr esent ,
pastandf utur
e
ti
measwel last hemessager elated tot heeventt aki
ngpl aceatdi f
ferent
placesorl ocationse. g.di
stanteventsuchasf oot bal
lmat chi nEngl and.
Howeverwi t hhumanl anguagehumanbei ngsmayconveyt hemessageon
bot hconcr eteandabst r
actphenomena.Thi si sduet ot hef actt hat
,animal
communi cationl acksthis
propertyast heycanonl ybeabl et opr oduceandunder standt hemessage
i
nr elationt oonl ythei mmedi atetimeandpl ace.I .e.theycanconveyt he
messageont heeventhappeni ng
nowandher ebutnotyest erday, tomor rowandt here.

6.Cul
tur
alt
ransmi
ssi
on/l
ear
nerabi
li
ty

Thisi sthepr ocesswher ebyl anguagei spassedonf rom onegener ati

ont ot he
next.I .
e.humanl anguagei stransmi tt
edfrom oneindividualtoanot hernotby
physicali nher i
tance butby l earning – Human l anguage is noti nher i
ted
genet i
call
yf rom par entsi nsteadi tisacquiredorl earneddependi ngont he
environmentt owhi chonei sexposed.Thatwhywesayl anguagei scul turall
y
transmi t
tedfr om onedur ationt oanot herasitisacquiredi ncul
turewi thot her
speaker sandnotf rom par ental genes.
Thisi mpliest hatanyhumanl anguagei sacquiredthroughl earni
ngf rom one
gener ati
ont oanot her.I
.e.Ever yper songetslanguaget hroughlearningbutnot
through i nherit
ance f rom par ents.
Howevert he gener alpat t
ern ofani mal
communi cationi st hatthesi gnal sareinsti
nct
/inbornandt her
ear enotl earning
i
.e.Ani malsandot herther esignal sinsti
nctwit
houtlearningthem.

7.Speci
ali
zat
ion

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Human l anguagehast hef eatureofspeci ali
zati
on int hesenset hatevery
soci etyhasi tsownphysi calandsoci alexperi
enceswhi chdeterminehow the
soci etyseesi tsphysicalwor l
di .
e.thelanguageofar especti
vesocietywould
tendt odescribeandr efl
ectthephysi calfeat
uresandsoci alexper
ienceswhich
onlyexi stinthatsociety.Thisi sprovenbyt hef actthatitisverydi f
fi
cul
tto
transl at
eonel anguagei ntoanot hersi nceexperiencesi neachl anguageis
different.Howevercommuni cati
onsyst ems( si
gnals)usedbyani malsandother
creat urescutacr osst hewhol especi esofani malswi t
houtspeci al
izi
ngtoa
part i
culargroupoft hesamespeci es.

8.Di
scr
eteness

Thesoundsi nhumanlanguagearemeani ngf

ull
ydi st
inctI.
e.thesoundsusedi n
l
anguagear eonlymeaningf
ull
yespecial
lywhent heyarepar tofalanguage.For
examplethewor dspigandbigdi f
ferduethepresenceof/ p/and/ b/
,tenand
pendif
ferduetot hepr
esenceof/t/and/p/
Thisi
mpliesthateachsoundinlanguageistr
eatedasdi screte.

9.Ref
lexi
veness

Thisisthefeaturewhichenactsthathumanl anguagehast heabil

it
yoft alki
ng
aboutit
self.
Forexampl ewear enowusinglanguaget otal
kaboutlanguagethispropertyof
l
anguagebywhi chhumanl anguaget al
ksaboutitsel
fiswhatisr ef
erredtoas
ref
lexi
veness.
Howeveri ti
snoteasil
yimaginabl
et hatanimalsareabletocryabouttheircri
es
sothispropert
ymakeshuman;l anguagedi f
fer
entfrom humancommuni cati
on.

Competenceandperformanceinlanguage
Competencerefert
ot heknowledgeoft hewhol elanguagei.e.theabil
it
ynot
onlytoapplythegrammat i
calrulesofal anguagei nordertogr ammaticall
y
corr
ectsent
encesbutalsotoknowwhenandwher etousethosesentencesand
to
Ital
someansthesubconsciousabi l
it
ytojudgethegrammat i
call
yofexpression
asusedinacertai
nlanguage.

NB:Thecommuni cativecompet
encei
ncl
udesthefol
lowing
1.Theknowledgeofgrammarandvocabul
aryofalanguage
2.Theknowl edgeofr ul
esofspeaki
ngandknowi ngtocommuni
cat
e
accor
dingtotopi
candspeechevents

3.Knowing how to uselanguageappropri

atel
yi.
e.Using l
anguage
accor
ding t
o soci
alsett
ing the r
elat
ionshi
p bet
ween speaker
s as wel
las

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accordingt oapar ti
cularoccasion
per formancer efer
stoast heact
ualuseofl anguageinconcretesit
uati
on.
Iti
sdet ermi nedbychoi ceofwriti
ngwor dssuit
abl
ef ortheri
ghtsit
uati
on.Ital
so
ref
erstot he
act ualuseofl anguagebyi ndi
viduali
nspeechandwr it
ingi.
e.theabil
it
y
ofaper sont ouset heknowl edgeoflanguaget opr oduceandunder st
andthe
sentenceswi thout
necessar i
lyadheri
ngt ogrammat i
calrul
es.

NB:Competenceandper f
ormancegotogetherduet othefactthat
competenceproceedsperf
ormance.Compet
encegivescorrecti
onstowrong
expr
essionst
hrough
perf
ormance.Butt
hereareti
meswhenthet woarenotconnected
asonecanhaveper f
ormancewit
houtcompet
enceandviceverse.

I
MPLI
CATI
ONSOFCOMPETENCEANDPERFORMANCE

-Toshowt hatourabi l
itytousel anguagei sgovernedbycer tain
i
nt ui
tivecapacities.Thi sisther easont owhynat i
vespeaker softhel anguagei s
capabl etosaywhet herthe
const ructi
oni scor rectornoteveni ft
heyar eunabl etoexpl ai
nit
technicall
y.
-I
tal soshowst hatl anguageabi li
tyofani ndi
vidualcanbe
i
mpr ovedthrought heuseofappr opr i
atemet hodsofl anguaget eaching.
-Usesoft helanguagehavemor eintheirli
nguisti
cst oresthan
whatt heypr oduce.Thi sisduet ot hef actthatlanguageper formancei s
affected byt henumberoff actorssuch
asi ll
ness, ti
redness, st
ress,etc
-Likewi seitshowst hatlanguagei sgover nedbyr ules.Asitis
commonf orthel anguageuser stocor recterr
or sandmi stakesindi f
ferent
const ruct
ionsofl anguage. Thisi s
madepossi blebecausei ntui
tivel
ywear eembeddedwi t
hthose
rules

FUNCTI
ONSOFLANGUAGE

Humanbeingscanusel anguagef
ordi
ff
erentpur
poses,
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethe
maj
orfunct
ionofl
anguage

1. Referenti
al/communi cat
ivef
uncti
on
Thisi
st heuseoflanguagetoconveyf
act
ual
ornon-f
actuali
nfor
mat i
on
I
.e.humanbei ngusel anguagetocommunicat
ewitheachot hertopass
i
nformationfrom eachother .

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2. Expr
essi
veoremot
ivef
unct
ion

Thisistheuseofl anguaget oexpr essf eeli

ngs,emot i
onsorat ti
tude.Man
canconveyhi semotionsbyscr eams,gr unt s,sobsandgest ur
es,butstil
lneeds
l
anguagef orconfi
rm or
elabor
atethosesi gnals.Thusr eportf eelingorat ti
tudesoft hewr i
teror
speakeroroft hesubject,orevokesfeelingsi nt hereaderorlist
enerf al
lunder
thi
sfunction.

3. Cogni
ti
veorDi
rect
ivef
unct
ion

Thisistheuseofl anguageforthepur poseofi nfl

uenci
ngthebehaviorof
otherse.g.tocommandt hem todosomet hing,r
equestthem warmthem.Thus
l
anguagei susedf orthe
purposeofcausi ng( orpr
eventi
ng)overtaction.Thisi
sthemosti mportant
functionofl anguage,iti mpartfact
ualinformationandcommands.Passi ng
i
nfor mati
onisabsol utel
y
necessarye.g:-askingandanswer i
ngquest i
ons,readi
nginst
ruct
ionsetc.

4. Phat
icori
nter
rogat
ionf
unct
ion

Thisistheuseofl anguaget oestabl

ishormaintai
ngoodsocialr
elat
ionship
amonghumanbei ngs
E.g.Greet
ings,cheering-
upet c.Usesphrasesli
ke"ni
cedaytoday","
howdo
youdo" .Thi
nkoft hissit
uati
on;Gor gecoughs.
Thenhisfr
iendMusasays" Bless
you".Thishasgot
no anyi nfor
mat i
vecont entbuti nt
ended t
olinkpeopleand make
coexist
encepeacef ulandpleasant.

5. Poet
icorat
hlet
icf
unct
ion

Thisistheuseoflanguagef orpleasureofmind( ast

het
ic)uselanguagein
i
tsbeautypleasur
e.
I.
e.languageisusedforentert
ainment
e.g.Readingacertai
nlit
eratur
ef orenjoyment
,languageusedintheaterf
or
per
for
mance–t heuseoflanguagei narti
sti
cway.

6. Met
ali
ngui
sti
cfunct
ion

Thisist
heuseoflanguagetotalkaboutl
anguage.
I.
e.Languagef
oritsownsakeort heuseoflanguaget
oexpl
ainot
herl
anguage
concepts.
E.g.wearenowlearni
nglanguage.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
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 Ot
herf
unct
ions

7. I
mper
ati
veorDecl
arat
ive

Thi
stheuseoflanguagef
ort
hepurposeofdeclar
ingsomethi
ng
E.
g.Languageusedincer
emoni
es,
meet i
ngs,cour
tsoflaw,
churchmasses

8.Regul
ator
yfunct
ion

Useoflanguageforthepurposeofwar ni
ngori mpart
ingdisci
pli
net
othe
peopl
ebeenspokentoandt hususedi
nordertowi npeopl
esrespect
Forexamplethel
anguageusedbyreli
giousleader
s

LANGUAGEPOLI
CYI
NTANZANI
A

Thislanguagepol icyinTanzani astat

est hatSwahilil
anguageshal lbeusedas
themedi um ofi nstruct
ionatt heprimaryschooll evelandEngl ishremainthe
medium ofi nst
ructionfrom secondaryleveltot
heuni versi
tylevel
.
Thegover nmenthasaccept edbothEngl i
shandSwahi litobeusedasof fi
cial
l
anguages.
However ,thestatusofEngl ishisconfusingasitisi ntransit
ionbetweenbeing
theforeignlanguageandt hesecondl anguaget hatmakesevenSwahi l
iinthe
samet ransit
ionbet weenthesecondl anguageandt hef i
rstlanguage.

NB:theuseofei t
herEngli
shorSwahil
iasthemedi um ofinst
ruct
ionhas
cr
eat
edaver yhotdebat
esincet
her
epeoplewhosuppor
tEngli
shwhereas
othersuppor
tSwahil
i.

ENGLI
SHI
NSCHOOLS

Atpr esentEngli
shisusedasmedi um ofi
nst
ructi
oninsecondaryschool
sand
higherl ear
ninginsti
tut
ion.Butthereisadebateonwhet herEngl i
shshould
continuewi t
hthestatusithasori
tshouldber
eplacedbySwahili
.Letusseethe
diff
erentargument speoplehaveaboutEngli
shoutt ober epl
acedbySwahi l
i
today.

Thosewhosuppor
tthecur
rentEngl
ishst
atus.

Someoft
hei
rpoi
ntsi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:

1.Engl
ishi
sal
anguageoft
oday’
swor
ldbusi
nesssoTanzani
an.SoTanzani
an

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 11
 havetolear nthr oughi tinordert of unctionintoday’swor ld.
2.Engl i
shi sawel ldevel opedl anguageduet oi t
sl onghi story.Swahililacks
somei mpor tantvocabul aryespeci allyinscienceandt echnol ogy.
3.Manybooksar ewr i
tteni nEngl ish,sol earni
ngt hr oughEngl ishitiseasier
andlesscost l
yt hant urningt oSwahi l
i.Thisgroupofpeopl eis
af
raidofchangebecausepeopl et hinkthegover nmenthasnomoneyf or
changingt hemedi um ofi nstruction.
4.Engl i
shi sever yone’spr oper t
yt oday.I tisnol ongercol oniallanguage.Itis
spokenindi fferentpar tsoft hewor l
dsot herei
snoj ust if
ication
ofequat ingEngl i
shwi thcol onialism.
5.Lear ningt hroughEngl i
shmakesachi l
ddivergenti ncl ass.Aper sonwho
speaksmanydi fferentlanguagesi sl i
keaper sonwhoi sl i
vingi n
manywor l
dsbecauseeachl anguagel ooksatthewor lddi f
ferentl
yfrom other
l
anguages.Sochi ldrenshoul dl earnt houghEngl i
shsot hatt heycanexpl ore.

Peopl
ewhopr
oposet
heuseofSwahi
li
.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hepoi
ntsmade.

1.Engl
ishlanguagei
saf or
eignl
anguagemaki
ngstudent
slearnt
hroughafor
eign
l
anguage i sli
ke col
onizi
ng t
heirminds so we shoul
d get rid ofthei
r
col
onizati
on.

2.
Studentsl
earnbetterwhentheyusethel
anguagetheyknowwell.Unfor
tunatel
y
Tanzani
ansdonotknowEngl ishwel
lsomakingthem cont
inuel
earni
ngthrough
i
tendangerseducati
oninTanzani
a.

3.Experiencef rom devel

opedcountri
esrevealsthatstudent
sl earnusingt hei
r
countrieslanguagesandEngl i
shorotherlanguagesarelearnassubj ect
sbut
themedi um ofinst
ruct
ioni
sKor ean(Hangul)t
hesepeoplearet echnol
ogicall
y
developed.Theyar ethe ones who exporttel
evisi
on and otherelectr
onics
product s.

4.Engl
ishshouldbetaughtassubjectli
ket
hewayFrenchistaught
.Thiswil
l
i
mproveitst
eachi
ng.Curr
ent
lyEnglishi
sver
ybadl
ytaughtsotheappeali
sto
i
mprovethet
eachi
ngofEnglish.

5.Swahi
lii
sthel
anguageofAf
ri
cani
dent
it
ysoweoughtt
oteachusi
ngal
oti
fwe
ar
etocheri
shourher
it
age

6.Nolanguageisendowedwi thscient
if
icknowledgesoi ti
samythtobel
ievethat
Engli
shi sthelanguageofsci enceandt echnology.Anylanguagei
ncluding
Swahilicanbeamet al
anguageofscienceandt echnol
ogy.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 12
7.Al
readyteachersareusingcodemi xing.I
fyouobservemanycl
assesyouwi
ll
di
scoverthatteacher
sspeakal otofSwahil
iint
hecl
assroom.
Soweneedt oformal
izethatuseofSwahil
i.

From t hear gumentofbot hgr oups,itseemst hereisal anguagepr obl

em i n
Tanzani a.Itseemsbot hEngl i
shandSwahi l
iar eneeded.Thepr oblem isthe
statuseachl anguagei stohave.Wemayar gueher ethatitispossibletoteach
throughSwahi l
if r
om pr i
mar yschoolt oUni versit
ylevelthatwillbepossi bl
ei f
thegover nmentchangesi tslanguagepol i
cyinEducat ion.
Thi smaybepossi ble
withoutendanger ing Engl i
sh.Howevert here has to be some wel ltr
ained
teacherswhowi llteachEngl i
sh.
Translationoft heexi sti
ngl i
teratur
ewi llnotbenecessar yi fEngli
shi staught
wel l
;thisi sbecause st udentswho l earnthrough Swahi l
iwillalso mast er
English provided i tist aughtwel l.Havi ng very compet entteacher sis an
i
nvest mentsot her eshoul dbepur posefull
yefforttoeff
ectthechange.

ALANGUAGE/SPEECHCOMMUNI
TY

Thi
srefertoagroupofpeoplewhoshareorr egardt hemselvesassharingthe
samelanguageorl anguagevar
iet
yi.
e.i
tisagr oupofpeopl ewhomut uall
y
under
standandhencecanspeakanduseonepar ticul
arlanguage.Forexample
Swahil
ilanguagecommuni t
yofEastAfri
ca,Bengal ilanguagecommuni t
yof
Bangl
adesh,Hehelanguagecommunit
yofI
ringar egion.

LANGUAGEVARI
ETI
ES

Whati sal anguagevariet

y?
Al anguagevar i
etyisanykindoflanguageoranypart
icularki
ndofl
anguage
whichar isesaccor di
ngt odif
fer
encef act
orssuchast heuseandt heuser
.
Basicall
yl anguagevariet
iesar
iseduetot wobasi
cfact
or si.
e.t
heuseandthe
user.

Ther
ear
etwomaj
orl
anguagevar
iet
ies:
-

(
a)Regi
ster

Thisisthelanguagevarietywhichar i
sesaccor
dingt
otheuse.
Thesedet erminebysever alfactorssuch asoccupat
ion,fi
eld ofdiscour
se
(Topic)
,Tenorofdi scourse (status)
,mode ofdiscourse (
medi a)
,Modalit
y
(channel)
,Doman( Function).

(
b)Di
alect

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 13
 Thisi sthelanguagevar i
ety(vari
ati
on)t hatarisesaccor di
ngt otheuser
.This
var111ietyi
sdet er
mi nedbysever alfactorssuchassoci alclassorsoci
algroup,
geogr aphi
calareaorl ocat
ion,age,sex,professionetc.
Dialectsdif
ferfrom oneanot herintermsofvocabul ary,pronunci
ati
on(accent)
andgr ammarbutt hemostnot iceabl
ef eatureispronunciati
on(accent
)

TYPESOFDIALECTS
Ther
earet
hreemajorDi
alect
icalvar
iet
iesofal
anguage.

(
a)Soci
olect/Soci
aldi
alect

Thisisthel anguagevar iety(typeofdi al

ect)whichar isesaccordingtosoci al
classorgr oupi.
e.itisthevar ietyofl anguagewhi chusedorspokenbypeopl e
whobel ongt oapar ti
cularsoci alclassorgr oupsuchashi ghclassusmi ddle
classlowcl ass,
educatedusnon–educat ed,ini
ti
atedusnon–i nit
iat
etherich
ust hepoor.Thegroupingofpeopl ei ntodiff
erentclassesi smarkedwithregard
toeducationbackgr ound, economi csst at
usaswel l astradit
ionsandcustoms.

(
b)Geogr
aphi
cal/Regi
onaldi
alect

Thisisthevari
etyoflanguageaccor di
ngtogeogr aphi
call
ocat
ionorareai.
e.it
i
st hevari
etyofl
anguageasusedorspokenbyi nhabit
ant
sofaparti
cul
arplace,
partorgeographicallocat
ion,forexampleBr i
tishEngli
sh,Ameri
canEnglish,
Austral
ianEngli
sh,Sout hAfri
canEnglish,akwngusavsKi pemba,Scott
ishvs
KimachamevsKi rombovsKi mar anguvsKibosho.

(
c)I
diol
ect

Thisisthel
anguagevarietywhi chari
sesaccor
dingtoan–individualpersonal
i
.e.Itisthevariet
yofal anguagewhi chisusedbyani ndividualpersonin
speechorwri
ti
ng
NB:TheI ndi
vidualvar
ietyofl anguageismostlymarkedint ermsofdi cti
on
(choi
ceofwords)thecommandofl anguageaswellast
heaccent .

THEBASI
CDI
FFERENCEBETWEENALANGUAGEANDADI
ALECT

Al
anguageandadi
alectdi
ff
eri
nthef
oll
owi
ngways

(
i)Thedifferenceinsize
Al anguagei sbiggerthanadi alecti
nt hesenset hati
thasmor e
speakerst hanadi al
ect
.Att hesamet imeal anguageisspokenina
l
argerar eathanthatofadi alect
,forexamplet henumberofEngl i
sh
speakersingeneralisbiggerthanthatofsout
hAf ri
caEngli
shli
kewise
Englishlanguageisspokeni nmor ethanonecont i
nentbutAmerican

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 14
 Engl
ishi
sspokeni
nAmer
ica.

(
ii
)Di
fferenceinpresti
ge status
Al anguageismor epr est
igioust
hanadi al
ecti
.e.i
thasahi gherst
atus
thant hestat
usofdi alect–peopl efeelbet
ter
/pr esti
giouswhent hey
aresai dt ospeakal anguaget hanwhent heyar esai dt ospeaka
dialect.ForexampleEngl ishspeakersfeelbett
ert hant heAmerican
Engl i
shspeakers.

(
ii
i)Thediffer
encei nmut ualintell
igibili
ty:
MutualI ntell
igi
bili
tyist hest akei nwhi chal anguageordi al
ectis
mutualunder stoodaccept ablebyal lthemember s.Thisimpli
esthat
dial
ectsaremut ualintelli
giblet hanlanguagesi .e.speakersofdif
fer
ent
dial
ectsoft hesamel anguagecanunder standeachot herwhereasthe
speakersofdi f f
erentl anguagecannotunder stand each ot
her.For
example speaker s ofAmer ican Engl ish and Br i
ti
sh Engli
sh are
mutuall
yi ntelli
giblesincet het woar et hedi alectoft hesamecannot
understandeachot herbecauset hetwoar edi f
fer entl
anguages

NB:Dial
ects dif
fer fr
om one anot
her i
n t
erms of vocabul
ary
pr
onunci
ati
on(ascent
)aswel
lasgrammar
.

CAUSESOF LANGUAGEVARI
ETI
ES

Whatcausesl
anguagevar
iat
ion?

Therearesever
alreasonsforl
anguagevar
iat
iont
hesomeoft
hem as
fol
low;
Geographi
caldi
fferences.

Geogr aphicalext enti soneamongt hecausesofl anguage

variationaspeopl ewhol i
vei ndi
f f
erentgeogr aphicalareatend
tospeakdi fferentlyfrom eachot her.Thenat ur albarri
erssuch
asmount ainsbi griversandhugef orestar eamongt hingsthat
l
eadt olanguagevar iat
ion,thisisduet ot hefactthatshay
affectcont act sfrom onesi detoanot her.Geogr aphical
distancecanber egionwi sei .
e.withinonecount r
yb( from one
regiont oanot her)orNat ionalwisei .e.Onecount ryand
anot her.Forexampl eNi gerianEnglish, AmericanEngl i
shas
wel lasBr i
tishEngl i
sh,becauseofl imi tedcont actbetween
thosecount rieseachcount rywil
lspeakherownl anguage
variety.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 15
Occupat
ion.

Peopleofdi ff
er entoccupationshavedi f
ferentlanguagestyles.Asthe
l
awyer susel anguagewhi chi schar acteri
zedbyspeci alt
erm anduse
l
ongandcompl exsentencesi nthei rl
egal document swhi l
ethe
l
anguagej ournalism i
sdifferentfrom t hatoft helawyersast he
j
ournalistuseembel l
ishedl anguageandt heirsentencesmostoft he
ti
mest artswithadver bialelement s.Nor mal l
yeachoccupat iongroup
hastheirownj argonswhi chdi f
ferentiatethem f r
om anothergroup.
Thosejar gonscanonl ybeunder stoodamongpeopl eofthesome
occupat i
on.Forexampl eadj ournCommence, mut at
ismutandisarethe
j
argonswhi char edomi nantinlegall anguage.

Agedi
ff
erences

Alsothesecausel anguagevariati
onsaspeopl eofdiffer
ent
agehavedi ffer
entlanguagehabi tasaresul tt
heytendtousel anguage
i
ndi f
ferentway.Thechi l
drenusesi mplelanguageandsomet imes
ungrammat i
calbecausetheyhavenotyet .
-Masteredthelanguage.
Whiletheyout htendstoussl angwhichi slessprefer
redbyelders,the
dif
ferencesweobser veamongt heselanguageuser sleadtolanguage
vari
ation.

Sexdi
ff
erences.

Womenandmenshow si gnif
icancedi ff
erencesi nl anguage
use.Someoft hesedi f
fer
encesar ephysiologicalandsomeof
them aresociol
ogical.Physiological
lywomenusehi ghpi t
ch
whilemenusel owpi t
chasar esultofvibr
at ionofvocalCor ds.
Social
lyther
ear ewor dswhi char ehighlyusedbymenand
therearethosewhi chareusedbywomen.Somet imesmen
tendstouseunpl easantwor ds( rude/harsh)i nancaseway
whilewoment endt obever ysel ecti
veint heirdict
ion( choice
ofwor ds)As a r esultthe two gr oups l eads tol anguage
vari
ati
on.

Soci
alcl
asses.

Nor
mal
lyt
hesociet
yisstr
ati
fi
ed,now t
heclasseswhi
chare
f
oundi
noursoci
etytendt
ohavediff
erentl
anguagest
ylef
or

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 16
 exampletheclassofwor ker
shavet heirownl anguagestyl
e
whichisdif
fer
entfr
om theclassoffarmerslikewisethecl
ass
ofeducat
edpeopleissaidtousethest andar
dl anguagewhil
e
uneducat
edclassusenon–st andar
dl anguage

I
ndi
vidual
it
y/i
diol
ect

Thisreferstoindivi
dualsl
anguagehabi tst hatmakeone
l
anguageusert obedif
fer
entfrom otheruser softhesome
l
anguage.Thi si sdet
erminedbyt heindividualschoiceofwords,
havingpar t
icularvoi
cequali
ty,useofcer tainexpressi
onsand
theuseofPar ali
ngui
sti
cfeaturesAni ndividual
it
ymar kthe
i
dent i
tyofsomeonehenceyoucanbeabl etosayt hatsomeone
i
sspeaki ngasyoual r
eadyknowhi sorherst yl
e.Havingthose
i
ndividualfeatureswhichdif
ferenti
atefrom onel anguageuser
toanotheruseroft hesomel anguage, l
eadst ovariati
onof
l
anguage.

Basi
cconceptofl
anguage

(
a)Firstl
anguage( Motherlanguage)
Thisisthelanguaget hatachil
dacquir
esfrom hisorherpar
ent/
f
amilyatthechil
dhoodsuchasal anguageisnotlearnbuti
tisonl
y
acquir
edbyl ist
eningandi mit
ati
ng.Oncecanknowhowt ospeak
i
tbutnottowriteit
.Forexampl eKingoni
oftheWangoni ,Ki
heheof
theWahehe, KinyakyusaoftheNyakyusa.

(b)Secondlanguage
Thisist
helanguagewhi
chislear
naf tertheacquisi
ti
onoft hefi
rst
l
anguage.Thislanguagei
susuall
y l earnformalatschool t
hrough
dri
ll
sorgani
zedandsupervi
sedbyt heteachers.Forexampl e
Swahilii
nTanzaniaandEngl
ishinKenya,UgandaandZambi a.

(c)Forei
gnlanguage
Thisisthelanguaget hathasbeenadopt edandhenceusedor
spokeninapar t
icul
arcount ryfrom anot
hercountr
yi ti
st helanguage
used
orspokenout si
dei tsori
ginalnati
vespeakers(usedorspokenby
non – nativespeaker s)for exampleEnglish i
n Af r
ican countr
ies,
French
inAfri
canCountries,Swahi l
iinAmeri
canorEur opeancount r
iesor

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 17
 someot
herAf
ri
cancount
ri
es.

(d)Nat i
onallanguage
Thi sisthel anguaget hathasbeenselectedandaccept edbyt he
governmentsot hatitshoul dbeandisbeingusedast hemaj ort
oolof
communi cationbyt hemaj ori
tyofthepeoplewi thi
napar t
icul
ar
countryoraNat ion.
Itisthelanguagewhi chiswidelyspokeninthelargestpartofthe
country.
The Nat i
onallanguage oughtt o be one of t he offi
cial
l
anguage
inthecount ryandalsoneedst obeast andar
dlanguage.

The Nationall anguage l

ikewise oughtt o be t
he medium of
i
nstr
ucti
onatanyl evelsofeducat ioni nthecountry.Forexample
Swahil
iin
Tanzania,
Engli
shi nKenya,Zambi a,Uganda,Li
ber
iaetc.Fr
enchin
Cameroon,Senegal,DRCCongo, Gabonet c.

(
e)Of fici
all anguage
Thi sist hel anguaget hathasbeensel ectedandacceptedbyt he
governmentt hati tshouldbeusedasat oolofcommuni cat
ioni
nall
offi
cialmat t
er sandpublicplaceswi t
hinthecountr
ysuchasi nthe
governmentof f
icers,school,
hospital,
courtsoflaw,par
li
amentetc.
Anof f
iciall anguagemustbest andardi.e.t
heonewi thunifor
m
spel
lings,st ruct ure and pr onunciat
ions forexample Swahiliand
Engli
sh
aret hetwoof fi
cial
languageinTanzani a

(
f)Standar dlanguage
Thi sist helanguagewhi chhasi t
sownor thography( spell
ings),structureand
pronunci ati
onsmodi f
iedsot hattheyar ethesamewher everthel anguagei s
spoken orused i .e.t he l
anguage wi th uniform spel l
ings,st ructure and
pronunci ati
on.Iti st he variet
y ofl anguage whi ch is gener all
yt aken as
presti
gi ousr ecognizedascor r
ectandaccept ablegr ammat ical
lylexicallyand
phonol ogicall
y.
Thest andar dl anguageordi al
ecti stheoneusedbyeducat edpeopl eort he
rul
ing cl ass and t he one wi t
h hi gh st
atus on speech and wr iti
ng oft he
educat ed nat urespeaker softhatlanguage.
Itisthevar ietyofl anguagewhi chi swidelyunderst ood,usedi nmassmedi a,
describedi ndictionariesanditsgrammarsot aughtt othenon–nat ivespeaker
whent heyl earnitast hef or
eignlanguage

Feat
uresofst
andar
dlanguage

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 18
1.Itisnon–localizedi.
e.Itisnotr estr
ictedtoacert
ainparti
cul
arr
egion–itis
widel
yspreadindiffer
entregions.
2.Itisusual
lytaughtinschool sasamodelofvar i
etyespeci
all
ytothefor
eign
l
earners
3.Iti
sthoughttobeadi alectoftheuppercl ass
4.Itisadial
ectthatdomi natest hemedi ai ntheworl
dforexampleTelevi
sion,
seri
ousNewspaper sandmagazi nes,radioetc

Howi salanguagestandar
dized
There are sever
alprocesses t
hatar
e nor
mal
lyi
nvol
ved i
nlanguage
st
andar
dizat
ion

(
a)Selecti
on
Outofmanydi alectsofal anguage, oneischoseni
nordertobestandardized.
Thechoiceisinfluencedbysoci alf act
ors.For
exampl ethevarietythatisspokenbyacl assofpeopl
ewhoar econsidered
tobeimpor t
antismor eli
kelytobesel ectedthan
othervari
etiessuchast hevarietyoftherichpeopl
e;t
heroyalf
amily,the
upperclassetcwi l
lbef avoredint heselect
ion.

(
b)Codi f
icati
on
Thisi sthepracticeofcreati
ngnor m ofusage;thi
sisdonebywri
ti
ngthe
grammaroft heselecteddial
ect
,dict
ionar
iesand
encyclopaedi
a.Thisprocessismeanttof ami
li
ari
zepeopl
ewitht
hevar
iet
yto
best andardi
zed

(
c)El
aborati
on
Underthisprocesstherol
ewhi chthestandar
dofdial
ectwil
lpl
ayismadecl
ear
.
Forexamplet heroleofdi
alectineducati
on,management
,gover
nmentet
cneed
tobeclearl
yexplained

(
d)Acceptance
Atthisstaget hechosen di
alectisvoted f
ornormal
lymember
soft
he
parl
iamentacceptthevar
iet
yonbehalfofthepeoplef
rom
t
herethelanguagebecomesstandard.

(
g)Pidgi n
Thisi s a new language which emerges orari
ses as a contact
vernacularbetweenoramongpeopl e( gr
oupofpeople)whoneedt o
communi cat
e butdo notshar e a common language.I.e.iti
sa
simpli
fiedkindofl anguagethatdevelopswhent hereisacont act
between t wo gr oups of peopl
e who have di ffer
ent li
ngui
stic
backgroundandt hesepeopl
ehavenoot herl
anguaget hanthetwo

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 19
 l
anguagest heyuseorspeak.
Iti
sanauxi l
iar
ylanguagewhi chisf
ormedorari
sesbetweenoramong
twogr oupsofpeopl ewhocomei nt
ocontacttof ul
fi
llonl
ycert
ain
l
imited communi cat
ion needs or purposes.These people have
dif
ferentl
anguage(withoutshari
ngacommonl anguage)

Typesofpi
dgi
n

1.Tempor ary(Mar ginal)

Thisist hepidginwhi charisesi naspeechcommuni tyandl astorexistf ora
veryshor tti
me.Thi smayhappenbet weent heexpatriatesandhouseser vants
orlaborersoramongt hesoldiersfr
om differentcountri
eswhent heyareneeded
fora speci altask on cont ractwithf i
xed t ime.I.e.t hisl anguage usual l
y
disappearsafterthecont actisover.
2.Expanded
Thisisthepi dginl anguagewhi chexi
stsf orar easonabledur at
ionoft i
meand
extendsitsdomai nsofusebeyondorout sidethespher esofi tsor i
gini.
e.itisa
typeofpi dginthatdevel opsi nt heMul t
i– l i
ngualar easi .e.placesthathave
manyl anguages.
Insomecount ri
est hi
st ypeofpi dgini sevenusedi nr adiobr oadcastand
parli
ament ar
ydebat esandhasevenbecomeawr i
ttenl anguage,codi fi
edi n
dicti
onariesandusedr egularl
yi nbooksandnews–paper s

NOTE:-Theor i
ginofpidginistracedbackwi t
hregar
dtot hetri
angul
arslave
tr
adei
nAt l
anti
cwestAfricaandwesti ndi
es
coastsespeci
allyi
nt hetraderout
esandcoastalareas.Forexample
Tok–pisini
sagoodexampl eofanEngl i
shbase
pi
dginusedinPapuaNewGui nea,WestAf
ri
ca.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofpi
dgi
n

Pidgi
nhasanumberofcharact
erist
icsf
eatur
esasfol
lows
(i
)Iti
sanewlanguagewhi chemergesaf
tert
hecontactoft
wogr
oups
ofpeopl
ewhohadnevermetbefore.

(i
i)Pidginhasnonat ivespeakersduet
ot hef
actthatiti
sanewlanguaget
hatis
formedbyt wogr oupsofpeopl ewho
alreadyhavetheirownnat i
veLanguage.I
.e.pi
dgindoesnotbel
ongtoany
parti
culargroupofpeopl ewhouseand
regarditasthenat i
velanguage.

(i
i
i)Thepidgi
nlanguageisf
ormedtoful
fi
ll
cer
tai
nli
mit
edcommuni
cat
ionneeds
orfunct
ioni.
e.ithasali
mit
edrangeof

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 20
 f
uncti
onasiti
sformedtocat
erf
orSpeci
fi
corl
imi
tedpur
posesuchast
rade,
busi
ness,
conver
sati
onetc.

(i
v)Pidginhasauniquegr
ammarwi t
hverysimpl
esyntact
icst
ruct
urethan
t
helexi
fiedlanguagesuchasitl
ackspl
ural
ism of
nouns,Concordi
aaagreementbetweenthesubj
ectandpredi
cat
einthe
t
hir
dper son.

