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Collateral is one of the building blocks on which the financial markets are constructed. Used for a number of purposes--
including trading with central counterparties (CCPs), secured funding with market counterparties and central banks, OTC
derivatives margining and settlement--the role of effective collateral management in monetizing assets has never been
more important. Until now, policymakers have tended to ignore the complex collateral plumbing that is fundamental to
Buy lending and enabling growth in the economy. Attention is now focused on this important issue. Manmohan Singh leads you
through this complex subject highlighting the importance of financial plumbing and provides a practical understanding of
Book how financial collateral moves across jurisdictions. Also, the discussion on restricting collateral velocity and how it links to
monetary policy rate cycle is original. Now with two additional chapters covering the breakdown of financial plumbing and
monetary policy transmission, this updated edition provides the insight and wisdom delivered in the first edition of this
book, along with the latest techniques and know-how needed when monetizing assets. This is an essential guide to navigating the future as rules and
regulations for the global financial markets are redrawn. Through a thorough examination of the role collateral plays in the market the reader will gain a
deeper understanding of complex and important themes that are likely to remain topical in the near future.
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10/20/2019 Front Matter : Collateral and Financial Plumbing : Second Impression:
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Sections
Second Impression
Manmohan Singh
Incisive Media
E-mail: [email protected]
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www.incisivemedia.com
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited of Saffron House,
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meanings and interpretations by any parties.
Contents
About the Author
Foreword
Introduction
2 Collateral Velocity
12 Conclusion
Index
Foreword
The financial crisis was a watershed for the way in which financial markets functioned and were regulated pre- and post-crisis. One of the most significant changes
is the flight to security. The world of unsecure lending and uncollateralised trading clearly belongs to the past. This raises significant new challenges for the
markets and their regulators
Collateral is a finite good. Nevertheless, legislators and regulators from across the world united in a flight to safety. As a consequence of the Basel Committee’s
new bank capital requirements under Basel III and CPSS-IOSCO’s Financial Market Infrastructure Principles, financial counterparties, banks, clearing members
and central counterparties are required to hold a far greater quantum of collateral than in the past to mitigate counterparty risk.
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❑ Even more importantly, is the quantum of eligible collateral in the system actually sufficient to meet the regulatory requirements, and is it even possible to
quantify that amount?
Industry calculations diverge widely. Public authorities have generally produced significantly lower calculations. A further area of debate is the extent to which
collateral is “reused” in the system. This has given rise to misunderstanding in the market due to the loose use of terminology that should distinguish more clearly
between collateral that has changed legal ownership under title transfer and that which has not. The market mechanisms in this area have given rise to a new area
of attention, often pejoratively dubbed “shadow banking”. Often misunderstood, this system of intermediation provides important liquidity to the market and has a
vital role to play. Of course, greater transparency is required as a minimum, if only to increase the understanding of the “shadow banking” sector and to identify any
risks that it may harbour.
The link between collateral used by “shadow banking” entities and monetary policy is another area that has seldom been explored in great depth. The repo market
is directly affected by monetary-policy measures and can have implications for the connection between regulated firms and activities of the “shadow banking”
sector.
As always, new business opportunities will arise for enterprising firms. “Collateral-transformation”, “collateral highways” and “collateral hubs” are being promoted
by a variety of entities, from custodians to central counterparties, to meet increasing market demands for collateral. This will inevitably give rise to closer regulatory
scrutiny. Greater transparency – meaning increased reporting – is usually the starting point for regulatory demands.
The most important regulatory concern with the plumbing of the financial system will remain a possible failure in one of its critical components. Global regulatory
attention has now turned to the recovery and resolution of central counterparties. Collateral plays an important role in preventing, but also managing, problems in
such systemically important infrastructures.
Manmohan Singh has been at the forefront of those who have raised the increasing importance of collateral and has, over the years, consistently sought attention
for the challenges the dynamics of the new global financial architecture present.
This book considers all of these challenges – and more – and is intended as an important contribution to the debate and analysis of this complex topic. It is timely
and brings many thoughtful insights to the challenges that lie ahead.
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Introduction Chapter
Author(s): Manmohan Singh
Published Date: October 2016
Related Documents
The book provides a practical understanding of how financial collateral moves across jurisdictions. The book complements the present thinking by drawing on the
basic legal underpinnings of financial collateral, the sources and key players in this market, and how the size of this market is relevant from a monetary and
macroeconomic perspective. More recently, central banks’ quantitative easing (QE) efforts have added another dimension to this book, since global financial
lubrication comes from both money and financial collateral.
Since Lehman’s bankruptcy and the bailout of AIG, regulators have admitted several weaknesses in the financial system. Not surprisingly, the proposed regulatory
agenda goes beyond the banks and now spans topics within the shadow banking world that include over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives; the non-bank institutions
that are interconnected with large banks; markets, including repo and securities lending; money market mutual funds; etc. These activities are the nuts and bolts of
financial plumbing, which is lubricated by collateral and money.
The book has two purposes. As well as striving to emphasise the importance of financial plumbing and the role of collateral, it sets out themes that we hope will be
a useful guide to navigating the future, as rules and regulations for the global financial markets are redrawn.
The book is not intended to be mathematical or analytical, but will attempt to cover issues often overlooked by policymakers, academics and markets. The intuitive
approach highlights that the pledged-collateral world spans many jurisdictions and so cannot be documented from the lens of one jurisdiction (or national accounts
such as flow-of-funds). The book thus attempts to fill this void by providing several examples of how to augment the myopic thinking that stems from national data
sources. Furthermore, most of the topics in this chapter embrace the shadow banking literature, which tends to be viewed somewhat negatively. However, the
book attempts to overturn this myth and shed some light on the shadowy world of financial plumbing.
We expect to target a wide audience of senior professionals, including policymakers, banks, hedge funds, pensions, insurers, attorneys within the finance
profession, and regulators who need to augment their understanding of financial plumbing. Every reader, with varying levels of experience in the field, will find a
greater appreciation for the financial plumbing once they digest the basic concepts and grasp of how pledged collateral works and is an integral part (like money)
of settling everyday debits/credits in the market. Some of those messages have reached the ears of key policymakers and we trust the book will continue to dispel
some basic fallacies about financial plumbing and collateral. The book is forward-looking, since regulations that concern collateral issues (eg, Basel III, Dodd–
Frank Act) are still being finalised at the time of writing. A few central banks are continuing with QE efforts (or variants thereof) and all that printed money that has
replaced collateral will need to be addressed in due course.
This Introduction provides a summary of the book, and attempts to provide an angle on the world of finance that was already in existence, but not widely
understood by many finance professionals.
Furthermore, this second impression (September 2016) is issued along with a special edition on “Collateral” by the Journal of Financial Markets Infrastructure
(JFMI), that I lead-edited. The messages from papers within the JFMI special (from the Bank of England, Reserve Bank of Australia, Bundesbank, MIT, etc)
resonate with the theme of this book. The market is the best signal: since the publication of the first edition of this book 2 years ago, several papers/dissertations
have been written on rehypothecation, or related themes (eg, the FSB’s working group on collateral reuse, etc.)
Chapter 1 highlights the importance of financial collateral. The cross-border financial markets traditionally use “cash or cash-equivalent” (ie, money or highly liquid
fungible securities) to settle accounts. Financial collateral does not have to be highly rated AAA/AA: as long as the securities (which can be either debt or equity)
are liquid, mark-to-market and part of a legal cross-border master agreement, they can be used as “cash equivalent”. The chapter examines the accounting and
legal interpretation of financial collateral and, by using hand-picked data from annual reports, shows that the financial collateral volumes are on par with money
metrics.
Chapter 2 examines the financial collateral world within the context of its operational use. The collateral intermediation function is likely to become more important
over time. The chapter looks at a new concept: collateral reuse (or velocity) in the market. Although there is sizeable issuance of good collateral, very little reaches
the market. We describe how to measure this reuse rate and explain why this metric is increasingly important for policymakers to understand, especially when
there is a shortage of collateral and monetary policy is stuck at zero lower bound.
Chapter 3 discusses the economics of how shadow banking meets financial intermediation, whereby non-banks interact with banks. The bank–non-bank nexus is
largely seen as a form of regulatory arbitrage. However, this is an incomplete view, since there is genuine economic demand for such services. The chapter
attempts to explain the economics that supports the demand and supply for this market, the systemic risks that can arise and regulatory and broader policy
implications.
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Chapter 4 deals with financial lubrication and monetary policy – the relative price(s) of money and collateral matter. Some central banks are now a major player in
the collateral markets. Analogous to a coiled spring, the larger the QE efforts, the longer the central banks will have an impact on the collateral market and
associated repo rate. This may have monetary-policy and financial-stability implications, since the repo rates map the financial landscape that straddles the bank–
non-bank nexus.
Chapter 5 looks not only at money and collateral but also at the recent debate on safe assets. Between 1980 and the 2008 global financial crisis, the use of
collateral in financial markets rose exponentially in the US and in other financial markets. After the crisis, we have seen a reduced pool of assets that are
considered acceptable as collateral, resulting in a liquidity shortage. When trying to unwind QE, policymakers will need to consider collateral besides the traditional
money metrics.
Chapter 6 looks at the role of collateral in the OTC derivative market and the sizable undercollateralisation in this market. There would be no need for central
counterparties (CCPs) if everyone posted their share of collateral when using OTC derivatives. However, the proposed regulations concerned with moving most of
this market to CCPs skirt the fundamental risk that resides in a bank – ie, its derivative liabilities (after netting). This is the cost to taxpayers from a large bank’s
failure due to its derivative positions. As regulations do not force every contract to go to CCPs, a suggested alternative is to place a levy on the user or its bank
(which may not wish to let go the business) with the primary objective that the bank’s derivative liabilities be minimised.
Chapter 7 provides a snapshot of the “changing collateral space” and how it may shape the global demand and supply for collateral. We identify the key collateral
pools (relative to the “old” collateral space). Official sector efforts via QE have significantly altered the collateral space. Moreover, collateral movements will be
further affected by regulatory demands stemming from Basel III, Dodd–Frank, EMIR, etc, as well as new debt issuance and collateral connectivity via global
custodians.
