Software

Engineering

3rd Sem,
-*.0
2nd Year

Computer
Science

Presented By: Unit 2nd

Priyanka Natani
Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
 Unit 2

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
 Table of Content:
Introduction
What is Project?
What are characteristics of Project?
Software Project
Need of Software Project Management
Software Project Manager
Responsibilities of a Project Manager
Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
 Software Management Activities
 Project Planning
Scope Management
Project Estimation
Project Estimation
 Project Estimation Technique
Decomposition Technique
*Lines of Code
*Function Point
#Function Point Analysis

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Priyanka Natani
Difference Between Function Point and Lines of Code
Emperical Estimation Technique
*PUTNAM Model
*COCOMO Model
Constructive Cost Model(COCOMO)
Characterization of COCOMO Model
*Organic
*Semidetached
*Embedded
Types of COCOMO Model
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 *Basic
*Intermediate
*Detailed
PUTNAM Model
Software Project Scheduling
Process
Problem arise during software development stage
Resources required for development of project
Advantages of project scheduling

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Introduction
The job pattern of an IT company engaged in software
development can be seen split in two parts:

Software Creation
Software Project Management

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What is Project
A project is well-defined task, which is a collection of several
operations done in order to achieve a goal (for example,
software development and delivery).

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A Project can be characterized as:
Every project may has a unique and distinct goal.

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Project is not routine activity or day-to-day operations.
Project comes with a start time and end time.
Project ends when its goal is achieved hence it is a
temporary phase in the lifetime of an organization.
Project needs adequate resources in terms of time,
manpower, finance, material and knowledge-bank.

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Priyanka Natani
Software Project

A Software Project is the complete procedure of software

development from requirement gathering to testing and
maintenance, carried out according to the execution
methodologies, in a specified period of time to achieve intended
software product.

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Need of software project
management

Software is said to be an intangible product. Software

development is a kind of all new stream in world business and
there’s very little experience in building software products.
Most software products are tailor made to fit client’s

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requirements. The most important is that the underlying
technology changes and advances so frequently and rapidly that
experience of one product may not be applied to the other one.
All such business and environmental constraints bring risk in
software development hence it is essential to manage software
projects efficiently.

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Priyanka Natani
The image above shows triple constraints for software
projects. It is an essential part of software organization to

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Priyanka Natani
deliver quality product, keeping the cost within client’s budget
constrain and deliver the project as per scheduled.
There are several factors, both internal and external, which
may impact this triple constrain triangle. Any of three factor
can severely impact the other two.

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Therefore, software project management is essential to
incorporate user requirements along with budget and time
constraints.
Software Project Manager

A software project manager is a person who undertakes the

responsibility of executing the software project. Software
project manager is thoroughly aware of all the phases of
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Priyanka Natani
SDLC that the software would go through. Project manager
may never directly involve in producing the end product but
he controls and manages the activities involved in production.
A project manager closely monitors the development process,
prepares and executes various plans, arranges necessary and
adequate resources, maintains communication among all team
members in order to address issues of cost, budget, resources,
time, quality and customer satisfaction.
Let us see few responsibilities that a project manager

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shoulders

Managing
People

Managing
PresentedProject
By:
Priyanka Natani
Managing People
•Act as project leader
•Liaison with stakeholders
•Managing human resources
•Setting up reporting hierarchy etc.

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Managing Project

•Defining and setting up project scope

•Managing project management activities
•Monitoring progress and performance
•Risk analysis at every phase
•Take necessary step to avoid or come out of problems
•Act as project spokesperson
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Software Management Activities

Software project management comprises of a number of

activities, which contains planning of project, deciding scope of
software product, estimation of cost in various terms,
scheduling of tasks and events, and resource management.
Project management activities may include:

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Project Planning
Scope Management
Project Estimation

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 Scope
Management
Project
Planning

Project
Estimation

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Priyanka Natani

Software Management
 Activities
Project Planning

Software project planning is task, which is performed before

the production of software actually starts. It is there for the
software production but involves no concrete activity that has
any direction connection with software production; rather it is

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Priyanka Natani
a set of multiple processes, which facilitates software
production.
Scope Management

It defines the scope of project; this includes all the activities,

process need to be done in order to make a deliverable
software product. Scope management is essential because it
creates boundaries of the project by clearly defining what
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would be done in the project and what would not be done.
This makes project to contain limited and quantifiable tasks,
which can easily be documented and in turn avoids cost and
time overrun.
During Project Scope management, it is necessary to –

Define the scope

Decide its verification and control

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 Divide the project into various smaller parts for ease of
management.
Verify the scope
Control the scope by incorporating changes to the scope
Project Estimation

For an effective management accurate estimation of various

measures is a must. With correct estimation managers can
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manage and control the project more efficiently and
effectively.
Project estimation may involve the following:

Software size estimation

Effort estimation
Time estimation
Cost estimation

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Software size estimation

Software size may be estimated either in terms of KLOC (Kilo

Line of Code) or by calculating number of function points in
the software. Lines of code depend upon coding practices and
Function points vary according to the user or software
requirement.