(v)Pidgi
nisatemporar
ylanguagewhichemergesandexi
stf
orashor
t
dur
ationofti
mewhenitisextendedandexistf
ora
l
ongtime,
iti
swheni tbecomesCreole.

(vi
)Thelexi
con(vocabul
ary)ofpi
dgi
nisder
ivedf
rom anot
herdomi
nant
l
anguage(
lexi
fi
edlanguage)whichgui
desthe
gr
ammaroft hepidgi
nlanguage.

(
vii
)Speakersofpidgi
nemployparal
ingui
sti
cfeat
uressuchast
heuseof
gest
ures,signet
c.thi
sisduet
olackenough
vocabul
ary.

(
h)Creole
Thisi sapi dgi
nl anguagethatar i
sesast hemothertongueofanewl yf ormed
communi t
yofpeopl ewhodonotshar eacommonl anguageot herthanan
emer gingoralreadyestabl
ishedpidgin.
Itistheexpandedpi dginwhi chhasbecomet hemothertongue(nativelanguage)
oft henewmember s(generati
on)ofaspeechcommuni tyi.
e.Itisapidgint hat
hasacqui respeopl ewhospeaki tastheirfi
rstl
anguage.Thisi snormal l
yt he
casewhenspeaker sofapi dginbarechil
drenwhoknowot herlanguaget hana
pidgin.

Creol
eisapi dginlanguagewhi chhasbeenwi
del
yspokenandadopt
edasa
mothertongueoft henewgener ati
on.
ExamplesofCr eole
Engli
shlexi
fiedJamai can,Fr
ench
Kri
o–Engl ishbasedCr eolespokeninsi
err
a–Leon
Guyana–Amer ica
Gull
ah–USA

Characteri
sti
csofCr eol
e
1.Itisnotanewl anguageitisf
ormedfrom pi
dgi
n.I
.e.Cr
eol
ecomesi
ntobei
ng
thr
ought hetransf
ormationofpi
dgi
nwhichhas
becomet hemot hert
ongueofaspeechcommunit
y.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 21
 2.Creolehasacommunit
yofnativespeaker si.
e.i
tisfor
medfrom expanded
pidgi
nwhichbecomet
hemothertongue(native
l
anguageoft
henew gener
ati
on)thusCr eolebel
ongstoapar
ticul
arspeech
communi t
ywhousesi
tasthenat
ivelanguage.

3.Cr eol
ehasaf il
erangeoffunct
ionasanyot herlanguagei
.e.i
tistreat
edor
regardedasafulll
anguageandperformsallf
unct
ions
thatanylanguagecanperfor
m andhenceusedast hemothertongueofthe
vastmajori
tyofparti
cul
arcount
ri
esf orexampl
eEnglish
lexi
fi
edJamaicanusedinJamaica.

4.Creolehasacompr ehensi
vegrammarwi t
hit
sgrammat i
calrulesembodi
ed
withpreci
sesyntact
icsyst
emsthanexpandedpi
dgi
ni.e.
t
hesyntax(gr
ammar )ofCreol
esisobi
tmoreadvancethanthatofpi
dgi
n.

5.Creol
eisaper manentlanguagesi nceitistransfor
medf r
om expanded
pi
dginandexistsi
naparti
culargeographical
locati
onor
countr
yandusedpermanent l
y byaspeechcommuni ty.I
nsomecountri
es
cr
eolesmayevenbecomet heNat i
onallanguageused
off
ici
all
yinpubl
icpl
aces,codif
iedindicti
onari
eset c.

6. Creol
e has compr ehensi
ve vocabul
ary whi
ch ar
e deri
ved f
rom anot
her
dominantorl
exi
fi
erlanguagei.e.Cr
eol
ehavemoredevel
oped
vocabular
ycomparedt opidgi
n.

(
i)I
nternati
onallanguage
Thisi sthelanguagewhi chhasbeenwor l
dwideacceptedasat ool
ofcommuni cationamongvar i
ousNat i
onsoft heworld.I
.e.itisthe
language used orspoken i n di ff
erentNat ions f
rom di ff
erent
cont i
nentsoft hewor l
dsuchal anguageoughtt obeaccept edby
UNO ast hemaj ormeansofcommuni cat
ioni ntheinternati
onal
forms.
Atpr esentiti
sonl yEnglishandFr enchwhi chhavebeenaccept ed
ast hemostpr evail
ingint
ernat
ionallanguage.

Cri
teri
awhi chmake l anguageint
ernati
onal
Thereareseveralfactorstobeconsi deredinthepr omot i
onofal anguagetobe
inter
nati
onal
(
i) Thenumberofspeaker st hatt helanguagehasi nor derfort helanguageto
becomei nternat
ional,itneedst ohavear easonablenumberoft henat i
veand
non–nativespeaker s.I.e.thelanguageshouldei t
herasanat ivelanguageora
non-nativelanguage.Forexampl eEngli
shi ssai dt ohaveover600, 000,
000
speakers from di fferent count r
ies but surprisingly Chinese has about
900,000,
000speaker sbuti tisnotoni nt
ernati
onall anguage.Thisisbecause

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 22
 Chi
nesei
sonl
yspokenbyt
henat
ivespeaker
swi
thi
nChi
na.

(
ii
) Thenumberofcount ri
esandcont i
nentsi .
e.theext enttowhichthel anguageis
geographi
call
ydispersed.
Inorderforthelanguaget obei nternati
onal.Itoughtt obeusedorspokeni n
dif
fer
entcount ri
es from dif
ferentorvar i
ous cont i
nents ofthe wor ld.For
exampleEngl i
shisusedast hefirstlanguagei nmanycount ri
essuchasUK<
USA<I rel
and,Australia,New-Zealand,Canada,t heCar ibbean countri
esand
SouthAf r
ica.Iti
salsousedast hesecondl anguagei nthecommonweal th
countri
essuch asZi mbabwe,Paki stan,Ni geria,Indi
a,Kenya et ct hesame
appli
esforFrenchinWestAf ri
cancount r
ies.

(
ii
i) Theeconomi csandpol i
ti
calinfl
uenceandpoweroft henativespeaker s.I
.e.how
economicallyandpol i
ti
call
yt henativespeakersareinfl
uenti
al.Thisimpliesthat
i
nor derfort helanguaget obei nternat
ional,i
tsnati
vespeakers( thecountries
werethatlanguagei susedasanat ivelanguage)shouldhaveagr eatpowerand
i
nfluenceoverot hercountri
es.Forexampl etheAmericansandt heBriti
shbei ng
poli
ti
calandeconomi calinfl
uentialmayf orceEngli
shast heirnativelanguage
becomei nternat
ional.

(
iv) Theextenttowhi chthelanguagei st hemedium forscience,li
ter
atureandot her
importantareasoraspects.Thisi salsoref
erredtothelanguagesvehi cularl
oad.
Forthel anguaget obecomei nternati
onalisshould bet hemedi um ( t
ool)for
sci
enceandt echnol
ogy,lit
eratureandot heraspectsofhumanl if
esuchas
cul
ture,economi cs,polit
icset c.t hi
si mpli
est hatan internat
ionallanguage
needst ocat erforseveralpur posesorf uncti
onsrathert hanbeingonl yfor
communi cation,i
tshoul
dgobeyondcommuni cat
ion.

(
v) Acceptabi l
it
yofthelanguagebyUNO
Thei nternati
onall
anguageoughtt obewor l
dwideacceptedbyUNO andt he
worl
d educat ed l
inguist
s as the maj ormeans ofcommuni cat
ion i
n all
i
nternationalaff
air
si ntheworld.Thel anguageneedst obestandar
d,codi
fied
(wri
tteninBooks)andusedasoneoft heoffi
ciall
anguageofUNO.
NB:Wi th abovecriter
ia Engl
ish and French qual
if
yt o betheinter
nati
onal
l
anguage

(j)Li
ngua-Franca
Thisisacommonl anguagewhi chisadaptedint hemalt-l
ingualsoci et
y
(t
hesoci etywith manyl anguages)i n whi
ch allthespeaker sar enot
profi
cientinalllanguagebeingusedorspoken.I .
e.itist hel anguage
whichhadbeenaccept edasthecommonmeansofcommuni cationinthe
communi tywithdiff
erentl
anguages.
Thisisanauxili
arylanguagethatitusedtofaci
li
tatesrout
ine( day-to-day)

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 23
communi cat
ion between people who have di ff
erent l
ingui
sti
cs
backgroundsinthatt
heyhavediffer
entl
anguageforexampleSwahil
iin
Tanzaniaisali
ngua-f
rancaEngl
ishisali
ngua-f
rancaofthewor
ld.

(
k)Di
glossi
a
Thisisasi t
uat
ionwherebyt wolanguageorlanguagevariet
iescoexi
st
(exi
stsi
debyside)inacommuni t
yinwhicheachl anguageorlanguage
vari
etyi
susedforadif
ferentpur
poseorsocial
functi
on.

Int hissi
tuat
iononel anguageorl anguagevar ietyhasahi gherstat
us
thananothersoonei sconsider
edtobehi ghandt heot herasl
ow.
A hi ghvari
etylanguageisusedf orf or
malorser iousmat t
ersinthe
societysuchasi neducationoffi
cialmatter,publ i
cpl aces,i
nter
nat
ional
affairsetcon theot herhand,thel ow var i
ety( languagei sused for
i
nf ormalusesorsuchasf r
iendl
yletter
s,conversation.

TheDi aglossi
cnat ur
eofl anguagei nTanzaniaentail
st heexi
stenceof
thr
eel anguageEngl i
sh,Swahi l
i,Ethni
ccommuni t
yl anguageasDoubl e
overl
appingDi agl
ossicduet othefactthatonel
anguage(Swahil
i)isused
i
nbot hfor malandinformaldomai nswhencompar edwi t
hthevernacul
ar
l
anguageandEngl i
shr espect
ivel
y.

Thi
simpli
est hatwhenSwahiliispl
acedwithver
nacul
ars.Iti
sconsi
der
ed
asahighlanguageisconsideredaslow.OntheotherhandwhenSwahili
i
splacedwithEngli
sh,Engl
ishishighwhereasSwahil
iislow.

(l
)Bil
inguali
sm
Thisist heabil
it
yof( theuseby)ofani ndi
vidualoftwolanguages( or
more)i.e.i
tisthesit
uationwherebyanindivi
dualpersonhastheabil
it
yt o
speaktwo( ormore)languages.
Apersonwi ththeabili
tyofusingorspeakingtwolanguagesistechni
que
knownasaBi l
ingualperson.

Thefol
lowingar
ethefeat
uresofaBi
li
ngualperson:
1.Abi
li
tytouse,
speakorknowtwolanguagesequall
ywel
lorper
fect
ly.

2.Theabil
it
ytouseorspeakonel anguageandunder
standanot
her
l
anguagewi
thoutbei
ngabl
etospeakoruseit.

3.Theabi
li
tytouseeachlanguagei ndiff
erentt
ypesofsi
tuat
ionsor
Domai
nsforexampl
eathome,atschooloratwork.

4.Theabi
li
tyt
oreadandwr
it
einanyoneoft
het
wol
anguage

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 24
 5.Theabil
it
ytouseeachlanguageforadi
ffer
entcommuni
cat
ingpur
pose
forexampl
etal
kingaboutpersonal
li
fewri
ti
nglet
ter.

6.ABi
li
ngual
ist
heonewhohasl
ear
ntwol
anguagesi
nthef
ami
ly.

7.ABi
li
ngual
ist
heonewhohasusedt
wol
anguagessi
ncechi
ldhood.

WHATI
SALI
NGUI
ST?

Is a schol
arwho studi
es l
anguage scienti
fi
call
yi .
e.i s a person who i
s
speci
ali
zedinthescient
if
icstudyofl anguage(li
nguisti
cs).A li
nguisti
snot
necessaryaspeakeroft
helanguageheorshei sstudyingf orexampleheor
shestudythegr
ammarofacer tai
nlanguagewithoutbeingabletouseofspeak
i
t.

ENGLISHINTANZANI A
Withthepresentsoci
ology-
li
ngui
sti
cssi
tuat
ioni
nTanzania,Engl
ishl
anguage
hasacqui
redacertai
nstatusandr
oleandhencei
nsever
aldomainsasfol
lows:
-

1.Englishi susedast hemaj ori nternati

onall anguageSi nceTanzani aisamong
thecount r
iesint hewor ld, itusesEngl ishinal linternat i
onalaf f
airst o
communi catewi thpeopl ef rom ot herlanguageaswel last heinter nati
onal
confer encesandmeet ing.
2.Englishi susedast hef or eignl anguage
Thisisduet ofactt hatEngl ishhasbeenadapt edint obeusedi nTanzani afrom
anot hercount riesi.e.Br i
tain, thesecamei nt obei ngasar esultoft he Br i
ti
sh
colonizationofTanzani a.
3.Englishi susedast hemedi um ofi nstr
uct i
onf rom secondar yschooll evelsupt o
theuni versityl
evelI .
e.thet eachi ngandl ear ningpr ocessi sconduct edby
orthrought heuseof Engl ishl anguageexceptdur ingt het eachingofSwahi l
i
andFr ench.
4..Englishlanguagei susedasoneoft heof ficial l
anguagest ogetherwi thSwahi li
i
.e.theTanzani anGover nmenthasdecl aredbot hSwahi l
iandEngl ishtobeused
i
nal lof f
icialmat t
ersandpubl icplaces.
5..Englishlanguagei susedasoneoft hesubj ect satal llevelsofeducat i
onf rom
primar yschool tot heuni ver sitylevel.
6..Englishlanguagei sint ransi tionbet weenenj oyi ngt hest atusoft hef oreign
l
anguageandt hesecondl anguagei .
e.therear esi t
uat ionswher ebyEngl ishis
onlyused asaf oreignl anguageandt heot hersi tuationwher ebyt hestat usof
Englishi snowchangi ngi ntobei ngthesecondl anguageespeci all
yi nur ban
areaswer eSwahi l
iisusedast hefir
stlanguagef r
om bei ngt hesecond
l
anguage.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 25
SI
GNI
FICANCEOFLANGUAGEI
NHUMANSOCI
ETY

Languagebei ngtheonl ymedi um ofcommuni cat i

onusedbyhumanbei ngs
hasagr eatroleorsi gnif
icancet hati tpl aysi nhumansoci et
yasf oll
ows.
1. Languageasauni f
yinganddi vidingf actor.
Languagei sani mpor t
antfactori nt heenf orcinguni tyamongt hepeopl ei.e.it
bri
ngs member s of t he soci etyt ogether as ei ther a sol e means of
communi cation oras an el ementwhi ch i nspires a sense ofoneness or
toget
hernessamongt hepeopl eofar espect i
vesoci ety.Thisput t
ingtoget herof
member sofasoci etymakesl anguageauni f
yingf actor .
Forexampl e Swahi lihas made Tanzani af eeluni ted due t ot he factt hat
TanzaniansuseSwahi l
iast heredayt odayl anguaget hesameappl iest o
Engli
shinUKandUSA.
Therear ecaseswhenl anguagei ssai dt obeadi vidingf actor.Thisi swhen
l
anguagedoesnotputmember soft hecommuni t
yt ogether.Thi shappens
especi
allyincount ri
eswi t
hmul t
iplicityofl anguagesi .e.thecount ri
eswer e
manyl anguage wi th orofmor e orl ess t he same demogr aphic orsoci al
i
mpor t
anceexi standeachl anguageuser sst r
uggl ef ordomi nanceofot her
l
anguagesi nt hecount r
y,henceconf li
ctf orexampl ei nNi geriat her
ear et hr ee
l
anguagesI gbo,HausaandYor uba,i nBeni nYor uba,DogonandGa.Rwanda/
Burundi–Hut u,Tutsi
Insomecount r
ies,thef orei
gnl anguagehavebeenadopt edast heirnat i
onal
l
anguages,f orexampl eEngl i
shi nSi er r
aLeone,Li beriaandUganda,Fr enchi n
Senegal,I
voryCoastandDRC.

2. Languageasaf actorforcult
uralandNat ionalidentity.
I
nasoci et
yt herear emanyel ement st hatcoul di denti
fyapar ti
cular
culturalenti
tysuchasdr ess,makeups, foods,taboos, particularmanners
etc.Nonethelesslanguagei sthemostdomi nantelementofcul t
urewhich
i
smor eobvi ousandspeci ficthanelement s,thatist hecultur eofa
parti
cularcommuni tyiseasilyidentifi
edt hrought hel anguageusedby
thatcommuni ty.
Howeverl anguagei salsoani dentit
yoft henat ionalityofani ndi
vidual
sinceaspeakerspeaki ngacer t
ainlanguagecani dentifyhiscount ryof
origi
n,whi chmeansl anguageamongt hewayst hatcani denti
fynati
onsi n
thewor l
d.Forexampl eifyouar einaf oreignstat eandyou’ reheard
speaki ngSwahi li
,peoplewillwithoutdoubt ,judgeyouasaTanzani an.

3. Languageasaf
act
orf
orsoci
alst
rat
if
icat
ion

Languagemaypl aytherolet
of aster,r
e-enf
orceorperpetuat
edi ff
erencesint
he
societ
y.I.
e.itfacil
it
atesthesocialclassesexist
ingi
nt hesociety.Thisisnot
ed
i
nt hefactthattheuseofacer tainlanguageorlanguagevarietydeterminest
he

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 26
soci
alclassesexisti
ngi nthesociet
ydetermi
nesthesocialcl
asswouldt
endto
useadi ff
erentvari
etyoflanguage.Thesecanbeidenti
fi
edintheuseofcer
tai
n
words,choiceofwor ds,thecommandofl anguageaswel lastheuseofa
cert
ainaccent(pronunciati
on)
Specialst
rati
fi
cati
onmayi nvol
veeducatedVsNon-educat
ed,vi
ll
ager
sVsUrban
dwell
ers,poorVsr i
ch,farmersVsWor kers

4. Languageasami
rr
orofcul
tur
alandphysi
calr
eal
it
ies.

Asami rr
ori trefl
ectsani mage,equallylanguager ef
lect
salltheaccumul at
ed
knowledge,cust oms,t r
adit
ionsandbel i
evesandot herformsofexper i
encesof
agivensoci algroup.Italsoshowshowpeopl eofagi vencommuni tydefi
nethe
worldsurroundingt hem.Languaget heref
oreisthemeansbywhi chcultur
aland
physicalexper iences are accumul at
ed,st or
ed and t r
ansmi t
ted fr
om one
generati
ontoanot her.Forexampletheuseofcer tai
nwor drefl
ectthecult
ureof
thecommuni tyusingt hatword,suchasUgal iref
lectthebantucultur
easused
i
nSwahi li
.

5. Languageasaf
act
orsoci
aldevel
opment

Languagepl aysaver ysignificantrolei nt

hepr omot ionofsoci alactivi
ti
esand
servicessuchasschool ,hospi tal,watersupply,housi ngandt ranspor tetc.i.
e.
humanbei ngsusedl anguaget oco-ordinat
evar i
ousact i
vit
ies.
Through language we al so geti nformati
on t hrough mass medi a such as
newspaper s, radioandTel evisionwhi chinEuroaccel eratesoci aldevelopment .
Wher eacommonl anguageexi stbet weenleader sandmasses,t her
ei salways
asenseofcl oseness,under standingandbel ongingshencet heleader sar e
easil
yi mplement edt opromot esoci aldevel
opmenti .
e.whent hepol icymaker s
communi cat et heirpoli
ciest ot hepol icyimplement ersandt hei mplement ers
putthepol iciesi npr act
ice,int hatwaydevel opmenti sat t
ained.Her el anguage
playsagr eatr olebecauset hesepol i
ciesarepresent edusi ngl anguagebutf or
thecountrieswer eforei
gnl anguagear eadoptedasNat i
onallanguages;t hereis
alwaysabi ggapbet weenl eader sandt hemassesandt hesef orahi ndrancef or
socialdevelopment .

6. Languageast
oolormedi
um ofcommuni
cat
ion.

Languagef aci
li
tatesthet ransf
erofi nformationfrom oneper sonorpl aceto
another.Thisist hecentralormostsi gnif
icantroleoflanguagesincelanguage
i
sthemedi um throughwhi chhumanbei ngscommuni catethei
rthoughts,i
deas,
opini
ons, experi
encesandexpect at
ionswi thlanguage,humansoci etyi
sableto
communi cat ein var ious ways and event si n diff
erent form such as
conversations,greeti
ngs,telephone,discussion,massmedi ainstruct
ionsetc.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 27
al
lthesewaysusel
anguagef
ordi
ssemi
nat
ingi
nfor
mat
ion.

THESTATUSOFENGLI
SHI
NTHEWORLDANDI
NTANZANI
A

Engli
shhasdi
ff
erentst
atusi
ndi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
hewor
ldandTanzani
aas
f
oll
ows:-

1. Engl
ishasani
nter
nat
ionall
anguage

Engl
ishi
sani nter
nati
onallanguage;thefoll
owingarethefactor
swhi ch
qual
if
yEngli
shlanguagetobei nt
ernati
onallanguage.
 The numberofspeaker st hata language has,her e
ref
erencei smadet ot henumberofnat i
veandnon- nati
ve
speakers.Engl
ishissaidtohaveover600mi ll
ionspeakers.

 Theext
enttowhichl anguageisgeographical
lydi
spersed,
ther
e we lookatt he numberofcont inent
si n whi
ch the
l
anguageisusedorneeded.Engl ishis spokeninalmostal l
part
sofinhabi
tedpartsoftheworldforthatreasonEngli
shis
usedasthewor l
d’sl
inguafranca.

 Theeconomicsandpol it
icali nf
luenceandpoweroft he
nati
vespeakers.I.e.how economi call
yand pol it
icall
ythe
nati
vespeakersareinfl
uenti
al.Thi simpliesthatinor derfor
the l
anguage t
o be inter
national,its nati
ve speakers( t
he
countri
eswerethatlanguagei susedasanat ivelanguage)
shouldhaveagreatpowerandi nfl
uenceoverot hercountri
es.
ForexampletheAmer i
cansandt heBriti
shbeingpol i
ti
caland
economicalinf
luenti
almay f orce Engli
sh as t heirnati
ve
l
anguagebecomei nter
nati
onal .

 The extentt o which t he language i st he medi um for

sci
ence, l
it
eratureandot heri mpor tantareasoraspect s.This
i
s also referred t
ot he languages vehi cularl oad.Fort he
l
anguaget obecomei nternationalisshoul d bet hemedium
(t
ool)forscienceandt echnol ogy, l
it
eratureandot heraspects
ofhumanl ifesuchascul t
ur e,economi cs,politi
cset c.t
his
i
mpl i
es thatan i nter
nat i
onall anguage needs t o caterfor
severalpurposes orf unctions r atherthan bei ng onlyfor
communi cation,i
tshoul dgobeyondcommuni cati
on.

 Accept
abi
li
tyoft
hel
anguagebyUNO

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 28
 Theinter
nati
onall
anguageoughtt obewor l
dwideacceptedby
UNO andt heworldeducatedl i
nguist
sast hemaj ormeansof
communicati
on in al
li nt
ernati
onalaf f
air
sin t he worl
d.The
l
anguageneedst obest andard,codif
ied(writ
teninBooks)and
usedasoneoftheoffi
ciall
anguageofUNO.

NB:With above cr
it
eri
a Engl
ish and Fr
ench qual
if
yto be t
he
i
nter
nat
ionall
anguage

2.Engl
ishasanat
ivel
anguage

Bynat i
velanguagewemeant hefir
stlanguage.Itisthelanguagewhichpeopl
e
acquir
ef i
rstbef
oretheyareexposedtoanyot herlanguage.Engli
shisusedasa
nati
velanguagei nBrit
ain,U.
S.A,Austral
ia,NewZeal and,Canada,SouthAf
ri
ca
andtheCar i
bbean.Incountri
essuchasKenyaandZi mbabwet her
earefew
peoplewhospeakEngl ishasthei
rfi
rstlanguage.

3.Engl
ishasasecondl
anguage.

ASecondl anguager eferst oalanguagewhichisnotone’sfir

stlanguagebutis
necessar yforcert
ainof f
icial,
educati
onalorcommerci
alactivi
ti
es.
Engl i
shisasecondl anguagei nmostcommonweal t
hcount riesli
kePakist
an,
India,Nigeri
a,Kenya,Mal awi,Zambi aandothercountr
ies.Itshouldbenot ed
heret hatasecondl anguagei sdefinedbyusesoasecondl anguagedi f
ferfr
om
af oreignlanguagei nthatasecondl anguageismoreusefulinapl acethana
foreignlanguageinTanzani aforexampleFrenchi
saf orei
gnbecausei tsuseis
veryl i
mited.

4. Engl
ishasf
orei
gnl
anguage

Afor ei
gnlanguageisusedt omeanal anguagethati
susedbyt hesameone
acrossthecountri
essuchast ocommuni cat
ewi t
hforei
gner
sr eadi
ngbooks
andnewspapercommer ceandt ravel
.Inshor tt
heuseofal anguageasa
for
eign oneisver yrestr
icted i
n Rwanda,DRC,Bur undi
,Japan,and Chi
na.
Engli
shisusedasf or
eignlanguage.

5.Engl
ishasanat
ionall
anguage

Anationall
anguageisonewhichisconsi
deredtobethemai nl
yofanati
onand
whichisoff
ici
all
ydecl
aredso.E.
g.Swahil
iisthenat
ionall
anguagei
nTanzani
a.
Engli
shi sanat i
onall
anguageinmanycommonweal thcountr
iessuchas
Niger
iaandZimbabwe.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 29
 Incount
ri
eswheretheremanylanguagesofnat
ionalstat
ustheter
m OFFICI
AL
LANGUAGEisprepared.Exampl
eCanadawherethereisEngl
ishandFr
ench.

WORDFORMATI
ON

Thisist he f
ield orbr anch ofmor phology which st udi
es di
ff
erent
pri
nci
plesorpr ocesseswhi chgover
nt heconser vat
ionorf ormati
onof
wordsinapar ticul
arlanguage.I.
e.i
tr ef
erstot hepr ocessesbywhi ch
newwor dsar
ef ormedorbui l
tinapar
ticul
arlanguage.

Thispr ocessi nvolvesmor phologi

calprocesses( t
henformati
onofwor ds
through combi nations of mor phemes t ogether wit
h other di
ffer
ent
processes.
Thepr ocessofwor dformationmayi nvolvetheprocesswherebyrootsor
stemsr eceivedinf l
ecti
onalorder i
vationalelement(affi
xes)i
nor derto
formt henewwor ds.
NB:The r oots,st ems inf l
ecti
onalor der ivat
ionalelements are al
l
techniquet ermedasmor phemes

MORPHOLOGY
Thi
si sacomponentofgr ammar( subbranch)oflingui
sti
cswhi chdeal s
wit
hthest udyofmor phemesandt hei
rdiff
erenceforms(All
omor phs)and
how theseunitscombi netogetheri
nt hef ormati
onofwor ds.Italso
st
udiest hestruct
ureandar rangementofwor dsinthedi cti
onaryi.e.
Morphologyisthestudyofwor dformati
onanddi ct
ionar
yuse.

DEFI
NITI
ONSOFKEY WORDS

1. Morpheme
Thisi st he smal l
estgrammaticalorlexi
caluni
tint
he st
ruct
ure ofa
languagewhi chmayf orm awordorpartofaword
E.g.nat
ion nat ional
I
nt er
nati
onal
I
nt er
nati
onal l
y
Nat i
onal
izati
on
Kind-kindness
Unki nd

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 30
 Unkindness
Take-takes
Taken
Taking
Discuss-di scussi
on
Discussions
Amor phememayr epr
esentt
hel
exi
calmeani
ngorgr
ammat
icalf
unct
ion.

2. Word
Thisisthemi ni
malorsmal lestunitinthestructur
eofasent enceinany
l
anguagewhi chmayconst i
tuteonutteranceorsentenceonit
sown.
Thewordi susuallyf
ormedbyei t
heroneorsever almorphemesoutiti
sthe
small
estunitinthesent
encest r
ucture.
E.
g.YesterdayImethim atTabata-6wor ds
Wecanwor dsinasentenceandmor phemesinawor d

3. Stem
Isthatpar
tofawor dthatisinexi stencebef oreanyinf l
ectional
aff
ixes
havebeenadded.Or
Isthatpar
toft hewor dthatinflect i
onal affi
xescanbeat tachedto.
Forexample:-"cat"cant akei nflectional morpheme- '
S'
-"Wor ker"cant akei nflectionalmor pheme-'S'
-"Winne"cant akei nflectionalmor pheme-'S'
-"Shor t
"cant akei nflectionalmor pheme-'er'
-"fr
iendshi p"cant akei nflecti
onal morpheme- 'S'
NB:

 Ast
em isarootorr ootsofthewordtoget
herwi
thanyder
ivat
ionaff
ixes
t
owhichinf
lectionalaff
ixesar
eadded.
 Ast
em consistsmi ni
mal l
yofarootbutmaybeanal
yzabl
ewor di
ntoa
r
ootpl
usderivationmor phemes

4.Base
Isanyunitwhatsoevertowhi chaf fixesofanyki
ndcanbeadded.
Forexample;i
nt hewor d"playful"
pl
' ay'i
sar ootandal soabase
Int hewor d' playfulness'therootisst
il
l"pl
ay"butt
hebasei
s
'pl
ayf
ul'

-"
Inst
ruct
"ist
hebasef orfor
minginst
ruct
ion,i
nst
ruct
orandr
e-
i
nstr
uct
NB:Allr
oot
scanbebasesbutnotal
lbasesarer
oots.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 31
TASK
1.Wr i
tetenwordswhi chyout hinkarebasesbuttheyar enotroot
s
2.Identi
fytheinfl
ecti
onalaf f
ixes,deri
vat
ionalaff
ixes,r
oots,baseandstemsin
the foll
owing wor ds fait
hs,f ait
hful
ly,unfait
hful,fait
hful
ness,bookshops,
window-cleaner
s,hardships

5.Root

Thisi s a basic partofa word which nor

mall
y carr
ies l
exicalmeaning
correspondi
ngt otheconcept
,objectorideaandwhichcannotbespl iti
nto
furt
herparts
Root sinmanyl anguagesmayalsobejoi
nedtootherrootsortakeaff
ixesor
combi ngfor
ms
E.g.Man manl y,househol
d,bi
g

6. Af
fi
x

Thi
si s a morpheme,usual
ly grammati
calwhich is at
tached t
o anot
her
morpheme( st
em)i nthefor
mation ofanew word which maychanget he
meaning,
grammatical
cat
egoryorgrammati
calf
orm oft
hestem.

E.
g.Beaut
if
ulmi
smanagement

Di sconnect
Theaf fi
xmaybeaddedei
therbef
ore,
wit
horaf
tert
hest
em t
husar
ethr
ee
typesofaf f
ixes.

i
.Prefi
x
Thisistheaff
ixwhichisaddedbefor
ethestem
E.g.Disconnect
I
ll
ogical
Unhappy
Empower
i
i.I
nfi
x
Thisistheaffi
xthatisaddedwithi
nthestem.Thust
ypeofaf
fi
xis
raret
obef oundinEngli
shwords
E.g.meno -mei no

i
ii
.Suf
fi
x
Thisi
stheaf
fi
xthati
saddedaf
tert
hest
em.

E.
g.Mismanagement
Beaut
if
ul

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 32
 Di
smissal
Ki
ngdom

7. Al
lomor
ph

Thi
srefer
st oanyofthediff
erencef
ormsofthesamemor
phemer
oott
heyal
l
r
epr
esentthepastpar
ti
cipl
e(grammati
calf
uncti
on)

CLASSIFICATIONOFMORPHEMES
Themor phemesarecl
assi
fi
edintosever
alcat
egor
iesbasi
ngonsever
al
fact
orsuchas:-
Occurr
ence,meani
ngandfunct
ion

Ther
earetwomaj ortypesofmor phemes
(i
)Freemorpheme
Thisisthemor phemethatcanst andoroccuralone(onitsown)
as a separ at
e wor dint he struct
ure ofa sentences i
n any
l
anguage.
Thef reemor phemei ncludesal lpart
sofspeech i .
e.Nouns,
Verbs,adjecti
ves,adverbs,pronouns,pr
eposi
ti
ons,conjunct
ions,
i
nterj
ections,arti
cles

Thef
reemor
phemei
sfur
therdi
videdi
ntot
wocat
egor
ies

(
a)Lexi
calmor pheme
Thisi sthet ypeoff r
eesmor phemewhi choccursoni tsownandcar r
iesa
contentoft hemessagebei ngconveyedi.e.I
tist hefreemor phemewhich
repr
esent stheactuall
exi
calmeaningoftheconcept
,idea,
objectoracti
on.
Thel exi
calmor phemesi ncl
udethemaj orwordclassessuchasNoun,ver bs
(mainver b)
,adject
iveandadverb.
E.g. House

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 33
 Att
end
Large
Tomorrow

(
b)Functi
onalmor pheme/gr ammat i
calmor pheme
Thisi sthef r
eemor phemewhi chcanst andal oneasasepar atewordi na
sentencebutdoesnotr epr
esentt heactuallexi
calmeani ngoftheconcept,i
dea,
objectoract i
on– ithasl i
ttl
emeani ngwhenusedal oneandt husi
tusually
occurstogetherwit
hthelexi
calmor phemei nor dertogivethelexi
calmeaning
Thef uncti
onalmorphemesi ncl
udest hemi norwor dclassessuchaspr onouns,
preposit
ions,conj
uncti
ons,i
nterj
ectionsandar t
icles,auxi
li
aryverbsetc

(
ii
)Boundmor pheme
Thisisthemor phemewhi chcannotnor mall
yst andal oneasasepar
atewordin
thesent encest r
uctureasi ti sattachedt oanot hermor pheme(l
exi
cal
)free
mor phemei ntheformat i
onoft henewwor d.
TheBoundmor phemer epresentsgrammat i
calfunct i
onsuchaswor dcat
egory
tenseaspect,person,number ,part
icipl
e,compar isonet c.
Exampl ement, i
sm representsanoun, alyrepresent .
Adverb
Tense–ed, d,voi
ce,number
Person–es
Aspect–i ng–pr ogressiveaspect
Compar ison–er ,est

TheBoundmor phemei sfart

herdi vi
dedint otwocategor ies.
(
a)Derivationmor pheme
Thi si st heboundmor phemewhi chi susedt of or
m ormakenew wor dswi th
differentmeani ngsandgr ammat i
calcategori
esorcl assf rom t
hestem i.
e.Itis
themor phemewhi chwhenaddedt othestem itchangest hemeaningand/or
thewor d classofgr ammat icalcategoryofst em/baseExampl eunhappy,
i
llogi cal,impossi ble,empower
Nat ional–nount oadjective
Der ivationmor phememayoccurei t
herbeforeoraf t
erorbot hbefor
eandaf ter
thest em i nt hef ormationoft henew wor dsi .
e.theymayoccurei theras
pr efi
xesoraf f
ixesexampl emanagement ,mismanage, mi smanagement.
Theder ivat
ionmor phememayal sochanget hesubcl assifi
cat
ionofthesame
wor dcl asssuchasconcr et
enouni ntoabstractnoune. g.Kingdom,fri
endship,
l
eader shi p,
member ship
Devi ationmor phemesar eal sousedasi ndicatorsofwor dcategoryexampl e

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 34
 si
mpl
ici
ty,
moder
nizedar
eindi
cat
orsofver
bbyi
ndi
cat
orofadver
bs.