Chapter 8 is about the global custodians such as Euroclear, Clearstream, Bank of New York (BoNY) and JPMorgan, who keep custody of the bulk of collateral (in
trillions). This chapter explains the role of custodians, their business model and how they may impact the changing collateral space as the new regulations kick in.
Furthermore, the chapter provides a good snapshot of the global market that is often found lacking due to regional biases. For example, in the US there is often
discussion about triparty and related custody between BoNY, JPMorgan and perhaps State Street, but little coverage of European custodians (and vice versa).
Chapter 9 looks specifically at the role of collateral in the OTC derivative contracts between sovereigns and large banks. Due to the large volume of business (and
associated revenue), most banks active in the collateral space do not actually force sovereigns to post collateral when the sovereigns are “out of the money” on
their derivative contracts. However, if banks are indeed “out of the money”, they usually have to post collateral. The rhetoric about cutting the umbilical cord
between banks and sovereigns will not get full traction unless sovereigns post collateral on their derivatives contracts with banks.
Chapter 10 asks what if there were a breakdown in the financial plumbing? Non-banks such as CCPs are perhaps the most useful lens to see how regulators view
the role of financial plumbing. This chapter considers the options of keeping the CCPs afloat and the avenues available under the proposed regulations. It is
argued that CCPs have, by regulatory fiat, become “too important to fail”, and thus the imperative should be greater loss-sharing by participants that better aligns
the distribution of risks and rewards of CCPs, the clearing members and derivative end-users.
Chapter 11 highlights the Fed’s lift-off from “zero” in December 2015. The chapter reiterates that it is crucial to understand market signals such as repo rates since
they have traditionally guided the policy rate. If the Fed increases its footprint in the financial plumbing, market signals will be weaker. Monetary policy transmission
may be compromised if all short term rates do not move in sync.
Chapter 12 concludes with a forward-looking view as regulators finalise proposals in the near future and the financial landscape adjusts accordingly. The topics
discussed will remain of immense interest and we hope that some of the key messages will not be overlooked.
Although this book attempts to simplify a complex topic, for this author it reflects a difficult personal journey. Very few – notably Stijn Claessens at the IMF, Phil
Prince, James Aitken, Alastair Ryan, and a couple of individuals in the markets who wish to remain anonymous – have encouraged thinking “outside the box”. And
it is at their request (and Risk’s initiative) that we decided to collate our thinking for the broader audience who would otherwise shy away from technical jargon. It is
inevitable that there will be more financial crises, since this is the intrinsic nature of market systems. But, hopefully, we will adapt ourselves better as we move up
the learning curve.
Views expressed in this book are those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of the IMF or IMF policy.
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Collateral flows lie at the heart of any proper understanding of market liquidity, and hence of financial stability. No other market is so critical to the functioning of the
financial system, and yet so poorly understood. In addition, though, as policymakers begin to acknowledge the inadequacies of traditional theories of money and
lending, collateral flows are increasingly recognised to be just as important a driver of credit creation as money itself. Despite this, a true appreciation of the
importance of collateral flows is hampered by the inadequacy of the way in which they are accounted for. So it is natural for this first chapter to look at the
accounting and legal interpretation of collateral.
Using hand-picked data from annual reports, this chapter shows that financial collateral volumes are on a par with money metrics and thus need to be better
understood from monetary and macroeconomic perspectives.
The cross-border financial markets traditionally use “cash or cash-equivalent” collateral (ie, money or highly liquid fungible securities) in lieu of cash to settle
accounts. Financial collateral does not have to be highly rated AAA/AA: as long as the securities (which can be either debt or equity) are liquid, mark-to-market
and part of a legal cross-border master agreement, they can be used as “cash equivalent”. However, post-Lehman, it is more difficult to pledge lower-rated
collateral and at higher haircuts. In this way, collateral underpins a wide range of secured funding and hedging (primarily with OTC derivatives) transactions.
Increasingly, collateral has a regulatory value as well as being cash-equivalent. Such financial collateral has not yet been quantified by regulators and is not (yet)
part of official sector statistics, but is a key component of financial plumbing.
The term “pledged for reuse” means that the collateral taker has the right to reuse it in their own name. Its practical effect is economically equivalent to title transfer
(ie, a change in ownership) and is essential to the financial lubrication that makes collateral akin to cash-equivalent. In the bilateral market, contracts that embrace
repo, securities lending, OTC derivatives and customer margin loans generally involve title transfer. Under a title-transfer arrangement the collateral provider
transfers ownership of collateral to the collateral taker.1 The latter acquires full title to the collateral received and, as its new owner, is completely free to utilise it. In
return, the parties agree that, once the collateral provider has discharged its financial obligation to the collateral taker, the collateral taker will return equivalent
collateral to the collateral provider. Note that the obligation is to return equivalent collateral, that is to say securities of the same type and value terms, but not the
original security. This point about equivalence is important. After the collateral has thus changed hands via title transfer and been reused by the collateral taker, it
would be not be obligatory on the part of the collateral taker to return exactly the same property initially received as collateral. A simplistic example is a physical
US$10 bill with serial number XYZ. If you provide that very bill as collateral to the collateral recipient, it does not matter if they give you back a different US$10 bill
– any ten-dollar bill will do.
Although the terms “rehypothecation” and “pledged collateral that can be reused” are often employed interchangeably, each has a specific and slightly different
meaning.2 “Rehypothecation” means the use of financial collateral by a collateral taker as security for their own obligations to some third party (ie, onward
pledging). Reuse is broader in scope, encompassing not only repledging but also any use of the collateral compatible with ownership of the property (such as
selling or lending it to a third party). Not all pledged collateral can be reused in this way. Rights of reuse are thus inherent in title-transfer financial collateral
arrangements – because ownership of the property actually changes – whereas, under a pledge, the collateral taker takes a security interest only in the pledged
assets and will enjoy rights of rehypothecation only if re-use is expressly granted in the pledge agreement.
Within the US, rehypothecation rights are strictly limited. Outside the US (that is outside New York-governed contracts), the prevalence of rehypothecation allows
for a market clearing price for financial collateral (ie, UK and continental Europe). Rights of reuse have a strong legal underpinning under the Financial Collateral
Directive of the EU. The EU legal framework for financial collateral is flexible and can accommodate the preferences of prudent and risk-averse clients and
counterparties. Whether or not sophisticated market participants strike bargains that offer them appropriate protection is a matter for them alone to decide. In most
cases, UK broker-dealers operate subject to contractually agreed reuse limits.
Some policymakers, especially in the financial stability groups (eg, FSB, CPSS, IOSCO), perceive “rehypothecation” to be systemically dangerous (because of the
way it can drive leverage – see Chapter 3’s Annex). However, ordinary banking is not fundamentally different. In economic terms, the “reuse” or rehypothecation of
a security is identical to the money creation that takes place in commercial banking through the process of accepting deposits and making loans. So why is it that a
US$100 dollar deposit at a bank can be lent, but financial collateral that is mark-to-market at US$100 dollar is restricted for reuse by policymakers? A bank such
as Citi has capital; so does shadow banking via haircuts and overcollateralisation whenever collateral is reused. Chapter 3 shows that securities reuse and credit
creation by the banks present both risks and benefits to the financial system and the real economy.
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But these criticisms risk overlooking three significant counterarguments. First, as subsequent litigation revealed, the UK broker Lehman Brothers International
Europe (LBIE) appeared to have broken the UK rules on client asset segregation. In certain cases it appears that LBIE had not been properly segregating client
property. Quantitative limits on reuse do not protect clients whose brokers do not follow the rules. Second, it could be argued that Lehman clients who had
voluntarily agreed to give broad rights of reuse in their prime-brokerage contracts essentially got what they bargained for when LBIE failed. Those clients (for the
most part, professional and sophisticated counterparties) had misjudged the counterparty credit risk on Lehman – but they had not been cheated any more than an
uninsured depositor is “cheated” by a failing bank. Third, the supposed uniqueness of the UK legal regime is perhaps overplayed: the types of counterparties that
go to London rather than, say, Frankfurt or Paris, do so not so much for any unique features of UK law. In fact, the strong legal basis for title-transfer financial
collateral actually has its roots in English law, which also underpins the Financial Collateral Directive of the EU. The market is in London not because it offers
unique arbitrage, but because UK courts are viewed with a long history of contractual adjudication and legal principles.
An important distinction is interpretation of the prefix “re” in “rehypothecation”. In the US, this is normally done with a pledge with consent to reuse. So there is a
clear distinction between pledged securities and sold securities. However, in Europe a repo is a contract of sale with a promise to repurchase at an agreed future
date and price. Legally, if I sell securities, the resulting securities are no longer my securities; and, if these securities are then onward-pledged, that is not a
rehypothecation from my angle! However, is this economically different if I sell securities on the basis that you agree to sell me equivalent securities at some future
time? The (present) Basel approach is on the lines that the existence of the promise to sell back means that the original sale is no longer a “pure” sale, and
therefore caught by the rehypothecation restrictions.
Collateral use and reuse in financial markets is large. Before the Lehman crash, the volume of funding via pledged collateral (including title transfer) was about
US$10 trillion, higher than the US broad measure of money, M2. The accounting of pledged collateral suggests that many banks were (and remain) funded via
collateral. In fact, Lehman’s last annual balance-sheet size was US$691 billion; but, as per balance-sheet footnotes, pledged collateral received that Lehman could
reuse in its own name was US$798 billion (end-2007). Also, the words “fair value of securities” entail that the securities are transferred at market prices (ie, there is
haircut or overcollateralisation when collateral moves within the financial system).
At November 30, 2007, the fair value of securities received as collateral that were permitted to sell or repledge was approximately $798 billion … The fair
value of securities received as collateral that was sold or repledged was approximately $725 billion at November 30, 2007 …
Typically, descriptions in annual reports for pledged collateral are remarkably similar in the financial statements of both US and European dealers; thus, data on
pledged collateral is, at least to some extent, comparable across these institutions. For example, the Swiss bank UBS had a balance sheet of over CHF2.2 trillion
as of end-2007. The off-balance-sheet collateral received that can be onwardly repledged was almost CHF1.5 trillion, and only a fraction shows up on the balance
sheet. The latest regulatory definition of leverage allows for netting under certain conditions; so all off-balance-sheet transactions will not be picked up when
calculating leverage.