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Effort estimation

The managers estimate efforts in terms of personnel

requirement and man-hour required to produce the software.
For effort estimation software size should be known. This can
either be derived by managers’ experience, organization’s
historical data or software size can be converted into efforts by
using some standard formulae.

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Time estimation

Once size and efforts are estimated, the time required to

produce the software can be estimated. Efforts required is
segregated into sub categories as per the requirement
specifications and interdependency of various components of
software. Software tasks are divided into smaller tasks,
activities or events by Work Breakthrough Structure (WBS).
The tasks are scheduled on day-to-day basis or in calendar
months.
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The sum of time required to complete all tasks in hours or
days is the total time invested to complete the project.
Cost estimation

This might be considered as the most difficult of all because it

depends on more elements than any of the previous ones. For
estimating project cost, it is required to consider Size of
software
Software quality

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 Hardware
Additional software or tools, licenses etc.
Skilled personnel with task-specific skills
Travel involved
Communication
Training and support

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Project Estimation Techniques

We discussed various parameters involving project estimation

such as size, effort, time and cost.

Project manager can estimate the listed factors using two

broadly recognized techniques –

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Decomposition Technique
Empirical Estimation Technique

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 Project
Estimation
Techniques

Empirical
Decomposition Estimation
Technique Technique

Line of Codes Function Points Putnam Model COCOMO

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Decomposition Technique
This technique assumes the software as a product of various
compositions.

There are two main models –

Line of Code Estimation is done on behalf of number of line

of codes in the software product.
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Function Points Estimation is done on behalf of number of
function points in the software product.
Line of Code
The phrase “lines of code” (LOC) is a metric generally used to
evaluate a software program or codebase according to its size.

It is a general identifier taken by adding up the number of lines

of code used to write a program.
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LOC is used in various ways to assess a project, and there is a
debate on how effective this measurement is.
Lines of code also has some variations such as "source lines of
code" (SLOC), which is also used to enumerate a codebase.

Part of the use of LOC involves a “philosophy of code,” that is,

whether it is better to have a large codebase or a small one, or
whether it is better to have created x lines of code than to have
cut x lines of code from a program.

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Priyanka Natani
LOC is often used in these kinds of arguments, where
developers and other related personnel talk about whether
“bigger is better” or whether a software codebase should “go on
a diet.”
The units of LOC are:
KLOC- Thousand lines of code
NLOC- Non comment lines of code

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KDSI- Thousands of delivered source instruction

NLOC

KLOC
KDSI
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Advantages:
Universally accepted and is used in many models like
COCOMO.
Estimation is closer to developer’s perspective.
Simple to use.

Disadvantages:
Different programming languages contains different number
of lines.
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No proper industry standard exist for this technique.
It is difficult to estimate the size using this technique in
early stages of project.
Function Point Analysis :

In this method, the number and type of functions supported by

the software are utilized to find FPC(function point count).

The steps in function point analysis are:

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 Count the number of functions of each proposed type.
Compute the Unadjusted Function Points(UFP).
Find Total Degree of Influence(TDI).
Compute Value Adjustment Factor(VAF).
Find the Function Point Count(FPC).
The explanation of above points given below:

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Count the number of functions of each proposed type:
Find the number of functions belonging to the following types:
▪External Inputs : Functions related to data entering the
system.
▪External outputs : Functions related to data exiting the
system.
▪External Inquiries: They leads to data retrieval from
system but don’t change the system.

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 ▪Internal Files: Logical files maintained within the system.
Log files are not included here.
▪External interface Files: These are logical files for other
applications which are used by our system.
Compute the Unadjusted Function Points(UFP):
Categorize each of the five function types as simple, average or
complex based on their complexity. Multiply count of each
function type with its weighting factor and find the weighted
sum. The weighting factors for each type based on their
complexity are as follows:
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 FUNCTION TYPE SIMPLE AVERAGE COMPLEX

External Inputs 3 4 6

External Output 4 5 7

External Inquiries 3 4 6

Internal Logical Files 7 10 15

External Interface Files 5 7 10

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Find Total Degree of Influence:

Use the ’14 general characteristics’ of a system to find the

degree of influence of each of them. The sum of all 14 degrees
of influences will give the TDI. The range of TDI is 0 to 70.
The 14 general characteristics are: Data Communications,
Distributed Data Processing, Performance, Heavily Used
Configuration, Transaction Rate, On-Line Data Entry, Enduser
Efficiency, Online Update, Complex Processing
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Reusability, Installation Ease, Operational Ease, Multiple Sites
and Facilitate Change.
Each of above characteristics is evaluated on a scale of 0-5.
Compute Value Adjustment Factor(VAF): Use the
following formula to calculate VAF
VAF = (TDI * 0.01) + 0.65

Find the Function Point Count: Use the following formula

to calculate FPC FPC = UFP * VAF

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Advantages:

It can be easily used in the early stages of project planning.