(
b)I
nfl
ectionalmor pheme
Thisist het ypeofboundmor phemewhi chisnotusedt oproduceorf or
m
di
fferentwor ds wi th dif
ferentmeani ng butrat
heri tis used t o change
grammat i
calf or m oft hestatei.e.I
nfl
ecti
onalmorphemedoesn’ tchanget he
meani ngorwor dclassbuti tonlychangesgrammaticalf
orm ofthesent ence
whichr epresentgr ammat i
calfuncti
onsuchast omarktheverbfortenseaspect,
parti
ciplevoiceet c
Exampl efinished, Lorri
es,oxen
Pasttense–f inished
Pastpar ti
ciple–pr oven
Number–Lor ries,oxen,chi
ldren

I
nflect
ionalmorphemeal somar ksnounsandnumber.
Theymar kadverbandadj ect
ivesforcompar
ison
E.
g.smal l
er,small
est
Theinfl
ecti
onalmor phemeoccuronl yaft
ert
hestem (
theyar
esuf
fi
x)

FUNCTIONOFMORPHEMES
Themor phemesar eanal yzedashavi ngthr
eemaj orfunctionst hatare
di
rectl
yli
nkedwi tht heirtypes.
Thefoll
owingar ethef unct i
onsofmor phemes:-
1.Themor pheme( fr
eemor phemes)areusedt of ormt hebasesor
rootsoft hewor dsi .
e.asi nglef
reemor pheme, l
exicalorf uncti
onal
formst hebaseorr ootofawor d.Thisfunct
ionist hereforecalled
Base–f ormfunct ion
E.g.Tree,aft
er,along

2.Themor phemes( derivat

ionboundmorphemes)areusedt
ochange
thelexicalmeani ngand/ort hegrammaticalcat
egor
yofthest
em.
Thisfunct i
oniscalledder i
vat
ionf
uncti
on
E.g.Disunity,
il
legal,beauti
ful
,qui
ckl
y,moderni
ze

3.Themor phemes( i
nflecti
onalmor phemes)areusedtochanget
he
grammat i
calform orf uncti
onoft hestem wit
houtchangi
ngt
he
meaningorwor dclass.
Thisfunct
ionisknownasi nf
lect
ionalfunct
ion
E.g.goes,
tal
lest

TASK

Readt
hef
oll
owi
ngpassageandanswert
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ion

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 35
 Athickvegetationcover ,suchast r
opicalforest
s,act saspr ot
ecti
on against
physicalweatheringandal sohelpstoslowt her emovaloft he weatheredlayerin
desertsand highmount ainst
heabsenceoft hevegetat
ion acceleratestherateof
weatheringpl
ant sandani mal
s,however,pl ayasignifi
cantparti
nr ockdestructi
on,
notablybychemi caldecompositi
onthrought heacti
onofor ganicaci di
csoluti
onthe
aci
dsdevel op from wat erper
colat
ionthroughpar t
ydecayedveget ati
onandani mal
mat t
er.

Quest
ion

1. I
dent
if
y

I
.7l
exi
calmor
phemes

I
I.5der
ivat
ion mor
phemes

I
II
.2i
nfl
ect
ionalmor
phemes

PROCESSESOFWORDFORMATI
ONI
NENGLI
SHLANGUAGE

Theformati
onofwor dsinEngl i
shlanguagei sarchi
vedinsever
alprocesses
orways.Thesepr ocessesfal
lintotwomaj orcategori
es
(
i) Themaj orprocesseswhi chincludesaf fi
xat
ioncompoundi ng,Conver
sionand
redupli
cat
ion.
(
ii
)Themi norpr
ocesseswhi chincl
udescl i
ppingBl endi
ng,Acronym,Bor
rowing,Back
formati
on,Onomat opoeia,
Coining/coinage

I
)Themaj
orpr
ocessesofwor
dfor
mat
ion

(
a)AFFIXATI ON
Thepr ocessofwor df ormati
onwherebynewwordsar
efor
medbyat
tachi
ngor
addingt heaff
ixes(prefi
x,i
nfi
xorsuf
fix)t
othest
em.
E.g. Shor t
ly–suf fi
x
Unusual –prefix
Belonging–suf fi
x
Inhuman–pr efi
x
Dismissal-suffi
x

(I
)Pref
ixat
ion
Thisist he pr
ocess offormi
ng new wor
ds by addi
ng aff
ixes bef
oret
he
stem/root
.Forexampl
edisl
ike,
unhappy,
amoral
,decol
oni
se,r
edo.

Cl
assi
fi
cati
onofprefi
x
Pref
ixareclassi
fi
edi
ntosever
alcat
egor
iesbasi
ngont
hemeani
ngt
hey

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 36
 gi
vewhenaddedt ot
hest em
i
.Negat
ivepref
ixes
Thesegivet hemeaningof“ NOT”“
theopposi
teof
”or“
lackof
”
E.
gI nformal–irrelevant
I
mpossi ble–illegal
I
mmobi le–il
logical
I
rregular–disobey
Disadvantage-amor al
Apoliti
cal

i
i.Rest
orati
veprefi
xes
Thesegivethemeani ngof“Rever
seanact
ion”
E.
g Undress–def orest
Uncover–depopul ate
Disconnect–devalue
Disorganized
Decolonize

iii
.Pejorati
vepref
ixes
Thesegivethemeaningof“unless.Fal
se,
fake,
uni
mpor
tant
.Wr
ong,
badl
yor
bad”
E.g.Malnutr
it
ion–pseudoname
Malpracti
ce–pseudointel
lectual
Misconduct–pseudoscientists
Mismanage
Misbehave

i
v.Pr efi
xesofdegr eeorsi ze
Theseexpr essdegr eeorsi zeintermsofqual i
tyorquant i
ty.
E.g.Ar ch(supremeorhi ghestinrank)
Super( aboveorbet ter
)
Si
r( overandabove)e. g.Sirname
Sub( lowerorl esst han)e.g.Substandard,subconscious
Over( toomuch)e. g.Overdoss, overit
,overconf i
dent
Under( t
ool i
tt
le)e.
g.underpai d,
underlook, undercook
Hyper( ext r
emelyorbeyond)e. g.Hyperactives,Hypersensi
ti
ve
Ultra( extremelyorbeyond)e. g.Ult
ramoder n, ul
tr
asound
Mi ni( smal l
)e.g.Minibus, miniskir
t

v.Pref
ixesofalti
tude
Theseincl
ude“ Co-“(wit
horjoined)
E.
g.Co- operate,co-educat i
on,co-exist.“
Counter
”(i
n opposi
ti
on t
o”)e.
g.
Counteratt
ack, counter
-revol
ution,
andcount
eract

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 37
 “
Anti
”(against)e.
g.Ant
ivi
rus,
ant
icl
ockwi
se,ant
ibody
“
Pro”(
insteadoforonthesideof
)e.g.Pr
onoun,pr
ocapi
tal
ism,
Promul t
ipart
y.

vi
.Locativepref
ixes
Theseindicatelocat
ion
E.
g.Super( overorabove)superst
ruct
ure,superbui
lding,superi
mposed
I
nter(betweenoramong)i nter
nati
onal,i
nterschool
Trans(across)TransSaharan,t
ransplant,Tr
ansAtlanti
c

vi
i.Pr
efi
xesoft i
meandor der
These include “ fore”( before,fr
ont,fi
rst)e.g.Foregr
ound,f
orel
egs,f
ore
knowledge, f
or ehead
Pre–( before)e. g.Pr e-mat ure per-i
ndependence
Pre-form one
Pre-Nat ional
Pre-judge
Pre-war
Post–( after)e.g.Post -gr aduat
e
Post–i ndependence
Post -
elect i
on
Ex–( former )e.g.Ex–pr esi
dent
Ex–wi f
e
Ex–husband
Ex–soldier

Re–( againorback)e.
g.Re–wr ite
Recall
Reevaluate
vi
ii
.Numberprefixes
Theseshownumber
Uni-/Mono–( meansone)e.g.Uni-cell
ular
Monopar ty
Monolingual
Monocotyledon
Monosyl l
abic

Bi-
/Bi–(meanst wo,doubleort
wice)e.g.Bi
li
ngua
Bi
cycl e
Ditr
ansiti
ve
Dicotyl
edon
Bi
-annual
Tr
i(t
hree)e.g.Tr
iangl
e

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 38
 Tr
icycl
e
Tr
il
ater
al
Mul
ti
/pol
y(many)e.g
Polyandry
Polygamy
Mul t
ili
ngua
Mul t
ipart
y
Mul t
idisci
pli
nar
y

ix.Conver
sionpr
efi
xes
Pr
efi
xesusedt ochangeawor dfr
om noun/
adj
ect
ivet
over
b
En–(makeorbecome)e. g. Enslave
Enl
ar ge
Ensur e
Enforce
Enr i
ch
Enl
ight
ened

Be–( makeorbecome)e.
g. Bef r
iend
Becalm
Bewitch
-A-(beorbecome)e.
g.al
ive
Asleep
Arise

x.Otherprefi
xes
-Auto(self
)–Aut obi
ogr
aphy
Autogr
aph
Autocr
acy
-Neo(neworrevi
ved)e.
g.Neo-col
oni
ali
sm
Neo-
man
Ne

-
Pan(al
lorwor ldwide)e.g.Pan-af
ri
cani
sm
-
Prot
o(ori
ginal)e.g.ProtoBantu
Prot
ol anguage
Prot
ot ype
-
Semi(hal
f)e.g.Semi -ci
rcl
e
Semi -hemisphere
Semi -fi
nal
Semi -model
TASK

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 39
 1.Providethemeani
ngofthef
oll
owi
ngpref
ixesandpr
ovi
det
hreeexampl
esof
words/root
s/st
em whi
chcanbeuset
hesepr
ef i
xes.
i)Sur-
i
i)Proto-
i
ii
)Hyper-
i
v)Dis-
v)Neo-

2.Withexampl esdi
ff
erenti
atebet
weenpej
orati
vepref
ixesandl
ocat
ivepr
efi
xes.
3.Useappr opri
atepr
efi
x(es)i
neachoft
hefoll
owingwords
i
)Char ge
i
i)Type
i
ii
)possi bl
e
i
v)Navi gat
ion
v)Abil
ity

4.i
)Givethreeexamplesofrever
sati
vepref
ixes
i
i)Wri
tethreeexamplesofthepref
ixpol
y_
i
ii
)Whatist hedi
ff
erenceoftheprefi
x"Un"inunhappy,
unki
ndandi
nuncover
,
unt
ie

(I
I)Suff
ixat
ion
I
st heprocessofaddingmorphemesafterasyst
em/
root
.Soastof
orm
newwor
d.Unlikepref
ixat
ion,
suff
ixesf
requent
lyalt
ert
hewor
dclassof
aroot/
stem.

Cl
assifi
cati
onofsuffi
x
Thesuffi
xesareclassif
iedaccor
dingtot
hecl
assoft
henewwor
dfor
med
af
tertheaddit
ionofthesuffi
xes.
Therearefourmajortypesofsuff
ixes
i
) Nounsuf fi
xes
ii
) Adjecti
vesuffi
xes
i
ii
)Adver bsuffi
xes
i
v)Verbsuf fi
xes

i
)NounSuf fi
xes
Ar
ethesuffi
xesaddedtothestem orbasesofdif
fer
entwor
dcl
assesi
n
t
hef ormati
onofthenewwordthatarenounbycategor
y.
Thi
sfall
sint
ofourcat
egori
es;
(
a)Nount onounsuffi
xes
-
star(engagedinorbel
ongsto)
E.g.–Young–st ar
Gang-st
ar

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 40
 -eer(engagedinorbel
ongst
o)
E.g.Engineer
Prof
iteer
Racketeer

-
let(smal l
)
E.g.Booklet
Leafl
et
Pigl
et

-
ett
e(small)
E.g.Ki
tchenet
te
Ci
garet
te
St
atuet
te

-
ess(
smal
l)e.
g.Lioness
Actr
ess
Pri
ncess

-
hood(
int
hest
ateorst
atusof
)e.
g.Brotherhood
Manhood
Neighborhood
Youthhood
Adulthood

-
Shi
p(i
nthestateorstat
usof
)
E.g.Fri
endship
Rel
ati
onship

-
Dom (
int
hecondi ti
on)
E.g.Kingdom
Freedom
Boredom
Wisdom

-
cracy(syst
em ofgover
nment
)
E.
g.Bureaucr
acy
Democracy

-
ery(
behavioroforpl
aceanac
E.
g.Slavery
Machinery
Peasantry

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 41
 Car
pent
ry

Concret
e–Abst r
act
(
b)NountoAdj ect
ivesuff
ixesar
ethesuf
fi
xesaddedt
o
-
ist(
memberof
)e.g.Social
ist
I
deali
st
Capi
tal
ist
Rati
oli
st

-
ism (
atti
tudeorpoli
ti
calmovement
)
E.g.Ideal
ism
Communi sm

-
ness(quali
ty)orst
ate
E.g.Happiness
Cl
everness

-
it
y(st
ateorqual
it
y)e.g.Stupi
dit
y
Abil
it
y
Sali
nit
y

(
c)Ver
btoNounsuf f
ixes
-er(
inst
rumentalorageni
ti
ve)e.g.Pl
ayer
Reader
Wr i
ter
Farmer
Leader

-
or(
“)e.
g. Actor
Investi
gat
or
Incubator
Insulat
or

-
al(
act
ionof
)e.
g.Ar r
ival
Di
smi ssal
Withdrawal
Proposal

-
age(
anact
ivi
tyor
)
E.
g. Dr ai
nage
Marri
age
Passage

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 42
 Leakage

-
ment(
stateoracti
onof)
E.g.Government
Treat
ment
Achievement
Improvement

-
ant(
inst
rumental
oradj
ect
ive)
E.
g.Assist
ant

-
ee(
passi
ver
ecei
ver
)e.g.Empl oyee
Payee
Trainee
Appoi nt
ee
Intervi
ewee

-(
a)t
ion(
stateoract i
on)
E.
g.organi
zation
Examination
Discussi
on
Globali
zation
Penetrat
ion

(
ii
)Adj
ect
ivesuf
fi
xes

Theyar eusedt ochangethebasesofdiff

erentwordcl
asses
suchasnounorver bsi nordert
oformthenewwordsthatar
eAdject
iveby
cl
ass.
(
a)Ver
bt oAdjecti
vesuffi
xes
-i
ve(which)e.g.Acti
ve
Respect i
ve
Compar ative
Coll
ective
-abl
e/-
ible
E.
g.Manageabl e
Sensible
Movabl e
Honor able

(
b)Nount
oAdj
ect
ivesuf
fi
xes

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 43
-
al(
oforwi
th)e.
g.Nat i
onal
Accidental
Criminal
Histori
cal

-(
ii
)an(
memberof
)e.
g.Tanzani
an
Canadi
an

-
ful(havi
ngorwith)
E.g.Beaut
if
ul
Wonder
ful

-
less(wi
thout)
E.
g. Chi l
dless
Speechless
Harmless
Hopeless
Useless

-
ly(
havingaqualit
yof
)
E.g. Manl y
Fri
endl
y
Cowardl
y

-
ish(bel
ongt oorhavi
ngt
hechar
act
erof
)
E.
g. Sel fi
sh
Turki
sh
I
rish
Swedish

-
ous(
wit
horwor
th)e.
g.Danger
ous
Famous

-
ese(
amemberorcitizenof
)
E.
g. Chinese
Congolese
Japanese

-
y(l
ike,
wit
horcoverwi
th)
E.g. Sandy
Muddy
Sugar
Healt
hy

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 44
 Cr
eamy
Hai
ry

-
li
ke(
havi
ngaqual i
tyorbehavi
orl
ike)
E.
g. Childl
ike
Finger
like

(i
ii
)Verbsuff
ixes
Thesearet hesuf f
ixesaddedtot hest
emsorroot
sofNounoradj
ect
ivest
o
fr
om thenewwor dswhicharever
bsbyclass.
Thesearethreetypesofverbsuff
ixes

-
if
y(causeormake)e.g.I
denti
fy
Simplif
y
Not i
fy
Classif
y
Puri
fy

-
en(
causeormake)e.g.Widen l
engt
hen
Sharpen st r
engt
hen
Weaken
Sadden
Threat
en

-
ize/-i
se(“)e.
g.Apol ogize
Colonize
Social
ize
Formal i
ze

(
iv)Adver
bsuf
fi
xes

Thesear
ethesuffi
xeswhi chwhenaddedt otheroot
sorst
emst
heypr
oducea
newwordwhichisanadver bbyclass
-
ly(
inthemannerof )e.g.qui
ckly
Slowly
Quiet
ly
Happil
y
Graduall
y
-
ward(inthemannerofori nthedirect
ionof)
E.g.Backward

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 45
 Onwards
I
nwards
Downwards
Upwards

-
wise(
asf
arasori
nthemannerof
)

E.
g.Educati
onwise
Cl
ockwise
Cul
tural
wise
Pol
it
icalwi
se
TASK
1.For
m verbsfrom t
hef ol
lowingwor ds;famil
y,t
ype,popular
,cl
ear.
2.Form adjecti
vesfrom t hefoll
owi ngwor ds;
expressi
on,probl
em,pr
ogr
ess,
cri
me,cour
age.
3.Wit
hexampl esdi
fferent
iatepref
ixesfrom suff
ixes

b.COMPOUNDI
NG

Thi
sist he pr
ocess ofwords f
ormat
ion wher
eby t
wo ormor el
exi
cal
mor
phemesarejoi
nedorcombi
nedtoget
hertof
orm anewsingl
ewor
d.

E.g.Classr oom
Eart
hquake
Gir
lf
riend
Teaspoon
Tablemat
Easy-going
Washi ng-machi
ne
NB:Thenew wor dsf or
medasaresul
toftheprocessofcompoundi
ngar
e
t
echni
queknownascompoundwor dsorcompounds.

Classi
fi
cat
ionofcompoundwor ds
Thecompoundwor dsar
eclassi
fi
edbasi
ngont
woaspect
s;
i
)Thewayt heyarewri
tt
en
i
i)Accordi
ngt ot
hemeaning

i
)Thewayt
heyar
ewr
it
ten

-Soli
d/closedcompound
Thesearet hecompoundwor
dst
hatar
ewr
it
tenwi
thoutl
eavi
nganyspaceor
gapbetweent hebases.
E.g.Classroom

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 46
 Teaspoon
Eart
hquake
Wall
paper
Textbook
Payphone

-Hyphenat edcompounds
Thesearet hecompoundwor
dst
hatt
hewr
it
tenwi
tht
hehyphensepar
ati
ngt
he
twobases.
E.g.Fire-escape
High-grade
Colour-bl
ind
Brother-i
n-l
aw
Machi ne-gun

-OpenCompounds
Thesearethecompoundwor dst
hatar
ewr
it
tenbyl
eavi
ngt
hespace(
gap)
bet
weenthetwobases.
E.
g.Sewingmachi ne
Townpl anni
ng
Tapemeasur e
Baki
ngpowder
Washingmachi ne

ii
)Accordingtothemeani
ng
Tr
ansparentcompounds
Thesear ethecompoundwhosemeani ngsr ef
lectthemeaningofseparate
basesi.
e.thecompoundswhosemeani ngsaredirect
lyder
ivedorr
elat
edt
ot he
meaningoftheseparatebaseswhichmaket
hem up.
E.g.Classroom
Gir
lf
riend
Eart
hquake
Teaspoon
Washi ngmachi
ne

OpaqueCompounds
These ar et he compounds whose meani ngs di
fferf
rom the meani
ngs of
separ at
ebasesi .
e.thecompoundswhosemeani ngsarenotderi
vedornot
directl
yrelat
edwi t
hthemeaningsofseparatebaseswhichmakeup
E.g.Honeymoon widespread
Dail
ywor d blueberry
Passwor d callr
ight
Sweetheart cowboy

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 47
 Hotcake
Homesi ck
Sugarmummy
Daydream

Bahr
ain
Thesearethecompoundwor dswhosemeaningsr
efl
ectt
hephysi
calf
eat
ures
orappear
anceofaper sonorobjectbei
ngr
efl
ect
edt
o.
E.
g. Blackboard
Whitefl
uid
Blockhead
Featur
ewei ght
Red–eyed

Identi
ficationofthecompoundwor ds
Therear et hr
eewaysofidenti
fyi
ngt hecompoundwor
ds
i
.Thr
ought heent ryinthedi
cti
onaryi
.e.anycompoundwordshouldoccupyit
sown
entryint hedicti
onar
y.Itshoul
dber egar
dedasanindependentwordint
he
dict
ionar y.
E.g.Bedr oom
Classroom
Nationalpar k

i
i.Thr
ought hewor dclassorcategor
yi.
e.Eachcompoundwordhasit
sownclass
diff
erentfrom otherwor
dclassesoft
hewordsconst
it
uti
ngt
hecompound
E.g.playboy–Noun
Pl
ay- Verb
Boy–noun
Madman–noun
Mad–adj ect
ive
Man–noun
Colourbli
nd–adj ect
ive
Colour-noun
Bli
nd-adj ect
ive
Wel l–known–adj ecti
ve
Wel l–adverb
Known–ver b

i
ii
.Through themeani ng i
.e.somewor dsr et
ainthei
rorigi
nalmeani
ng af
terthe
combi nat
ion butsome oft he words convey t
he meani
ng t
hataret ot
all
y
diff
erentf
rom themeaningoftheori
ginalword
E.g.Greenfl
y,Sweetheart
,Password

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 48
(c)CONVERSI ON
Thisist heprocessofwor df ormat
ion(deri
vati
onprocess)wherebyabaseis
assignedanew wor dcategory(cl
ass)withoutanaddit
ionorreducti
onofany
affi
x.I.e.i
tisthepr ocesswher ebyanewwor disfor
medbyt hechangeofone
classintoanot herwithouttheaddit
ionorreducti
onofaffixorsyl
labl
esuchas
nouni ntoverbadjecti
ve–nounandvi ce–ver se
E.g.Love( N)Loveisbl i
nd.
Love(V)Iloveyou.

Wal
k(N)Thewal
ktoKi
li
manjarowasfantast
ic.
Walk(
V)Weusual
lywalkonfoott
oschool.

Dr
ink(
N)Wedidn’
tgetanydrinkatchal
inze.
Dr
ink(
V)Myparent
sdrinkbeerdail
y.

Hel
p(N)Ineedhel
p.
Hel
p(V)Iusedt
ohelphi
m.

Wor
k(N)Mybrotherhasgonetowor
k.
Wor
k(V)Theyworkdayandnight
.

Doubt(
N)Ididnothaveanydoubtonher
.
Doubt(
V)Idoubthi
sabil
it
y.

Lower(
V)Mayyoupl
easeloweryourvoice?
Lower(
Adj
)Heusual
lyspeaksi
nal owervoice.

Shi
p(N)Shetr
aveledbyshi
p.
Shi
p(V)Sl
avetrader
sshipt
ravelt
oAmer
icaever
yyear
.

Poor(
N)weneedtohelpthepoor
.
Poor(
Adj)Thatpoorper
sonhasbeenki
ll
ed.

NB:Theresomewor dswhichchangef
rom nouni
ntover
bbyei
thervoi
cei
nthe
f
inalconsonantorbyst
ressshi
ft
(
N)Use/ just
/
(
V)Use/ just
/

Advi
ce(
N)Igavehi
m advi
ce.
Advi
ce(
V)Iadvi
sedhi
m.

Obj
ect–(
N)gi
vemet
hatobj
ect
.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 49
Obj
ect–(
V)whydoyouobj
ect
?

Conduct–(
N)hedidn’
tshowasanygood.
Conduct–(
V)conductdi
scussi
on.

Protest(N)-Thepr
otestwasbet
weengovernmentandstudentofDodoma
Universi
ty.
Protest(V)–Thegr
oupsofwomentooktothestreet
stoprot
estagai
nstt
he
ar
rest.

Pr
esent(
N)Adj–Iwaspr esent.
- Hehasbr
oughtanicepr esent
.
Pr
esent(
V)-Pr
esentyourwork.

TASK
1.Constr
uctt wosent
encesi
neachofthefol
lowi
ngwordsshowinghow t
hey
canbeusedi nadif
fer
entwor
dcl
asseswit
houtanyaf
fi
xat
ionpr
ocess
i)Water
ii
)Import
ii
i)Produce
iv)Cl
ass
v)Cleaning

2.Wr
it
enewsent
encesbychangi
ngeachoft
hewor
dsi
ncapi
tali
ntonoun

I
.WhatyouPRESENT t
odaywi
llaut
omat
ical
lyaf
fectyourf
utur
e

I
I.Weexceptt
o PRODUCEenoughcr
opst
hisyearbecauset
her
eisenoughr
ain

I
II
.Thenamesofevi
l
sdoer
swer
eBLACKLI
STED

I
V. Forthel
anguaget
odevel
op,i
tmustbor
row somevocabul
ari
esf
rom ot
her
l
anguage.

(d) REDUPLI CATION

Thisistheprocessofwordf
ormat
ionwher
ebynewwor dsarefor
medt hrough
therepeti
ti
onoft hesameoralmostthesamesoundsi.e.I
tisthepr ocess
wherebythenew wor dar
efor
medbyrepeati
ngsoundwhichar
eeithersimil
ar
orsli
ghtl
ydiff
erent
E.g. Hush–hush
Si
ng–song
Ti
p–t op

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 50
 Ti
ck–t ock
Ding–dong
Zi
g–zag
Criss–cross
Poor–poor
Goody–goody
See–saw
Tom –tom
Bow–Bo

NB:Thenew wor dst hatar

ef or
medasar esul
tofr
edupl
icat
ionpr
ocess
areknownasr edupli
cati
ve
Ther edupli
cati
onhavet hefoll
owi
ngbasicuses
1. Toimi t
atesound
E.g.Ding–dong( soundoft hebell
)
Haha-( soundoflaught er
)
Bow–bow( dogbar king)
Tick–t ock(Clocksound)

2. Tomakethingstookmor ei
ntenset
hant
heyar
e.
(Toint
ensi
fyadjecti
ves)
E.g.Ti
p–top–( t
opmost )
Goody–goody( verygood)

3. Tosuggestast ateofdi sorder,

inst
abili
ty,
non-
sense
E.g.Niggled–pigged( Unor der
ly/mixedup)
Lodge–podge( disorganized)
Wi shy–washy( weak)
Locus–pocus( Trickery)
Tick–t acky(cheapanofl owqual i
ty)
Pool–pool( notwor king)

4. Tosuggestal
ter
nat
ivemovementoft
hings

I
I.Mi
norpr
ocessesofwor
dinf
ormat
ion

(
e)CLIPPING
Thispr ocessofwordfor
mati
onwher
ebyoneofthesyl
labl
esar
e
omitt
edorsubt ract
edf
rom awor
dandther
emaini
ngsyl
labl
esar
e
regardedasanewwor d

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 51
 Thisoccur
swhenawordofmorethanonesyl
labl
eisr
educedt
oa
short
erfor
m whi
chi
sregar
dedasanewword.

NB:Theremovaloremot i
onofasyll
abl
emayt
akepl
aceei
therat
t
hebeginni
ngatt heendoft hewordorbot
h.
Moreexampl es:-
Omni bus–bus
Airplane–pl ane
Telephone–phone
Labor atory–l ab
Phot ogr aph–phot o
Memor andum –memo
Adver tisement–adver t
Mat hemat ics–mat hs
Public–pub
Gasol ine–gas
Inf
luence–f luwor d
Refriger ator–f r
idge

(f)BLENDI NG
Thi si st he pr ocess ofwor dformati
on whereby t
wo ormor e parts,
fragment sorel ement soft woormor ediff
erentwordsareputorjoined
toget hert of orm anew.
I
.e.i tist hepr ocessoft al kingonlythebeginni
ngpartofonewordand
j
oi ningi tt o( wi th)thebegi nni ngortheendofanotherwor
d.
Exampl e:-br eakf ast+l unch=Br uch
Mot orist+hot el =mot el
Cel lular+t elephone=cel lphone
Mobi le+t elephone=mobi le
Tel evision+Br oadcast=t elecast
I
nt er national +pol i
ce=I nt erpol
Transf er+r esist er=t ransi stor
I
nf or mat ion+ent ert
ainment=i nf
otai
nment
Gasol ine+al cohol =gas
I
nt er national +net work=i nternet
Tel evision+mar athon=t elethon
Mot or+pedal=moped
Elect ronic+mai l=emai l
Smoke+f og=smog
Hel icopt er+ai rpor t=hel ipor t
Par achut e+t roops=par at r
oops
Travel+cat alogue=t ravel ogue

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 52
 Bi
nar
y+Di
git=bi
t

g.ACRONYM
Thisistheprocessofwor dfor
mati
onwherebytheini
ti
alorfi
rstlett
ersof
dif
ferentwordsareputtoget
herasanewwor d.
Thewor dsthatareformedfrom t
heini
ti
all
etterar
etechni
quet ermedas
acronyms.

Therearetwotypesofacr onyms
i
.Acr onymspronouncedasasequenceofl ett
er
E.
g. C. O.
D–cashondel i
very
CID–Crimi nalInvest
igat
ionDepartment
FBI–Feder albureau
UN–Uni tedNat i
ons
I
PA–I nternati
onal Phoneti
cAlphabet
CUF–Ci vilUnitedFront
CPU-centralprocessingunit

i
i.Acronymspronouncedaswor ds
E.
g. NATO–Nor thAtlanticTr eatyOr ganizati
on
TANESCO–Tanzani ael ectri
citySuppl yCompany
UNO–Uni tedNationsOr ganizati
on
UNESCO–Uni t
ednat ionsEducat ional,Sci
enti
fi
candCul
tur
al
Organizati
on
AIDS–AcquiredimmuneDef ici
encyandSyndr ome
CUF–CivilUnit
edFr onts
TANU–Tanganyi kaAf r
icanNat i
onalUni on
TAMWA–Tanzani aMedi aWomenAssoci ati
on

(h)BACKFORMATI ON
Thisistheprocessofwor dformationwher ebynewwor dsarecreat
edor
formedbyther emoval ofsomepar ts(aff
ixes)fr
om anexi st
ingword.
I
.e.itisthepr ocesswher ebyawor dofonet ype( usuall
yanoun)i s
reducedtoform anot herwor dofdiffer
enttype(usual
lyaver b)
E.g. Option=opt
Exami nat i
on=Exami ne
Donat ion=Donat e
Wor ker=Wor k
Television=Tel evised
Emot ion=Emot e

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 53
 Di
scussi
on=Di
scuss
Act
ion=act

(
i)BORROWI NG
Thisi sthepr ocessoft akingoverthewordsfrom onel
anguageand
adopt i
ngori ncor porati
ngi nt
oanotherl
anguage.Thebor
rowedwords
aretermedasl oanwor ds.
Englishlanguagehasbor rowedmanywor ds
E.g.alcohol -Ar abic
Zebra-Bant u
Safari-Swahi li
Garage–Fr ench
Piano–I tali
an
Chemi stry–Ar abic
Opera–I talian
Umbr ell
a–I tali
an
Mosqui to–Spani sh
Zero–Ar abi c
Wagon–Dut ch
Golf–Dut ch
Calvary–I talian
Magazi neAr abic
Bazaar–Per sia
Boss–Dut ch
Tycoon–Japanese
Algebra–Ar abi c

Howeverotherl
anguagehaveborr
owedsomewor
dsf
rom Engl
ish
(Shi
rt
)Engli
sh–shati-Swahil
i
Supermarket–suupaa–maket t
o–Japanese
Radio–raji
o–Japanese

(
j)COINING/COI NAGE
Thisist hepr ocessofwordformat
ionbywhicht
otall
ynewwordsare
incorpor atedintothel
anguage.Thiscomesasar esul
tofsci
ent
if
ic
discover iesinwhichnew t
ermsorwor dsar
eint
roducedwhi
chname
thepr oduct .
E.g.Aspi rin
Websi te
Blackber r
y
Toss
Hitachi
Samsung

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 54
 I
nternet
Global
izat
ion
You–t ube

(
k)ONOMATOPOEI A
Thisi
stheprocesswherebywordsarefor
medbyimit
ati
ngt henatural
soundsmadebyobj ect
soranimal.Thewordfor
medbyi mitat
ingthe
natur
al sounds made by obj ect
s or ani
mals are termed as
OnomatopoeicorEchowords

E.
g.ding–dong( soundofabel l
)
Bomb( explosi
on)
Bowbow( dogbar ki
ng)
Bang(suddenl oudnoiseofsomet
hing)
Tick–tock–( clocksound)
Cuckoo–( soundofabi rd)
Hahaha–(l aughter
)

Revi
sionQuest
ion

1.Menti
on the wor df or
mat
ion pr
ocesses i
nvol
ved i
nthe f
ormat
ion oft
he
f
oll
owi
ngwor ds.
i
. Exagger at
ion
i
i.Vodacom
i
ii
.Transistor
i
v.Saf ari
v. Revlon
vi
.Far mer
vi
i.Sugarcane
vi
ii
.Leadership
i
x.Bookcase
x. Motel
xi
. Sociali
st
xi
i.Bookcase
xi
ii
.Prof
xi
v.Samsung
xv. Mini
xvi
.Mot orcycle
xvi
i.UNO

2.Make two di
ff
erentsent
ences f
oreach ofthe f
oll
owi
ng wor
ds. Foreach
sent
encethewordhastobel
ongtoadif
fer
entcl
ass.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 55
 i
.Aconfl
ict
(i
)
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
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..
..
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(
ii
)
.
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.

i
i.Abuse
(i
)
.
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(
ii
)………………..
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i
ii
.Insul
t
(i
)
.
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.
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(
ii
)
.
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..
..
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.
..
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..
..

i
v.Nar
row
(i
)
.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
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..
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..
..
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.
(
ii
)………………………. .
..
..
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..
..
..
..

v.Rej
ect
(i
)
.
..
..
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...
..
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.
.
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(
ii
)…………………………. ..
..
..
..
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..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

3.Namethewor
dfor
mat
ionpr
ocessesi
nvol
vedi
nthef
ormat
ionoft
hewor
dsi
n
br
acket
s

I
.Mwaki
ful
eful
ehada (
jacketl
ess)book

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 56
 I
I.Mayasa (
par
ti
es)ever
ySat
urdayni
ght

I
II
.Ever
ybodymustf
ightagai
nst(
aids)

I
V.Muf
ungwa hasj
ustgotanew(
carphone)

V. Kagar
ukiwant
stobea(
foot
bal
ler
)

NECTA 2012
1. Read t he f
ollowing compl
ex sentence and then answert he
questi
onsthatfoll
ow.
Tanzaniagovernmenthasbeenusingt eacherint
ryingtotr
ansf
orm
educati
onsystem whichwasinheri
tedf r
om thecoloni
ali
sm i
norder
tomat chitwithi t
sownnew goal s,aspirat
ionsandconceptsof
devel
opment .