The volume in this market is considerable, and not fully understood by everyone due to legal, accounting and related market complexities. In either case, if
pledged-collateral use/reuse or market value drops – and this market crashed to about half its size, from US$10 trillion to just over US$5 trillion during 2008–9 (see
Figures 1.1–1.3) – financial intermediation slows. Pledged collateral from bilateral, securities lending, prime brokerage and OTC derivatives margin is hard to
disentangle as it only appears as bunched up footnotes to balance sheets. Unsurprisingly a study carried out by the Office of Financial Research at the US
Treasury, (Baklonova, et al) only provides a range for the bilateral repo market of around $1–2 trillion (and only for the US market, not globally). Such a slowing in
collateral usage – and hence in secured lending as a whole – is exactly analogous to a drying-up of interbank markets. As such, it will have monetary policy
implications (see Chapter 4). Under such circumstances, the distinction between “good” and “bad” collateral becomes crucial – a difference we will explore in
Chapter 5.
Source: Hand-picked data by author from annual reports; see also Singh (2011).
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Figure 1.2 Pledged Collateral Received by European Banks and Nomura (2007–15)
Source: Hand-picked data by author from annual reports; see also Singh (2011).
As Panel 1.1 aims to illustrate via the accounting, there is a wedge between off-balance-sheet footnotes on pledged collateral (via repo, sec-lending, OTC
derivatives in the money and prime-broker loans), and on-balance-sheet entries (which may pick up only a slice of the off-balance-sheet funding). The wedge is
not identical across the key banks. Some, such as Lehman, significantly funded themselves off balance sheet. However, due to recent regulatory proposals such
as leverage ratio and the Liquidity Coverage Ratio (LCR), banks’ business models are changing. For example, all global regulators, including in the US and EU,
will implement the LCR with a phased-in timetable between 2015 and 2019. There may still be difference in reporting under International Financial Reporting
Standards (IFRS) and Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), but the off-balance-sheet entries are similar, to make relevant comparisons.
There are other sources of collateral in financial markets. The book will focus primarily on the bilateral pledged market, which does not restrict reuse, unlike the
triparty repo market, or collateral access via lien on structured vehicles. We highlight some of these other sources that are similar to the bilateral pledged collateral
discussed (which remains the crux of financial plumbing) but are not equivalent, since they lack some key attributes (eg, velocity of collateral) that will be
emphasised in subsequent chapters.
Dealer-to-Dealer Collateral
Dealers would generally prefer not to use their balance sheet when moving collateral for their clients. Typically, collateral coming in via reverse repos (ie, lending to
clients) matches the collateral leaving the dealers via repos (ie, borrowing from clients). The repo business covers two aspects: (i) a matched book (ie, via reverse
repo) to provide funding to clients and (ii) financing of the bank. This book focuses on the client aspect and the associated churning of this primary source of
collateral. Although the collateral desk is supposed to be “self funding”, dealers may have to use their balance sheet when collateral going out exceeds collateral
coming in; but such requests are scrutinised by the dealer’s Treasury due to capital-adequacy implications and generally do not exceed US$5–10 billion per large
dealer. Thus, if there are 10 dealers active in the collateral space, they may have US$50–100 billion of balance-sheet funding from time to time, but this provides
only the means to iron out any asymmetries between clients’ collateral inflows and outflows to the dealers. However, to put this in perspective, the figure of
US$50–100 billion is only 0.5–1% of the total collateral volume that is churned between dealers (about US$10 trillion as of end-2007).
Non-US example:
Prime broker (PB) makes a margin loan to hedge fund (HF) of £100, takes as pledge equities worth £140 from HF. PB pledges those equities to a custodial
securities lender against a borrowing of US Treasuries worth £133 (5% haircut). PB repos the £133 US Treasuries to a money market fund to raise £129
(3% margin). The consolidated balance sheet looks like this:
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Receivables 100
Note: Fair value of collateral received that can be pledged and reused is £273.
Note: Fair value of collateral received that can be pledged and reused is £273.
Download TSV
US example
The example above cannot be fully replicated due to the Reg T and SEC Rule15c(3) lock-up rules in the US (see Chapter 2). Thus, even if there is a debit
balance as per this example, the credit balance of the PB needs to be offset first, before collateral can be reused. So the other legs of the above example
(ie, pledging equities to a securities lender and then repo-ing to a money market fund) are harder to achieve. Thus, due to this “net” lock-up between debit
and credit balances, rehypothecation and collateral reuse more difficult and less efficient, potentially requiring the dealer to post substantial capital in the
US. Rehypothecation in this sense is a non-US phenomenon, where collateral reuse is not subject to regulatory constraints.
US Balance Sheet
Assets Liabilities
Note: Fair value of collateral received that can be pledged and reused will depend on the credit balance of the PB. Debt balance of US$100 needs to be offset with the overall credit
balance of the PB before any pledged collateral can be reused.
Note: Fair value of collateral received that can be pledged and reused will depend on the credit balance of the PB. Debt balance of US$100 needs to be offset with the overall credit
balance of the PB before any pledged collateral can be reused.
US Balance Sheet
Download TSV
The US bilateral repo market is a “market for collateral” and allows for the exchange of money and securities directly between collateral and money providers.
Whereas the US triparty repo market is a “market for funding” ie, money for broker dealers or banks collateralised by securities. The triparty repo market is
currently estimated at US$1.6 trillion from a peak of almost US$3 trillion before the Lehman crisis. The triparty repo market provides banks with cash on a secured
basis, with the collateral being posted to cash lenders (eg, money market funds) through one of the two clearing banks, Bank of New York Mellon and JPMorgan
(Copeland et al 2010). The bilateral market is substantial and although no official statistics exist, some research carried out by central banks seems to suggest that
this market is on par with, or bigger than, triparty repo (Office of Financial Research 2016; Singh 2011 and 2012). In fact the OFR study provides a range of
roughly US$1–2 trillion as estimates for the bilateral repo market. In line with the thrust of this chapter, pledged collateral as shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2, from
bilateral repo, securities-lending, prime brokerage, and OTC derivatives margin is hard to disentangle as it shows up bunched up in footnotes to the balance
sheets.
Think of the bilateral repo market as analogous with the old-clothing trade: typically, merchants in developed countries shrink-wrap old clothes in shipping-
container sized bundles and send the plastic-wrapped blocks to poorer countries. There, a clothing broker buys it and resells it by weight to jobbers. Buyers pay to
gather around the jobber, those who are in close pay more for the prime spots compared with those on the outside. Then the jobber pops the bundle open with a
knife and the shrink-wrap literally explodes; everyone gathered around jumps for the best pieces. Collateral desks are a bit like those jobbers. Big lots come in
from hedge funds and security lenders, and the collateral desks at large banks will paw through it, searching for gems. Those gems go out bilateral to customers
who will pay a premium. The remainder goes to the guys in the back of the line: triparty repo. Banks will generally use securities first in the bilateral market, as it
offers a better price, and what does not get used in the bilateral then goes to the triparty market.
Securitisation Vehicles
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Vehicles funded by asset-backed commercial paper (ABCP) – such as SIVs (structured investment vehicles) and conduits – historically have not relied on dealers
for funding. Since these structures were securitisation-based with lien on specific pieces of collateral, it was difficult to raise funds by pledging collateral from such
vehicles. Unlike hedge funds, the above vehicles sourced their funding directly, by issuing liabilities to institutional cash pools such as corporate treasurers,
securities lenders or money market funds. Some SIVs, for example, had dedicated treasury functions that were responsible for raising funds from cash investors.
Also, those that relied on intermediaries for treasury functions did not get their funding from intermediaries, but from cash investors. Thus, we do not consider
collateral related to such flows to be a significant “source” of collateral that is churned by the dealers. This collateral generally cannot be repledged to the street.
Rules on Rehypothecation
In the US, the SEC’s Rule 15c3–3 prevents a broker-dealer from using its customer’s securities to finance its proprietary activities. Under this rule, the broker-
dealer may use/rehypothecate an amount up to 140% of the customer’s debit balance (ie, borrowing from the broker-dealer). As an example, assume a customer
has US$500 in pledged securities and a debit balance of US$200, resulting in net equity of US$300. The broker-dealer can rehypothecate up to US$280 of the
client’s assets (140% x US$200). Doing so would create other regulatory complications under Rule 15c3-3, so the efficiency of that rehypothecation would depend
on the rest of the dealer’s customers.
Created by the Securities Investor Protection Act (SIPA), the Securities Investor Protection Corporation (SIPC) is an important part of the overall system of investor
protection in the United States. SIPC’s focus is very specific: restoring securities (rather than cash) to investors with assets in the hands of bankrupt brokerage
firms (eg, Lehman).
A key reason why hedge funds may have previously opted for funding in Europe is that leverage is not capped as in the United States via the 140% rule under
Rule 15c3–3.
Leverage levels at many UK hedge funds, banks and financial affiliates have been higher, as both the United Kingdom and continental Europe do not have a direct
parallel to SIPA. Brokers and banks would rehypothecate their clients’ assets along with their own proprietary assets.
Some recent proposed regulations seem to be at odds with “title transfer”. If I transfer title, then the recipient of collateral is able to use that asset in any way they
deem fit. This is not compatible with regulations that treat the asset as “client property” and limit rehypothecation, or segregate for the client. In fact, insisting on
segregation undermines the legal construction under which title was transferred.
Market practice suggests that rehypothecation of assets has historically been a cheaper way of financing the prime business than turning to the repo market.
Empirical work to test this hypothesis has been absent or very limited, but may be very relevant if rehypothecation loses ground in the near future. Both prime
business and repo financing are key elements whereby collateral lubricates financial plumbing.
The next chapter is about collateral reuse, or collateral velocity. This is a new metric with similar economic underpinnings to the literature on money. Only recently
have policymakers and regulators acknowledged this metric, especially in light of collateral shortage(s) stemming from central banks taking in good collateral and
the increased demand from proposed regulations.
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cushioning duration related volatility at the long-end of the U.S. Treasury curve seems to be a detour.
With a large balance sheet, the unwind will be over a significant period of time, and thus not a short term conflict (as is assumed in the monetary policy
literature). Furthermore, if central banks remain part of the plumbing and take money directly from nonbanks, the financial plumbing that relies on such
money gets rusted.