Ident
ifyt
hef oll
owingfrom theabovegi
vensent
ence.
a. Fivestems
b. From 5st emsinpar t(
a)showt her
oot
s
c. 5derivat
ionmor phemes
d. 5infl
ecti
onal morpheme

2.aPr
ovi
det
headj
ect
ivalf
ormst
hef
oll
owi
ngwor
dsandwr
it
eone

Sentenceforal
l
i
. Br
eak
i
i.Measure
i
ii
.Mentall
y
i
v.Memor y
v.Medi ci
ne

b.expl ainthepr ocessi nvolvedinthef or

mat i
onoft hefol
lowing
gr
oupsofwor ds
i
. Al cohol ,boos, piano,zebra
i
i. Loanwor d,wast ebasket ,water–bir
d,fingerpr
int
i
ii.Facsi mil
e–f ax, cabriol
et–cab, advert
isement–ad
i
v.Tel ecast, hotel,heli
por t
,brunch
vi
. Tel ecast– t elevi
sion,opt -opti
on,ent huse– enthusiasm,
emot e–emot i
on

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 57
Answer
sforquest
ion1&2(
nect
a2012)

1a. Gover nment

Educat i
on
Coloniali
sm
Aspirati
on
Development

b. Govern
Educate
Colony
Spi
ce
Develop

c. meant
i
on
i
sm
i
on
met

d. -
ing
-
en
-s
-ed

2a.Br eakabl e
Mypeni sbreakabl
e.
b.Measur able
Ojiki
’
st hingismeasurable
c.Ment al
Shevi sitedthementalcl
ini
c
d. Memor able
Herbi rthdaywasamemor abl
eevent
e. Medi cal
Shei samedi calst
udent
b.( i
) Bor rowing
(i
i) Compoundi ng
(i
ii)Clipping
(i
v) Bl endi ng
(v) Backf or
mat i
on

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 58
 LI
STENI
NGSKI
LLS

Listeni
ngi sabi li
tytoaccur atel
yrecei
veandi nterpr
etmessagesi nthecommuni cati
on
process.I tinvolvesidentif
yingthesoundsofspeechandpr ocessingthem intowor ds
andsent ences.Whenwel ist
enweuseourear storeceiveindividualsounds.( Letters,
stress,rhythm andpauses)andweuseourbr aintoconver tthem intomessagest hat
meansomet hi
ngt ous.
Listeni
ngi nanyl anguager equir
esfocusandat t
ention.Listeni
ngi sthekeyt oal l
effecti
vecommuni cation.Iti
saski l
lthatsomepeopl eneedt owor katitevenhar der
thanot hers.Peopl ewhohavedi ffi
cul
tyinconcent r
at i
ngar etypicall
ypoorlistener s.
Likebabi eswel earnthisthisskil
lbylist
eningtopeopl ewhoal r
eadyknowhowt o
speakt hel anguage.Thi smayormaynoti ncludenat i
vespeaker s.Forpracticeyou
canl i
stent ol i
veorr ecordedvoice.Themosti mpor tantthingtol i
stentoavar ietyof
voicesasof tenasyoucan.

NB:Tobecomeaf l
uentspeakeryouneedt odevelopstrongList
eni
ngski
ll
s.Li
steni
ng
notonlyhelpyouunderstandwhatpeoplearesayi ngtoyou
-Ital
sohelpsyoutospeakcl ear
lyt
ootherpeople
-Ithel
psyoulearnhowtopr onouncewordspr operl
y
-Ithel
pshowt ouseint
onationandwher etoplacestressi
nwordsand
sentences.

Li
steni
ngst
rat
egi
es

Sinceli
steni
ngi
sinacti
vit
yt hati
sbothphysicalandment al
, i
tneedsacti
ve
i
nvolvementoft
heli
steners.Thusther
earesever alst
rat
egiest obefol
lowedi
nor
der
foronetobeaneff
ecti
velistenert
hesestr
ategiesareasfollows.

i.Havet hedesi r
et ol isten
Listeni
ngbecomesef fect iveifthel i
stenerexer t
st hedesiret oli
steni .e.i
tneed
someonet ohavei nteresti nunder standi ngwhatt hespeakeri stalkingaboutt he
l
istenerneedst opr epar ehi sorhermi ndsot hatitisreadyf orli
stening.
i
i.Beopenanddevel opwi l
li
ngnesst ol earn
Donotat temptt ochal lengeever yt
hingt hatyouheari nsteadgi vethespeakert i
met o
airhisorhervi ewsi nor dert ogetnewi nf ormati
on t husyouar eur gedt ober eadyt o
hearevent hingst hatyoudon’ tbelievei n, t
hisshowst hattoler
ancei svit
ali
fwear eto
begoodl isteners.
i
ii.Postponej udgment
Int heprocessofl i
stening, t
hel i
stener sar eadjustnott ojudgeaspeakerbasi ngon
hisorherappear ancei nst eadt he needt oconcent rat
eonwhatt hespeakeri st alking
abouti.e.thejudgementhast obebasedont hemessageandnotspeakerappear ance.
i
v.Bephysi callyandment al
lyalertthel istenersar eadvisedt obringt hei
rmi nd
focusingont hespeakeri .e.sit
tingint he
mannert hattheyseet hespeakeral lt hetimet hismeansyoushoul dfacet he
speaker

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 59
v.Obser vedt hel ist
ener sareadvi sedt ocareful
lyobservewhatt hespeakerisdoingi n
thestaget hiswi llhelpyou i dentify
i
mpor tantpoi ntsbei ngemphasi zedbyt hespeakersoyoushoul dbeinobser vi
ng
allwhatt hespeakerdoesasmostoft he
non-ver baldoescompl imentt hever balpartofthemessage.
vi.Focusonunder standingthespeakervi ewpoi ntt
olist
enwi ththeintent
ionof
under standi ngwhatt hespeakerbel i
evei ni.
e.
respectt hespeakerwi thempat hy.
vii
.Pr edictandaskquest i
ons
vii
i.Lookasyouar elisteni
ngt ellthespeakerbyyourappear ancethatyouar e
l
isteningi .e.si tst r
aightandest ablishand
mai ntaineyecont act.
i
x.Avoi dt hi ngst hatcanactasbar ri
erstopreventyouf r
om payingattenti
ont o
whati sbei ngt alkedaboute. g.Hot ,weat her
,
someonewhot alks
x.Donotmakeanydi sturbanceunnecessar il
ysuchast alki
ngunnecessar ysot hat
youcanunder st and
xi.Avoi dr udeness( i
mpol it
e)byshowi ngl ackofcooperati
onsuchasr eadi
nga
newspapert alki ngtot hephone.

HOW TOLI STENWELL/BECOMEANAFFECTI VELI STENER

1.Stoptalking
Donott alkwhilesomebodyelseistalking,li
stentowhattheyaresaying.Donot
i
nterrupt
,talkofthem or
fi
nishtheirsentencesfort
hem.Whent heot herpersonhasf
inishedt
alki
ngyoumay
needt ocl
ar i
fytoensure
youhaver ecei
vedthei
rmessageaccurately.

2.Prepareyour selft
olist
en.
Relaxandf ocusont hespeaker
.Putothert
hingsoutofmind.Thehumanmi ndi s
easil
ydisturbedbyot her
thoughts.Forexampl ewhatforl
unch,
whattimedoIneedtoleavetocat
chmyt rain,
i
sitgoingt orain,Try
to putot hert houghts outofMing and concent
rat
e on the message being
communi cated.

3.Putt hespeakeratease.
Helpthespeakertof eelf
reetospeak.Remembertheirneedsandconcer n.Nod
headoruseot hergest
ures
orwordstoencouragethem t
oconti
nue.Maint
aineyecontactbutdon'
tst
are.

4.RemoveDi st
-ruct
ion.
Focusonwhati sbeingsai
d.Donotdoodl
e,shuffpaper
s,l
ookoutt
hewi
ndow,Pick
yourfinger
nai
lsetc.This
etc.Thi
sbehaviorsdisr
uptt
heli
steni
ngprocessandsendmessagetot
hespeaker
thatyouarebored.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 60
5.Empat hize.
Tryt o under st
and theot herpersonspoi ntofview lookati ssuesf r
om t hei
r
perspective.Byhavi nganopen
mind we can mor ef ul
ly empathize wit
ht he speaker.Ifthe speakers says
somet hi
ngt hatyoudisagreewi t
hthe
speaker .Ifthespeakersayssomet hingthatyoudi sagreewiththenwai tand
constructar gumentt ocounter
whati ssai dbutkeeponopenmi ndtot hevi
ewsandopi nionsofother
s.
6.BePat ient.
A pause,evenal ongpausedoesnotnecessar il
ymeant hatthespeakerhas
fi
nished,bepat i
entandletthe
speakercont inueint heirown ti
mebecausesomet imesi ttakeslong ti
met o
for
mul ate.Whatt osayandhow
tosayi t.

7.Avoi dPer sonal Prej

udice:
Tryt o beimpar ti
aldonotbecomei rr
it
atedanddonotlettheper
sons'
sharbi
tsor
manner i
sm dist
r uctyou
from whatt heyar ereal l
ysaying.Everybodyhasdif
ferentwayofspeakingFor
exampl esomepeopl eare
nervous orsky,some have r egionalaccentormake some excessive ar
m
movement s.Somepeopl eliketopace
whi l
sttal
kingot hersli
ket ositstil
l.Focusonwhatisbeingsaidandignor
eabout
thest yl
e.

8.Listentothetone.
Volumeandt oneaddtowhatsomeonei ssaying.Agoodspeakerwi
lluseboth
vol
umeandt onetothei
r
advantagetokeepaudienceatt
ent
ive,
Everybodywil
lusepi
tch,t
one,
andvolumeof
voi
cei ncert
ainsit
uati
ons
-letthi
shelpyouunderst
andtheemphasisofwhatisbei
ngsaid.

9.Li
stenfori
deas-Notj
ustwords
Youneedtogetthewhol
epict
urenotj
usti
sol
atedbi
tsandpi
eces

10.Di
stinguishbet
weenf actsandopinions
E.g.-Tanzani
aistheUni onofTanganyikaandZanzibar
-Twentyf
ourpeoplediedintheaccidentyest
erday
-Mostofthepeoplewhoar efactorelazy

11.Fol
lowMeani ngMar kers
Sequence:First
,second,thi
rd,nextoruseofnumber s
1,2,3,4.
..
..
..
..
..
.oruseofl et
tera,b,.
..
..
..
..
..
Additi
on:Also,apar tfr
om t hat
,inaddi t
ion,i
nconnect
iont
othat
,fur
ther
mor
e,
moreover,
aswel las..
..
..

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 61
 Cl
ari
fying:inotherwor ds,thatist
osay, thi
smeanst hatImean. .
..
..
..
..
..
..
Cont
rast:Whi l
st,but,
yet ,
whi l
e,st
il
l,
however ,event
hough, never
thel
ess...
..
..
..
..
Si
milari
ty:Simil
arly,i
nt hesameway, l
ikewise
Conclusion:Therefor
e,so,t hus,t
osum up,i nconclusion,tosummar i
ze,towind
up.

12.Takenot es
Notetakinghel
pust ofoll
ow mor
eattent
ivel
ywhatisbei
ngsaidandtohavea
recordofwhatwel i
stenedto
f
orfut
ur euse/r
eferenceIti
snotpossi
bletorememberal
lwhatweli
stenedt
oso
weneedt otakenote.

TASK:
1.Doyouthi
nki
tisi
mpor
tancef
orust
obecomegoodl
ist
ener
s?why?

2.Howcanaper
sonl
ist
enwel
l?

THEDI
FFERENCEBETWEENLI
STENI
NG&HEARI
NG

1.Listeningi saconsci ouschoi cethatdemandsattenti

onandconcent rat
ionwhil
e
heari
ngi sapassi veoccur r
ence
thatrequiresnoef f
or t
.
2.Listeningisaski l
lwhichal l
owsonet omakesenseofandunderstandwhati sbei
ng
saidwhilehearingisa
physicalabili
tywithoutanyef f
ort.
3.Listeningusesot hersenses ofor ganssuchasheari
ng,seei
ngandsomet i
mesthe
senseoft ouchtoo.Whi le
hearingusesonl yoneoft hefi
vesensesoforganswhichishear
ing.
4.Listeningisavol untaryactwhileHeari
ngissimpl
ythatactofpercei
vingsoundsby
theyear.(invol
untary).

5.List
eni
ngisaskil
lwher
ebyapersonneedt ol
ear
nit
.(Notever
yonehast
heabi
li
tyt
o
l
isten)Whi
leEver
yone
canhearunl
essther
eisaphysi
caldi
sabi
li
ty.

NB:Hear i
ngdef i
nesonl ythephysicalmeasur
ementofthesoundwavest
hatare
tr
ansmitt
edtot heearandinto
t
hebr ai
nwher etheyareprocessedint
oaudi
bleinf
ormat
ion.WHI
LELi
steni
ng
goesfarbeyondyournat ur
al
hearingprocesses.

BARRI
ERSTOEFFECTI
VELI
STENI
NG

1.Physical
/Envir
onment
alBar
rier
s
Thesearet heobst
acl
eswhichaff
ectl
ist
eni
ngandi
nmostsi
tuat
iont
heyar
eease
tocor
rect.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 62
 -Problem withthehear
ingai
ds
-UseofMi crophoneswhichdonotprojectasitsupposetobeheard
-Noise
-I
fitisdif
ficultt
oseethespeakerori
fthereissomethingmoreint
erest
ingt
olook
at
.
-Thechai
runcomf ort
able
-Theroom istoohotortoocol
d.
-Badventi
lati
oni.
estuff
y/smokeat
mospher
e.
-Thel
ight
ingt oobri
ghtortoodi
m
-Smell
s.

2.Ment al/Psychol ogicalBarri

ers
-Wonder ingmi ndori nattent
ion(fact;t
hebraincanprocessover500wordsper
minutewhi l
etheaver age
speakert alksatar ateof125t o250wor dsperminut
e)
-Bi asandpr ejudicei.enegati
veattit
udestowar dst
hespeakerorthet
opi
c.
-Anger ,
Frust rat
ion
-Ownanxi et y/nervousi .
eworriedabout
-St at
usdi fference

3.Physiologi
calBarr
ier
s
-Headache
-Hear i
ngimpairment
-Tiredness
-Discomf or
t,pai
n,i
ll
ness
-Pooreyesight.

4.Linguisti
cBar r
iers
-Jargonsorspeci al
istl
anguage
-Monot onous
-Inappropriat
et one
-Hesi st
antmanner
-Badl yorgani
zedmat er
ial
-Compl exvocabul ary
-Compl exsent ence
-Deliverytoofast
-Deliverytooslowandponder ous
-Deliverytooloud

5.PerceptualBarri
ers
-Social
/cult
uralbackgrounddif
fer
ences
-Appearanceoft hespeaker
.Manner i
sm
.Accents
6.ContentBarri
ers
-Subjectofthediscussiondoesnoti
nter
est

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 63
 -Speakergoesonfort oolong
-Wehavehear di
tbef ore
-Contenti
stoodif
ficult/
simpl
ist
ic
-Contenti
srepet
it
ious

LEVELSOFLI STENING
i
)Di scri
mi nati
veli
stening
I
st hemostbasi ct ypeofli
stening,wher
ebyt hedi
fferentbetweent hedif
fer
ent
soundsi si denti
fi
edifyoucannotnot icet
he
differ
encest henyoucannotmakesenseoft hemeaningt hatisexpressedbysuch
diff
erences.Aper sonwhocannotheart he
sabt l
eti
esofemot i
onalvar
iat
ioninanotherperson'
svoicewi l
lbelikel
ytobeableto
discerntheemot ionstheotherpersonsis
experiencing.

Li
steni
ngisavi sualaswel lasaudi
tor
yact
,aswecommuni
catemucht hr
oughbody
l
anguage,theref
orewe
al
soneedt obeabl et odiscri
minat
ebetweenmuscl
eandskel
etalmovementst
hat
si
gnif
ydiffer
entmeani ngs.

i
i)Compr ehension/cont ent/i
nformative/
fulll
ist
ening.
Af t
erdiscri
minatingdi ff
erentsoundsandsi ghtsist
omakesenseoft hem.
To compr ehend t he meani ng r
equires fi
rsthaving a l
exi
con ofwor ds atour
fi
ngerti
psandal soal lrulesofour
f
ingerti
psandal soal lrulesofgr ammarandsynt axbywhi chwecanunder st
and
whatot her
sar esaying.The
samei strue,ofcour sef orthevisualcomponent sofcommuni cat
ion and an
understandingofbodyl anguage
helpusunder standwhatot herpersonisreall
ymean.

i
ii)Criti
calli
stening
Islist
eninginor dertoeval
uateandj udge.i
.efarmingopinionaboutwhatisbeing
said.Judgementmeans
assessi ngstrengthandweakness,agr eementandappr oval.Thi
sform ofl
ist
ening
requiressignifi
cant real-
ti
mecogni t
ive
effortast hel i
stenersanalyseswhati sbei ng sai
d,relati
ng i
ttotheexi st
ing
knowl edgeandr ul
eswhi l
stsi
multaneously
li
steningtot heongoi ngwordsfrom thespeaker.

i
v)Appreci
ati
veli
stening
Inappreci
ati
velist
eningweseekcer t
aini
nfor
mati
onwhichwewil
lthenappreci
ate,
Thi
shelpsusmeetourneedsand
goals.
weuseappr eciat
iveli
steni
ngwhenwear el
ist
eni
ngtogoodmusic,poetr
yor
maybeevent hest
irri
ngwor dsofagreat
leader
.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 64
v)Sympathet
icl
istening
Insympathet
iclist
eningwecar eaboutt
heot
herper
sonandshowt
hisconcer
nin
t
hewaywepaycl oseat tent
ionandexpr
ess
oursor
rowfortheiril
l
s.

vi
)Empatheti
cli
steni
ng
Ist
heabili
tytoputyoursel
finanotherpl
ace.Itenabl
eyout ounder
standwhatthe
per
sonfeel
s,bel
ievesoractsi
nacertain
way.Youdonotnecessar i
lycomet osharetheperson'
sviewsorfeel
ingsbutyou
dounder
standthem.Suchunderst
andingwil
l
hel
pyouevaluatethei
nformati
onyouhearmor ecomplet
ely.

IMPROVI NGLISTENI NGSKI

LLS
Youshoul dalsokeepi nmi
ndthatyou needtousedif
fer
entli
steni
ngst
rat
egiesfor
dif
fer
entsituat
ions.Revi
ewthel
evel
sofli
steni
nganddeter
minewhichisr
equi
redfor
eachli
steningsit
uati
on.

Howeverthe f
oll
owi
ng suggest
ions shoul
d hel
p you
regardl
essofyourpurpose:
-
Concentrat
e:Thebestwayt oimprovel
ist
eni
ngskil
lsistowor katthem.Blockout
dist
racti
onsandconcentrat
eonwhatyouhear.

Pract
ice:Useeveryoppor
tuni
tyyoucant oconcent
rat
eonwhatyouhear .Watch
newscastandtheinfor
mat
ionprogramsonTVthatyoumightnotnor
mal
lyt
aketi
me
towatch.spendqui
etti
meconcent
rati
ngont
hesoundsaroundyou.

Pr
epar
et oli
sten:Sitwhereyoucanseeandheart hespeaker
.Ifyouaregoi
ngtol
ist
en
t
oaspeechonasubj ectyouknowl i
tt
leabouti
tdosomepr el
iminar
yreadi
ng.
Not
e:Peoplef ail
toli
stenformanyreasons;
i)Expecti
ngt hespeakertosaythi
ngstheylovet
ohear

i
i)Notopent
oli
stenwhatot
her
ssay

i
ii
)Noti
nter
est
edi
nthei
rsi
tuat
ionorhowt
heyf
eel

i
v)Lacki
ngpat
iencet
osi
tdownandl
ist
en

v)Thi
nki
ngt
hatonei
ssuper
iort
hant
her
estandt
hatt
heyar
eal
waysr
ight

vi
)Tendi
ngt
obedef
ensi
ve

vi
i)Pr
epar
ingfort
heresponseevenbef
oret
heot
herper
sonhasf
ini
shedso
t
hei
rmi
ndisal
waysoccupi
ed

vi
ii
)Rushi
ngt
hroughever
ythi
ngandnotwant
ingt
osi
tdownf
oraf
ewmi
nut
es
t
oli
stent
oothers

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 65
 i
x)Feelawkwar
daboutwhatt
hespeakersai
d

LISTENINGANDNOTETAKI NG
Whenyout akenote,itisn'tnecessarytowr i
tedowneveryword.
Outl
inemajor
i
deas,Listenforkeywor dsandphr ases.
Developyourownshor thandandl earntoabbrevi
atewor
ds.Makenotesabout
anyexampl esspeakersuset oexpl aintheir
ideas.Notetakinginvolver ecordingideasandf act
sthatyoul
earni
ncl assto
hel
pyour ememberandseet hem letter.

Whyi
snot
etaki
ngi
mpor
tant
?

 Youbecomeanact i
vepartoft
heli
steni
ngandl ear
ningpr
ocess.
 Youcreat
eahi stor
yofyourcoursecont
ent
 Youhaveawr i
ttenrecor
dt ovi
eworstudylett
er
 Yourei
nforcewhatiscommuni cat
edverbal
ly.

Str
ategi
est
oincr
easecompr
ehensi
onandi
mpr
ove(
Not
e
t
aki
ng)

o
 Listeningforstructurecues(signpost/
transi
ti
onwords,
i
ntroduct i
on,bodyandsummar ystages)
 Looki ngfornon- verbalcues(faci
alexpressi
onhandandbody
si
gnal s)
 Looki ngforvisualcues( copythecontentofanyvi
sualai
ds
used.
 Us esymbolandabbr evi
ati
onstosavet i
me.

Someoft heexampl
eofcommonl
ysymbol
sandabbr
evi
ati
onsar
epr
esent
edas
fol
lows:
-

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 66
COMMONABBREVI
ATI
ONS

Manyar
eder
ivedf
rom Lat
in,

C.
F(conf
er)=compar
e

I
.e (
idest
)=t
hati
s

e.
g(exampl
egr
ate)=f
orexampl
e

N.
B(not
abenne) =not
ewel
l

Et
c(etcet
era) =andsoon

No (
numer
o) =number

TASK

1.Expl
ainthedi
ff
erencesbet
weenl
isteni
ngandhear i
ng
2.Expl
ainhowli
steni
ngisanimpor
tantpartofpubl
icspeaki
ng

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 67
 3.Givethreereasonst owhyli
steni
ngisi mport
anti
nyourdail
yli
fe
4.Explai
nt hediff
erencebetweenphysicalandmentalbar
ri
erstoef
fect
ive
l
isteni
ng, Givethreeexampl
esofbar r
iers
5.Explai
natl eastthreewaystoimprovelist
eni
ng
6.Whydopeopl ef i
ndithardt
olist
en?

HOW TOUSEANATM MACHI NE

(
Wit
h-dr
awingmoneyf
rom ATM machi
ne)

I
nt r
oducti
on
Theacronym ATM st andsfor“Automati
ct ell
ermachine”whichmeansacomputer
ized
machinethatfacil
it
iesbankingtransact
ionsespecial
lydeposit
ingmoney(i
nhi
ghly
technol
ogicaldevel
opedcount ri
es)andwi thdr
awingmoney( al
mostinever
ycount
ry).

ATM technol ogyi srecentespeciall

yint hirdwor l
dcountrieswherecomputer
technologyi ssti
lllow.Howevert histechnol ogyisgrowingveryfastespeciall
yin
urbanar easwher ephysi cali
nfrastr
uctur esarebei ngi
mpr ovedtr
emendousl y.
UsinganATM t echnol ogyisonlypossi blet obankcustomer swhohavebankaccount
andpr ovidedwi t
hATM car ds.AnATM car dsenablesabankcust omertoper f
orm
bankingt ransact
ionespeci all
ywi t
hdrawi ngmoney.Howevert owi t
hdrawmoney, a
customerneedst ohaveenoughbankbal ancethatenableshim/hertowithdraw.

Asar ecentt echnol

ogy,ATM technol
ogyhasposedanumberofchal lengesandr i
sk
oneoft hechal l
engesisbackofpowerespecial
lyi
nthirdwor l
dcountries(TWC)
securi
typr oblem i
sanotherseri
ouschall
engeswherefraudsandst eali
ngar ecommon
i
nATM machi nes.Thi
sgoest oget
herwit
hlackofsuff
icientsecur
it
yi nplaceswhere
ATM machi nesarelocat
edATM car dj
oinandtherel
atedpr obl
emssuchas
miscountingofcash/money.

Despit
ealltheabovechall
engesandpr oblemsATM technol
ogyisveryusefulin
savi
ngt i
meandpr evi
sionofbankingservicecl
osetopeopleandthroughouttheday
andthroughouttheweeksomethingthatcannotbedonebynor malbanking
tr
ansacti
on.
ATM technologyhasal
sohelpedpeoplei navoi
dingtaki
ngandwal ki
ngorstayingwi
th
alotofcashathome.

USINGANATM MACHI NE
Beforethinki
ngofusi nganATM machi neyouar esupposedt oopenabankaccount
anddeposi tyourmoney.Themoneyt hatyouarelikel
ytowi t
hdrawshouldbemor e
thanami nimum bal ances.Iti
salsor ecommendedt hatyouhavet oopenabank
accountthatyouf eelthatitcanserveyoupr operlyandnat i
onalwide.Donotopena
bankaccountwi thabankwhi chi
sconf inedtoonlyoneci t
yortown.Itisal
so
i
mpor tanttonotethatagoodbanki sabankt hatismor erel
iabl
e,withsuf
fici
ent
capit
algoodr ecordoft r
ustf r
om customer saswel laslowestservi
cecharges.I
tis
alsoimpor t
anttothinkofabankt hathasspr eadATM machi nes.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 68
SECURI TYI SSUES
Usi ngATM ser vicesr equir escer tainsecur i
tyissuest oconsi der.Securityi
ssuesar e
groupedi nt ocat egor i
es( 3)asf ol lows.
a)Sel ectinganATM
i
)Donotsel ectinganATM att hecor nerofabui ldi
ngorhi ddenandobscur edarea
select edanATM l ocatedatt hecent erofa
bui l
dingoranopenar easi ncreasessecur i
tyandsaf etyaswel lassur pri
se.
i
i)Sel ectanATM l ocat edinar eawi thoutbanner sincaseofemer gency.Thesear eas
provi dehi dingoppor t
unitiesf orcr imi nal
especi allythievesandr obber s.
i
ii)SelectanATM t hati sinwel llight enedl ocations(especi all
yatr i
ght)
i
v) Sol i
citpr iorcr iminalact ivityst at i
st icorinformat i
onbef orechoosi nganATM.
v)Avoi dATM l ocat ionwi thl argeper imet erparkingyar ds/lot
sorcarcongest i
onar ea.
b)Appr oachi ngt heATM
i
)Neverappr oachanATM wher et her e’
snol ight
i
i)Checkt hesecur ityspeci ouspeopl ear oundorcar sfakedasi dewi thpeopleinside.
i
ii)Avoi dATM wi thobscur i
ngobj ect se.g.building
i
v)Atr i
ghtdon’ tgot oanATM al i
nes, gowi thyourf ri
end/ compani on
v)I fyou’ redr i
ving, keepal lthewi ndowcl osedandal lthedoorcl osed.Before
swi tchingof ftheengi newat cht hear eacareful
andqui cklyal lsides. I
fsomeoneappr oachesyourvehi clescancelorpost ponet he
transact ionsandgot oanot herATM.I fi
t
issaf eexi stthevehi cleandl ocki tandkeepyourkeyshandysot hatyoucan
reent erqui cklyaf terthet ransact ion.
vi)Neverappr oachanATM i fthel ight satthesi tearenotwor ki
ng.

c).Usi ngt heATM

i
)Whenwai ti
nginl inet or i
set heATM wai tstandbehindt hepersonaheadofyouand
donotappr oacht heATM unt i
lthey
compl etet hetransact i
on.
i
i)Whenyou’ reusi ngt heATM ANDsomeonei sclosertoyout hanyouwoul dlikethem
tobe, askt hem pol itelyandt actfullyto
stepbackaf ewst eps.
Ifnoco–oper at ioncounci lthet ransactionandwai toutsideorgot oanotherATM.
Thisi sar i
sk
i
ii)Bef oreyourappr oacht heATM, haveyourATM car dsr eadyandknowyourpi n
numberorpasswor ds.
i
v)Pr ot ectandhi deyourper soni dent if
icati
on.
v)Memor i
esyourpi nandavoi dwr iti
ngi tanywhereifyoucan’ tmemor iesi
twriteanda
smal lpi eceofpaperandaf terthe
transact iondest royi tcompl etel yorchewi tandspli
tit.Donotcar ryorputyourpin
i
nyourwal l
etorpocket .
vi)Whenusi ngtheATM, standdi rect l
yinf r
ontofthekeyboar dsblockingtheviewof
others.Donotent ert hepi nifsomeone
aroundcanvi ewt hescr een/keyboar d.
vii
)Sel ectapi nthati sdifferentf rom thenumber snotedinyourwal let,
mobilephones,

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 69
bir
thdayset ci
ncaseyou’ refr eetodo
so.
Vii
)Donotacceptof f
ersofassi st
antwithATM fr
om strangers.I
fyouarehavinga
problem consul
tsyourbankofof fi
cial
s,not
evensecurit
yguar ds.
vi
ii)Whent hetr
ansact i
oniscompl ete,t
akeyourpropert
iescard,moneyandreceipts
andputt hem i
nyourwal l
et,bagor
pocketandleavei mmedi ate.
i
x)Checksecur it
yar ound.I fyouf eelsomeoneisfoll
owi ngyou,wal
kordrivequicklyto
onopenpl acewher etherear eal otof
peopleandcal lthepol i
ce.
x)Ifyouloseormi splaceorhaveyourcar dstol
ennot i
fythecardassur
eimmedi ately.

MONEYWI THDRAWI NGPROCEDURES

Thefollowingarepr
ocedur eorst epsi nwi t
hdrawingmoneyf rom anATM.
1.Insertyourbank/ATM car dint oar eaderslot.
2.Whenpr omptedbyATM, selectlanguagee. g.EngorKi sw.
3.Whenpr omptedbyATM, enterort ypei nyourPINpasswor d
4.Whenpr omptedbyATM, selectwithdr aw
5.Whenpr omptedbyATM, enterort ypet heamountofmoneyyouwantt owithdraw.
6.Wai tforthemachinetocountandr eleasethemoneyout .
7.Whenpr omptedselectifyour equirear ecei
ptorothertransact
ion
8.Collectyourmoney/ cash.Ifpossibl ecountitquickl
y.
9.Ejectthecardorawai tandretur nandr emoveitfr
om thecar dr
eadersl
otandleave.

REGI
STERDI
FFERENCES

Regi sterisavar i
etyoflanguagethatisdist
inguishedaccordi
ngt ouse.
Forexampl ethelawyerdoctors,t
eachersofdiff
erentsubj
ects,
theengi neers,
team
coachet c.Theyallusespecifi
clanguagebasing( dependi
ngont heirrespecti
ve
fi
elds.Thust heuseofdi f
fer
entlanguagesaccordingt odi
ff
erentfiel
dsi swhatwecal
l
register.

Thedifferenceinregi
ster
si sduet ot
hef actt
hateachfi
eldusel
anguagewhichis
characteri
zedbycer t
ainstyli
sti
cfeatur
es.Thus,weneedtopaymuchattent
ionto
speaker'sregi
stersoastoi dent
ifyandunderstandthel
anguageusedasperit
s
styl
ist
icfeatures.

Obser
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngr
egi
ster
sandt
hei
rst
yli
sti
cfeat
ure.

LANGUAGEOFNEWSPAPERREPORT

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 70
Styl
isti
cFeatures:
-
Useofl ongsentences
Exampl e:
theabovepar agraphhasonl yonesent ence.
-
Theuseofnumber sasi tisver yimpor t
ancet oshowt hescor
esandtimeinfootbal
l.
-
Useofpastt enseasi tr eportsthepastevent .
-
Usenamesofpeopl eandpl acesher eandt hee.gnamesof
pl
ayers,
locati
on/fi
eld/pitch(nationalstadium)
-
Useofadj ect
ivese.g" aggr essiveteam."welldeservedwin"
-
Speciali
zedtermslikesoccer ,t
ournament .Alwaysuseadverbse.
g.yest
erday,
next
week,t
omor r
owet c.

LANGUAGEADVERTI
SING

Lexi
calf
eat
ureofAdver
ti
singl
anguage.

Theuseoffirstandsecondpersonalpr
onounsi.e.
”I/We/you”I
tisbecausethese
pronounshelptocreateafri
end-l
ikeint
imateatmospher
etomoveand
persuadet
heaudi encet
heuseoft hefi
rstandsecondper
soniscal
ledgossi
p-
advert
isements

E.
g - Hyundai:Alwaysthereforyou
Welivetodeliver.
YamahaEver yt i
mewer aceyouwi n
Useofmot iveorevaluat
iveAdject
ivesorAdj
ect
ivalPhr
ases.

E.gBeaut
if
ulwri
tinginst
rumentspeerl
essaccessor
iesf orthei
nnatesophist
icat
e.
Eachpenandpencilisanorigi
nali
nnovat
ivedesi
gnspr eseri
tedexcl
usivel
yforthose
whoappreci
ateonl
yt hever
ybest

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 71
-UseofTechni calTermsandSci enti
fi
cr oundi
ngwor ds
Eg-PurecolourBeautif
ulfull
-col
ourcopi esarei
nfoolbloom fr
om Minolt
a
Becauseofourl aserInt
ensi
veModul ati
onsystem (LIMOS) -
--
--
-Apower f
ulbuil
t–i nfl
ashsystem rel
atedatGN20andaspect rum offeat
ures
-UseofNegat ivewor ds
Eg:Adi amondengagementr i
ngshowyourl oveasnothi
ngelsecan
Wor dssuchasno, none,nothi
ng,never,etctoshowtheuniquenessofthe
product.

-Useofi
ncl
usivewords
Suchasal
l,
every,
alwayset
ctoi
ndi
cat
ethatr
efer
encei
suni
ver
sal

Eg;Coca-
Col
aal
waysCoca-
Col
a

-Useofcompoundwords
Eg;Adj+N-f
ir
stclass

-Top–qual
it
ybul
b
N+V+ed-honeycoat
edsugarpuf
fs

V+i
ng–shi
ningcl
ean

Synt
act
icf
eat
uresofAdver
ti
singl
anguage

-
Frequentuseofsi
mplesent
ence
Examplefr
om Hondaaut
omobi
le
Hondahasalwaysmadegoodcar
speopl
elovet
hem

Ournewprogr
am wil
lhelpt
oresol
vepr
oducts-r
elat
edquest
ionsaboutyour.
Thi
s
progr
am i
sfree.
JustaskatanyHondadeal
erf
orabookletOrcal
l--
--
--
-,
youseeHondawantsyouandyourHondatohavealongandhappyrelat
ionshi
ps.
It
’sonl
yri
ght.

-Fr
equentuseofi
nter
rogat
ivesent
ences.

Eg–Hai
rDar
keni
ngMedi
cine:Ar
eyougoi
nggr
eyt
oear
ly?

Whati
nwomen’
sReal
mthi
sweek?Awonder
fulbeaut
yof
fer
sforyou

Li
ncol
nPar
kZoo:Whatwoul
dmanbewi
thoutt
heape?

-Fr
equentuseofimperati
vesentences
I
mperati
vesent
encegi veacommandormakear
equestandt
heyar
eusual
ly
shortandpowerf
ulsentences.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 72
 Eg-HondaMot or
:Buyone
Hondacivicwagon:putital
lbehindyou
Expresscard:Don’
tleavehomewi thouti
t.
Unit
edAirli
nes:Li
feisajourney,
traveli
twell
.

-Useofpr
esentTenseEg–Adi
amondi
sfor
ever

-UseofMi
norSent
ences.

Eg–Mil
dCigar
ett
e:Amidway.Makeitamildsmoke,
smoot h,
rich,
rewarding.
-
Vol
kswagenPassatwagon:somewher
ebetweentuxedoandbirthdaysuit

Gr
aphol
ogi
calf
eat
ureofAdver
ti
singl
anguage

Eg–Bol
ding

-Capi
tal
izat
ion

-Theuseofabbr
evi
ati
onsf
oreconomi
cpur
posesEg–Lt
d,t
el,
Co,
DSM,
CCM,
UNHCR
et
c

-Punct
uat
ionmar
kssuchasexcl
usi
ons(
!)+col
ori
ng,
Pict
ure,
etc.