As a result, the dealer banks that connect the money pools and collateral pools will unwind such connections. Without money, the dealer banks will in turn
return the US Treasury and agency MBS back to the securities-lenders in exchange for corporates/equities. The dealer banks will also give back securities
to the hedge funds, as banks will not have funds from money market etc.
So the cost of funding long positions for non-dealers like hedge funds in the bilateral collateral market will go up, and demand for (and price of) securities
will go down. Thus, the value of the pledged collateral (such as US Treasuries) falls – whether Fed sells them from their balance sheet, or do reverse repo
directly with nonbanks. Central banks’ role in market plumbing due to large balance sheets that has kept collateral velocity muted will impact their
monetary policy.
QE created excess reserves but removing them from the financial system impacts elements of plumbing that will need to be incorporated in monetary
policy decision making. The new regulations that constrain bank balance sheets further impedes market plumbing.
The plumbing will always be available for privileged clients of the banks (or custodian banks); but not for everyone since the private balance sheet space is
being rationed. However, going forward, the choice of balance sheet – private or public – should be transparent and driven by market forces and not by
adhoc allocation by central banks. More importantly, monetary policy transmission is weakened if parts of the plumbing move to central bank balance
sheet.
References
BaklanovaViktoriaCeciliaCaglioMarcoCipriani and AdamCopeland2016 “The U.S. Bilateral Repo Market: Lessons from a New Survey” Office of Financial
ResearchJanuary.
CopelandAdam MAntoineMartin and MichaelWalker2010 “The Tri-Party Repo Market before the 2010 Reforms” New York Fed Staff Report No. 477.
Office of Financial Research2016 “The U.S. Bilateral Repo Market – Lessons From a New Survey” (Baklanova et al January13)
SinghManmohan2011 “Velocity of Pledged Collateral: Analysis and Implications” IMF Working Paper No. 11/256.
1It is standard practice to use title transfer in repo and securities lending activities. Also, OTC derivatives contracts under the International Swaps and Derivative Association use English law,
where title transfer is part of the credit support agreements (CSAs).
2Under a pledged collateral agreement, the collateral taker, or the “pledgee”, does not have automatic rights of reuse or rehypothecation in the pledge agreement unless such rights of reuse are
expressly granted in the contract. The pledgee will not be able to seize or use that pledged collateral for their own purposes unless the “pledgor” defaults on their obligation to the pledgee,
triggering enforcement. However, in cases where a pledgor, or collateral provider, grants a pledgee rights of rehypothecation over pledged collateral, and if the pledgee has exercised this right
prior to insolvency, the pledgor’s legal rights are as if they had transferred title in the property to the pledgee. The pledgor’s legal remedies against an insolvent pledgee are, in practice,
extremely limited.
3 Lenders and dealers agree bilaterally on what baskets of securities they will trade. However, it is not frozen in place, in that substitutions of collateral are possible during the repo. For
example, a dealer can pull some agencies out of a “live” repo, pledge or sell them, after substituting some Treasuries.
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IMF eLibrary
A great deal of short-term financing is generally extended by private agents against financial collateral. The collateral intermediation function is likely to become
more important over time. This chapter looks at a new concept: collateral reuse (or velocity) in the market. Although there is large issuance of good collateral, very
little reaches the market. We describe how to measure this reuse rate and why this metric is increasingly important for policymakers to understand, especially
when there is a shortage of collateral.1
Sources of Collateral
In the global financial system, the non-banks generally allow reuse of their collateral in lieu of other considerations. The key providers of (primary) collateral to the
“street” (or large banks/dealers) are:
❑ custodians on behalf of pension, insurers, official sector accounts and so forth; and
❑ commercial banks that liaise with dealers (this is relatively small compared with the supply from HFs and custodians).
Typically, HFs are suppliers of collateral while money-market funds are users, in that they supply funds to the market in exchange for collateral. HFs via their prime
brokers allow for collateral reuse as a quid pro quo for the leverage/funding they receive from large banks. The other non-bank providers of collateral generally
loan collateral for various tenors to optimise their asset management mandates.
The supply of pledged collateral is typically handled by the central collateral desk of dealers, who reuse the collateral to meet the demand from the financial
system. Such securities serve as collateral against margin loans, securities borrowing, reverse-repo transactions and OTC derivatives. This collateral is secured
funding for the dealers and is received in lieu of borrowing and/or other securities given to a client. Major dealers active in the collateral industry include Goldman
Sachs, Morgan Stanley, JPMorgan, Bank of America/Merrill and Citibank in the US. In Europe and elsewhere, important collateral dealers are Deutsche Bank,
UBS, Barclays, Credit Suisse, Société Générale, BNP Paribas, HSBC, Royal Bank of Scotland and Nomura.
Hedge Funds
HFs largely finance their positions in two ways: (i) loans made under prime-broker agreements with their prime brokers (PBs) and (ii) repurchase agreements
(repos), generally with other banks that are not their PBs.
HFs usually pledge their securities as collateral for reuse to their PB in exchange for cash borrowing from the PB (a process also known as rehypothecation).
There are limits to the degree of reuse, however. In the US, for example, Regulation T and the SEC’s Rule 15c3 limits PBs’ use of rehypothecated collateral from a
clients. This means that any excess collateral of an HF cannot be used by the PB in the US for their own use, and thus remains “locked”. Regulation T limits debt
to 50%, or a leverage factor of 2. With portfolio margining (ie, after netting positions), HFs can increase leverage beyond the factor of 2. However, to have more
unconstrained leverage, aggressive strategies are booked offshore (eg, UK).
Typically, equity-related strategies such as equity long/short, quant-driven, event-driven and so forth are funded via PBs. Similarly, fixed-income arbitrage – global
macro strategies that seek higher leverage – is done via repo financing.
Let us suppose we wish to know how much collateral was sourced from HFs (end-2007 and end-2015). This information is not readily available and needs to be
estimated, since the hedge fund industry is not subject to regulatory requirements that warrant financial statement disclosures, as is the case with the banks.
Intuitively, the more long positions relative to short positions there are, the more collateral is released to the market. Let us now look at the equity strategies and
the associated arithmetic. As shown in Table 2.1, HFs generally borrow from PBs for equity long/short and event-driven strategies. The share of these two
strategies in the mark-to-market value of collateral was 50% as of end-2007. Event-driven strategies are usually of two types: credit/distressed and merger
arbitrage, which are equally split. Only merger arbitrage uses PB funding, since credit/distressed strategies do not employ leverage; so we adjust and reduce the
event-driven strategies by half. Thus, for 2007, equity strategies were 36% of mark-to-market value of collateral. Based on available data, the HF industry
estimates assets under management (AUM) to be at US$2.0 trillion for end-2007.
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Convert arbitrage Emerging markets Event-driven Fixed-income arbitrage Global macro Long/short equity Managed futures
Dec-07 3 15 28 6 18 22 8
Source: CS Hedge Index
Source: CS Hedge Index
Download TSV
The mark-to-mark value of collateral generally equates to AUM times relevant leverage in these strategies. This is the sum of long-market-value (LMV) positions
and the absolute value of short-market-value (SMV) positions. Intuitively, the long positions are indicative of collateral released by HFs to the “street”. Figure 2.1
gives delta bias on the left axis. Delta bias captures the ratio of LMV/SMV. This ratio is a very useful indicator to gauge PB borrowing for HFs’ equity long/short
strategies. For example, as of end-2007, the delta bias was about 50%, which means an LMV/SMV ratio of 150/100 or 3:2 (ie, collateral to PB was 3/5 of total
positions). Arithmetically, delta bias equals total LMV/total SMV, minus 1. For end-2007, with AUM with HFs at US$2 trillion and equity leverage of 2.0, and a 36%
share of relevant strategies, and adjusting for long/short ratio, the borrowing from PBs was about US$2 trillion (AUM) x 2.0 (leverage) x 0.36 (share of equity
strategies) x 0.6 (delta bias), or about US$850 billion. Similar calculation for end-2015, gives PB borrowing of US$3 trillion x 2.0 x 0.4 x 0.55, or about US$1,350
billion. Since we separately show securities that come via custodians for sec-lending, when a PB exchanges clients’ “shorts” with custodians, we avoid the double
counting.
Figure 2.1 Equity Long/Short Hedge Fund Position (ie, Delta Bias)
The non-equity-type strategies and non-prime-brokerage funding are largely via repos. HFs used more repo-related strategies than pre-Lehman, from about 27%
in 2007 to over 40% in 2013, as rehypothecation via PB-related borrowings lost favour relative to other types of funding and the prudence for HFs to engage with
more than one PB. As a rule of thumb, the repo strategies of HFs are roughly 60–70% back-to-back; so only about one-third of pledged collateral that comes in
from hedge funds is free with rights to sell onward or repledge. When the rate cycle is high (as at end-2007), the 60–70% threshold may be smaller (so more
pledged collateral can then be reused). However, when the rate cycle bottoms out (as at end-2013), the 60–70% threshold may be more like 80% with more back-
to-back hedges, and thus less pledged collateral is released for reuse.
Again, the more long positions relative to short positions, the more collateral is released to the market. Let us now look at the nonequity strategies and the
associated arithmetic for strategies that involve repo and derivatives. To estimate repo-related collateral from HFs for 2007, we take the AUM of US$2 trillion and
the 27% share of strategies that used repo (see Figure 2.2).
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Including the use of derivatives, aggregate leverage in 2007 (in fixed income and global macro strategies that are funded via repo) was higher relative to equity-
type strategies – at around 4 (see Figure 2.3). When rates are high, the “carry” is higher and shows a bias towards long strategies relative to short strategies;
relatively more long strategies imply more collateral released to the banks for reuse. Now some associated arithmetic. Generally, about 60–70% of nonequity
strategies are hedged simultaneously, so only roughly one-third of collateral is free to be onwardly repledged. So for end-2007, about US$750 billion pledged
collateral came to the banks for reuse (arithmetically, 2 trillion AUM x 27% non-equity strategies x 4 (leverage including derivatives) x one-third (via rate cycle
hedging threshold). In general, leverage in the UK is higher than elsewhere and so any extrapolation of leverage levels from the FSA hedge fund data (eg, Figure
2.3) needs to be trimmed. The FSA’s semi-annual hedge fund survey is now replaced with its annual hedge fund survey (by Financial Conduct Authority, UK).
Since there are some changes, we rely on market information to estimate the 2015 data and not Figures 2.2 and 2.3.
Doing similar arithmetic for 2015, with aggregate leverage a bit lower relative to 2007 at 3.5, AUM higher at US$3 trillion and share of HF strategies using repo
(around 30%) and back-to-back “threshold” closer to 80% due to the bottom of the rate cycle, we would estimate that US$650 billion collateral from HFs was
pledged for reuse to the banks via repos (arithmetically, 3.0 trillion AUM x 30% in repo strategy x 3.5 (leverage including derivatives) x 0.20 (via rate cycle hedging
threshold).
Note that a managed futures strategy is via cash that goes to an exchange such as the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME), and thus is not a collateral/leverage-
based strategy; also, emerging markets or distressed strategies do not generally require leverage via PBs or repo via non-PBs. Some HFs hold AUM in cash.
Thus, the total PB and non-PB strategies (with leverage) do not entail that all the total AUM x leverage will hit the street.
To be technical, if about two-thirds of strategies are hedged, the collateral from the remaining one-third may not all be turned to cash by the banks – it depends on
their balance-sheet space, and this issue began to get more traction in 2015. Also, banks can be very different, with UBS curtailing balance-sheet activities in the
pledged-collateral area, while some others try to enter this market.
So, in summary the total collateral from HFs that came to the large dealers (and hit the street) is estimated to have been about US$1.6 trillion as of end-2007, with
US$850 billion to have come via PB funding and US$750 billion from repo funding outside the PBs. Similarly, arithmetic for 2015 suggests that US$2.0 trillion of
collateral from HFs came to the large dealers. Leverage became lower (after the collapse in 2008–9) but slowly inching higher in more recent years; however,
AUM with HFs are higher as of end-2015 at US$3 trillion.
We now look at the other source of collateral that comes to banks: non-HF sources.
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Securities lending provides collateralised short-term funding, just like repo. In a repo there is an outright sale of the securities accompanied by a specific price and
date at which the securities will be bought back. On the other hand, securities lending transactions generally have no set end date and no set price. The beneficial
owner can recall the shares on loan at any time and the borrower can return the shares at any time. Thus, securities lending transactions are much more flexible
than repos and thus are more conducive to covering shorts where the position’s profitability relies on exact timing/tenor matching. Furthermore, with respect to
legal rights, securities lending is effectively identical to repo. For example, both transactions include full transfer of title. The asset-management complex, which
includes pension, insurers and official sector accounts such as sovereign wealth funds and central banks, is a rich source of collateral deposits. The securities they
hold are continuously reinvested to maximise returns over their maturity tenor.
We use the Risk Management Association (RMA) as the main data source (see Table 2.2), which includes only primary sources of securities lending from clients
such as pension funds, insurers, official sector accounts and some corporate/money funds. The RMA’s data includes the largest custodians such as the BoNY,
State Street and JPMorgan. (Another data source, Data Explorers, shows larger numbers, as it includes a significant part of the secondary market activity also. A
Bank of England paper (2011) using Data Explorers states that about US$2 trillion of securities were on loan, but includes secondary holdings or collateral reuse
rate also, ie, it also counts the bank-to-bank holdings of primary sources.)
Securities lending versus cash collateral 1,209 935 875 818 687 620 669 701 644
Securities lending versus noncash collateral 486 251 270 301 370 378 338 425 454
Total securities lending 1,695 1,187 1,146 1,119 1,058 998 1,008 1,137 1098
Source: RMANote: Collateral received from pension funds, insurers, official accounts, etc (USD, billions)
Source: RMANote: Collateral received from pension funds, insurers, official accounts, etc (USD, billions)
Download TSV
The risk aversion due to counterparty risk since Lehman has led many pension and insurance funds’ official accounts not to let go their collateral for incremental
returns. These figures are not rebounding as per end-2011 financial statements of banks, and anecdotal evidence suggests even more collateral constraints since.
The decline in the first row of Table 2.2 needs some explanation. The US regulatory rules that guide borrowers permit only cash, and certain government
securities. Hence, the US developed as a cash collateral business, where the lending agent lends client assets versus cash and then reinvests the cash, according
to the client’s instructions, in very short-term reinvestments. Outside the US (in the UK, for instance), regulatory rules permit certain types of noncash collateral that
are readily available (such as FTSE equities). In the aftermath of Lehman and the liquidity crisis, borrowers in the US borrowed more hard-to-borrow stocks
(specials), and less general collateral; this explains the decline evident in the table. Noncash collateral deals (ie, collateral for collateral) effectively provide the
lenders with a hard fee for the deal, and it does not give temporary cash to generate excess returns by creating a short-term money-market book (also see Panel
8.1 on the future of securities lending).
Bank–Dealer Collateral
Dealers occasionally receive requests from commercial banks for collateral swaps. In such a transaction, typically the collateral posted by the commercial bank
may need an “upgrade”. Discussions with dealers suggest that such requests are generally minimal and thus insignificant relative to the collateral flows from the
key clients (such as HFs, pension funds, insurers and official accounts). We acknowledge such flows in Figure 2.4 with a de minimis, but do not consider these
flows to impact on the arithmetic for the velocity of pledged collateral. Other sources of collateral are not material, since we consider only that collateral that has no
legal constraints on reuse.
Figure 2.4 The Sources and Uses of Collateral – Summary (2007, 2010-2015)
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Figure 2.4 shows the sources of collateral (in the circles) and overall collateral received by the banks (in the rectangle) for 2007, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and
2015. The years 2008 and 2009 were in flux with several key banks in the pledged-collateral market disappeared (eg, Lehman) or merged with other banks (eg,
Bear Stearns, Merrill Lynch). Even for the year 2010, this data has been verified with investor-relations groups wherever banks were merged or absorbed.
We compare data between 2007 and 2015 to see how this market has changed from before Lehman’s bankruptcy through the financial crisis, which straddles
monetary policy experiments. As a starting point, we take the total collateral received by the banks as of end-2007 (almost US$10 trillion) and compare it to the
primary sources of collateral (the two primary-source buckets identified in Figure 2.4, namely HFs and security lenders on behalf of pension, insurers, official
accounts etc). The ratio of the total collateral received/primary sources of collateral is the velocity of collateral due to the intermediation by the dealers:
Similarly, for 2015, total collateral from primary sources that could be repledged by the large dealers from hedge funds was US$2.0 trillion, plus US$1.1 trillion via
security lending operations of custodians on behalf of pension funds, insurers and official sector accounts, for a total of US$3.1 trillion. The total collateral received
by the 10–15 large banks was US$5.6 trillion as of end-2015 (still sharply lower than the US$10 trillion peak as of end-2007, but bouncing back from the trough of
US$5.0 trillion as of end-2009).
Table 2.3 provides a summary of the sources of collateral, the total volume received by the large banks and the resultant velocity. The velocity is not an exact
metric, but gives an idea of the length of the collateral chains in that year. So we can infer that, on average, the collateral chains were longer in 2007 than in 2015.
The intuition is that counterparty risk before Lehman was minimal but has changed since then (due to some central bank’s quantitative-easing policies, the ongoing
European crisis, etc). With fewer trusted counterparties in the market owing to elevated counterparty risk, this leads to stranded liquidity pools, incomplete markets,
idle collateral and shorter collateral chains, missed trades and deleveraging.
Table 2.3Sources of Pledged Collateral, Velocity, and Collateral, 2007, 2010–15 (In US$ Trillions; Velocity in Units)
Sources
https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/IMF071/23798-9781782723172/23798-9781782723172/ch02.xml 5/11
10/20/2019 2. Collateral Velocity : Collateral and Financial Plumbing : Second Impression:
Sources: Risk Management Association; IMF Working Paper: Velocity of Pledged Collateral (Singh, 2011)
Table 2.3 Sources of Pledged Collateral, Velocity, and Collateral, 2007, 2010–15 (In US$
Trillions; Velocity in Units)
Download TSV
The “supply” of pledged collateral comes from non-banks. This is received by the central collateral desk of banks that reuse the collateral to meet the
“demand” from other intermediaries – bank or non-bank – in the financial system. This collateral primarily moves to augment returns (ie, return
enhancement, not risk transformation). Thus a US Treasury that matures in 30 years that has a coupon of 4% does not, over its lifespan, yield 4% to the
owner. Aside from the fluctuating market pricing/yield of this security, the return due to reuse in the collateral space will typically provide an extra return to
the owner of the security over its tenor (t0 to t30). Mathematically, if x is the 30-year US Treasury with 4% coupon, then total returns to the owner if the
security is not siloed is 4% plus x. The source collateral may include AAA securities such as US Treasuries, German bunds (ie, German government debt
issuance), or CCC bonds or equities. Thus, this collateral market moves securities that may not be “safe” or AAA/AA as long as the security is liquid and
has a market clearing price.
https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/IMF071/23798-9781782723172/23798-9781782723172/ch02.xml 6/11
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over het algemeen den ergsten vorm van sweating en overarbeid, vrouwen-
en kinderexploitatie, die buiten het bereik van de wet blijft, van
loondrukking en concurrentie, en dikwerf een steeds vloeiende bron van
onderkruiperij in den strijd van de arbeiders der groote industrie in de
steden.
Daarom gaat hij liefst òm hem heen, daarom sputtert hij tegen hem en keft
er tegen als het hondje tegen de maan. Dit is nu wel gemakkelijk, maar het
is en blijft een bewijs van zwakheid. Die zwakte van standpunt weerspiegelt
zich in alle specifiek anarchistische gedeelten van Kropotkine’s werken. Ze
is mede de oorzaak waarom hij zooveel genoegen in het verleden schept, in
de toekomst niet minder gaarne verwijlt, maar het tegenwoordige, de
onontbeerlijke schakel in den keten die beide verbindt, maar liefst overslaat.