Semant
icFeat
uresoft
hel
anguageofAdver
ti
sing

Eg–Ambigui
ty
-I
diomsandpr
overbs

-Fi
gur
ati
veexpr
essi
on
Si
mil
e-cool
sasmaint
ainst
ream

Met
aphor–Pepsit
hef
atherofal
ldr
inks

Per
soni
fi
cat
ion-Nowyouf
axescanf
indyoueveni
fyourof
fi
cecant

-
GSCoi
ntr
oduci
ngcamer
athatshar
esyourvi
sionofper
fectpi
ctur
e

Euphemism-Dietcakeweknowyouarebothgour
metandweightwatcher(
factor
obesepeople)
-I fworl
dclassRolexhasbeenabi
tbeyondyoubudgetbef
orel
ikeynowputsitwit
hin
youreach

TELEPHONECONVERSATI
ON

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 73
Withthisparadigm ofscienceoft echnol
ogyweal waysmakeconver siont
hroughour
tel
ephones. Weuset el
ephonei nourdai l
ycommuni cat
ionforinst
anceatwor kplace.in
businessori nsociali
nteract
ion.
Whenwespeakont el
ephonei ti
sbecausewewantt oachievecertai
ngoal
,therefor
e
ther
ear esomer ul
esthatweneedt oobserveforposit
iveoutcome,Someoft heserules
areasf ol
lows;
-
Clar
ify,i
.etouseacl earvoice,avoidal
ldist
ract
ors(noiseorpoor
equipment s)
tal
kingwhi l
echewi ngsomet hi
ng.
-
Controlyourpacei .
eSpeakwi t
hamoder atespeedsoast obeunderstoodf ast
andclearl
y.

St
udyt
heexampl
ebel
ow,
thenr
elat
eitwi
thyourdai
lyconver
sat
ion.

Rashid:Hello,
Janeth.
Janeth:Hello.
Rashid:Areyoudonewi t
htheassignmentonEnvir onmentalissues?
Janeth:Oh,yesRashid
Rashid:IbegyourhelpJaneth,t
herearesomear east hatifi
nddifficul
tinat
tempti
ngit
Janeth:Okayyoushoul dnotworryaboutthatl
etmeetonSat urdayar ound2:00pm at
thecoll
age.
Rashid:Oh,thankyousomuchJanet h.
I'
l
lbegrat
ef ultofindyout here.
Janeth:Yourwel come
Rashid:Wishyouani cemoment
Janeth:Samet oyou,thanks.
Rashid:okay,byebye
Janeth:Bye.

Answert
hefol
lowi
ngquesti
on
1.
Doyouthi
nkthespeaker
sshowpoli
teness?
why?
2.
WhydidRashidmakeacallt
oJanet
h?

Takingatel
ephonemessage
Wemakecal linourdai
lyli
fe,
Someti
meswemaynotf i
ndt
hepersonwewishtotal
k
to.
Inthi
sscenarioi
tisnecessar
ytoleaveamessagetoat
hir
dparty.
Nowwhatarethe
necessar
yinformat
ionthatweneedtor ecor
dwhenyouar
etotakeamessagefor
someoneel se?

Thecardbelowshowt henecessar
yinf
ormat
iont
obet
aken/
not
ed.
For:
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
From:.
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
Telno:.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
.
Date:
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
Ti
me: .
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
.
Message:..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..
..
Takenby:..
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
..
..

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 74
St
udyt
heexampl
ebel
ow.

Tedy: Hel lo.

Mr.Raju:Hello,
ismadam Sal maar ound?
Tedy: Nosi r,shei sn'twhoi scalli
ngplease?
Mr.Raju:I'
m Mr .Raju,chiefaccountantTi ckCompany
Tedy: Sor rysi rshei snotar oundatt hemomentbutshewi llbebackaft
er30
minutes.
MayIt akeamessagef orherpl ease?
Mr.Raju:Yes,pleaset ellherthatwear ewai ti
ngf
ortheconfi
rmationontheinvoicei
sentheryesterday.
Tedy: Wai tamomentpl easeconfirmat i
ononthei
nvoicesentyest
erday.Alr
ightI
'
ll
tel
lhersir
.
Mr.Raju:Thankyouver ymuch. Goodbye.
Tedy: You' rewel come, sirGoodbye

TASK
1.Makeat
elephoneconver
sat
ionwi
thyourf
ri
end.

2.I
magineyou'r
ethesecret
aryi
noneoftheoff
iceandyouhavepi
ckedcal
lfr
om
someonet oyourboss.
Takethemessagefr
om
thecall
ertobesubmitt
edtoyourboss.

SPEAKI
NGSKI
LLS
Whati
sSpeaki
ng?

I
ssi
mpl
ytheactoft
alki
ngwhi
chmaybei
nei
theraf
ormal
ori
nfor
mal
sit
uat
ion.

Thiski
ndofspeechonewoul ddecidet
oundert
akewoulddependont herelat
ionship
onehaswi t
haudience,al
sot hewayyouspeaktel
lspeopl
emor eaboutyou.Whenever
oneini
ti
atecommuni cati
onitsbecausehe/
shewanttodeli
versomethingthatmeans
ther
emustbeintenti
onoft hatcommunicat
ion,
towakeyourspeakingmor eeffect
ivel
y

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 75
andsuccessf
ult
her
emanyfact
ortobeobser
vebutt
hemostimpor
tantthi
ngswi
llbe
det
erminedbyhowyoupr
onouncewords,
str
essi
ngt
hem andt
heappropri
ate
i
ntonat
ion.

PRONUNCI
ATI
ON

Ever ylanguageinthi
swoul dhasi t
ssoundsyst em hencehasi t’
sthewayof
pronouncingt hem.Li
nguistsusespeci alalphabetcalledphoneticsymbol
st o
representsoundorphonemes.Thi ssymbolar eencl osedinslantedli
nes[/
/].Someof
thi
ssymbolar enormalalphabetlet
terslike/S/,/
Z/,
/ t/
,/d/
,/k/
,/g/
,/f
/,
/v/et
cbutother
s
arediffer
entfrom normalalphabetlet
tersweknow

e.
g.-
/^/
,/æ/
,/ÊŠ/
,/dÊ’
/,
/3:
/,
/ʃ
/,
/ð/
,/Å‹
/,
/t
ʃ/
,/Ê’
/,
/θ/

I
tisi
nthi
spoi
ntt
henwear
egoi
ngt
olear
nhowt
opr
onouncewor
dscor
rect
.

Seehowwecanpr
onouncet
hef
oll
owi
ngwor
ds

-
cat/
cut

/
kæt
/k^
t/

-
shoot
/shut

/
∫ut
/∫^
t/

-
See/
sea

/
si/
/si
/

-
hear
t/hur
t

/
cha:
t/
/h3:
t/

Asyouhaveobservedt
heexampl
egiven,t
her
earesomewordwhohavedi f
fer
ent
spel
li
ngbutpr
onouncedthesameandthosewhi
chhavesl
ight
lydi
ff
erenti
nspell
ing
aswellasi
npronunci
ati
on

Soundsareshownbyusingphonet
icsymbol
sthatar
eencl
osedbet
weent
wosl
ant
ed
l
ines//e.
g.caught/
kÉ”
:t
/

Ther
ear
etwomai
ntypesofBr
it
ishst
andar
dEngl
ishphomesnamel
y,voweland

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 76
consonant
s

I
.VOWELS

Ther
ear
ethr
eeki
ndsofmonopht
hongdi
pht
hongsandt
ri
pht
hongs

i
.Monopht
hongs(
pur
evowel
s)t
her
ecanbel
ongorshor
t

TASK

Tr
anscr
ibet
hef
oll
owi
ngwor
ds;

1.doctor
2.work
3.hurt
4.money
5.room
6.just
7.smal l
8.pull
9.put
10.
read
11.
chest
12.
kil
l
13.
feet
14.
mar ket

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 77
 i
i. Di
pht
hongs

Twoshor
tvowel
soundst
hatar
ecombi
nedandpr
onouncedasone

TASK

Readt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
onunci
ati
onst
henwr
it
ethem i
nnor
mall
ett
ers:
-

/
meI
n/l
aIt
/,
/heI
t/,
l
eIt
/,
/st
reI
t;

/
naâ„
§n/
tâ„
§∂/
we∂/
meI
,
/eI
bl/
,/eI
t/

Somet
imeswecombi
nethreesoundswhicharet
henpr
onouncedasone.
Thesear
e
di
pht
hongpl
usschwasound/∂/forexampl
e:-

/
eI∂/i
nwor
dsl
ikepl
ayer/
pleI
∂/,
layer
/leI
∂/

/
∂I2/i
nthewor
dsl
ikehi
gher/
haI
∂/,
tir
e/t
aI∂/

/
∂I∂/i
nthewor
dsl
ikesoya/
s∂I
∂/

/
aâ„
§∂/i
nthewor
dsl
ikehour
/aâ„
§∂/
,f
lower
/fl
aâ„
§∂/

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 78
/
∂â„
§∂/i
nthewor
dsl
ikel
ower
/l∂â„
§∂/
,

I
I. CONSONANTS

Ther
earetwentyf
ourconsonant
ssoundsi
nBr
it
ishst
andar
dEngl
ish.Thef
oll
owi
ng
aret
heexamplesandsounds.

Testyour
sel
f.

Showphonet
ict
ranscr
ipt
ionoft
hef
oll
owi
ngsent
ences.

1.Theyar
egoi
ngt
oseet
hem t
oday.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 79
 2.Shewi
ll
hel
pyou.

3.Thatmani
sver
ycl
ever
.

4.Wear
egoi
ngt
omeetheragai
n.

5.Themanagementwi
llt
akei
t.

STRESSANDI
NTONATI
ON

Ar
eal
lconcer
nedwi
thper
cept
ionorr
elat
ivepr
omi
nence.

STRESS
Awordismadeupofi
ndivi
dualsound,wi
thi
nthosesoundsarecombi
ned,
theyf
orma
syl
l
ablee.
g/d//
e×–//
t/=date/deIt
/i.
eaonesyllabl
eword.

Soawor dcanbeofonesyl lableormorethanonesyl

labl
ee.g.
-“sel
ect
ion”/s×–l
ek∫
n/
hasthreesyl
labi.I
npronouncingawor dwhichhasmorethanonesyll
ableyouwil
lfi
nd
thatonesyl
lablerecei
vemor eenergyanditi
sheardt
hanothers.

Nowtheonewhichrecei
vepr
ominencethant
heotheriswhatwecallast
ressed
syl
l
ableandi
tisshownbythemark('
)behi
ndthest
ressedsyl
labl
e.

Observethefol
lowingwor
ds,
thecapi
tal
izedsyl
labl
eist
heonewhi
chr
ecei
vemor
e
ef
for
tinpronunci
ation.

Phonemi
c- Pho.
NE.
mic

Movement- MOVE.
ment

Moment - MO.
ment
.

Suppl
ement
ary- Supl
e.MEN.
tar
y.

Tr
emendous- t
re.
MEN.
dous

Exami
nat
ion- exami
nat
ion.

Meet
ing- ME.
E.t
ing

Thus,

St
ress:I
sthedegr
eeofemphasi
sgi
vent
oasoundorsyl
labl
einspeech.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 80
 OR

Istheprominencewi thwhichonepartofawordsorofal ongerutt

eranceis
di
stingui
shedfrom otherparts.
NB
Everywordhaspr i
mar ystress['
]
somelongerwordshaveanotherstr
esswhi chi
snot
str
ongast heprimaryone, t
hisstressi
scall
edSecondar
ystress.Iti
smar kedby[Ù«
].
Studythefol
lowingwor ds.

Under
stand /
,Ù¨nd∂×™st
ænd/

Cont
ri
but
ion /
,kont
ri
Ù¡bj
u∫n/

Cont
rol
led /
,k∂nÙ¡
tr
∂â„
§ld/

Gr
aphol
ogy /
,gr
æÙ¡
∫ol
∂d3×–/

Machi
ner
y /
,m∂Ù¡
∫i
nkt
/

Di
sconnect /
,d×–sk∂Ù¡
nekt
/

Intheexampl
esgivenabovethehi
ghvert
icalst
roke[
'
]bef
oret
hesyllabl
eisforpr
imar
y
str
essandthelowvert
icalst
ress(
,)
bef
orethesyll
abl
eisf
orsecondarystr
ess[,
].

St
resswi
thi
nawor
d

Nati
vewordsandear
lyFrenchadoptionst
endtohavethemainst
ressont
heroot
syl
l
ableandtokeepi
tthere,
regar
dlessoftheaf
fi
xesthatwor
dformati
onmayadd.

E.
g.:
-'
Kingl
y,'
Kingl
iness,
Un'
ki
ngl
i
ness

'
Stand-'
Standi
ng

Under
'st
andi
ng

'
Passion-
'
Passi
onat
ely
dis'
passi
onat
e

Withmor er
ecent
lyadaptati
onsandcoinagesespeci
all
yt hosebasedon
wordsfrom t
heclassi
callanguages,
thepl
aceofthestressvari
es
accor
dingtotheaffi
xat
ion.

Forexampl
e.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 81
Wor
d Ant
epenul
ti
mat
e Penul
tment

t
e×™l
egr
aphy t
ele×™gr
aphi
c
×™t
elegr
aph
ph×™ot
ogr
aphy phot
o×™gr
aphi
c
×™phot
o
tr
ans×™port
able t
ranspor
’t
ati
on
×™tr
ansport
argu×™mentat
ive ar
gumen’
tat
ion
×™argument

Si
mil
arpenul
ti
mat
ewi
thadj
ect
ival–i
c

'
Phoneme pho'
nemi
c

E'
conomy eco'
nomi
c

E'
mbl
em embl
e'
mat
ic

S'
ympat
hy sympa'
thet
ic

Ant
epenul
ti
mat
ewi
th-
it
y(noun)oradj
ect
ivi
val
-i
an

E.
g.:U'
nani
mous Una'
nimi
ty

'
l
ibr
ary l
ib'
rar
ian

'
grammar gr
am'
mar
ian

'
cur
ious cur
i'
osi
ty

U'
ti
l
ity ut
il
i'
tar
ian

'
Cromwel
l cr
om'
wel
ian

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 82
St
ressandMeani
ngofwor
ds.

Afair
lynumeroussetofwordsthatcanopar
atewi
thoutaf
fi
xialchangeas
anounoradjecti
veontheotherhandandasaverbontheotherhavean
accent
ualdi
ffer
enceinthet
wof uncti
on.

Forexampl
e.

'
conduct/
kondÙ¨kt
/(n)

'
contact/×™kontr
ækt/(n)
'
att
ri
bute/×™ætri
bjut
/(n)

'
present/
×™pr
eznt
/(adj
)

'
i
mpact/
×™×–mpækt
/(n)

'
i
nser
t/×–ns3:
t/(
n)

'
absent/
×™æbsent(
adj
)

'
recor
d/×™r
ekod/(
n)

St
ressandCompoundwor
ds.

Corr
espondi
ngcompoundnounsar
egener
all
ystr
essedonthef
ir
st
el
ementbutwit
hastr
ongsecondar
yst
ressonthesecondel
ement.

Whensuchcompound,t
hepr
imar
yandsecondar
yst
ressi
sredi
str
ibut
ed
t
ogivet
hesamerhythm.

E.
g.:
'
Light
,house–'
l
ight
house,
keeper
.

'
Bed,
room -
×™bedr
oom ,
chamber

Compoundswor
dswhi
char
enotnounsar
est
ressedont
hesecond
el
ement.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 83
 E.
g:,
Back'
fi
re(
V)

,
Hence'
for
th(
Adj
)

,
Knee'
deep(
Adj
)

,
Flat'
foot
ed (
Adj
)

NB:Someexampl
esar
evar
iabl
e

,
fi
eld'
Mar
shalOr

'
Fiel
d,Mar
shal

,
Over'
seasOr

'
Over,
seas

Inanycase,
thest
ressof
tenshi
ft
sfrom secondcomponentt
ofi
rst
componentwhenthecompoundisbei
ngusedattri
but
ivei
nanounphr
ase.

E.
g.:Ther
oom i
s,down'
stai
r.

A'
down,
stai
rs'
room

Hi
sworkis,
fi
rst'
cl
ass
Hi
s'f
ir
stcl
ass,work

Funct
ionofst
ress

1.Topr
ovi
deawayofdi
sti
ngui
shdegr
eeofemphasi
sorcont
rasti
n
sentenceorline.
2.Toma kewordunder standable.
3.Ital
soservest odif
ferenti
atewor dsthatar
esi
milare.
g.:REcord(N)
andr eCOr
d( V)
4.He l
psusf ocusourlistener’
sattent
iononwhatismostimportantin
ourmessage.

Grammati
call
yorcommunicat
ivef
unct
ioni
.e.di
sti
ngui
shbet
ween
st
atementandquest
ion.

E.
g.yournamei
sAsha (
stat
ement
)

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 84
 Yournamei
sAsha?(
Quest
ion)

I
t’
srai
ning (
stat
ement
)

I
t’
srai
ning?(
Quest
ion)

Gener
all
y,pr
onunci
ati
on,Stressandi
ntonat
ionar
ever
yimpor
tant
componenti
ncommuni cat
ion.

Aswehaveseent hat
,st
ressmakesthewor dunderst
andable,poi
ntof
emphasisbutal
soitdi
ff
erent
iat
eswor dswhichar
esimilar
.Likewise
i
ntonat
ionasittel
lsushowtosaythings(message)rat
herthanwhatwe
say.

Pronunciat
ional
soplayaver
ygreatr
olei
ncommunicat
ionaspoor
pronunciat
ionofwor
dsmaymi sl
eadthel
ist
ener
s,t
akeanexampleoft
he
fol
lowingwords.

Laugh/
rÙ¨f
/inst
eadof/
lÙ¨f
/

Read/
li
d/i
nst
eadof
/ri
d/

Lead/
rid/i
nst
eadof/
li
d/

TONE

Ref
ert
othedi
sti
nct
ivepi
tchofvoi
ce(
highorl
ow)dur
ingut
ter
ance.

Iti
safeat
ureofint
onati
onwhichaf f
ect
sthesystem meaningaswell
as
grammati
calcat
egori
esofsentencesorcal
ves(utt
erances)i
nspoken
l
anguage.

Typesoft
one

I
nspokenl
anguage,
ther
ear
efourmaj
ort
ypesoft
one

1.Fal
l/f
all
ingt
one(
\)

Thi
soccur
sini
ntonat
ionofasyl
labl
eorl
ongerut
ter
ancei
nwhi
cht
he

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 85
pi
tchchangesf
rom r
elat
ivel
yhi
ght
orel
ati
vel
ylow.

Thi
stonehast
hef
oll
owi
nguses

1.I
tisusedt
omakest
atement
sthatar
ecompl
eteanddef
ini
te

E.
g.:
-theyar
ri
vedt
oday.

Thi
sboyi
sournei
ghbor
.

I
twasdoneacci
dent
all
y.

Hecameandl
eft
.

2.I
tisusedi
nmaki
ngt
hecommands

E.
g.:-t
aket
hechai
r

Leavemeal
one

Eatt
hatf
ood

Goout

3.I
tisusedi
nmaki
ngt
hequest
iont
hatar
enei
therpol
it
enori
mpol
it
e

E.
g.:
-whatar
eyoudoi
ng?

Wher
edoyoul
ive?

Howdi
dyoudoi
t?

4.I
tisusedi
nmaki
ngexcl
amat
ionsorexcl
amat
orysent
ences.

E.
g.:-wonder
ful

Whatabeaut
if
ull
ady

Ohmygod

5.I
tisusedi
ntagquest
ionmeantt
ofor
cet
hel
ist
eneragr
eewi
tht
he
speaker

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 86
 E.
g.:
-wear
eti
red,
aren’
twe?

Shedi
dn’
tcomeher
eyest
erday,
didshe?
2.Ri
se/Ri
singt
one(/)

Thisoccur
swhent hepit
chchangef
rom rel
ati
vel
ylowt
orel
ati
vel
yhi
gh
(t
hepitchar
isesattheendoft
heUtt
erance)

Thi
stonehast
hef
oll
owi
nguses

1.I
tisusedf
oryes/noquest
ion

E.
g.:
-Doyouknowwhathappenedi
nSout
hAf
ri
car
ecent
ly?

Ohno,canyouki
ndl
ytel
lmeaboutthat
Haveyouseenmyfat
herovert
her
e?
Yes,
Ihave

2.I
tusedf
orst
atement
sint
endi
ngt
obequest
ions

E.
g.:-yourbrot
hercameyest
erday
Wewer esupposedt
odothetestyest
erday
Youdidit

3.I
tisusedwhengi
vingr
equest

E.
g.:
-Gi
venmeaglassofwaterpl
ease
Wai
tformeforaminut
e
Mayyoupl
easelendmeyourpen

4.I
tisusedf
orcommandsi
ntendi
ngt
ober
equest
s

E.
g.:
-openthedoor
Don’
tdist
urbme
Gotothemarketanddon’
tbel
ate

5.I
tisusedi
nincompl
etest
atement
s

E.
g.:
-IfJamescomeshere………………………. .(Tel
lhi
mI’l
lsol
vet
hepr
obl
em)
Unlesshear
ri
vesearl
ier…………………..(Iwi
ll
cal
lhim)
Whenhecameher eyester
day…………( Iwasout
)

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 87
3.Fall–ri
setone
Thistoneoccur
swhent
hepi
tchf
allandt
henr
isesagai
n.Thi
stonehast
he
fol
lowinguses

1.I
tisusedf
orst
atement
swhi
chshowr
eser
vat
ionoronl
ypar
ti
cul
ar
agr
eement
.

E.
g.:
-A–wi
llyoul
endmeyourbook

B–Yes,
but

X–Wast
hef
il
m enj
oyabl
e?

Y–Yes,
but

2.I
tisusedi
nincompl
etest
atementl
eadi
ngt
oanot
hert
onegr
oup.

Tonegr
oup–gr
oupofwor
dst
hatar
epr
onouncedwi
thonet
one

E.
g.:
-ifMwi
tal
eavest omorr
ow,hewillgett
oKampalai
nti
me
Unl
essheleavesnowhewi l
lbelate.
WhenIent
eredt hecl
ass,
Ifoundthem maki
ngnoi
se.

3.I
tisusedf
orst
atementt
hatshowwar
ning,
disappr
oval
orconcer
n

Oh!Don’
tbehavel
iket
hat
Becaref
ul
Yousayyouwantmanyyoumi
ghtt
oitnext

4.I
tisusedf
ori
mper
ati
vesmeantt
obepl
eat
ingr
equest
s(i
mper
ati
ves
–sent
encewhi
chi
sint
roducedwi
thaver
b)

E.
g.:
-Don’tdi
stur
bme
Comeandseethechil
dren
Gotherei
mmediat
ely

5.I
susedf
orst
atementt
hatshowaki
ndofr
eser
vat
ion

E.g.
:-Hewon( buthedi dn’tpr
eserve)
Icancomet omor row(butnottoday)
Sheisbeauti
ful(butIdon’tloveher
)
4.Rise/Rising–falltone

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 88
Thistoneoccur
swhent
hepi
tchr
isesandt
henf
all
sagai
n.Thi
stonehas
thefoll
owi
nguses

1.Forst
atement
sshowi
ngent
husi
ast
icagr
eement
,whenyouagr
eeon
somet
hingwi
thexci
tement

E.
g.:-Ofcour
se,
that
’swhatIwant
ed

Yes,
thatur
ight

2.Forexcl
amat
ionshowi
ngsar
casm

E.
g.:
-Howbeaut
if
ulyouar
e

Goodaf
ter
noon

I
ntonat
ion

Refertot
her
elat
iver
isi
ngandf
all
ingoft
hepi
tchofvoi
cei
nspeechor
ut
terance

I
.e.i
tist
hepi
tchvar
iat
ion

I
ntonat
ionmayaf
fect

1.Themeaningofspokenut t
erance
2.Thegrammat i
calcategoryofthesentenceofcl
ause
3.St
ressofthesyll
ableandspeechr hythm
4.I
talsoconveystheat t
it
udeoft hespeaker
s

NB:Int
onati
oni
sthef
eat
ureofspokenl
anguagewhichmarksthe
Boundaryandt
hemoodi
nthesamewaypunct uat
iondoesint
hewri
tt
en
l
anguage.

Funct
ionsofi
ntonat
ion

Int
roduct
ionasthefeatur
eofspokenl
anguagehassever
alconver
sat
ional
orgrammaticalf
uncti
ons,ther
ear
efourmajorf
unct
ionsconser
vedby
i
ntonati
on

1.Gr
ammat
icalf
unct
ion

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 89
Iti
susedtomar ktheboundari
esbetweengr
ammat
ical
uni
tsorst
ruct
ures
suchasphrases,clausesandsent
ences

E.
g.t
hatbookont
het
abl
ehasbeent
her
eforaday

I
tisusedtodetermineori
denti
fyt
hetypeofsentencei
nlanguagesuchas
whethert
hesentenceisastat
ementquest
ion,commandorr equest
.

2.Accent
ualf
unct
ion

I
tisusedtodet
erminet
hecategor
ytowhi
chthewor
dbel
ongssuchas
whethert
hewordisanoun,
verboradj
ect
ive

E.
g.Present–v
Pr
esent–N

I
ndi
cat
esemphasi
soncert
ainwor
dsi
ntheut
ter
ancebysodoi
ngi
t
af
fect
sthemeani
ngoft
heutt
erance

E.
g.t
hosewhosol
dqui
ckl
ymadepr
ofi
t

Thosewhosol
dqui
ckl
ymadepr
ofi
t

3.At
ti
tudi
nalf
unct
ion

I
ntonat
ionconveyst
heatt
it
udeofthespeakerasitcanbenot edbyt
he
l
ist
enersuchasanger,
happi
ness,
surpri
se,appr
oval orshock.

Usual
lyt
hismaybemar
kedbyt
hef
all
-r
iseorr
ise-
fal
ltone

4.Di
scour
sef
unct
ion

Int
onationhelpst oi
ndicateaconnecti
onandchancesofparti
cipant
sin
thediscourse{spokenconversati
oni.
e.Itshel
psthepar
tici
pant
si nthe
conversati
ontot aketurnsinaregul
arorder,
hencehel
pingthem tospeak
i
nor der.

Usuall
yeachparti
cipanti
nspeechbegi nstheconversati
onwithhighpat
h
orri
setoneandendswi thlowerpi
tchorf al
ltone.Thatwil
lal
ertt
he
secondpart
ici
panttotakethetur
nt heconversati
on.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 90
 FORMALANDI
NFORMALLANGUAGE.

Incommuni cat
ionweusebothinf
ormalandfor
mal l
anguageatdi
ff
erent
ti
mes.Inthi
spoi ntweneedtol
ear
nwheni nf
ormall
anguageis
appropr
iat
eorinappropr
iat
eandwhereformall
anguageisused.

Inf
ormallanguageisthelanguageofever
ydaycommunicat
ionwher
ewe
useiti
ncasualsocialset
ting(e.
gtal
kingt
ocloseafr
iends,
memberofa
famil
y,ortootherpeopl
ewhowear efami
li
arwit
h)

St
udyt
heut
ter
ancebel
ow,

1.What
’supmypeopl
e

2.Higuys

3.Howar
eyouJohn

Thethreeutt
erancesareInf
ormall
anguageandareappropr
iateor
i
nappropri
atedependingontherel
ati
onshi
pbetweenthepart
icipant
s.

CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFI
NFORMALLANGUAGE

I
.Useofcont
ract
ionsE.
gwe’
ve,
I’
ll
,I
’m.

I
I.El
ipsi
sE.
g-Cantgo “
Icannotgo”

-
Wantl
eave“
Iwantt
oleave”

-
Itbef
ine “
Itwi
llbef
ine”

I
II
.Shor
tsent
ences.E.
g -
Theydancedwel
l

-
Shepl
ayswel
l

-
Weat
eal
lthebi
tes.

I
V.Useofsi
mpl
ewor
dsE.
g-‘
star
ts’
,i
nst
eadofcommence

-‘
Close’
,i
nst
eadofadj
our
n

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 91
 -‘
Home’
,i
nst
eadofdomi
cil
e.

V.Useofi
ncompl
etesent
encesE.
g-Shesai
d…….
Yes

-I
tis……………NoIdon’
tthi
nkso.

-Imean……….
Wel
l…

VI
.Useofsl
angsorCol
loqui
alwor
dsE.
g–Taket
heki
dtoschool
.

-
Heyguyshur
ryup.

-
Let
sst
orydude.

-
Pal
itsf
ant
ast
ic.

For
mallanguagei
notherhand,i
salanguagethatissui
tabl
eforf
ormal
set
ti
ng,
seriousdi
scussi
on,wri
ti
ngoroff
ici
alcontext
.

CHARACTERI
STI
CSOFFORMALLANGUAGE

-
Itobser
vet
hegr
ammaroft
hel
anguagei
.ewor
dor
der
,tenses,
etc.

-
Itusesl
ongsent
encesf
orcl
ari
ty.

-
Usemorecompl
exwor
dsdependi
ngont
hepr
ovi
ncee.
g‘domi
cil
e’
i
nst
eadofhome.

‘
commece’
inst
eadofst
art

‘
adj
our
n’i
nst
eadofcl
ose

‘
adher
e’i
nst
eadoff
oll
ow.

-
Itdoesn’
tal
lowt
heuseofsl
angs/
col
loqui
al.

-
Noi
ncompl
etesent
ences.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 92
-
Cont
ract
ionsar
enotal
lowed.

PARTI
CIPATI
NGI
NSOCI
ALI
NTERACTI
ON

Therearemanydi f
ferenttypesofver
balcommuni cati
onthatwemakein
ourdail
yli
fe.Theseincludenormalconversat
ion,
debate,tel
ephone
exchangediscussi
onandsoon.Al lt
heseneedappr opr
iat
e
approach/
stylesoast ohavethesocalledEff
ecti
vecommuni cati
on.

Inordertobecomeasuccessfulcommunicatoronet
ohaveski
ll
ssuchas
ski
ll
sf ori
niti
ati
ngconver
sat
ion,pr
esent
ingideasaswel
lasconcl
udi
ng
conversati
on.

a)I
nit
iat
ingconver
sat
ion.

Ther
ear
edi
ff
erentst
ylesonecanuset
oini
ti
ateconver
sat
ion

 Onecani
nit
iat
econver
sat
ionbypr
esent
inganopi
nion

E.
g–It
hinkt
ownl
if
eismor
eenj
oyabl
ethanvi
ll
agel
if
e

-
Thi
sti
meEngl
isht
ermi
nalexam wassi
mpl
e

 Onecani
nit
iat
econver
sat
ionbygi
vingast
atementoff
act
.

E.
g–In2012t
hef
ormf
ourNat
ional
Exami
nat
ionwasnot
encour
agi
ng

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 93
 -
2000ci
ti
zensdi
edi
nEgyptduet
opol
it
ical
unr
est

 Anot
herst
yleofi
nit
iat
ingconver
sat
ioni
sbyaski
ngquest
ions

E.
g-I
sitpossi
blet
ocombatcor
rupt
ion?

-
Doyout
hinkmostst
udent
sspeakEngl
ish?

b)Pr
esent
ingi
deas

Oralcommuni
cat
ionisatwowaypr ocess,
tomakei
tsuccessi
vel
yone
needtoobser
vet
hefoll
owingpoi
nts.

-
Usecl
earandl
ivel
ytone.Donotspeakt
ool
oudort
oosof
t.

-Donotdomi nat
ethetal
ki.eleaveachancef
orot
herstospeak.
-Usepolit
elanguage,
especiall
ywhenspeaki
ngagai
nstotherpeopl
es
vi
ewt hatyoudonotagreewith.

-
List
encar
eful
lyandat
tent
ivel
ytowhatot
her
shavet
osay.

-
Involveyourlist
ener
se.gbyaski
ngQuest
ions,
seeki
ngt
hei
rvi
ewsor
byusingcontroversyst
atement
s.

-
Respondt
oquest
ionsandcomment
sfr
om yourl
ist
ener
s.

c)Concl
udi
ngaconver
sat
ion

Concl
udi
ngaconversati
onsupposetobefr
iendlyandposi
tivelyas
f
ail
uretodosowil
lleadtooutbr
eakofnewconversat
ionorfi
ndi tdi
ff
icul
t
t
ostri
keafutur
econversat
ion.

Thef
oll
owi
ngst
atement
smaybeusedt
oconcl
udeaconver
sat
ion.

-
Thankyouever
ybody,
I’
llseeyounextt
ime.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 94
 -
Thanks,
haveani
ceday.

-
I’
llseeyouagai
nnextt
ime.

-
Haveani
ceday.Thanks.

Par
ti
cipat
ingi
nDebat
e

Debatei
saoneoft heaspect
sofpubl icspeaking.Debatecanbedef
inedtoasa
for
maldiscussi
onaboutacontraversalt
opicnor mal
lyknownasmot i
on.Debatei
sa
commondi scussi
oninschol
ar,coll
egesandot herhigherl
earni
ngi
nsti
tut
ion.Adebat
e
devel
opsstudent’
spubl
icspeakingpersuasiveandar gument
spower.

Theesceneofdebat
ei stopersuadelistener
stochangealt
it
udeorunderstandi
ng
thr
oughargumentat
ion.Debatealsointendspreparel
ear
nerstobecomepubl i
c
speaker
.Adebatedevelopsconfidence,cri
ti
calt
hinki
ngandanal
yti
calskil
ls.

DEBATEORGANI
SATI
ON

Adebateisf
ormedbyagroupofpeopl
ewhogroupsthemsel
vesi
ntot
womaj
or
conf
li
cti
ngpart
s–proposer
sandopposesandthel
eadershi
p

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 95
 Debat
eleader
shi
p

Debat
eleader
shi
pisusual
lyoft
hef
oll
owi
ng;

i
)Chai
rper
son

i
i)Secr
etar
y

i
ii
)Ti
mekeeper

i
v)Judge

v)Pat
ron/
mat
ron

PROPOSERS

Thesesupportorargueforthegivenmoti
on,t
her
edutyi.
e.per
suadethe
opposessothattheyagreewiththeproper’
sorthemot
iont
hroughargumentat
ionand
multi
plepersuasi
vetechniques.

Not
e

Foreasi
eradmini
strat
ionofadebat
eofeachoft
hegr
oupsi
susual
ly
r
epr
esentedbyfew(aboutsi
x)

Mai
n/keyspeaker
s

Commoni mpor tantphrasesandexpr essionsinadebat e.

1.Gr eeti
ngs
2.Selfint
r oduction
E.g.mynamei sConsol ataMikui…..I
m heretoprepar
e( oppose)the
motionwhi chstat esthat ….
.
E.g.goodeveni ngladiesandgent l
emen
Mynamei s….
.andIst andbef oreyout ooppose
Ipr oposethemot ionont heboar d
E.g.-chai r
person,
secr etaryanddi st
inguishedj
udgesjudgegood
evening,Im heret oproposeoropposet hemot i
onf orfol
lowing
reasons.
3.l
adiesandgent l
emen/oppose/pr oposet hismot i
ononthefollowingreason.
-Ladiesandgent lemen, Istr
onglyoppose/pr oposethismot i
onon
thefollowi
nggr ounds.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 96
 -Chai
rman/chai
rper
son/woul
dli
ket
opr
opose/opposet
hismot
ion
f
ort
hef
oll
owi
ngpoint
s.