In een zijner laatste boekjes, „Moderne Wetenschap en Anarchisme,” tracht
Kropotkine op grond van de resultaten der natuurwetenschap de juistheid
van het anarchisme te bewijzen. Dit is weer zeer eigenaardig voor
Kropotkine’s eenzijdigheid: zonder meer wetten, die op
natuurwetenschappelijk gebied gelden, op de samenleving over te brengen.
„Het anarchisme is het logische resultaat van de progressieve beweging in
de natuurwetenschappen, die met het einde van de 18e eeuw begon”… „De
wortels van het anarchisme liggen in de natuurphilosophie van de 18e
eeuw.” Dat is juist. De natuurphilosophische beschouwing van de 18e eeuw,
die, naar Kropotkine betreurt, in haar konsekwente ontwikkeling
onderbroken is, was de wetenschappelijke grondslag van hen die de rechten
der burgerlijke, kapitalistische maatschappij verdedigden. „In den strijd
tusschen individu en staat is het anarchisme, indien het ’t werk van zijn
voorgangers uit de 18e eeuw voortzet, steeds aan de zijde van het individu
en tegen den staat, aan de zijde van de maatschappij en tegen de staats-
autoriteit, die, tengevolge van historische oorzaken, de eerste beheerscht.”
De gemiddelde bourgeois, die niet graag „zijn belasting” betaalt, die niet
„belemmerd” wil zijn in de „vrije” uitbuiting van zijn kapitaal en de
arbeidskrachten die hij daarvoor koopen kan, ziet deze tegenstelling van
individu en staat, van maatschappij en staats-autoriteit eveneens, omdat hij
die scheiding voor zichzelven gaarne maakt. Maar wie nu zich eenmaal
meer „onbevooroordeeld” tegenover den staat stelt dan de anarchist het met
mogelijkheid kan doen, omdat de staat dezen steeds als een nachtmerrie bij
klaarlichten dag vervolgt, die ziet dat de scheiding gansch ergens anders ligt
dan tusschen „individu en staat,” „maatschappij en staats-autoriteit.” Zulke
onderscheidingen maken is niets dan het spelen met begrippen, geschikt om
in klein-burgerlijke vooroordeelen bevangen arbeiders van de wijs te
brengen, maar wetenschappelijke, d.i. logische waarde hebben zij niet.
Kropotkine, die alles ziet behalve datgene wat een nauwkeurig opmerker
van de beweging onzer maatschappij zien moet; die van
natuurwetenschappelijkheid den mond vol heeft, maar den groei niet ziet;
die den eenen keer met begrippen als „staat in zijn specifiek-romeinschen
vorm” werkt en als het in zijn kraam te pas komt een volgend maal een
anderen staatsvorm bedoelt, kan de ontwikkeling van den staat in zijn
huidigen vorm niet begrijpen.
De politieke aktie van het proletariaat drijft, in het algemeen, den politieken
bourgeois-staat—en hierover loopt het, en niet over allerlei soorten „staat”,
waarmede Kropotkine gelieft te werken,—tot zijn eigen zelfontbinding. De
burgerklasse in haren sterken tijd, d.w.z. in den tijd toen het proletariaat nog
een hoop verstrooide arbeiders was en nog niet als politiek zelfstandige
klasse optrad, wist veel beter dan de geleerde anarchisten, waarom zij een
zoo hoog mogelijken census stelde voor de deelname aan de
regeeringsverrichtingen. Het instinkt der massa’s leerde daartegenover al
vrij spoedig, dat die census het middel was om het monopolie van het bezit
op politiek gebied te handhaven en dat niet voor niets,—om een fiktie!—die
bezittende klasse dat monopolie zoo lang mogelijk handhaafde. Als de staat
niet meer de representant van een enkele klasse kan zijn, wordt de
staatsvorm een andere, een algemeene, een demokratische. Eigenaardig is
het dat na al het fulmineeren tegen den staat, Kropotkine zelf gevoelt dat
beide veranderingen, die van den politieken staatsvorm en van de
economische organisatie, hand in hand gaan. De anarchistische
communisten zijn aan de eerste inkonsekwentie niet gestorven, Kropotkine
allerminst. „Een nieuwe economische organisatievorm,” zegt hij (p. 73),
„moet noodzakelijkerwijze een nieuwen politieken organisatievorm met
zich medebrengen, en moge die verandering onmiddellijk of geleidelijk
langs den weg eener langzame evolutie plaats vinden, beide veranderingen
—op politiek zoowel als op economisch gebied—moeten met gelijken tred,
hand in hand, hunnen gang gaan.”
Daar komt nog de askese bij, d.w.z. het zich terugtrekken zonder veel
behoeften, liefst met in het geheel geen behoeften; deze is in ieder geval
gebouwd op de individueele beschouwing, dat het doen en laten van den
mensch de physionomie eener gegeven maatschappij zou bepalen.
De individueele liefde tot den naaste, die slechts de liefde om de liefde zelf
tot uitgangspunt nam, is ook de basis van Tolstoï’s leer, zooals het die van
de christelijke ethiek was. Die liefde is evenwel geen menschenliefde, niet
het begrip van de algemeen-menschelijke solidariteit, maar zij is liefde voor
zichzelf, en eerst dáárdoor wordt zij algemeene menschenliefde. Zoowel in
deze christelijke liefde, als in de askese, ligt het egoïsme op den bodem.
Niet minder dan deze eigenaardigheden van Tolstoï’s leer, die aan de
specifiek christelijke traditie herinneren, is de eigenschap er van om elken
vorm van staatsmacht te ontgaan, aan elken dwang een passieven weerstand
te bieden, in overeenstemming met den christelijken geest, zooals die onder
de eerste christenen, die broederlijk in gemeenten samenleefden, de
heerschende was. Deze tendenz was zoo sterk, dat zij in de eerste eeuw de
vorming eener regeering, zelfs in de christelijke gemeenten zelve,
verhinderde. En bizonder heftig uitte zij zich natuurlijk tegen den staat.
Hierop duidt reeds de vermaning der Apostelen, twistpunten onder
christenen niet voor het gerecht van de overheid te brengen, zooals over het
algemeen de gansche, zich van den staat verre houdende levenswijze der
eerste christengemeenten, gelijk de Apostelgeschiedenis ze schildert,
dikwijls nog terugkeert in de geschiedenis van de dweeperssekten.
Van de wet der liefde leidt de leer van Christus volgens Tolstoï het gebod af
om het kwaad niet met geweld te weerstaan. „Wedersta den booze niet,
beteekent: weersta nooit aan het booze, dat wil zeggen: doe nooit een ander
geweld aan, dat wil zeggen: bega nooit een handeling, die tegen de liefde
indruischt,” zegt Tolstoï in „Waarin bestaat mijn geloof?” (pag. 17). In het
booze is natuurlijk de staat ook inbegrepen. Maar, zegt Tolstoï, dit moet niet
worden opgevat als verbood het „elken strijd tegen het kwaad”, alleen „de
gewelddadige strijd tegen het kwaad” is het die volgens Tolstoï niet mag
worden gevoerd. „Wie het zwaard neemt, die zal door het zwaard vergaan,”
dit voorschrift zegt niet, volgens Tolstoï, dat slechts een gedeelte der
menschen verplicht is „zonder strijd zich te schikken in hetgeen hun door
een bepaalde overheid wordt voorgeschreven,” maar het verbiedt iedereen,
dus ook dengenen die de macht bezitten, en dezen zelfs in ’t bizonder, in
welk geval ook tegen, iemand geweld te gebruiken. („Het koninkrijk gods”
enz., pag. 268–269.)
Men ziet dat Tolstoï er een eigene uitlegkunde op na houdt, weshalve hij
dan ook bij de conceptie van zijn eigenlijke leer meer theoloog dan
hervormer is.
Dat Tolstoï’s beschouwing overigens zuiver individueel is, blijkt bijv. reeds
hieruit dat hij zelf zegt: „Ik kan evenmin de algemeene noodzakelijkheid als
de algemeene schadelijkheid van den staat bewijzen.” „Ik weet slechts dat
eenerzijds de staat niet meer noodig is voor mij en dat ik anderzijds niet
meer doen kan hetgeen noodzakelijk is voor het bestaan van den staat.”
(„Het koninkrijk” enz., p. 335–336.)
Zooals Tolstoï het „kwaad” in den persoon ziet, zoekt hij ook konsekwent
de verbetering in den persoon. Op welke wijze, zagen wij reeds: de
propaganda voor en de doorwerking van de liefde, die natuurlijk zijn
uitgangspunt in de bekeering van een ieder moet vinden.
Tot zoover hier genoeg over de leer van Tolstoï zelven, die voor het overige
zich geheel en al dekt met de beschouwingen van niet-christelijke
anarchisten.
Zoo is het Tolstoïsme, dat den dienst aan den staat weigert om daardoor het
militairisme te bekampen, dat de belastingen weigert om den staat geen
verdere middelen te verschaffen, dat kortom zijn eenige steunpunt in de
persoon zoekt, de tegenhanger van een ander soort anarchisme, dat
eveneens allen nadruk legt op de persoonlijke daad, op het aktieve ingrijpen
van den individu: het anarchisme van de daad.
Het een als het ander is voor de beweging van het proletariaat van groote
schade, omdat het tegen den loop der beweging principieel ingaat.
1 Deze oppositie van Stirner geldt voornamelijk de Hegelsche opvatting van den
burgerlijken staat. Volgens Hegel is die staat de „verwerkelijking van de Idee” der
menschelijke gemeenschappelijkheid. Hegel heeft den staat geïdealiseerd en hem, als
boven de menschen tronend, zeer verheven. ↑
VIERDE HOOFDSTUK.
HET ANARCHISME IN DE PRAKTIJK.
Internationale ontwikkeling.
Het anarchisme was in den vorm waarin het door Max Stirner verkondigd
werd, niets dan een ideologie. Ideologieën nu hebben nooit eenigen vasten
voet in de massa kunnen vatten, en vandaar dat het anarchisme bloot een
„leer” was voor zekere individuen, doch voor het volk niet de minste
waarde of aantrekkelijkheid bezat. Gelijk reeds tevoren is geconstateerd,
bleef Stirner’s „Einzige” nagenoeg zonder weerklank. In de praktijk
toegepast, zou de theorie van Stirner geheel zijn neergekomen op het meest
teugellooze privaat-kapitalisme, op de meest onbeperkte uitbuiting van den
een door den ander. Het was het individualisme, zooals het nooit bestond en
ook niet bestaan kon. Na Stirner hebben Mozes Hess en Karl Grün beproefd
in Duitschland tot een socialistisch-anarchistische levensbeschouwing te
komen, doch ook dit pogen bleef zich bij beiden bepalen tot het schrijven
van een boek.
Onder de arbeiders uit dien tijd, en nog tot diep in de jaren na 1870, sloegen
dan ook niet zoozeer Proudhon’s anarchistische theorieën, die ook door hem
zelf trouwens later voor praktisch ondoorvoerbaar waren verklaard, maar
Proudhon’s sociale hervormingsplannen in. Het was het „mutualisme,” het
beginsel van de hervorming door middel van den „wederzijdschen ruil” op
den grondslag van de „geconstitueerde waarde”, en het middel om daartoe
te geraken, de „crediet- en ruilbanken”, dat succes had. Wij zagen reeds dat
deze sociale hervorming van Proudhon een klein-burgerlijke rekonstruktie
van de kapitalistische maatschappij beoogde. Ieder zou zijn eigendom
terugkrijgen, de grondslag van zijn individualiteit en zijn onbeperkte
persoonlijke vrijheid.
John Henry Mackay, de anarchist van onzen tijd, begreep inderdaad Stirner
veel beter, toen hij hem met Proudhon verbond tot een stelsel van
individueel anarchisme, dat wil zeggen het eenig-mogelijke stelsel
waaronder het anarchisme als leer zichzelf gelijk blijft. Beide kunnen
althans tezamen gebracht worden: de egoïst, die geheel zijn eigendom
hebben en zich daarmede „uitleven” wil, en de „mutualist”, die hem dat
persoonlijk eigendom zoo onbeperkt mogelijk garandeeren wil.
In beider anarchisme weerspiegelde zich zoo volkomen mogelijk die
weerzin tegen de maatschappelijke ontwikkeling, welke den „individu en
zijn eigendom” hoe langer hoe meer onmogelijk maken zou, om er een
gemeenschap voor in de plaats te stellen, waarin de in het kapitalisme
ondergegane „individu” krachtiger en bloeiender zou opkomen dan de
sociale, de menschheidsindividu.
Het kenmerk van dat anarchisme was zijn groote eerlijkheid, een deugd die
het zooveel genietbaarder maakt dan het gekwakzalver van de lateren, met
Kropotkine vooraan.
De eerste kampplaats.
Voor ons doel moeten wij hier evenwel meer belang stellen in de eerste
pogingen om het anarchisme de arbeidersbeweging binnen te dragen, dan in
de uiteenzetting van ideologieën. De eerste die het anarchisme met de
beweging van het proletariaat poogde te verbinden was Bakoenine, naar wij
reeds bij de bespreking van zijn werk gezien hebben.
Eerst een samenkomst van fransche arbeiders, die door keizer Napoleon III
naar Londen waren gezonden om aldaar de Wereldtentoonstelling van 1862
te bezoeken, met engelsche Trade Unionisten, zou het eerste
aanknoopingspunt vormen voor die arbeiders van deze beide landen, welke,
naar de toenmalige verhoudingen in Europa, de meest ontwikkelde waren.
In 1864, zeventien jaren na het „Manifest” dus, kwam de beroemde
„Internationale Associatie van Arbeiders”, kortweg „de Internationale”
genoemd, tot stand. Daarmede was voor het internationale proletariaat voor
het eerst een bodem geschapen, waarop zijn vertegenwoordigers elkander
vinden konden, ten einde gezamenlijk het karakter van den strijd tegen het
kapitalisme, den gemeenschappelijken vijand, en de middelen welke in
dezen strijd moesten worden aangewend, te kunnen bespreken.
Het zuiver Proudhonisme nochtans kwam eerst bij het vaststellen van de
grondslagen, waarop de „Associatie” berusten zou, aan den dag. Bij het
punt „Internationale verbinding” en ten aanzien van „hetgeen de Associatie
zou kunnen doen in den strijd tusschen arbeid en kapitaal”, was op voorstel
van de engelsche arbeiders ook het punt van de werkstaking ter sprake
gebracht. Daarbij vonden de fransche afgevaardigden de gelegenheid om
het Congres te doen verklaren, dat het noodzakelijk was „den ruil op de
grondslagen der wederkeerigheid te herstellen, het vakonderwijs te
hervormen, nauwkeurige statistieken in het leven te roepen, overvulling en
gebrek aan arbeiders in de verschillende vakken te doen vermijden.” Dat
waren volgens deze fransche afgevaardigden de middelen, „om de huidige
verhoudingen te verbeteren waarover zich elkeen te beklagen had en die
onder zekere omstandigheden crisissen in het leven moesten roepen, die bij
de bestaande betrekkingen tusschen den consumeerenden voortbrenger en
den niet voortbrengenden verbruiker, onmogelijk te verhinderen waren.”
Om deze denkbeelden „te doen verwerkelijken is de Internationale in het
leven geroepen.”
Scherper trad de fransche delegatie nog naar voren, toen het gold de
bespreking van de verkorting van den arbeidstijd. Toen n.l. Odgers en Karl
Bürkli een voorstel hadden ingediend, dat de arbeiders in de industrieele
landen voor een verkorting van den arbeidsdag tot 8 uren zouden ijveren, op
aansporing van de „Internationale”, stelden de franschen de volgende
resolutie daartegenover:
De mensch
1e. is slechts vrij onder de voorwaarde van de
ontwikkeling zijner geschiktheden; dientengevolge is elke
verlenging van den arbeid, welke hem in deze ontwikkeling
hindert, te veroordeelen als tegen-natuurlijk en als anti-sociaal.
Van nu
2e. af beschouwen wij den arbeidstijd van 8 uren per dag
als voldoende voor de voortbrenging van alle behoeften, die
voor het leven noodzakelijk zijn.
De associatie
3e. behoort alle pogingen in het werk te stellen om
de tegenwaarde voor elke werkzaamheid te verzekeren,
doordien zij een minimum van arbeidsloon voor een dienst
bepaalt, die het individu aan de gemeenschap bewezen heeft.
„De oprichting van ruilbanken, welke tot den kostenden prijs gedreven, de
demokratiseering en de egaliseering (gelijkmaking) van het crediet ten doel
zouden hebben en het verkeer tusschen producenten en consumenten
vereenvoudigen, d.w.z. den arbeid onttrekken aan de heerschappij van het kapitaal
en dit laatste zijn natuurlijke en gerechtigde rol zouden aanwijzen, die het als
agent van den arbeid heeft.”
Desorganiseerend werken.
Bakoenine wendde zich tot het Congres van Brussel eerst met het verzoek
dat de „Internationale” zich zou verbinden met de „Liga voor Vrede en
Vrijheid”, een soort burgerlijk vredesverbond, bestaande uit een allegaartje
van republikeinen en vrienden van den vrede; het Congres wees dit voorstel
van de hand. Toen ging Bakoenine zelf naar de „Liga” en stelde voor dat
haar Congres zich zou uitspreken voor de „economische en sociale
gelijkstelling der klassen”, waarmede hij echter in de minderheid bleef. Na
aldus bij de burgerlijke heeren afgedaan te hebben, zocht Bakoenine het bij
de arbeiders. Hij stichtte tegelijkertijd reeds aparte sekties van genoemde
„Liga”, die tevens sekties van de „Internationale” zouden kunnen zijn. Dat
de Generale Raad van laatstgenoemde organisatie zich daartegen wel
verzetten moest, spreekt van zelf. Het was de desorganisatie binnenvoeren.
Toen begon Bakoenine een felle campagne tegen de bevoegdheden van den
Generalen Raad, tegen diens centrale macht en dictatoriale aanmatiging, hij,
die op het congres van Basel, dus kort te voren, nog van meening was dat
de bevoegdheden van den Generalen Raad niet ver genoeg reikten en, met
het oog op het internationale karakter van de Associatie, het noodzakelijk
was, die bevoegdheden uit te breiden, gelijk hij dan ook voorstelde.
Den 22en December 1868 schreef Bakoenine aan Karl Marx een langen,
plechtigen brief, in de meest vleiende, liefelijke bewoordingen vervat,
waarin hij verklaarde, „sedert zijn afscheid van het (burgerlijk)
vredescongres van Bern geen ander genootschap meer te zullen erkennen
dan de Internationale.” „De Internationale tot welker meest beteekenende
oprichters gij behoort, is van nu af mijn vaderland. Gij ziet, mijn lieve
vriend, dat ik uw leerling ben—en ik ben trotsch er op, dat ik het ben.—Dat
is genoeg om u mijn positie en mijn persoonlijke gezindheid te
verklaren”.…2
Verder verklaart Bakoenine in dienzelfden brief dat hij het met Marx
volkomen eens is, dat de uitdrukking van de „gelijkmaking van klassen en
individuen” door hem op dat vredescongres gebruikt valsch was, maar dat
hem die formuleering „was opgedrongen door de domheid en de eindelooze
onervarenheid van ons bourgeoispubliek.”
Niettemin, dit hier tusschen haakjes, verklaarde zijn eigen, eenigen tijd
later, in 1869, opgerichte „Alliance” in paragraaf 2 van hare statuten
eveneens: „Zij (de Alliantie) wil voor alles de politieke, economische en
sociale gelijkstelling van de klassen.” En dit nog wel in tegenstelling tot de
zeer klare woorden, die het antwoord van den Generalen Raad der
Internationale bevatte, dat: „niet de gelijkmaking van de klassen, die een
logische tegenspraak was, maar veel meer de afschaffing van de klassen …
het groote doel was van de Internationale Associatie der Arbeiders.”
Bakoenine ging, terzelfdertijd dat hij Marx deze verklaring deed, reeds met
de plannen rond, om de „Internationale” uiteen te doen springen. Hij zocht
dat te doen door de stichting eener geheime Alliantie. Hij maakte zich
meester van de romaansche sektie te Lachaux-de-Fonds, stelde toen aan den
Generalen Raad bepaalde eischen, en toen die werden afgewezen, begon hij
zijn campagne openlijk. Hij kreeg de federatie der Jura, de spaansche en de
belgische federaties aan zijn zijde en bracht met zijn werken gedurende
enkele jaren de Internationale zooveel schade in haar prestige toe, dat deze,
èn door inwendige tweespalt èn nog meer door de caricatuur die hij van
haar en hare beginselen, doel en taktiek maakte, wel niet lang meer leven
kon. Bakoenine had haar voor een deel door sluipmoord ondermijnd, voor
een ander deel zoodanig gecompromitteerd, dat haar leven onmogelijk
werd.