4.Chair
man,Istronglydisagreewiththeprevi
ousspeakerasfol
lows
-Ladiesandgent l
emen,Ibegt odif
ferwi
ththefor
merspeakeron…….
-Chairpersonasapoi ntofinterr
upti
on….
.
-ChairIwoul dli
ket oasktheformerspeakeral
lowmet oaskafor
mer
speakeraquest
ion.
-Anotheri mportantpoi
ntisthat……..

5.Tobr
ingthepoi
nthome, Iwouldl
iketosay/arguet
hat
-Inmyfinalanal
ysis,
Iwouldli
ketosay/arguethat
-Toendupmyar gument
swoul dli
ketosaythatIst
rongl
yagr
ee/
di
sease

6.Thankyouforlist
ening
-Thankyouf orattenti
on
Examplesofdebat abletopic(
mot i
ons)
1.Kiswahi l
ishouldbeusedasameansofi nstructi
onatal ll
evels
ofeducati
oninTanzania.
2.Theuni onbet weenTanganyikaandZanzibarshoul dnowbr eak.
3.Tanzani aisademocr ati
cstate/count
ry.
4.Tanzani ashouldnowf orm acoali
ti
ongovernment .
5.Deathsent ence/penaltyshouldbeaboli
shedinTanzani a.
6.Speci alseatsinTanzaniaparli
amentshouldabolish.
7.Sexeducat i
onshouldbei ntr
oducedinprimary(schools)
8.Homesexual i
tyshouldbelegali
zedinTanzania.

PREPARATORYSPEECHMAKI
NGSTRATEGI
ES

Inthecour
seofprepar
ingf
oraspeech,
ther
ear
esever
alst
rat
egi
est
hatdeser
ve
at
tent
ionasfol
lows:

1. Pr
epar
eyourspeechsomet
imebef
oreyoupr
esenti
t

I
.e.t
hinkabouttheaudi
encebefor
ewhichyouaregoi
ngmaketoyourspeech,
consi
dertheaudiencei
nter
ests.Thi
swil
lhel
pyoutochoosewhatt
osayandwhatnot.

2. Thi
nkaboutt
heaudi
enceknowl
edgeaboutt
hesubj
ectmat
ter
.

I
.e.yoursupposet
oknowhowmuchknowl edgeyouraudi
encehasont hetopi
c
youwanttotal
kaboutthuschooset
hemannerofspeaki
ngandthelanguagethat

ShabaniShaf
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 sui
tst
heknowl
edgeofyouraudi
ence.

3. Consi
dert
hesi
zeofyouraudi
ence

I.
e.Consi
derthenumberoft hepeopletowhom yourspeechispresent
ed,t
hiswi
ll
hel
pyout odeci
dewhet heryouneedsomet oolssuchasmi cr
ophonesoryoujust
needtospeakloudlye.
g.ifyourspeaki
ngtoasmal lnumberofpeople,
ther
eisno
needofhavingmicrophonesbutifbigger
.

4. Consi
derwhatyouraudi
encewant
stoknow.

I
.e.peopl
earenor
mall
yreadytoli
stentoyouifyouaddressthingsofthei
r
i
nter
estthatmeanstal
kaboutwhatt
heyl i
keorusethelanguagestylethatt
heyli
ke.

5. Consi
derper
sonali
nter
estoft
heaudi
ence

I
.e.whenmakingthespeechyoushoul
dvar
yaccordi
ngtot
heint
erestofthe
audi
enceasther
ear epeopl
ewhol i
kehumanandthosewhodonotsomaket hose
who
l
ikehumanlaughandthenvarynott
oboreot
her.

6. Det
ermi
net
hepur
poseofyourpr
esent
ati
on

I.
e.setthemot i
vebehindyourspeechi.e.deter
mineswhetheryouwantt o
convi
nceorper suade,ent
ertai
n,i
nform ori
nstructe.
g.int
hedebate,thespeechis
madet o
convincebutifyouweretheMC, youspeaki nordert
oentert
ainthususethe
l
anguagest yl
edependingont hepurposeyouwantt oachieve

7. Exami
neyourknowl
edge

I.e.youneedtospeakaboutthetopi
cthatyouknowverywell,
thusyouare
expectedt odoaninfor
medt hebooks,magazi
nesandothersour
cesusefulf
orthe
topi
c
youwantt otal
kabout.Thiswil
lgi
veyouconfi
denceoutthetopi
cyouwantt ot
alk
about.

8. Showyourf
eel
ingsaboutt
het
opi
c

Youshouldprepar
eyoursel
fsowellt
hatyouraudi
encewillseethetopi
cyour
pr
esenti
ngi spar
tofyousoyouneedtospeakinamannert hatwillshowyour
audienceyourmaster
yofthesubj
ectyouaretal
kingabout.

9. Anal
ysest
heoccasi
on

Youpayat
tent
iont
oal
lci
rcumst
ancessur
roundi
ngt
hepr
esent
ati
ont
obemade

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 98
i
.e.t
hingssuchastheeventi
tsel
f,f
aci
li
ti
esavailabl
ethesi
zeoftheroom andtheti
me
all
ocatedar
etheonesthatyouanalyze.Forexampl
eifyouhavetenminutesfor
aspeech,youcan’
tthecont
entsoastolimityourti
me.

10.Anal
ysest
hesi
tuat
ion

Youshoul dlookatt
hesocialandphysi
calcontextsur r
oundi ngyourpresentati
on,for
exampl eyouneedtoknowt hatt
herear
et i
meswhenl i
stenersareveryacti
veand
whent herearesl
eep,t
husmakeyourspeechaccor dingt othesituat
ionofthe
audienceforexamplewhenpeoplearesleepyoumayi nvol vethem i
navar i
etyof
acti
vit
iessuchasaskingthem tost
andupandst r
etchanswer ingsomequest ions.
Whatmat t
ersgener
all
yisforyoutomakesuret hattheat tenti
onofyouraudi enceis
always.

11. Mai
ntai
net
hicalst
andar
ds

Everycommunityhasstandardofconductandmor al
saccept
edbyt hecommunity
thusasyoupresentyourspeechbewat chf
ulsot hatyousodonotsoundunfairor
deceit
ful
orscornf
ul.Speakasifyouareacivil
i
zedmemberoft hecommunitysuch
asbeingverycar
efulaboutthechoi
ceofwor ds,avoidabusi
velanguage.

12. Avoi
dst
ereo–t
ypes

Thisisasimplisti
corexagger
atedpercept
ionwhichpeoplehavei
nt hei
rminds
aboutotherpeople.Toavoi
dthatpeopl
eshouldbej udgedinobj
ect
iveorunbiased
waythatmeansl abel
li
ngpeopleaccordi
ngtothei
rethniccommunityraceshoul
dbe
avoi
d.

ACTUALPRESENTATI
ONPROCESSSTRATEGI
ES

Duri
ngtheactual
speechmaki
ngofpr
esent
ati
on,
thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethest
rat
egi
est
obe
consi
dered.

1. Showyourconf
idence

I.
e.youshoul
dnotshowanysi gnofnervousness,t
hiswil
lmaketheaudiencetr
ust
youthatmeansyoutellyour
sel
fthatyoumustwi ntheaudi
ence.Youneedt ogi
ve
yoursel
ffewsecondsofsett
ledownment al
ly,
thi
smakesyougat herenergybef
ore
youspeak.

2. Est
abl
ishandmai
ntai
neyecont
act

Youradvicet
olookatal
lpart
soft
heaudi
enceasyouspeakordonotst
areatt
he
wal
loronesideoftheaudi
ence.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 99
3. Usegest
uresandmovement
s

Goodspeakersusegestur
estoaccompanyt hei
rwordsi .
e.Usegest
urest
hatmatch
wit
hwhatyousay.Forexamplefigur
escanbeusedwhenspeaki ngaboutnumbers,
movementsarealsoall
owedinspeechpresentat
ion,
thismakesyourspeechli
kel
y,
andthespeakerneedstomovepurposef
ull
yandconf identl
y.

4. Useyournot
esasagui
de

I
.e.youar
eadvi
sedtogl
anceatyournot
esoccasi
onal
lyj
ustt
opi
ckupt
henext
poi
nt,
youshouldnotr
eadorstar
eatthem.

5. Useacl
earandaudi
blevoi
ce

Youar
eadvisedt
opr
onouncewordsclearandaudibl
ysot
hatyouraudi
encecan
hear
.Ift
heroom i
sver
ybi
g,useamikeorloudspeaker.

6. Beent
husi
ast
ic

Agoodpubli
cspeakeri
sadvisedtoshowhisorheraudi
encet
hatheorshei
s
i
nter
estedi
nwhatisbeenpresent
ed.Ifyoushowint
erest
,youmaymakeyour
l
ist
eners
t
oshowinter
estal
so.

7. Useanef
fect
ivepoi
seandpost
ure

Gracefulwaysofstandi
ngormovingi.
e.youareadvi
sedtost
andupr
ightand
avoi
dleaningont hetabl
eorlect
erm.St
andi
nguprightmakesyouf
reet
ouseyour
gesturesthatintur
nmakeyourspeechtobelikel
y.

PARTSOFORALPRESENTATI
ON

Theoralpresent
ati
on/speechshouldbedivi
dedi
ntot
hreepar
ts,wherebyeachoft
he
thr
eepartsneedsit
sdueat tent
ion,
thefol
lowi
ngaret
hedetai
lsabovewhatyouought
toincl
udeineachofthepar t
s.

i
) I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thisi
stheopeningpartofyourspeechthatneedstobeveryat
tract
ivet
ocapt
urethe
att
ent
ionoftheaudi
encer i
ghtfr
om thebeginningi
.e.i
tneedst
obeappeali
ngbythe
useofexpr
essionsthatcat
chtheattent
ionoftheaudience.

Intheint
roduct
ionyouneedtotellyouraudiencewhatyouwantt
otal
kabouti
.e.br
ief
i
ntroduct
ionofwhatyouaretal
kingabout .Youareal
soexpect
edtogi
vethedi
recti
on
ofyourenti
represent
ati
on.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 100
i
i) Mai
nbody

Thi
sisthepartwhereyouexhaust
ivel
ydiscusst
het opicofyourpr
esentat
ioni.
e.i
tis
her
ewhereyourknowledgeaboutthesubjectmatterbecomesexposedthusbecause
mostyourmessageisfoundinthemainbody,presentiti
namannert hatwil
lkeep
l
ist
ener
slist
ening.

Themai nbodyshowt helist

enerthattheyhaver esearchedandyouknowthesubj
ect
verywellsomakesur et hatyouwinyouraudi encet r
ust.Thatmayachi
evedby
showingconf i
denceasyouspeakl ikewisethemai n bodyisexpect
edtopr
ovi
de
evi
dencef orvari
ousissuesandi tisusuallymadeupofmanypoi nt
sofwhi
chone
pointshouldbeclassi
fiedbeforeyoust artanot
herpoi nt.

i
ii
) Concl
usi
on

Thi
sist
hecl
osi
ngpar
toft
hepr
esent
ati
onori
tisanexi
toft
hepr
esent
ati
on.

Theconcl
usiongivesbr
iefdr
ownedi
mportantpoint
swhicht
heaudienceshoul
d
rememberi
.e.i
tisasummar yofi
mport
antissuesrai
sedint
hemainbody.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
heexpr
essi
onsar
eusedi
naconcl
usi
on.

I
nsummar
yinshor
twecansayt
hat
…………….
.

Tosum up……………………

Toconcl
ude…………………….

Byt
hewayofsummer
ing……………….

Al
linal
l…………………….

I
nanut
shel
l…………….

VARIOUSTYPESOFSPEECH
Wemakespeechesforvar
iouspur
posesmai
nlyspeechesar
emadef
ort
heai
m of
i
nfor
mingorper
suade.

1.
Speaki
ngtoinfor
m( i
nformati
vespeech);t
hesespeechesaremeantt
opr ovi
de
i
nformat
ion;
theyaremeanttomakeyouknowwhatt heydi
dnotknow.These
i
nclude def
ini
ti
onalspeeches,Descr
ipt
ivespeechesandExposi
tor
yspeeches.

a Def
ini
ti
onalspeeches

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 101
St
udyt
hef
oll
owi
ng:

Whati
smor
phol
ogy?

Theter
m mor
phol
ogymaynotbenewtomostofyou,butwhatdoesi
tmean?
Wel
lthi
sisasubdi
sci
pli
nei
nli
ngui
sti
cs,i
tdeal
swi
ththefol
lowi
ng.

· Descr
ibehowwor dsarestruct
ured.
· Whatcomponentsformt hewords?
· Howsignif
icantt
hesecomponent sare.
· Wherethestudyofsmallcomponents

I
nwor
dscanhel
ptomakei
teasyf
orl
anguagel
ear
ner
sinl
ear
ningf
orei
gnl
anguages.

Asyoucansee, thisi
ssomewhatanel abor
atedefini
ti
onasittell
salmosteveryt
hing
aboutwhatmorphologyisabout .Si
ncethedefi
nit
iongoesbeyondwhatgoesbeyond
whatadict
ionaryiscapableofdoingwecallthi
sanext endedkindofdef
ini
tion.Thisi
s
whatadefi
niti
onspeechi sal
labout.Whenyoumaket hisspeechyouusedet ai
ls
whichyouthi
nkyourpar t
nerwillunder
stand.

2.Descr
ipt
ivespeech

Thi
sisaspeechwhichdescri
besaper
son,
thi
ngorpl
ace.Thespeecht
alkshow
aper
son/t
hingorpl
ace,pl
acelooksli
ke.

Whatact
ual
lydoasyouprovi
deadescr
ipt
ivespeechi
spai
nti
ngavi
vidpi
ctur
e
ofaper
son,pl
ace,
eventorobj
ect
.

Examplei
fyouaretol
dtowr
it
easpeecht
hatyouwi
lldel
iveri
nthecl
assaboutt
he
beachyouvi
sit
ed.

I
nyourspeechyoumayi
ncl
ude

· Whenyouvi
sit
edt
hebeach.

· Howbi
giti
s.

· Whatcol
ouri
sthewat
er

· Whatf
eat
uresur
roundst
hebeach

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 102
· Whatmakest
hebeachspeci
al.

3.Pr
ocessspeech

Int
hiski
ndofspeechyouareexpect
edtoexpl
aint
hestagespassedt
hrough
whencer
tai
nacti
vit
iesareper
for
med,Exampl
eyoumayber equi
redtosaysomethi
ng
onhowtomakeachai r
.

Pr
ocessspeechesareoft
wotypes.Oneismeanttoenabl
eapersontocarry
onanacti
vit
y.Theotheri
smeanttoexpl
ainhowsomet hi
ngisdonewit
houtnecessi
ty
wishi
ngtoperf
ormit.Thefol
lowi
ngaret
heguidel
inesabouthowaprocessspeech
shoul
dlookli
ke.

- Al
lst
epsshoul
dbei
ncl
uded.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
oincl
udeal
lthenecessar
yst
epsi
nvol
vedi
ncar
ryi
ngoutanact
ivi
ty.

- Usevi
sual
aidswhennecessar
y

Usedi
agramsorchartssothatyouraudiencecanseehow,
thepr
ocedur
eiscar
ri
ed
outmor
evivi
dly.I
fpossi
bledemonstrate.

- I
nvol
vet
heaudi
encei
nphysi
calact
ivi
ti
es.

Involvi
ngtheaudiencemakest
hem r
emembereachst
ageoftheprocess.I
fyou
happent obeintheaudi
encesi
de,
donotdoanythi
ngunt
ilyouar
einstruct
edbythe
i
nst r
uctor.

- Useamanageabl
epr
esent
ati
onspeed.

Sincemostpr oceduresarenewtotheaudi
enceexpl
aineachslowl
ysothatyour
audiencecanunder stand.Remembert
hat,
whatyoupercei
vetobesomethingdif
fi
cul
t
toaper sonwhoseesorhear sf
ort
hefir
stt
imesousespeedt hati
smanageableto
youraudience.

- Tel
ltheaudi
enceaboutdi
ff
icul
tpar
tsoft
hepr
ocedur
es.

Insodoinguseexpr
essionssuchas“Thef
ollowingst
epneedsmoreofyouratt
enti
on”
,
“Thenextstepi
sabitt
ri
cky”,“
Nowwear eapproachi
ngamor edemandi
ngstage”…
suchexpressi
onsar
eusedt oatt
ractt
heat
tenti
onofyourl
ist
eners.

4.Exposi
tor
yspeech

Thi
sist
hespeecht
hati
nvol
vest
hepr
ovi
sionofor
alr
epor
ts.Exposi
tor
yspeeches

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
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ar
enotar esultofr
esearch.Iti
si mport
anttonot
ethatawellwri
tt
enexposi
toryspeech
i
sorganizedintopi
cs.Soor ganizeyourspeechi
nthatmanner.Suppor
tyourspeech
wit
hevidencef r
om yourresearch

5. Per
suasi
vespeech

Her
et hespeakeri
sexpectedtospeaki
nordert
omovet
heaudiencebyi
nfl
uenci
ng
t
heirt
hinkingandmotivat
ingthem t
ocarr
youtsomeki
ndofact
ion.

Howcanyoui
nfl
uencet
hinki
ng?

Toinfl
uencet hi
nkingistospeaki namannert hatwil
lmakeyouraudi ence
convincedbyaccept ingyourpointsorideas.Asapar tofper
suasivespeechi smeant
toinfl
uenceyouwi llberequiretoargueinor dert
orespondtootherpeopl e’
spoint
s.
Youshoul dalsobeaver ygoodl ist
enersot hatyouhearwhatother ssayinorderto
respondtoot herpeople’
spoi nt
s.Youshouldal sobeverygoodlistenerssothatyou
hearwhatot herssayi nordertobeabletogi vecount
erargument .

Howcanyoui
nfl
uenceact
ion?

Thef
oll
owi
ngcanbeusedasagui
def
orper
suadi
ngpeopl
e.

- Tel
lthem whyi
tisi
mpor
tantt
otakeact
ion.

- Giveevidenceofcaseswhichshowt hatpeopleel
sewher
esucceededbydoi
ngas
sameaswhatyouwantt hem todo.Showhowt hepeopl
ewil
lbenef
itf
rom t
heunder
taking.

-Showhowur
gentt
hei
ssuei
s.

-Best rai
ghtabouttheacti
on,youwantyouraudiencetheaudiencet
otake,
youwil
l
t
ellyouraudi
encewhet hert
heyhavetodemonstrate,cont
ri
butemoneycleanthe
compound,voteforsomeone.

- Makeyourli
stenersgi
vet
hei
rr esponsesbef
oret
heyleavet
her
oom/
place.Thi
s
canbedonebywr i
ti
ngnames,r
aisinghands,pl
edgi
ng.
etc.

Weencourageyout oseekpeopl
e’
sresponsesasearl
yaspossi
blesothatt
heydon’
t
for
get.Thi
sisbecausewhenyouspeak,yourai
sethei
rcommitment.Soyoushoul
d
enfor
ceacti
onbeforethatcommit
mentcoolsdown.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethatl
ist
ener
sshoul
dbeper
suadedandnoti
nti
midat
edspeaki
n

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 104
amannert hatwil
lmakeyourl
istenerswi ll
ingl
ybeconvincedtotaketheact i
ont
hat
youwishthem toshowtheli
stenersthatyouar ecompet entorexperi
encedinwhat
youar
esayi ng.Exampl
eyouwantt ot ellthepeoplehowimpor t
antiti
sf ort
hem t
ouse
mosquitonets.Youmaydothatbyt ell
ingt hem t
hatyouhavebeenusi ngsuchnetsfor
ever
yl ongtimeandyouhaveneversuf feredf
rom malari
asinceyoust art
edusi
ng
mosquitonets.

TheConclusi
onthatwecanmakeaboutpersuasi
vespeaki
ngisthati
tisanacti
on
or
ient
edtypeofspeech,
sowheneveryouar
eengagedinthiski
ndofspeaking,
speak
i
namannert hatwi
llmovet
heaudience.

PARTI
CIPATI
NGI
NINTERVI
EW

Ani nter vi
ewi saf ormalquest ionsandanswer ssessi onwhichisai medat
underst andingordi ggingi ntosomeone' sknowl edgeaboutsomet hing.Aninterviewis
aformalmeet ingatwhi chsomeonei saskedquest ionsinordertof i
ndouthis/her
knowl edgeaboutcer taincour seofst udyorj oboraboutcer taininformati
on.Normal ly
theinterviewerasksquest i
onsandt heintervieweesr esponds.I
tisimportanttonot e
thatther earevar iousi nterviewsf orvari
ouspur poses
Forexampl e:-Journalistsinter viewpeopletover ifynews.
-Empl oyersi nterviewsanexpect edempl oyee
-Ar esearcheri nterviewsdi f
ferentpeopl etocoll
ectinformati
on
Tomakeani nterviewsuccessf ulonehast opr eparebothment allyandphysically.The
foll
owi ngshoul dbeobser ved.

Beforet heinterview
-Knowt heor gani zat ion
i
.egetenoughi nformat i
onandknowl edgeaboutt heor ganizationinformat i
onlike
(whot heyar e,whatt heydo, theirobjecti
veset c.)
Thei nformat i
oncanbeobt ainedfrom thewebsi t
eoft heoft heor ganization(if
any)orf rom peopl ewhoknowabouti torfrom t hei
rnewsl etter.Thiscanmakeyou
happyorateasei fyoubeaskedaboutt heor ganizat
ion.
-Reherset hei nt
er view
i
.elearnaboutdi f f
erentquest ionsthatar elikel
ytobeaskedi nani nterviewand
practi
seanswer ingt hem. Standi nfrontthemi rrororjustinyourr oom askingyour self
quest i
onsandanswer i
ngt hem.
-Bepunct ual
i
.ear r
iveati nter viewof f
iceaboutanhourbef ore.Thiswillhelpyoycal m down
beforet hetimeofi nt ervi
ew. Arrivinglat
ewi llmakeyoupani chencef ailt
or espond
tot hequest ioncor rectl
y.
-Besmar t
Beingt i
dywi ll addmor ecr editaboutyouast heintervi
ewer swi llhaveposi t
ive
i
mageoveryou.

Dur
ingt
hei nt
ervi
ew
-
Fri
endl
iness

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 105
 .smi le
.act i
velyl ist
ensorr ef l
ectbackwor dsandgest ur
esoft heint
ervi
ewers
.pleasantt onevoi ce
.Fi
rm handshake( gr eetandmakeeyecont actwit
hot hers)
-
Court esy
.
Lett hei nterviewer sf i
nishtalkingbef oreresponding
.
Usecour teouswor ds( "
please", "t
hankyou", "ni
cemeet ing")
.
Makeappr opriatesmal lt
alkwhi l
ewai t
ing
.
Hol ddoor sopen, st epasi det ol etother spassby
-
Responsi ve
.
Usenol ong" uh's"bef oreanswer ing
.
Gobeyond" yes/ no" ,answer stoquest ions
.
Vol unteer sinformat ionwi thouti nterviewer shavi
ngtopr oudformoreinf
ormat
ion
-
Empat hy
.
Headnoddl i
ngwhenappr opriate
.
Sli
ghtl ear ningf orwar d
.
Eyecont act
.
Par aphr asingt oshowunder st anding
-
Asser ti
veness
.Volunteerper tnenti nformationnotasked
.Disclosenegat i
vei nf ormat i
ont r
uthfully
.Soundconf identandf ourthrighti nvoi ceandwor ds

SAMPLEQUESTI ON
1.Tellusaboutyour sel f
Int hisquest ionpr ovi deyouruni quesel l
ingproposi t
ion(USP)i ePersonalbr andi
ngor
valueaddedst atement. stateyourbestqual i
fi
cati
onf orthejob. Bespecifi
candi nclude
exampl est o
suppor tyourst atement s.
e.g.Igetgr eatdealofsat isf
actionfrom knowi ngt hatihavedonesomet hingwel l
andont i
me
2.Whatar eyourgr eatestweaknesses?
Int hisquest iont urnnegat iveintopositive
e.g.Somet imesispendmor etimet hannecessar yonat askort akeont asks
personal lythatcoul dbeeasi lybedelegat edt osomeoneel seal t
houghihavenever
missedaadeadl ine,itis
stillanef fortformet oknowwhent omoveont othenextt askandt obe
conf i
dentwhenassi gningot hersworkOR
Iliketomakesur ethatmywor ki sper f
ectsoit endt ospendal i
tt
letoomuch
ti
mechecki ngi t
.HoweverI '
vecomet oagoodbal ancebyset t
ingupasyst em to
ensur eever ythingi s
donecor r
ect l
yt hef ir
sttime.
3.Whatar eyourgr eatestst rength?
Int hisquest ionpr ovi deat tri
butethatwi llquali
fyyouf orthej ob.
E. gWhenI 'm wor kingonapr oject,Idon'twantj usttomeetdeadl i
nesr atherI
prefertocompl etethepr ojectwellaheadofschedul eOR

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 106
 Myt imemanagementski l
lsareexcellentandI'
m or ganized,effi
cientandtake
pridei nexcel lentmywor k.
4.Ar eyouasel fmot i
vat or
-Absol utely. I
'm aver yact i
veper sonandIenj oymywor k. I
'
m alwaysl ookingfornew
andi nnovat i
vei deastobr i
ngt opr oj
ect
-Ibel i
eveIam asel fmot i
vator-Igavetomyal ltoaprojectandI 'm al
waysl ooking
aheadt ot henextoneathand.
5.Whatdoyoudoi nyourspar eti
me?
Her et hei nt
er vi
ewerwant stoknowyourot hersideoflife(Outfrom offi
ce)
Int hisquest i
ondescr ibeanyvol unteerwor kyoudoandanyhobbi essuchaspl aying
spiritscar pent r
y,gardeninget c.avoidment ioninginact
iveact i
vit
iessuchaswat ching
television
6.Howdoyour eacttoi nstructi
onandcr i
ti
cism?
I
nt hist hei ntervi
eweri st ryi
ngt ofi
ndouthowyougetal ongwi t
ht hesupervisorsand
howyouf eelaboutaut hor it
y.Youmi ghtsay
-Iappr eciateget t
ingi nstructi
onandcr it
icism whenitisdonef air
lyand
const ructively

Allinallt
herear
emanyquest i
onsthatcanbeaskeinaninter
view.
Iti
syourt
imenow
tothinkofthem andtr
ytorespondtothem corr
ect
ly.
Thi
swi l
lmakeyoumakeyouvery
strongandconfidenceinanyinter
viewthatyouwi
llbecal
ledupon.

READI
NGSKI
LLS

Istheprocessofgoi ngthroughwr it
teninformat i
onorpi eceofwor kinordert
oget
i
nformationori nor dertounderstandthecont entofthemessage.
Readingisdifficultwhent hereaderlackst heskill
sofr eadingther
eforeonemayr ead
butendupwi thoutget t
ingthemessagef r
om t hewr it
teninformati
onoronemay
spendal otoft i
met ogothroughasmal lwr i
tt
ent extduet olackofreadi
ngskil
l.
Typesofr eading/Techni quesofr eadingski l
ls
Therearevar i
oust ypesortechniquesofreadi ngdependi ngont heacti
vit
iesi
nvolved
i
nt heactofr eadingordependi ngont hepur poseoft hereader
Thefoll
owi ngar esomeoft hetypes/strategiesofr eading.

a.Ski
mmi
ng

Thisisthetypeofr eadi
ngwher ebyt hereaderr
eadsf orgeneralinf
ormation.I
.e.wher
e
thereaderisint
erestedinjustknowi ngwhatisthetextbeingr eadisabout
Skimmi nginvol
vedr eadi
ngf ewlines,paragr
aphsheadi ngs,sub–headi ngs,t
ableof
contentoranypar tthebookwhi chcanassi stt
hereadert oknowt heimportantorkey
i
ssuesf oundinthet ext
.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 107
Weuseski mmi ngwhenwegetnewbooks, j
ournal
snews- papers,magazines,essay
etcasast rategyofassessi ngwi t
hersthemat eri
ali
swor threadingorotherwi
se.This
i
susual lyusedi nthelibrarywerevariouswritt
enmat er
ialarefoundtobeabl eto
borroworr eadt herightone,oneshoul demployskimmi ng.
Skimmi ngist heref
orever yimportantinsavi
ngt i
meoft hereaderbutalsoithelpsthe
readermakedeci si
onbecausehe/sheknowswhathe/shewant stoachieveata
certai
ntimeandwhatt oachi evel
ater.

b.Scanni
ng

Thisisaqui cksurveyoft hewr i

ttenmat eri
alswher ethereaderlooksf orspecif
ic
i
nf or
mat i
on.
Iti
salwaysdonequi cklysincether eaderknowswhathe/ shei slooki
ngf ori
nadvance
i
.e.inscanningyouar elookingforpar ti
cul
ari t
emsofi nf
ormat i
on.Thismeanst he
bookyouhavemaycont ainalotoft hingsbutyouar eint
erestedi nonet hingorfewof
them, t
hiscanbeaf f
ectedbygoi ngt hrought hetabl
eofcont entsorindexi norderto
knowwher ethatparti
cularinfor
mat i
onisfoundi nthebookort ext.
Forthecaseofnewspaper soneshoul dgothr oughtheheadlinesuntilwhenhe/she
comesacr osst heinformationofhi s/herinterest

c.I
ntensi
ve/st
udyr
eadi
ng

Thisisat ypeofr eadingi nwhi cht hereaderwantst ofull

yunderstandandr emember
whati sreadi .
e.itisthet ypeofr eadingwherether eaderaimst oreadt hewholetextor
bookaboutcer tai
ni nformat i
oninor dertounderstandandr emembert horoughlyabout
whati sread.
Iti
st hemet hodt hatisusedi nreadingtextbookswher ethereaderconcentratesin
everythingbeingr ead, forexampl e,whenpersonwant stounderstandpoet ryhe/she
mustappl yi nt
ensivepoet r
y,whenast udentisgivenat opictoreadhe/ shemustappl y
i
ntensiver eading.
Int
ensi vereadinginvol vestheconcent rati
onofther eaderinunderstandingallthe
detail
sofwhati sread.

d.Ext
ensi
ver
eadi
ng

Thisisthehabi
tofreadi
ngbywhi cht
her eaderreadsmanysour cesofi
nfor
mationi.
e.
Invol
vesreadi
ngorgoingt hroughvar
ioussour ceofinformati
on.
Forexample;atschool
,studentsareexpectedtoreadal otofnovels,pl
ays,
short
stori
esandpoetry.
Thusbuysodoi ngtheyengaget hemselvesinextensivereadi
ng
Extensi
vereadi
ngismor eimpor t
ant(
usef uli
nenrichi
ngt hestudentwit
hknowledgei.
e.
i
tgivesastudentalotofinformati
onfrom dif
ferentsources.

e.Cr
it
icalr
eadi
ng

Thi
sist
het
ypeofr
eadi
ngwhi
chneedst
her
eaderi
tint
erpr
etswhathasbeenr
ead

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 108
beyondwhatthewor dssuggest
s.I.
e.i
tinvolvesidenti
fyingthei
nformat
ionpresent
ed
andletitt
oyourexperi
enceandtheexperienceofot hers.I
nthi
skindofr
eadingyou
readbetweenthel
inesyouinter
pretwhatyour eadandt rytogobeyondwhatt he
writ
ingssay.

STRATEGI ESOFCRI TICALANDI NTENSI VEREADI NG

Sincet hei ntensiver eadi ngi smeantt omaket her eaderunder standal lthedet ai l
sof
whati sr eadandcr iti
calr eadi ngal sor equi rest her eadert oconcent rateont hemat er
ial
read, ther ear eanumberofhi nt s/cr iteria/st rategi esi nor dertoar chi vebot hcr i
tical
andi nt ensi vereadi ngasf ollows: -
i.Pr epar eyour sel fphysi cal lyi.e.Ar rangeyourbooksandnot ebookswel lbef oreyou
startr eadi ngi nor dertomake t heenvi ronmentat tr
act ivef orreadi ngi .e.putal l
mat er iali n
ordersot hatyouavoi dunnecessar ymovement
ii.Setyourobj ect i
vei .
e.i ndi cat ewhatyouwantt oar chi veatt heendoft her eadi ng
forexampl e,abil
itytodef ineconcept s, abi li
tytoi dent ifyanddescr ibet hemeset c.
iii
.Out linet hemai npoi nt sasyour eadi .e.readt hesi gnalwor dswhi chwi llgui deyou
togi vet heor derofhowi deasf lowandt oi dent ifypoi ntt hatappeari nt het ext
iv.Pr edi ctsomequest ionsi .e.sor tdownsomequest ionsasyour ead, theser evi ew
quest ionsar eimpor tantbecauset heyhel pyout oassessyourunder standi ng
v.Obser vedt het extst ruct ur ei.e.payat tentiont oheadi ngsandsub–headi ngsas
wel last itles.Thesehel pyout oshowt het opicbeendi scussed, whatt opi cisi ncl uded
undert he
otherandal sohel pust oor gani zet hemat erialinourmi ndasar esul twecaneasi ly
rememberwhatwer ead.
vi.Beact iveasyour eadi .e.r eadphr asesr athert hani ndi vidualwor dsbecausei deas
arecl ear lyunder stoodbyl ooki ngatt hewayt heyar er elatedt oeachot heri nphr ases,
youar e
al soadvi sedt oconcent rateonmai npoi nts, thishel pi nbot hremember ingand
under standi ng.
vii
.Takesomebr eakswhenyouf elltiredi .e.readi ngi st obet akenasl ei suret hus
schedul et imef orbr eak
vii
i.Makeconnect ionsi .e.linknewi nfor mat i
onwi thsomet hingthatyoual r
eadyknow
–r elat et henewknowl edgewi t
ht hepr i
orknowl edget hatyouhavei nyourmi nd.Thi s
helpst o
under st andt henewknowl edgeandt ost r
engt henwhatyoual readyknow.
ix.Asyour ead, talktot heaut hori .
e.pr etendyouar et alkingt otheaut horl ikewhen
youar et alkingwi thaf ri
end, t
her ear et hingswhi chyouagr eeordonotagr ee, thus
i
dent i
fyt he
poi ntsonwhi chyouagr eewi tht heaut horandt hoseonwhi chyoudonot .Thi swi l
l
makeyoudi sti
ngui shbet weenf act sandopi nions.

Connotati
vemeaning
Isthemeaninggivent
oaword,conceptorexpressi
onoverandabovet
hebasic
(
denotat
ive)meani
ngaccordi
ngt
ot hebel
ief
,cult
ureandtherealwor
dsexper
ienceof
t
hesociety.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 109
 Thismeaningi
snormall
yunstabl
eanditvari
esf
rom onei
ndi
vidualt
oanot
heror
f
rom onesoci
etyt
oanotherorcul
tur
etocul
ture.

Example
-Thi
sman i sali
on(meaningmani scruelandaggr essive)
-Don’
tcry,
beamanbeawoman( meaningmani sstrong,womani
sweak)
-Thi
rdworldcountr
ies(
meaningpoorcount riesoft
hewor l
d)
-Wester
ncountri
es–( r
ichandcapital
istcountri
es)
-Thi
smani sachild(manbeli
evesli
keachi ld)

Connotati
onistheuseofwordsinsuchawayt hatthewor dshaveaddit
ionalmeani
ng
beyondwhatt heymeandenotati
ve.
Ont heotherhand,referstotheassociat
iont
hatare
connectedtoacertai
nwordortheemot ionsuggesti
onr elatedt
ot hatword.
The
connotati
vemeaningsofawor dexi
sttogetherwit
ht hedenot at
ivemeaning.The
connotati
onfortheword"
snake"couldmeanevi lordanger .