Dit alles hoort hier thuis, omdat het de oorsprong van het anarchisme als
beweging is geweest, de overplanting van op zichzelf onschadelijke en
reaktionaire theorieën van enkelen, van eenlingen, in de arbeidersbeweging.
Het was een zich bij elkander voegen van allerlei verwards, overleefds en
kleinburgerlijk utopisch, dat zich natuurlijk in de arbeidersbeweging
bevond en daarin, eveneens natuurlijk, naar uiting zocht.
Bakoenine verstond het, zeer zeker, aan al die verwarde voorstellingen,
klein-burgerlijke vooroordeelen en utopische gedachten uitdrukking te
geven. Zoo werd voor het eerst in de arbeidersbeweging het anarchisme
geschapen, dat als een deel van die beweging voortaan zou leven. Door
Bakoenine’s werken in de theorie vooral kreeg deze chaos van dikwijls fel
tegen elkander indruischende denkbeelden, dat mengsel van radikalisme en
achterlijkheid, vasten vorm; hij kneedde er een theorie van, die echter veel
meer taktiek dan theorie was. De taktiek was saam te vatten in hetgeen
Bakoenine zelf in een zijner programs als het doel van de Revolutie
omschreef.
„Wij vatten de revolutie op in den zin eener ontketening van al wat men heden ten
dage de booze hartstochten noemt.”
1e dat de omverwerping van elke politieke macht de eerste taak van het
proletariaat was;
Bakoenine’s „Alliantie” leefde evenwel voort, nadat zij door hem zelven
geheel en al met zijn geest van desorganiseerend, vernielend anarchisme
was vervuld. Haar doel was overal den sociaal-demokratischen geest uit te
roeien en in plaats van de organisch werkende taktiek van de
arbeidersklasse, de catastrophe-taktiek te plaatsen, die vooral in Italië,
Spanje en ook in België hare vernielende uitwerking op een normale
ontwikkeling van de arbeidersbeweging niet heeft gemist.
Een bloeitijd.
Bakoenine had er evenwel voor gezorgd, dat overal in de landen waar zijn
invloed meer of minder groot was, terroristische stroomingen opkwamen,
die langs den weg van het meest ruwe geweld de „revolutionaire aktie”
poogden in het leven te roepen door middel van „de propaganda van de
daad.” Een van de sekties van Bakoenine’s „Alliantie”, die van de Jura, was
inzonderheid de wieg van deze soort van revolutionaire aktie en haar
onmiddellijke leider was Paul Brousse, de redakteur van de „Avantgarde”
(„Voorpost”).
En wat aangaat deze laatste manier, om een beweging tot op haren bodem te
bederven, daarvan had Bakoenine door het prediken zijner allerdolzinnigste
beginselen van taktiek het sterkste voorbeeld geleverd. Zoo heette het o.a.
in den „Revolutionairen Cathechismus”, die door den Generalen Raad van
de „Internationale” naar aanleiding van een opdracht van het Congres van
den Haag was gepubliceerd, en waarvan Bakoenine de opsteller was: „dat
een revolutionair met alle middelen diegenen dient te exploiteeren, welke
rijkdom, konnekties, invloed en macht bezitten; dat hij dezen in zijn
strikken moet zien te vangen, om zich in het bezit van diens geheimen te
stellen en hem zoo tot zijn slaaf te maken”… („L’Alliance et la démocratie
socialiste”, pag. 93).
Wij zien af van een schildering van al het geweldige kwaad, dat de
„revolutionaire aktie” gebrouwen heeft en van de manier waarop deze
taktiek de politie telkens de middelen aan de hand deed om de beweging in
hare hinderlagen te lokken en de geschiedenis van dat half-krankzinnig, half
politie-anarchisme zullen wij niet verder vervolgen, doch wij slaan een
korten tijd over en naderen de tachtiger jaren. Het zijn de jaren van de
groote aktie van het anarchisme dat, hoewel nog volkomen op den bodem
van het Bakoeninisme staande, bezig is te pogen een deel van de
arbeidersbeweging met zich mede te sleepen.
Behalve in Frankrijk, waarover aanstonds meer, was het anarchisme ook in
Duitschland den kop gaan opsteken. Ofschoon van oorsprong duitsch in zijn
Stirnerschen vorm, had het anarchisme op de door Lassalle gestichte
arbeidersbeweging geen vat gekregen. Hoewel de Proudhonistisch-getinte
socialisten Mozes Hess en Karl Grün op anarchistische wijze schreven, kon
de anarchistische idee in Duitschland geen bodem vinden. De Duitsche
arbeidersmassa’s waren voor deze verwarringstichtende taktiek nooit te
vinden geweest. Na de ontzaglijke vlucht van de politieke beweging in
Duitschland omstreeks 1875, meende de geweldmensch Bismarck haar een
vernietigenden slag te kunnen toebrengen door in 1878 zijn
„socialistenwet” door te zetten. Aan de afkondiging van de wet waren twee
aanslagen op keizer Wilhelm I voorafgegaan, een van Hödel en een van Dr.
Nobiling, die men voor het gemak toeschreef aan den invloed van de
sociaal-demokratische propaganda. Voor het gemak, want van Hödel moest
geconstateerd worden dat hij eigenlijk niet toerekenbaar was en van
Nobiling kon zelfs worden vastgesteld dat hij de vergaderingen van de
nationaal-liberalen, in plaats van die der sociaal-demokraten bijgewoond
had. Desniettemin was dit voor de Duitsche Regeering een aanleiding de
wet van 1878 uit te vaardigen, waarbij de sociaal-demokratische
propaganda geheel werd onderdrukt.
Met 1880 omstreeks komt de derde apostel van het anarchisme ten
tooneele. Kropotkine doet zijn intrede en begon in de anarchistische
beweging, gelijk die zich voornamelijk in Zwitserland concentreerde, een
handelende rol te vervullen.
In 1880 vond een congres van anarchisten te Lyon plaats en het was aan
alles te zien dat er voor het anarchisme in Frankrijk een tijdperk van bloei
zou aanbreken. Groepen werden gesticht in Vienne, St. Etienne,
Villefranche, Creuzot, Parijs, Marseille en Rijssel, twee bladen verschenen,
de Droit Social in Lyon en de Révolution Sociale in Parijs. Elisée Réclus,
een beroemd geograaf, Gautier en Kropotkine werden de meest op den
voorgrond tredende leiders van de beweging. Deze laatste was nog
overwegend terroristisch, d.w.z. stelde het onmiddellijke geweld op den
voorgrond. Dat het anarchisme in Frankrijk in dien tijd zoozeer van zich
deed spreken, kwam doordat het een nieuwen voedingsbodem vond. Er was
door den geweldigen arbeid van fransche sociaal-demokraten, onder wie
Jules Guesde en Paul Lafargue, voor het eerst na den val van de Commune
weder een georganiseerde sociaal-demokratie gekomen en het anarchisme
kreeg daardoor eigenlijk eerst recht den bodem waarop het zich ontplooien
kon.
Het gevolg van het terroriseerend optreden van het anarchisme was een
aantal persoonlijke aanslagen, zoowel op regeeringspersonen als op gewone
bourgeois. Een reeks die geopend werd met den aanslag van Emile Florion,
in October 1881, die eerst probeerde Gambetta te dooden, doch daar hij
dien niet vinden kon, zijn schot op een zekeren Dr. Meymar, een onbekend
persoon, loste. Daarna de opstand van Montceau les Mines, 15 Augustus
1882, waarna 23 mijnwerkers werden veroordeeld tot meer of minder zware
straffen, „wegens plundering en brandstichting in gemeenschap gepleegd.”
Den 14en Juli 1881 had een congres van anarchisten te Londen plaats,
waarop o.m. ook ter sprake kwam het samenstellen van een program, het
inrichten van de organisatie en het bespreken van de aktie. Men poogde
daar een zekere verstandhouding te krijgen met die elementen uit de
fransche socialistische beweging welke geenszins terroristisch waren, maar
revolutionair in de Blanquistische beteekenis van het woord. De grondslag
van dit program was dat van het congres der Bakoeninistische „Alliantie”,
in 1873 te Genève aanvaard.
„Het Congres verklaart het volstrekt noodzakelijk, met alle mogelijke middelen
door de daad de revolutionaire idee en den geest des opstands te verbreiden onder
het grootste deel der volksmassa, die nog geen aktief deel aan de beweging neemt
en zich nog illusies maakt over de moraliteit en de werkzaamheid van de
wettelijke macht. Doordien wij het wettelijke gebied verlaten, waarop men tot
heden in het algemeen is gebleven, om onze aktie op het gebied van de
onwettelijkheid over te brengen, die de eenige weg der revolutie is, is het
noodzakelijk naar middelen te grijpen, die met het doel overeenstemmen. De
vervolgingen, waaraan onze publieke personen blootstaan, dwingen ons van nu af
tot een geheime organisatie. De propaganda door de daad is op het land van nog
grootere werkzaamheid dan in de stad.
Iedere gedachte aan autoriteit stuit ons tegen de borst, iedere wet is onze vijand.
Ons doel is de vernietiging van iederen staat door een revolutionaire beweging;
alle wettelijke middelen, ook het algemeen kiesrecht, verafschuwen wij. Daar
evenwel de individueele vrijheid niet dan in vereeniging met andere vrije
genooten bestaan kan, daar een ieder de ondersteuning van den ander noodig
heeft, daar vervolgens ieder sociaal produkt een werk van het geheel is, waarvan
aan allen een gelijk aandeel toekomt, daarom zijn wij ook kommunisten. Wij
willen het gemeenschappelijk eigendom veroveren en verdedigen.”
Behalve voor Frankrijk was het ook voor het anarchisme in Spanje en
Oostenrijk een zeer vruchtbare tijd.