Denot ati
onmeani ng
useofawor dsinamannert hatmakesi tbeinter
pret
edast heor i
ginal/basic
meani ng.ORI tr
eferstothelit
eralmeaningofwor d;t
he"dict
ionarydef ini
ti
on"" for
exampl eifyoulook
upt hewor d"snake"inadictionaryyouwilldi
scoverthatoneofi t
sdenot ati
ve
meani ngi sanynumer ous.Scari
ly,
legl
ess,
somet i
mesvenomousr eptil
eshavi ngalong
tapering,
Cyli
ndricalbodyandf oundinmostt ropi
calandt emper ateregi
on.

Inshortweonl ysharethedenotat
ionmeani ngofawordr egardlesscultur
e,belief
sor
emotionalbutwithconnotati
onmeani ngofawor dwouldhi ghl
ydependsont he
cul
ture,age,beli
efsandemot i
onofthepeopl ei
nagivensoci ety.Forexamplei nsome
soci
etiesiti
sbelievedthatwomani ssomeoneweak, l
azycowar ds(Connotative).
Whereasmani ssomeonewhoi sstrong,hardworkandcour ageous( connotati
ve).So
i
faper sonrefersamanasawomanandvi ceversai
twillimpli
est heconnotat i
on
meaningasexpl ained

Connotat
ionmeani
ngmaybeposi ti
ve,
negativeorneutr
al.
E.
g:-Whenyoucal
la"Man"a"Woman"i thasanegativemeani
ngbutwhenyou
cal
la'man'i
thasaposi
tiveconnot
ati
on.

NB:
-Posit
iveconnot ation-goodfeeli
ng
Negativeconnot ati
on-badfeel
ing
Neutralconnotation-neit
hergoodnorbad
Negativeconnot ati
onarouseshurti
ngf
eeandcanbedemeani
ngand
of
fendi
ng
Forexampl ethewor ds
Rel
axedandi dle
Spendingandext r
avagant

Not
eWel
lthat
,mostoft
hewor
dsusei
nli
ter
atur
ehaveconnot
ati
onmeani
ng.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 110
TASK
Givethedenot
ati
onandconnot
ati
onmeani
ngoft
hef
oll
owi
ngwor
dsandmaket
wo
sentencesi
neach.

(
a)Li
on (
b)baby(
c)Dog(
d)Googl
e(e)
Books(
f)Honey(
g)Hear
t(h)
Red(
i)
Tick(
j)
Books

I
DIOMS/ IDIOMATI CEXPRESSI ONS
I
sal i
ngui st i
csexpr ession( gr oupofwor ds)whosemeani ngi sdi
fferentfrom t
he
meaningsoft hei ndividualwor dswhi chmakei tup.
Thei di om hasameani ngwhi chi soverandabovet hemeani ngofi tsconstit
utes
E.
g.
→toki ckt hebucket -die
→topavet heway-f acil
itate
→tobur yt hehat chet–f or gett hepastquar ri
es
→toaironesopi nion-t ogi veonesf eelings
→toleadt heal tar-t omar ry
→totakear ms–got owar
→tobebadeggs-t obewor thlessper son
→torecei vewi thopenar ms-r ecei ve
→tobr eat heoncel ast-todi e
→tolett hecatoutofabag–t ot ellasecr et
→tobeaGoodSamar i
tan–beki ndt osomeonei ntrouble
→tobemoder n–updat ed
→throwdusti none’ seyes–decei ve
→saveonesf ace–avoi ddi sgr aceorshame
→tobei nhotwat er–i nt roubl e
→butaboutt hebush-appr oachmat terindi r
ectl
yorinar oundaboutmanner
→keepast raightf ace–hi deonesamusementbynotsmi l
ingorlaughi ng
→buildcast lesi nt hesky–daydr eam
→tositont hef ence–neut ral
→tobur nt hemi dni ghtoi l-st udy/wor kunt ill
ateat
→taket hecake–t akef irstni ghtpr ize
→breakonesback–wor kver yhar d
→crocodi l
et ear s-f alsetear s
→takeFr enchl eave–gowi thoutper missi on
→takeal ion’sshar e–l ar gestpar t
/ almostt hewhol e
→shei sovert hemoon–ext remel yhappy
→makebot hendsmeet–ear nenoughmoney, balance
→adogl ife–unhappyl i
f e
→sameboat -samesi t
uat ions
→haveeyesi nt hebackofyourhead–beawar eofever ythingaroundyou
→toseedayl ight–begi nt ounder st and
→ ahar dnott ocr ack–aper sondi ffi
cul ttoconvince/apr oblem dif
ficultt
osolve
→togobananas–becomeangr y,cr azy, andsi ll
y
→it
’sraini ngcat sanddogs–r ai
nheavi ly
→togiveupt heghost–t odi e/ceaset rying

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 111
→tobeundertheheelsofsomebody–beundersomebody’ scont
rol
→anondaywonder–aper sonort hi
ngst hatatt
ractat
tenti
onforashortt
imebutar
e
soonf
orgot
ten
→exam waspieceofcake-verysimple
→byhookandcr ook–anymeanspossi ble
→tobreakt
henews–t obethef i
rstt
ot ellsomebodybadnews
→tobi
tethedust–t obedefeated/die
→tobl
owhotandcol d–t odoonet hingsandt heoppositesoonafter
.

ARGUMENTATI VETEXT
Argumentamongpeopl earedesi gnedi nor derf oronet oconvi nceot hers.
Inordinaryusaget heter m argumenti ndi catesadi sput e,quar relorconf li
ctofopini
on.
Thear gumentt obeexami nedusual l
yconsi stsofthreepr oposi ti
ons.Thef i
rstt
woar e
call
edt hepr emisesort heant ecedent .Theyar emeantt opost ul atetheevidenceofthe
argument. Thet hir
dpr oposi ti
oni scal ledt heconcl usion,whi chi sdrawnont hebasisof
theantecedent .
Anar gumentbasedoncor r
ectr easoni ngi saval i
dar gument. Aval idargumentisone
whoseconcl usionf ol
lowsl ogi call
y("sensi bly")
from thepr emi ses.
Soever yargumentconsi stsoft wopar ts.Thef irstpartconsi stsofpr emiseorasetof
premisesandt hesecondpar tconsi stofaconcl usion-onet hatder i
vesf r
om the
premiseorpr emises.Thepr emi sespr esentt heevidenceorr easonf ortheconclusi
on
.Goodar gument swoul doftencont ainwor dssuchasi f,since, then,because,must
,out,
should, wemayi nf erandsoon. Thesewor dssignalt hatt herei sanar gument
goingon.Theyal socal latt
entiont ot hel ogicalrelati
onshi pbet weenpr opositi
onthat
thegivenst atementexpr ess.

NOTE: Noteverypresentat
ionofpr oposi
ti
onconst i
tutesanar gument .
Innewspaper
,magazi neandevennewsr eportontheradioortelevisi
on,t
her eisusuall
yan
abundanceofpr oposit
ionsthataremade. Butmanyoft heset endtocontainrel
ativel
y
fewar guments.
Althoughitisal
sot r
uethatcontainingseveralasserti
onsisnecessar yconditi
onf or
discoursetopresentanargument ,thi
sinit
selfi
snotasuf f
icientcondit
ion.Inan
argumentt her
emustbepr emisesassertedani nf
erencebei ngmadeandaconcl usion.

example1:
Deducti
vear gument s
Thismovesf r
om thegeneraltospecif
ic
e.g 1.I fitrains,Theywillnotcome
2.Itisr ai
ning
3.Concl usion.
..
..
..
..
..
..
...
Theywillnotcome

exampl e2
1.Si
nceal lstudentsareyoung
2.Barnabai sastudent
3.Conclusion..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.Bar
nabaisyoung

ASSERTI
ON-
Ast
udentsayi
ngt
hatyoust
rongl
ybel
ievet
hatt
obet
rue(
clai
m)

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 112
INFERENCE-Thatyoucanf
indf
indouti
ndi
rect
lyf
rom whatyoual
ready
know(Deduct
ion)

Identi
fyingmai nconclusionf
rom argumentati
vetexts
Aconcl usi
onisjustasi mport
antasint r
oduct
ion.Theconcl
usioncl
osesthetextand
tri
estocl osetheissue.Theaimist o convi
ncethereadert
hatyourhascover
edal lthe
mosti mpor t
antargument sabouttheissueandthatyourmainpromisei
stheposition
ont heissue.

Howcanwei
dent
if
yconcl
usi
onsi
nanar
gumentt
ext
s?

Notethat,
inanessayther
ecanbemanyconcl usi
onassomearejustconcl
udi
ng
point
s/subheadi
ng.Themainconcl
usi
oncaneasilybei
dent
if
iedasiti
salwayspl
aced
attheendandwecanuset hefol
lowi
ngphraseswhichar
ealwaysusedinconcl
udi
ng
atextoranessay.

I
nconclusi
on..
..
..
..
..
..
,Toconclude,
Tosum up.
..
..
..
..
..
.,
Gener
all
y..
..
..
..
..
..
.,
Ther
efor
e
..
..
..
..
..
.,
Insummary...
..
..
..
..
..
..
,

TASK

Sear
chf
oranar
gument
ati
vet
ext
/essayandi
dent
if
y,t
hemai
nconcl
usi
on.

USI NGI NFORMATI ONRESOURCESTORESEARCHATOPI CFORPRESENTATI ON

Ast udentwil
lbegi venalotoftaskstopresentondif
ferenttopics/ i
ssues.
Asagood
studentyouar esupposet oknowhowt ouseinfor
mationresour cessoast oresear
ch
atopi cforpr
esentation.
Inli
brar
iestherear
enumberofbooks, jour nalsandother
referencessuchasencycl opedi
aswhi chyomayusedt oreadforvar iousi
nformati
on.

unl
essyouarei
nst
ructed,
i
tisnoteasytol
ocat
etheseresour
cesintheli
brary.
Sother
e
i
saneedforustoadheret
oguidel
inesanhowtolocat
erefer
enceinthel
ibraryaswel
l
ashowtolookf
ori
nformati
on.

Catalogiesintheli
brary
Acat al
ogiesar eei
theri
nf or
m ofcar
dsthathavetheinf
ormat
iononwher
etof
ind
resourcesortheyar eonli
neinf
ormati
on(computerbasedcat
alogi
es)
.
Acat al
ogiesmayber efer
edtoas
i
.Anaut horcatal
ogue
i
i.At i
tl
ecar dcatal
ogueOR
i
ii.Subjectcardcatal
ogue

Libr
aryclassi
fi
cati
onsystem
Therearetwomai nclassi
fi
cat i
onsystem i
nt hel
ibr
ary
i
.Thel i
braryofCongressClassifi
cat
ionsystem(LCCS)
i
i.DeweyDeci malClassi
fi
cation(DDCS)
Thelibr
aryCongressclassi
ficati
onsystem useslet
ter
soft
heal
phabet
sincl
assi
fyi
ng
booksandot herr
esourcesont heshelves.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 113
E.
g A-
Histor
y,Sociol
ogy.GeneralSt
udi
es
B-
Geography,
Literat
ure,Spor
ts
C-
Phil
osophy,PsychologyandAnthr
opol
ogy
D-
Topography,TechnologyanGames.

DeweyDecimalcl assif
icat
ionsyst
em usesnumber
sincl
assi
fyi
ngl
ibr
aryr
esour
ces
E.g 000-
099Phi losophybooks
800-
199Gener albooks
200-
299Soci alsciences
300-
399Pur eScience
400-
499Literatur
eandar t
s.et
c

Howt oresear chat opi cf orpr esent ation?

i.Identi
fyyourr esear cht opi c
I.
ei denti
fywhatyouwantt owr iteabout ,
thisi sal waysat opi cofyouri nt
erestsot hat
yourwr iti
ngbecomeeasi er.Yourt opi cshoul dnotbet oobr oadort oonar row.
e.gEducat i
onsyst em i nTanzani a( toobr oad) .
Levelofeducat ioni nGr adeI ,II
, andI II
-(toonar row) .
Poorper formancei n2012f or mf ourNat ionExams. -(
St andar d)
ii
.Setf orappr opr iater esear chquest i
ons
i
.ewr i
teatl eastf iver esear chquest ionsthatyouwi llbel ookinganswer sforthem. That
youwi l
lbel ooki nganswer sf ort hem . Thi
sshoul dcombi nedi f
fer ent
WH- quest i
on
e.gResear cht opi c;Thef ormat ionofAf ri
caUni on(AU) .
1.Whenwasi tf ormed?
2.Whoar ethemember soft heuni on?
3.Whatar et heobj ect i
veoft heuni on?
4.Whywasi tfor med?
5.Whatar eitadvant ages.
i
ii
.Col l
ectt heneededi nfor mat i
on
Theneededi nfor mat i
oncanbecol lectedt hr oughdi f f
erentsour ces
e.g,books,magazi ne,articles, i
nt ernet , encycl opedi a.
jour nalsorf acet ofaceintervi
ews
wi t
hanexper t.Thei nfor mat i
oncol lectedhast obenot edbyei therquot i
ngdirectfr om
thesour ceorpar aphr asi ng. Al lsour cesofi nfor mationusedi nyourr esearchhavet obe
wr i
ttensoast oavoi dacademi ct hef t.
i
v.Or ganizet hei nformat ion
i
.eSt arttodr aftyourr esear chpaperbyor gani zingitinal ogicalsequence. Thiswi l
l
providet hest ruct ureofyourpaperandt hesequenci alofyourmat eri
al.

THESI SSTATEMENT
-
Tel l
sther eaderhowyouwi lli
nterprett
hesi
gnif
icanceofthesubjectmatterunder
discussion.
-
Isar oadmapf orthepaper;
inotherwor dsi
ttel
l
st hereaderwhattoexpectfrom t
he
restofthepaper .
-
Di r
ectl
yanswer sthequest
ionsaskedofyou.
-
Makesacl ai
mt hatot
hersmi ghtdisput
e.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 114
-I
susuall
yasi nglesentencesomewher einyourf
ir
stparagrapht
hatpr
esentsyour
argumenttother eader.
Forexamplef rom thetopi
cf orresearch
"Thefor
mationofAU" Thethesisstatementcanbe;
"Thefor
mationofAUi stocreateunitanalysespr
oblem andtosol
vechal
lengesfaci
ng
Afri
canCountries"

CITATIONOFRESOURCES
Whenwewr iteacademicwor kssuchasr esearchpaper ,
booksjournalsorarti
cleswe
normal l
ycollectinf
ormationfrom dif
f erentsour cesli
ke
encyclopedias,j
ournal
s,books,t
hei nt
er netorfrom newspaper .Toacknowl edgethese
sourcesisver yimportantsoast oavoi dacademi ctheftorplagiari
sm.
Cit
ationisdonebyf ol
lowingpar t
icul
ar sruleswhi chvaryaccor dingtothetypeof
sourcesbeingci tede.
gabook. ajournal,anewspaper ,art
icl
eetc.Oneoft hesystem
usedi ncit
ationistheAPASTYLE.

TheAPAst yleofcit
ation
AmericanPsychologicalAssociat
ion(
APA)istheassoci
ati
onthathasastyleis
compr i
sedofrul
esandconvent i
onswhichareusedforf
ormatti
ngbooks,
research
papers,
jour
nalart
iclesetc.
Twowaysofshowi ngcitat
ionbyusingAPAsystem
Thein-t
extcit
ati
onandt her ef
erencel
istatt
heendofawor k.

A.
Thei
n-t
extci
tat
ion

Istheref
erencethatwemakei
nsi
deouressays.
Istheoneinwhichthesour
cei
sshownwi thi
nthetext
.Thi
sisdoneei
therbyQuot
ing
dir
ectl
ytheexactwordsoft
heori
ginalaut
hororbyparaphr
asi
ngthem.

Forexampl e
(i
)Oneaut hor
Usefamilynamepl ustheyearofpubl icat
ionAccordingtoNkwer a(2005).
"Li
ter
atur
eis
amirror
"thismeast hatli
ter
atureportraysthereal
it
yoft hesoci
ety
-Whencit
at i
onisrepeatedwithinthesamepar agraph,usefamil
ynameonl y;
E.gAccordingtoNkwer a(2005"li
ter
atureisami r
ror"Nkwerasaidthatli
ter
aryworks
copythesocietyandpor t
raysitasitis.

(i
i)Twoauthors
Usethefamilynamesofbot hauthorsandyearofpubl
icat
ionandignoretheyearof
publi
cat
iononlyifci
tati
onisrepeatedwithi
nthesameparagraph
e.gNkweraandIyan( 2010)arguethatanyworkofar
tmusthavet heuniver
sewhere
thecont
entcanoperat e.NkweraandIyanaddedthat
..
..
..

(i
ii
)Threetof
iveauthor
s
Writeallf
amil
ynamesandt heyearofpubli
cat
ionthef
ir
stti
meyoucite,t
henthefirst
nameandetalandyeari notherci
tat
ions,
e.
gNkwer a,
I
yan,Chomsky.
AchebeandMl oka(
1998)vi
ewlanguageasthesystem of

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 115
arbit
rar
yvocalsymbolthroughwhichhumanbei
ngusef
orcommuni
cat
ionandi
thas
uniquefeat
urefr
om othercreat
urescommuni
cat
ion
Nkweraetal(1998)
Arguethat.
..
..
..

(i
v)Sixormor eauthors
Writ
eonl yt
hef i
rstfamil
ynameandetalsandt heyearofpubl
icat
ion
e.
gLincoln(1930)"Democracyi
sthegovernmentofpeopl
ebythepeopleandf
ort
he
people"Thi
smeanst hatdemocr
acy.
..
..
..
..
.

(v)Secondarysour ce
Thisiswhenyouquot esomethi
ngf r
om someonewhoal soquoteditfrom another
person.Usethef amilynamesofbot hauthorbeginni
ngwi t
htheprimar yauthor.
e.gDiyani(1964)asci t
edinChomsky( 2000)arguest
hat.
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.or.
..
..
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
says"Everychi
ldisbornwithinatewhichenablehim/hertolearnany
l
anguagehe/ shemi ghtmightexposedto"

(vi
)Groupaut hors
Thesear egovernmentagenci es,associati
on,organizati
onetc.
Underwhosename
author shipappear
Writethef ullnameoft hegr oupt ogetherwithitsshor tfor
mthentheyearof
publicationonlyifitsfi
rstti
meyou' r
eci t
ingit.
inthesubsequentcitat
ionuseonl
yt he
shortf orm ofthegr oupandt heyearofpubl i
cation.
Forexampl e:Accordingto(Wor ldHeal t
hOr ganizati
on( WHO),
2005).
"Thechi
ldmortal
ity
hasdr oppedbyf i
fteenpercenti nthelast"
WHO( 2005) Suggestthatgover nmentoutt oputmor eemphasisinthehealt
hsector
,especi all
yinruralareas..
..
..
...

(vii
)Howt owr itequot ation
Shortquotationsi .ethosewi thlessthan40wor dsshouldbewr it
tenasar unpartof
thesentenceconcer ned, withopen andcl osingdoubl equotationmar k.Thepage
numbershoul dal sobei ncluded.
Forexampl e.Chomsky( 2008) sayst hat"Anybodycanl earnlanguager egar dl
essthe
agethoughi tist ruethatchi ldrenwi l
lmast erthelanguagefast erthant headult"
(p14).
OR
"Anybodycanl ear nthel anguager egardl
esst heaget houghi tistruet hatchil
drenwill
masterthel anguagef asterthant headult(
Chomsky2008: 14)".
Forlongquot ationsi.et hosewi thmor ethan40wor ds(bl
ockquot e)begi nonanew
l
ineindentabout5spacesf rom t heleftmar gi
nandusenoquot ationmar ks.
Forexampl eAccor dingt oLipumba( 2006)
democr ati
cist hegover nmentwhi chl i
stenstohispeopl e, all
owt hem togive
outthei
rviewsandhast herul esoflawwhi chensur eevendi stri
but ionofnat i
onal
cake.Itisthegover nmentwhi chwor ksont hechall
engespausedbyi t
speople
andgivesoutt heposi ti
vesol uti
on(p29) .

B.
Endoft
heessayci
tat
ion(
ref
erence)

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 116
Afteryouhavewr i
tt
enyourresear
chpaper/essayorar eportt
ellthereaderthe
referencesyouhaveusedt ocompileyourwor k.
Thisissoi mportantbecause
peopl e(
reader)maywishtoconsul
tsomeoft hebooksorcal lsourcesyou
consul t
ed.Thiscanonlybemadepossiblethroughthesocal l
ed"reference"youar
e
thereforerequir
edtobeverykeeninpresenti
ngt hereferenceusingAPAst yl
e

Thus,Ref
erencel
isti
sali
stofal
lbooks,j
our
nals,encycl
opediasandanyother
resour
cesyouconsul
tedi
naccomplishi
ngyourresearchpaper,
essayorpr
oject
.

NOTE:
Wri
teref
erenceonaf reshpageatt
heendofyouressayorr
esear
chpaper
.
I
ncl
udebooks,
j
ournals,
art
icl
esetcinal
phabet
icalor
der
.

HOW TOWRI
TEREFERENCES

Ref
erenceofabookwr
it
tenbyoneaut
hor
:

1.
Wr i
tet
helast/fami
lynameoftheauthorexample:
thebookwri
ttenbyChinua
Achebe,
thelastnameisAchebeForthatcaseyourref
erencewi
llstar
tli
ke
Achebe,(
Remembert oputComma)

2.Writ
einiti
aloft
heothernames:(st
art
ingwi tht
hefir
stname)
I
ntheexampl eabovethefi
rstnameisChi nuasotheini
ti
alwi
llbeC.Att
hispoi
nt
youwillhave
AchebeC.(Whichi
sthefoll
owedbyaf ullstopasshown)

3.Writ
etheyearofpublicati
oninbracket
s:Ever
ybookhast
heyearinwhi
chitwas
publi
shed.Letsassumet hatAchebe'
sbookwaspubli
shedi
n1961.Uptot
hispoi
nt
youwillhave,
AchebeC. (
1961).
NB:Aft
erbracket
sisfullstop.

4.Writ
etheti
tleoft hebook.Letusassumet hatAchebebookisenti
tl
ed"Thingsfall
apart"
uptothispointwear egoingtowr i
te
AchebeC.(1961) .Thingsfal
lapart.
NB:Thetit
leoft hebooki sital
ici
zedifwritt
enusingcomputerorunderli
neifhand
writ
ten,
AlsoCapitalizedthefir
stwordoft hebooktitl
eorpropernounifany.

5.Writ
ethenameoft heci ty/Townwher ethebookwaspubl i
shed.Everybookhasit
s
addressinsi
de. Thisaddr essshowamongot hert
hings,
thenameoft hetownwhere
thebookwaspubl i
shed. Letsassumet hatAchebebookwaspubl ishedinLagos.
NOTE
thecity/pl
aceofpubl icationisfoll
owedbycol on(
:)upt
ot hi
spointourrefer
encewil
l
l
ookl i
ke.
Achebe,C.(1961).Thingsf allapart
.Lagos:

6.
Final
lywr
it
ethenameoft
hepubl
ishi
ngcompany,
ther
ear
emanycompani
esi
nwor
ld

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 117
andagoodnumbert ooinTanzani
a.Exampl
esofthesecompani esareDares
salaam Uni
versit
yPr ess,NyambariNyangwi
nepublisher
s,OxfordUniver
sit
yPress
etc.
Letusassumet hatAchebe'
sbookwaspublishedbyOxf or
dUni ver
sit
yPress
Thusourf i
nalref
er encewil
lbe;
Achebe,C.
(1961).Thingsfal
lapar
t.
Lagos:Oxf
ordUniversi
ty.

Ref
erencei
nvol
vingabookwr
it
tenbyt
woaut
hor
s.

Theproceduresar
et hesameonlythatwewrit
etwoauthors.
letusassumethatweare
wri
ti
ngar ef
erenceforthebookwri
ttenbyNyambariNyangwi
neandMi chaelKadeghe
i
n2010ent i
tl
ed"AdvancedLevelEngli
shLanguage"whi
chispubli
shedbyMkuki na
NyotaPubli
shersi
nDaressal aam.

POI NTTONOTE:
-WritetheSur nameofthefi
rstauthorandtheini
ti
al(s)ofthesameaut hor
.
-Uset hesymbol&f ol
lowedbySur name and ini
tialofthesecondauthor.
-Otherdetail
sf ol
lowj
ustli
kewhatwedi dwhentalkingaboutthebookwr i
tt
enbyone
authoryourr efer
encewil
lbe
Nyangwi ne,
N.&Kadeghe, M.(2010)Advancedl
. evelEnglishl
anguage.Dares
salaam: MkukinaNyota.

Ref
erencei
nvol
vingabookwr
it
tenbymor
ethant
woaut
hor
s

Wri
tet
heSur
nameandini
ti
alofal
lsixorl
essthansi
xaut
hor
sthenwr
it
ethe
amper
sand"
&"bef
oret
henameoflastaut
hor.

I
fther
ear esevenormoreauthorswr i
tet
hesur
nameandini
ti
aloft
hefi
rstaut
horand
t
henwr i
te"etal
"ot
herdet
ail
swi l
lfol
lowaswehavebeendoi
nginonebookrefer
ence.

Forexampl ethebookentitl
ed"Pri
ncipl
esofLanguage" Wr i
tt
enbyEli
bari
kiIbr
ahim
Ngowi,Rwehumbi zaKamanzi ma,ShabanIdrisaJuma,AllyNassor
o,ZawadiJonathan
andPeni naMuhandoi n2009andpubl i
shedbyMacMi l
lanCompanyLimitedNairobi
.Ourreferenceisasfol
lows.
Ngowi,E.I.
,Kmanzima,R.,JumaS. I
.,Nassoro,A.,
Jonat
han,Z.&
Muhando, P.(
2009)Pr
. i
ncipleoflanguage.Nairobi
:MacMill
anCompanyLimited.

Ref
erencet
hati
nvol
vet
hebookt
hathasbeenedi
ted

Peoplewhoputt oget
herwor ksofdiff
erentauthorsintoonebookar ecalled
editor
s.Booksoft hi
skindhavesomet hingwr i
tten"
editedby...
..
.."ontheir
covers.Anotherwayofr ecognizi
ngthatthebooki nquest i
onisanedi tedwor kist
osee
i
fitcont ai
nsarti
clesorchapt er
swrit
tenbydifferentpeople.I
nt hatscenariothenames
thatappearsont hecoverwi l
lbethenamesofedi tor
s.Ifoneedi t
orwrite(
Ed)coming
aftert
hesur nameandi niti
als,i
fmorethanoneedi torwr i
te(Eds)

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 118
forexampl
eAbookent it
led"
Soci
alPol
it
icalAppr
oach"edi
tedbyNeema
Mosha,RamadhaniRajabuandTher
esi
aHozaPubl i
shedinDaressal
aam(
2012)
by
GoodBooksPublisher
s.

Mosha,
N.,
Raj
abu,
R.&Hoza,
T.(
Eds)
(2012)
.Soci
alPol
it
icalAppr
oach.Dares
sal
aam:
GoodBooksPubli
sher
s.(Thi
siswhentheauthorisnotknown).

Plath,
S.2000)Thegr
( eatpond.
K.M(
Ed)
NewYor
k:Sal
tPubl
isher
s.(
Thi
siswhent
he
authorisknown).

ChaptersorArti
clesinedit
edbooks
Writ
etheaut hor-
Yearofpubl i
cat
ion-Ti
tt
leofthechapt er
-theword"i
n"name(s)of
edi
tor(s)
-Ti
tl
eoft hebook-Pagenumber-Cit
y-Publi
sher
i
.eAuthor-(
year).
Tit
leofthechapter
.I
n-(edit
or(s)
)Tit
leofthebook(PP-
).
Cit
y:Publ
isher

Forinst
ance;
Egan,J.
(1992).
Men'sandWomen'
sgenderr
olej
ourney.
InB.Jembe(Ed)
,Genderi
ssues
acr
osst heli
fecycl
e(PP.
107-
123)
Daressal
aam:
UjuziPubl
ishers.

Newspaperarti
cles
Wri
teAuthor-
(Year,
Mont
h,Day)-
Tit
leofart
icl
e-Ti
tl
eofNewspaper-P-
NOTE:
I
ftheart
icl
ehasgotnoaut hori
gnorethepartofaut
horandthatof(year
.mont
h,day)

Forexampl
e:Mt
ani
,
W(2013.
Januar
y27)Spor
tsandTanzani
a.Thedai
lyNewsP.
14

I
nternetdocument s
Writ
eaut hor-
(year
,month)-
Titl
eofart
icle-
ret
ri
evedMonth,
day,
yearfr
om htt
p:/
/www.
..
..
.
Forexampl e:Rodri
goz,V(
2012,May)All33chil
eminersf
reedinf
lawlessr
escue
ret
ri
evedOct ober12,2014,
from ht
tp:
//www. msnbc.
msn.com

-
Whent hereisnoauthorforawebpaget het
it
lemovest ofi
rstposi
tionofthe
refer
enceent ry.
Exampl e
All33chilemi ner
sfreedinfl
awl
essrescue(October12,
2014,)r
etri
evedfrom
http:
//www. msnbc.msn.com

-
Whent hereisnodatewr i
te(n.
d)+r
etri
eved(Year,
Mont h,
Day)andthenwebaddress.
Exampl e
All33chilemi ner
sfreedinfl
awlessrescue(
n.d)r
etr
ievedOctober12,2014,
fr
om
http:
//www. msnbc.msn.com

QUESTIONFORREVI SION:
1.
Wr i
teref
erenceofnotlessthanten
books/j
ournal
s/encycl
opedias/Newspaper
s/Ar
ti
clesorI
nter
netbyobser
vingAPA
st
yle

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 119
2.Wr it
ef i
veadvant agesofmaki ngcitat i
on
3.Listfivedi sadvantagesofnotmaki ngci t
at i
on
4.Differenti
at eskimmi ngfrom scanni ngandi ntensivereadingf rom extensi
ver
eadi
ng
5.Whati sthedi ff
erencebet weent he" in-t
extcitati
on"and" end- of-
essay"
ci
tation?Suppor tyouranswer swi thexampl e
6.Wi thExampl ewr i
teshortnot esonDonat ati
veandConnot ativewor ds.
7.Assumet hatyouwantt owr i
teaver ygoodessayonacer taintopicofyourchoi
ce
Writethet it
leofyourchoi ce, i
ntroductionpl ust hethesisstatementi nit.
8.(a)Whati sanar gumentat i
vet ext?
(
b) Whatmakesyousay" thisisanar gument "andthisisnot
(
c) Bri
ef l
yexpl ainhowyoucanr esear chat opicforpresentation.
9.(
a)Whydoweneedcat aloguei nourl i
brary
(b)Listtwosyst em usedint hel i
braryandsayshor tl
yhowt heywor k.
(c)Brieflyexplainhowyoucanr esearchat opicforpresentati
on
10.Whatar et hetechniquet hatmakeski mmi ngsuccessf ul
.

WRI
TINGSKI
LLS

ESSAYWRITING
Nameandsignatur
eoft
hesender

Whati
sanessay?

I
sashor
tpi
eceofwr
it
ingonasubj
ectespeci
all
yaspar
tofacour
seofst
udyi
ng.

Therearesever
alt
ypesofessaysbutt
hemai
nonesar
ethr
eewhi
char
ecl
assi
fi
ed
accordi
ngtothepurpose.

a)Nar
rat
iveessay

Thisistheki
ndofwri
ti
ngthatgi
vesanaccountofaneventt
hatt
hewr
it
erhas
wi
tnessedandwhichheorshewantst
osharewiththe

r
eader
.Thi
skindofwrit
ingneedst
obesocar
eful
lywr
it
teni
nor
dert
omaket
he
r
eaderunder
standt
heincident
.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hegui
del
inest
obef
oll
owedf
oref
fect
ivenar
rat
ion.

i
)Wr
it
eonani
nci
dentt
hati
samusi
ng,
exci
ti
ngorsi
gni
fi
cant
.Thewr
it
ershoul
dput

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 120
essent
ialdet
ail
soft
hei
nci
denti
ntot
her
eader
’smi
nd

t
hatwi
llhel
pther
eaderbei
nvol
vedandshar
ethewr
it
er’
sexper
ience.

i
i)Giveyourstor
yast
ruct
urei
.e.t
henarr
ati
veessayneedst
ohavet
hebegi
nni
ng,
t
hemi ddleandtheendi
nwhicht
hebeginni
ngneedto

capt
urethereader
’sat
tent
ion,
themi
ddlehastonar
rat
eevent
schr
onol
ogi
cal
ly
wer
eastheendingofyourstor
yshoul
dquenchyour

r
eadert
hir
st.

i
ii
)Pi
eceyourcl
imaxoft
hest
orycl
oset
otheendsoast
ocr
eat
esuspenset
othe
r
eader

iv)Cr
eat
esuspenseinthest
ory,t
hisi
susedtoaroset
her
eader
sexci
tementhence
enhanci
ngtheunder
standi
ngofthestor
ysuspenseis

cr
eat
edbydel
ayi
ngt
hecl
imax.

v)Usethet
echni
questhatwil
lmakeyourr
eaderexper
iencet
hatast
heuseof
i
mager yt
hati
spowerfuli
nerodi
ngemotionbysodoing

yousethowt
her
eaderwi
llr
espond.

vi
)Beconsi
stenti
ntheuseofpointofvi
ewi.
e.i
sdeci
dewhatper
sont
ouse,
itmay
beeit
hert
hefi
rstorthet
hir
dperson,whenthi
sis

consi
stent
,itmakest
her
eaderf
oll
owyourst
orywi
thoutdi
ff
icul
ty

b)Descr
ipti
veessays
Thisi
sthetypeofessaythati
smeanttotellusthi
ngspeopl
e,eventorpl
acel
ook
l
ikei
.e.i
tisusedtodescr
ibethephysi
calf
eaturesof

t
hepeopl
e,t
hings,
eventorpl
aces.

Thefol
lowi
ngar
ethet
hingst
obeconsi
der
edi
nor
dert
odevel
opagooddescr
ipt
ive
essay

i
)Befor
eyoustar
tyourdescr
ipt
ion,
li
styourvi
vid memor
ies,
thatmeansl
istal
lthi
ngs
t
hatyourememberthencat
egori
es,t
heli
stint
o

peopl
e,pl
acesorthi
ngsaftert
hatchoosei
temsont
hel
istt
hati
nter
estyouand
whi
chyouwilli
ncl
udeinyouressay.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 121
i
i)Determi
nesomevar i
abl
esofyourwr
it
ingI.
e.thi
nkaboutyouraudi
ence,
topi
c,
purpose,f
ormatofpr
esent
ati
onandthesit
uati
oninwhich

youwi
l
lmakeyourdescr
ipt
ion.

i
ii
)Organi
zeyouressayst
artyourdescr
ipt
ionatacer
tai
nfocalpoi
nt,
thatmeansyou
shoul
dhaveacenterfr
om whichthedescr
ipti
on

proceeds,
inalogi
caldi
rect
ioni
.e.youmaydescr
ibesomet
hingf
rom t
opt
obot
tom
orf
rom neartof
arorfrom ot
herperspect
ive

dependi
ngont
het
hingbei
ngdescr
ibed.

i
v)Usemet aphor
stoaddl
if
etoeverydayorbori
ngsubjectmat
ter
s.Theuseof
metaphor
smayhel pi
nmakingor
dinaryt
hingsseem new.

E.
g.t
heguyst
ipt
oedi
nthemi
nef
iel
dsofgar
bage.

v)Trytoi
ncorpor
atefi
vesensesinyourdescr
ipt
ioni
.e.Uset
hewor
dst
hatappealt
o
senseshencemakingthedescr
ipt
ionaff
ecti
on.

vi)Consi
dert
heimpressi
onthatyouwantt omakei
.e.beconsci
ousaboutt
heef
fect
thatyouwanttobr
ingtoyouraudiencesuchaswhether

youwantyouraudi
encetolikeordi
sli
kesomet
hingoraper
sonyouar
edescr
ibi
ng,
youmayalsowishyourreadertobefl
att
enedor

amusede.
g.ski
nnyvs.sl
im gi
vedi
ff
erenti
mpr
essi
ons

Exampl
eoft
hedescr
ipt
iveessay

KI
GAMBONI

Inter
msofpopul ati
on,Ki
gambonii saver
agelypopul
atedbypeopleofdif
ferentt
ri
bes,
rel
igi
onsandr ace.Butr
atheragreatnumberhappenst obepeopleoft
hecoastf r
om
ZanzibarandPemba.Bot hChri
stiansMusli
msandot herrel
igi
onsexi
stamongt he
populati
onofKigamboniHehe, Sukuma,Chaggawithmanyot hert
ri
bes.Allt
hese
makeupt hepeopl
eweseei nthatarea.

TheenvironmentinKigamboniisawesomeconsi der
ingthegreenvegetabl
earound,
theoceanatlargebri
ngingthebreezetowardsthear ea.Andduetotheocean,people
havetocrossusingaf er
rywellknownasPant ont ogettotownforthei
racti
vit
ies.
Despit
eexistenceoffi
shingacti
vit
ies,
tradecenters,
peopleinKigambonisti
llmanage
tokeeptheenvironmentclean.

Weat
heri
nKi
gambonii
sgood,
sunnyatt
imesr
ainyt
oobutwor
thy.I
tevenf
aci
li
tat
es

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 122
gr
owthofcropssuchascoconutyams,pot
atoesandmorehelpedbythefert
il
esoi
l
ar
oundtheareas.Andsof
arnodisast
erhasoccurredi
nvol
vingtheweather
.

Economi
cal
lyKi
gambonii
sful
lofvar
iousactivi
ti
es,
trade,
fishi
ng,i
ndust
ri
es.People
l
ivi
nghaveanor
malli
fest
andar
dforanAfricanastheypartici
pat
einvar
iousacti
vit
ies.

Kigambonihappenst
obeaveryuniqueplacethatlat
elyit
’sbeenheardt
hati
twi
llbe
renovat
edtoaverybi
g-beaut
if
ulci
ty,somaybet henitcanalwaysremai
naperf
ect
homef ormeandeveryot
herci
ti
zenslivi
ngthere.

c)Exposi
tor
yessays

Itisthet ypeofessayorcompositi
onwhichi smeanttopresenti
nfor
mation,
explanati
onopi ni
onsorideasaboutsomething.
Thesear etheessaywemostof t
enwr i
teatschoolandtheyusuall
yrelyonthewr
it
ers
experiencethatmeanswi t
houtexperi
encetheseessayscannotbe
wr i
tten.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hest
rat
egi
esofexposi
tor
yessays

1.Choosethetopi
ct hatyouarefamil
iarwith,f
orexamplei
fyourgi
venat askt
o
wri
teaboutthedisadvantagesofcorrupt
ion
2.Devel
opmentat hesisstatementt
hatwi l
lactasthebasi
sofyourexpl
anati
on;
Forexamplethefoll
owingst at
ements,

-I
tisgoodf
orpeopl
eofdi
ff
erentr
eli
gionst
omar
ry

-Ci
vileducat
ioncanl
eadt
ofr
eeandf
airel
ect
ion

-I
faf
emal
est
udentget
spr
egnant
,herpar
ent
sshoul
dbehel
dresponsi
ble

3.Det
ermi
neyourpur
poseandaudi
ence

Thepurposewil
lmakeyoudeci
deont
hest
yleandt
heaudi
encewi
llgui
deyouhowt
o
wri
teyourexposi
ti
on.

Quest
ion:

"
Bri
depr
icei
sout
dat
ed"
,Di
scus

BUSI
NESS/OFFICI
ALLETTERS
Thebusi
nessorof
fi
ciall
ett
ersf
il
eint
osever
alcat
egor
iesasf
oll
ows

 Appl
icati
onlet
ters–forjobappl
icat
ion
 Quer
yl et
ter
s–f orseeki
nginf
ormati
on

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 123
  Complainlett
ers–cl ai
mi ngsomet hi
ng
 Resi
gnationlett
ers–r esigni
ng
 I
nquir
ing/orderlet
ter–f ororderi
nggoods
 Conf
ir
mat ionlet
ters–conf ir
mi ngorindi
cat
ingt
hatt
hingswi
llbedone

APPLI
CATI
ONLETTER

Consi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngl
ett
ers

Exampl
e1.

MWI
NJUSTREET

P.
O.BOX232,

11thJul
y2013

HUMANRESOURCEMANAGER,

MWANANCHICOMMUNI
CATI
ONLTD,

P.
O.BOX1123,

DARESSALAAM.

DearSi
r/Madam

RE:APPLI
CATI
ONFORTHENEWSEDI
TORPOST

Ireadwi t
hi nterestyouradverti
sementt hatappearedintheMwananchi
newspaperof10thJul y2013t hroughwhi chyoudecl ar
edthatyouar ei
nneedofa
quali
fi
ednewsedi tor.So, Iwr i
teinresponse.
Iam agr aduatefrom t heUni versi
tyofDarSal aam wereIgotmydegr eeinj
ournali
sm
i
n2008.Si ncemygr aduat i
onIhavebeenwor ki
ngasaf reel
ancingnewseditorfor
vari
ousnewspaper sinTanzani asohaveampl eexperi
enceinthefiel
dofedit
ing.
Otherqualif
icati
onst hatIposseswi llbeevidentintheCVandt hecerti
fi
cat
ecopies
thatIhaveenclosedwi t
ht hi
sletter
.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 124
 Iwi llbepleasedtowor kwi thapr osperousandI nter
nationalst
andardnews
paperlikeyour s.Theexper i
encet hatIhavemosti nthesefewyear sconvi
ncesmethat
Icanwor ktomeetyourst andards.Wor ki
ngwi thyourcompanywi llmakemeadvance
mycar rierfurt
her.Indeed,Iregardmaysel fasther i
ghtpersonyourcompanyi s
l
ookingf or .
Iam readyt oappearf orintervi
ewatyourconveni ence.I’
m alsolooki
ngforwardt
o
recei
vingaposi t
iveresponsef rom you.
Your sfait
hfull
y,

c.
s

Car
oli
neSenga

Component
s

1. Thesender saddress
2. Date
3.Ther ecei
versaddress
4.Salutati
on
5.Titl
e/headingofthelett
er
6.Bodyoft helett
er
Shouldhavefourpar agraphs
i
.Opening(refl
ectsthet i
tl
e)
i
i.Givebri
efdescri
ptionofyourrecentqual
if
icat
ionsandexper
ience
i
ii
.Descri
bewhyyourspeci al
,whyyoushouldbeconsider
edand
others

i
v.Howyouwi
ll
becont
act
edandyourr
eadi
nessf
ort
hei
nter
view.

7.Theendingorclosureofthel
ett
er
Thisgoeswi
ththewor dsyour
sfait
hful
lyi
ftheaddr
essi
sunknownyour
si
ncer
elyift
headdr
essi sknown

Exampl
e2.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 125
 GENERALMANAGER,

MTWARAWATERAUTHORI
TY,

P.
O.BOX8877,

DearSi
r/Madam,

RE:APPLI
CATI
ONFORTHESECRETARYPOST

Il
ear
nedoftheposi
ti
onasadver
ti
sedr ecent
lyi
nthedai
lynewspapert
hatyou
ar
einneedofasecr
etar
yandsoIwri
teinresponse.

Iam aDi plomaholderofsecr

etar
ialcour
sesattheMwali
muNyer ereCollege
i
nDaresSal aam.Ihavewor kedasasecr etar
yinanNGOi nDaresSalaam fortwo
yearsaft
errecei
vingmydi pl
omahenceIhaveexper ienceont
hisf
iel
d.Thecer t
if
icates
toprovethi
splusot herqual
if
icat
ionsIhaveasindi
catedinmyCVwi l
lbeatt
ached
withthel
ett
er.

Ihaveconsider
ablewor
kingexperi
encewhichmakesmef eelconfi
dentaboutt
hef
act
thatIcanworktomeetyourneeds.Iwi
llbever
ypleasedt
ogetj obwithagoodand
accuratecompany.

Iwoul
dwelcomeanopport
unit
ytogetdi
scusswi
thyoudur
ingt
hei
nter
viewhenceam
hopi
ngforaposi
ti
ver
esponse.

Your
sfai
thf
ull
y,

c.
s

Car
oli
neSenga

Exerci
se
Writ
eanappli
cat
ionl
ett
ertothegener
almanager
,Mtwarawat
eraut
hor
ity,P.
O.BOX
8877,Mtwar
a.Appl
yforthepostofasecr
etar
yasadver
ti
sedr
ecent
lyi
nt hedai
lynews
paper.

LETTERTOTHEEDI
TOR

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 126
Let
tertothenewspapereditorarefor
mallett
erswhicharewrit
tenondi f
ferentsubj
ects.
Forexamplecomplainsaboutsomet hi
nglikepoorsewagesystem,poorser vi
ces
off
eredbycertai
ncompany.I nt
hatscenar
ioonemaywi sht
owr i
tealettertotheedit
or
toexpresshi
s/herpointofview.Tr
ytokeept hem shor
tunder150wor dsbecauset he
l
ongeronemaybecr oppedbyt heedit
or.

Guidel
ineonhowtowr i
tel
ett
erstotheedi
tor
1.Stat
etheargumentyouarerespondi
ngto

2.Dealwi
thonei
ssueperl
ett
er.

3.Donotbeabusi
ve.

4.I
tshouldbelogicall
yorganized
-abr i
efexplanati
onoft hearqumentyouar
eopposing
-foll
owedbyast atementofyourownposit
ion
-presentyourevidence
-closewithapi t
hycomment .
5.Usefact
s,fi
guresandexper ttest
imonywheneverpossi
ble

6.Respectt
heopi
nionofpeopl
ewi
thspeci
alknowl
edgeorexper
ience.

7.Pr
oofr
eadyourl
ett
ercar
eful
lyf
orer
ror
sinspel
li
ng,
punct
uat
ionandgr
ammar
.

8.Al
ett
ershoul
dnotbemai
ledt
hesamedayi
tiswr
it
ten.

9.Tr
ytovi
ewt
hel
ett
erf
rom t
her
eader
'sper
spect
ive.

10.Al
waysi
ncl
udeyournames,
addr
ess,
day-
ti
me,
phonenumberandsi
gnat
ure.

Formatonhowt owrit
ethel
ett
ert
otheedi
tor
.
1.Recei
ver
'saddress

2.Sal
utat
ion

3.Ti
tl
e

4.Mai
nbody

5.Endi
ngoft
hel
ett
er

6.Sender
'saddr
ess

Fori
nst
ance,

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 127
TheEdi
tor
,

Uhur
uCommuni
cat
ion,

P.O.Box34

DarEsSal
aam.

DearEdi
tor,

RE:
DIRTI
NESSI
NYOURENVI
RONMENT.

Yourmai
nbodyshouldhaveatl
east4poi
ntseachi
nani
ndependentpar
agr
aph
(
sot
hemainbodyshoul
dbeof4par agr
aphs)

Your
sinbui
ldi
ngt
henat
ion.

GoodCi
ti
zen(
yourname)

P.O.Box.
..
..
..
..

UbungoKi
bangu

DARESSALAAM

Dat
e

CURRI
CULUM VI
TAE(
CV)

-
Iti
sthedocumentthatgivesonesuseaccounti
ntermsaseducat
ion,
dat
eofbi
rt
h,
workexper
ienceemploymentstat
us,ci
ti
zenshi
petc.

Ther
ear
e2ways/
styl
eofwr
it
ingaCV

1.Br
it
ishst
yle
2.Ameri
canstyl
e

3.BRI
TISHSTYLECV

I
.PARTI
CULARS/
PERSONALPARTI
CULARS

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 128
Name–(
JohnMar
ioWool
wor
th)

Mar
it
alst
atus-si
ngl
e/mar
ri
ed/
widow

Addr
ess.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

Tel
ephone.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Nat
ional
it
y..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Dat
eofbi
rt
h..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..

Pl
aceofbi
rt
h..
..
..
..
..
..
..

I
I.EDUCATI
ON/
QUALI
FICATI
ONS

2013-
2017Uni
ver
sit
yofMzumbe

B.
AofPubl
icAdmi
nist
rat
ion

2010-
2012 ShaabanRober
tSecondar
ySchool
.

A–l
evel
educat
ion,
Divi
sionI

2006-
2009 Tusi
meSecondar
ySchool

O-
leveleducat
ion,
Divi
sionI
I

I
IIEMPLOYMENTTODATE

2012 t
o-dat
e HumanResour
ceManager

KwanzaBot
tl
ersLt
d

2016-
2018 Per
sonnelof
fi
cer
s

TANAPA

I
V.SKI
LL

Dr
ivi
ng,
comput
erl
it
eracyi
nMs.
wor
d,Mc.
excel

V.I
NTERESTS/
HOBBI
ES

-Footbal
l
-prayi
ng

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 129
 -Basket
bal
l

VIREFEREES/
REFERENCES

Name
Ti
tl
e
Address
Tel
.number
Shouldbesomeonewhoknowsyouwel
l

SAMPLEOFABRI
TISHSTYLECV

1. PARTI
CULARS/
PERSONALPARTI
CULARS

Name Carol
ineSenga
Mar i
talStat
us Single
Addr ess P.O.BOX123DSM
Telephone 0719528392
Nationali
ty Tanzania
st
DateofBi rt
h 21 Mar ch,1994
PlaceofBi r
th Mwanza

2.EDUCATI ON/QUALI FICATI ONS

2014-2017 Uni ver
sityofDaresSal aam
B.
AofSoci ol ogy
2012-2014 ShaabanRober tSecondarySchool
A-leveleducat
ion,divisionI
2008-
2011 Cor neliusGirl
sSecondar y
O- l
eveleducationdivisionII
I
2001-
2007 St .Mar yJuniorSchool
Primarylevel

3.SKI LLS
Infor
mat iontechnol
ogy
FluentinFr ench
4.I NTEREST/ HOBBIES
Readi ngnovels
Wat chingmovies
Singing
5.REFEREES/ REFERENCES
NameNi chol asRaphaelMbena
Tit
leLawyer
AddressP.O.BOX678I r
inga

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 130
Telno.0784-
188840

2.
AMERI
CANSTYLECV
I
.ADDRESS
Name

Emai
l

Tel
.No

I
I.OBJECTI
VE

Toobt
ainapostofhumanResour
ceManager

I
II
.EDUCATI
ON/
QUALI
FICATI
ONS

I
V.WORKEXPERI
ENCE

V.SKI
LLS

VI
.PERSONALI
NTERESTS

I
nincl
udes:-f
oot
bal
l,
Joggi
ng,
Readi
ngnovel
s

VI
I.REFERENCES/
REFEREES

NB:-
(i)Themaj ordif
fer
encesbetweenAmer i
canstyleandBri
tishstyl
earethatthe
Amer i
canst yl
ehasanobj ect
ivef
orwhichtheCVi swri
tt
enwhi leBri
ti
shstylehasno
objecti
ve.
(i
i)Bri
tishst yl
econtai
nsmanydet ai
lsi
nthepersonalpart
icularswhi
leinAmer i
can
styl
etherei sonlyaddressofthewri
ter
(i
ii
)Briti
shCVcanbeat t
achedtodif
fer
entlet
terswhil
eAmer icanCVisattachedto
parti
cularletter

Quest
ion:-Wr
it
eyourownCVusi
ngBr
it
ishst
yleandanot
herusi
ngAmer
icanst
yle

MEMORANDUM
Amemoi sdefi
nedasashor tnotethati
swr it
tenbyt hesuperi
orstot
hei
rsubor
dinat
es
whom t
heyleadorworkwithinanorganizati
onori nsti
tut
ion.
Memoismai nl
ymeanttoinform abouti
ssuessuchasmeet i
ng,pr
obl
ems
Thef
oll
owingarethepart
soft hememo( for
mat )
1. Ti
tl
e–usual l
ywrit
tenmemoormemor andum
2. Nameoft headdress(whichcomesaf t
erthewor dto)
3. Nameoft hewrit
er(i
tcomesaf t
erthewor dfrom)
4. Thedat eofwhi
chthememoi swr i
tten

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 131
5. Thesubj
ect
6. Thebodyoft
hememo( t
hemaincontent)
7. Thenameofthesecr
etarywhotypedthememo/
Tit
le

MEMORANDUM
TO: JamesMason
FROM: Headmast er
DATE: 18thJuly2013
SUBJECT: Meet i
ng

Kindl
yinfor
m otherteacher
sabovethemeetingwhichwil
ltakeplacet omorr
owi nthe
staf
froom at10o’clockam.Classt
eacher
sshouldcomewi ththeirmont hl
yreport
s.I
hopeeveryonewillatt
end,makingt
hemeetingsuccessf
ull
ytakepl ace.
JoyceTibai
nyuki
J.
t

NB:Thenameofthesenderhast
obef
oll
owedbythesendersi
gnatur
eorini
ti
als.I
n
themainbodyoft
hememoyououghttoshowwhatthetopi
cisaboutandwhatyou
expectf
rom t
headdr
essee.

TASK
Imagineyouaretheheadpr
efectatyourschoolwr
it
eamemot ootherperf
ectt
ell
ing
them toat
tendthemeeti
ngthatyouhavecall
edtoever
ypr
efectt
hathe/shethi
nksis
havewor t
hdiscussi
ng.

MEMORANDUM
TO: HASSANKI LOKO
FROM: HEADPREFECT
DATE: 23/07/
2013
SUBJECT: MEETING

Kindlyinf
orm al
lthepref
ect
sthatear
lyMondaymor ng26thSept
ni ember,2013ther
e
willbeameet i
ngat10:00am shar
p.Att
endanceiscompul
sory.Al
lpr
efectsare
respectedtocomewi t
hmatterswort
hdiscussi
ngatthemeeti
ng.
IsakaMikui
I.M

WRITINGMI NUTESOFTHEMEETI NG
Meeti
ngsar eformalgather
ingsconvenedi
nor
derforpeopl
etodi
scussvar
ious
i
ssuesknownasAGENDA.
AGENDAi saLat i
nwor dmeaningTHI NGSTOBEDONE.
Agendareferstobusinessi
temstobedealtwi
thi
n/duri
ngthemeeti
ng.

WHYTAKEMINUTES?
Mi
nut
esgi
veyouapermanentr
ecor
dofwhatwassai
dint
hemeet
ing,
ther
ear
e

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
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sever
alreasonswhyyoumi ghtfindthisr
ecorduseful
.
iTor emi ndyouoftheact
ionsthatyouandot herpeopl
eagreedt
otake.
i
iTor emi ndyouofwhatwasdeci ded.
i
iiTot el
lthosewhocouldn’
tatt
endwhatwassai d
i
vTof ormt hebasi
sofdecisi
onmaki ngatt
henextmeeting.
v Totakeactionsandmakef ol
lowups.

Minutetakingmaybeannoyi
ngtediousandoftenanddi
ffi
cultasyouhavetowri
te
downaccur atel
ywhatwassai
dwithoutwrit
ingwordtoword.
TheFollowingguidel
inei
susef
ulinwrit
ingminutes(
for
mal minut
es)shoul
dincl
ude
thefol
lowing.

I.Tit
leoftheminut
es
Thiswil
lincl
udet
henameoft heor
ganizat
ionandt
her
easonf
ort
hemeet
ing.
Theti
tl
eshouldincl
udethedat
e,t
imeandlocati
on.

MBEZIBEACHHI GHSCHOOL
Minut
esofthest
affmeeti
ngtoeval
uat
ethef
orm si
x2013r
esul
ts, don15th
hel
August20133:
00PM instaf
froom NO.2.

I
I.
Thosepr
esent

Youshouldli
stt
henamesofthosewhoareattendi
ngthemeet
ing.TheChair
per
son
al
waysreadstheli
st,
usual
lyf
oll
owedbythesecretar
yor
recor
der.Youmayputthesecret
aryl
ast
.Ideall
yyoushoul
dli
sttheat
tendeesi
n
or
derofsenior
it
y.

I
II.Apol
ogiesforabsentees
Youshouldmakeal i
stoft
hosewhomadeapol ogies
I
V.Bodyofmi nutes
Youshouldwr i
tetheminut
esthemselves.Useheadingstohighl
ightt
hemai
n
poi
nts.Useparagraphnumber ssothateachit
em iseasil
yident
if
iabl
e.
V.Appr oval
TheChairpersonshouldsi
gnanddat etheminutes

VI
.Act
ionpoi
nts

Youshoul
dhi
ghlightthepersonresponsi
bleforapart
icul
aract
ionwhi
ch
wasagr
eedatthemeet
ing.Iti
st hencl
earwhoi ssupposedtobedoing
what

HOW SHOULDTHEMI NUTESBE?

Minut
esshouldbebrief,
clear
,accur
ate,andcomplet
e,i
nasuit
ablet
one.I
nwr it
ing
minut
esyoushouldalwayskeepi nmindthatt
hereaderoft
heminut
esisalwayst he
mostimpor
tantper
son, i
fthereader
scannotunderst
andwhatyouhavewri
tten,the
minut
esareworthl
ess.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 133
BEBRI EF
Youcanbebr i
efbydoi ngt hefol
lowing:
a Separ atetheimpor tantpartsoftheconversat
ionfrom thephati
candwrit
et he
i
mpor t
antpartsonly.Exampl eTheauditofst
ockt ookfourweeksbecause
ofthevariati
onofst ocklevel
sandt hepoorstateoftherecord
bI ncludeonl ytheinformat i
onneededbyt hereadersofyourmi nut
es.E.
g.Ift
he
chairpersonstartsbysayi ng“ WewelcomeMi chaeltoourmeet i
ng”,Donot
i
ncludethisinthemi nutes.
c Youshoul dt rytoavoi dsayingornotingwhosai dwhatunlessiti
sessenti
al,
otherwisethemi nutescanbecomer esi
sti
veandbor i
ng.

BECLEAR
Althoughyoushouldmakeyourminut
esasbri
efaspossi
ble,donotl eaveyourr
eader
togivewhatyoumean.
E.g.
-
Ifthesamewor di
susedagai
nandagainyoucanmaketheabbr eviati
oninabracket
.
Theabbr evi
ati
oncanbeusedonit
sowni nt
hetestoft
hemi nut
esf orexample
TanzaniaRevenueAuthor
it
y(TRA)

BEACCURATE

Herewhati
smeantist
hatthewr
it
eroft
heminut
esshoul
duset
hecor
rect
vocabul
aryandanappr
opr
iat
etonewhenwri
ti
ngt
heminut
e.

Astheminut
eslat
eryouwil
lber
esponsi
blef
oral
lthef
act
sint
hemi
nut
es.So
youshoul
dunderst
andwhatisgoi
ngoninthemeet
ing.

Thiswil
lall
owtosummar i
zewhatissai
daccur
ateifyoudonotunderst
and
somet
hingaskforhel
p,ot
her
wiseyouri
skprobl
emsarisi
nglat
eronifpeopl
e
querywhatyouhavewrit
ten.

Donottemptt
ousewordsj
ustbecauset
heysoundi
mpressi
ve,
theymayhave
asl
i
ght
lydi
ff
erentmeani
ngf
rom t
heactualwor
dsusedatt
hemeeti
ng.

BECOMPLETE

Youshouldbecar efulnottol
eaveoutusefulinformati
onwhent r
yingtobebr
ief
.
ForExampl eifyourminutessaythatalet
terfrom thecli
entwasread
anddiscussed.Thisdoesnotgiveanyusef ulinfor
mationweneedt oknowwhat
wasi nt
hel et
terandtheout comeofthediscussion.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 134
 TRANSLATI
ONANDI
NTERPRETATI
ON
Tr
ansl
ati
on

Isapr
ocessbywhichideast
hatar
ewr
it
teni
nonel
anguagear
erepr
esent
edbywor
ds
ofadi
ffer
entl
anguage.

Ori
tistheprocesswasthemeani
ngofexpr
essi
oni
nonel
anguagei
stur
nedi
ntot
he
meaningofanotherl
anguage.

Thel
anguagef
rom whi
chthei
nformat
ionistakenisknownassourcelanguage{
sl}
andt
heoneint
owhichthemeaningi
sturnedisknownastargetl
anguage{TL}.

Exampl
e

SL-Iwi
shyoual
lthebest(
Engl
ish)

TL-
nakut
aki
a ki
lal
aher
i(Swahi
li
)

I
nter
pret
ati
on

Istheprocessthati
nvolvest
hetransf
erofmessagesfr
om onelanguageintoanot
her
i
nform ofspeech.Ori
tinvol
vesonepersonspeaki
nginonelanguageandanother
personspeakingthesamemessagei ntoanot
herl
anguage;i
tinvol
vesoral
present
ationofwhatonepersonsaysinonelanguagei
ntoanother.

A) Pr
inci
plesoft
ransl
ati
on

Thetr
ansl
ati
onpr
ocessi
saverychall
engi
ngonet
hef
oll
owi
ngar
esomepr
erequi
sit
es
i
fonehast
obeasuccessf
ult
ransl
ator
;

i)Thet ranslatorhast obeverycompet entinbotht hesour cel anguageandt he

targetl
anguage.Orheorsheneedst ohaveaver ygoodcommandofbot h
languagest hiscanbesuppl ement edbyt heuseofdi ctionar i
es.
ii
)Thet ranslatorhast ounderstandt hefi
eldcover edbyt hesour cetext.For
exampl esciencet extasopposedt or eli
gioustext.Thismeanst hat
thetranslator saresupposedt obever yhar dwor kingift heyar eunderstand
textofvariousf i
elds
ii
i)Thetransl atorhastoconsidert hest yl
eusedbyt heper sonwhowr otethetext
ofthesour celanguage.Ort hetr
ansl atorhast opr eser
veorvi olat e
thestyleusedi nthesourcelanguagebysodoi ng, heorshet obalance
betweent hesi deoft heauthorandt hatoft hereadersoft hewor kbeingtranslated.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 135
 iv)Somecont entitemsinbot
ht hesour cel
anguageandt hetar
getlanguagear e
noteasil
yt otransl
ateduet othef
actsthatitisnotalwaysthecase
thatthereisonet oonecorr
espondencei ntwol anguagesi
nvolved,hencethe
tr
anslat
ionneedsal otofhardworkandpat ienceforexampleone
wor dinonel anguagemaybeexpr essedinasent enceinanotherlanguageor
somewor dsinonel anguagearemissinginanotherlanguage.
Nakupenda=Il oveyou

v)Thet r
anslatorhast oconsiderhi
sorhervi ewsandpr ejudicei.e.whati
s
tr
ansl atedintobiased,subjectedpersonalorcult
uraldependingon
thetranslator’
spointofvi ew.Thi
simpliesthatifthetr
ansl at
orput shi
sorher
opinionsaboutwhati st r
anslated,t
herei
slikel
y-hood thatthe translatedwordswil
l
be
diff
erentfrom thatofthesour cel
anguagehencet hetr
ansl at
orneedst obe
object i
veavoidingt heinf
luenceofi deol
ogyorattitude.

vi
)Thetransl
atorhast oconsidertheexpectat
ionsoft hereadersi.
e.Heorshe
needst oputhimselforhersel
font heshoesoft hereaders;heorshehast ouset he
languagestylethatwil
lmaket hereadersofthetranslat
edwor dsunderst
and.
Thisconsiderat
ionmaymaket hest yl
eofthetextinTLt obedifferentfr
om thati
nSL.
Forexampl e;asciencetextbeingtr
anslatedbyor di
narypeopl ewil
lmaket he
textassumeast yl
et hatisnotscienti
fi
c.

Methodsoft
ransl
ati
on
Therear
eanumberoftransl
ati
onmet
hods,
thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hesemet
hods

a)Wor dt
owordtransl
ation
Thi
sistr
ansl
ati
onmet hodinwhi
chTLwor
dsar
eimmedi
atel
ybel
owSLwor
ds.The
SLwordorderi
snotchanged.

Thi
smethodismainl
yusedbypeopl
e(especi
all
yli
ngui
sts)whowantt
oshow
howSLismor
phologi
cal
lystr
uct
ured.

E.g.M-Totom- zur ia-

Li-
kulanyamayot e.
Thechi l
dgoodat et hemeatal l.Chil
dgoodat et
hemeatal
l.
b)Semant icstranslat
ion
Thisisat ransl
ationmet hodinwhicht het r
ansl
atori
ssai
dtobebiasedtot
hesour
ce
l
anguagei nt hatheorshet ranslat
esever ywordinSLbutusi
ngthegrammati
cal
featuresofTL.
Theemphasi sinthistypeoftranslati
oni sonthemeani
ngofthetexti
nSL.
E.g.-Hewentupt ohi
shome.
-
Al i
kwendampakanyumbanikwake.
-
your ssincerel
y.
-
wakomt ii
ifu.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 136
-
mabi bina mabwana.
-
ladiesandgentl
eman.
-
naombani chukue f
ursahii
i
-
mayIt akethi
sopportuni
tyto
-
usikumwema
-
goodni ght

c)Communi
cat
ivet
ransl
ati
on

Thisistheki ndoft r
anslat
ionthatpaysatt
ent
iontothecontext
ualmeani
ngofthe
ori
ginaltext
I
.e.thetranslatorisfocusi
ngt hemeaningofwhatiswri
ttenandthecont
ext
.
Thisisacommonmet hodi ntr
anslat
ingt
hefi
gurati
veexpressi
onssuchasi
dioms,
sayingsandpr overbs
Forexampl e;
→donotcr yonsplitmil
k
→af riendi nneedisaf ri
endindeed
→t hatoldmani sveryaged

Thingsthataredif
ficul
ttotransl
ate
I
nt heprocessoftransl
ationther
ear esomet
hingst
hatt
het
ransl
atorf
acesdi
ff
icul
tyi
n
thei
rtr
anslati
on
Theseareasf ol
low

A)
.Pr opernouns
I
.e.thenamesr eferr
ingtoparti
cul
arper
sonsorpl
aces
E.
g. -myf at
herli
vesi nMbeya
-Babayanguanai shiMbeya
-j
umbeismyf ri
end.
-j
umbenir af
ikiyangu.

B).Idi
oms( idi
omaticexpressi
ons)
Therearetheexpressi
onswhosemeani
ngsar
equi
tedi
ff
erentf
rom t
hewor
ds
consti
tuti
ngthem.

THEACTUALTRANSLATI ONPROCESS
basicthingst obeconsi deredintr anslationcourse;
a.Readt het extt obet ranslatedtogett hegener alideat hatitcontai
ns, i
tmakesyou
knowwhatt ool syouwi llneedaccor dingt ot hesubjectmat t
er
e.
g.theneedf orlegaldicti
onaryi fthet ranslat
ionisbasedont helegaldocument.
b.Lookf ordi ctionariesbot htechnicalandgener alpur poseones.Thedi cti
onar
ies
shoul dbeofbi li
ngualandmonol i
ngualt ypes.
c.Tr anslatet hef ir
stdr afti.
e.wedonott ranslatestrai
ghtawaybutr at herst
ageby
stage.Thi sgi venusachancet omakeanynecessar ycor r
ections.
d.vi sethet ransl ati
onbymaki ngimpr ovementt othefirstdraf tt
hisgivesyouthe
seconddr aft
.
e.Wr i
tethef inaldr aftaf t
eryouhasmadeal lt
henecessar yrevisi
onthenyoucan

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 137
submi
tthef
inal
tot
hecl
ient
.

Qual
it
iesofgoodt
ransl
ati
on

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esai
dtobet
hequal
it
iesofawel
ldonet
ransl
ati
on

1.Agoodt ransact i
onshoul dbecapabl eofbeingt r
ansl
atedbacki .e.thewor k
tr
anslat
edi ntolanguageyf rom languagexbyoneper sonshoul dbeabl etobe
tr
anslat
edbyanot hertr
anslatorfrom l
anguagebybackt olanguageyi eldi
ngthe
meaning.
2.Perf
ormancet esting:thisisdonebyaski ngspeakersofl anguageyt ocar r
yout
acti
onbasedont hetranslati
onthesamei ssomedonet ospeakersofxt o
perf
orm activi
tiesont heor i
ginaltext
.Ift
her esul
tsar
et hesame, t
hent he
tr
anslat
ionwi llber ef
erredtohavebeendonewel l
.

NB:-Thust
echni
quei
sver
yti
meconsumi
ng

3.Knowl
edgetest
ing;t
hisisdonebyaskingquest
ionsusual
lyusi
ngquesti
onnair
e
t
ospeaker
soflanguagey,thequest
ionsaskedareaboutt
hecontentoft
ext,
t
hesomequestionsareaskedtospeakersofl
anguagexofresponsesgi
vesare
t
hesame,tr
anslat
ionisconsi
deredtohavebeendonewell.

Pr
inci
plesofi
nter
pret
ati
on

Theprincipl
esofi nterpretat
ionaremor eorl esst hesameast hoset r
anslationsbut
si
nceint er
pretationdeal wit
hor al
lytr
ansl atedmessage.
(i
)Thei nterpreterissupposedt obever yqui cki ni nterpr
etation.
(i
i)Thei nt er
pr eterneedstohavet hegener alknowl edgeoft hesubj ectmat t
eri.
e.a
goodinterpreterwi llbeaper sonwhoi sknowl edgei nt he
subjectmat terbeent al
kedabout .
(
ii
i)Thei nt er
pr eterneedstobever yhardwor kingr eadingal otofl i
teraturetoenrich
hi
mselforher selfwi thi
nformat i
onfrom var iousf ields.
(
iv)Thei nt er
pr etershouldhaveenoughknowl edgeonvar iousi ssues,thiswil
lgive
hi
m orherf lexibil
ityt otr
anslateorinterpretanyt extbr oughtto
him orher

Thi
ngst
obenot
eddur
ingi
nter
pret
ati
on

Inthecourseofint
erpr
etati
on,thefol
lowingarethethi
ngstobenoted.
a)Usegest ur
eli
kethoseusedt hespeakerinSL.
b)Wet hestyl
ethatyouthinkyouraudiencewillunder
stande.
g.youmaybecasuali
s
youraudienceseemstolike.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
0785654761. 138
c)Whent hespeakerstressesapoi nt,dothesamesot hatyoudonotseem tobe
speakingsomet hi
ngdi f
f erentf
rom whatt hespeakerissaying.
d)Obser vetheaudiencekeenl ysot hatyoucanel aborat
ewhent heydonot
understand.Thisisveryi mportantbecauset heaudiencecommuni cat
e
thr
oughyou.
e)Ifyout hi
nkyouhavenotunder st
ood, t
ellthespeakerinSLtorepeatorcl
ari
fyso
thatyouknowwhatexact l
yyououghtt otelltheaudi
ence
i.
e.Donoti nt
erpretunt i
lyoursureofwhatt osay,t
hisisdonetoavoidmisl
eadi
ng
theli
steners.

ShabaniShaf
ii0717522485/
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