It is in depending on the programming language.
It can be used to compare different projects even if they use
different technologies(database, language etc).

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Priyanka Natani
Disadvantages:

It is not good for real time systems and embedded systems.
Many cost estimation models like COCOMO uses LOC and
hence FPC must be converted to LOC.
Example: Compute the function point, productivity,
documentation, cost per function for the following data:
Number of user inputs = 24
Number of user outputs = 46

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Number of inquiries = 8
Number of files = 4
Number of external interfaces = 2
Weighting factor of internal files= 10
Weighting factor of external files= 06
Effort = 36.9 p-m
Technical documents = 265 pages
User documents = 122 pages
Cost = $7744/ month
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Various processing complexity factors are: 4, 1, 0, 3, 3, 5, 4, 4,
3 , 3, 2, 2, 4, 5.

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Solution:
Measurement Parameter Count Weighing factor

1. Number of external 24 * 4 = 96
inputs (EI)

2. Number of external 46 * 4 = 184

outputs (EO)

3. Number of external 8 * 6 = 48
inquiries (EQ)

4. Number of internal files 4 * 10 = 40

(ILF)

5. Number of external
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interfaces (EIF) Count-total
* 5 = 10
378
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Priyanka Natani
So sum of all fi (i ← 1 to 14) = 4 +1 + 0 + 3 + 3 + 5 + 4 + 4 +
3 + 3 + 2 + 2 + 4 + 5. = 43
FP = Count-total * [0.65 + 0.01 *∑(fi)]
= 378 * [0.65 + 0.01 * 43]
= 378 * [0.65 + 0.43]
= 378 * 1.08 = 408
Total pages of documentation = technical document + user
document
= 265 + 122 = 387pages
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Documentation = Pages of documentation/FP =
387/408 = 0.94

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Differentiate between FP and LOC

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FP LOC

1. FP is specification based. 1. LOC is an analogy based.

2. FP is language independent. 2. LOC is language dependent.

3. FP is user-oriented. 3. LOC is design-oriented.

4. It is extendible to LOC. 4. It is convertible to FP (backfiring)

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Empirical Estimation Technique
This technique uses empirically derived formulae to make
estimation. These formulae are based on LOC or FPs.

Putnam Model This model is made by Lawrence H. Putnam,

which is based on Norden’s frequency distribution ( Rayleigh
curve). Putnam model maps time and efforts required with
software size.
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COCOMO COCOMO stands for COnstructive COst MOdel,
developed by Barry W. Boehm. It divides the software product
into three categories of software: organic, semi-detached and
embedded.
COCOMO Model
Boehm proposed COCOMO (Constructive Cost Estimation
Model) in 1981.

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COCOMO is one of the most generally used software
estimation models in the world.

COCOMO predicts the efforts and schedule of a software

product based on the size of the software.

COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model) is a regression model

based on LOC, i.e. number of Lines of Code

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It is a procedural cost estimate model for software projects and
often used as a process of reliably predicting the various
parameters associated with making a project such as size,
effort, cost, time and quality.

It was proposed by Barry Boehm and is based on the study of

63 projects, which make it one of the best-documented
models.

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The key parameters which define the quality of any software
products, which are also an outcome of the Cocomo are
primarily Effort & Schedule:

Effort: Amount of labor that will be required to complete a

task. It is measured in person-months units.

Schedule: Simply means the amount of time required for the

completion of the job, which is, of course, proportional to the

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effort put. It is measured in the units of time such as weeks,
months.
The necessary steps in this model are:

1. Get an initial estimate of the development effort from

evaluation of thousands of delivered lines of source code
(KDLOC).

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2. Determine a set of 15 multiplying factors from various
attributes of the project.

3. Calculate the effort estimate by multiplying the initial

estimate with all the multiplying factors i.e., multiply the
values in step1 and step2.
The initial estimate (also called nominal estimate) is determined
by an equation of the form used in the static single variable
models, using KDLOC as the measure of the size. To determine

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the initial effort Ei in person-months the equation used is of the
type is shown below

Ei= a*(KDLOC)b
The value of the constant a and b are depends on the project
type.
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In COCOMO, projects are categorized into three types:

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 ORGANIC SEMIDETACHED EMBEDDED

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1.Organic:

A development project can be treated of the organic type, if the

project deals with developing a well-understood application
program, the size of the development team is reasonably small,
and the team members are experienced in developing similar
methods of projects.

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Examples of this type of projects are simple business
systems, simple inventory management systems, and data
processing systems.
2 . Semidetached :

A development project can be treated with semidetached type

if the development consists of a mixture of experienced and
inexperienced staff. Team members may have finite
experience in related systems but may be unfamiliar with
some aspects of the order being developed.
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Example of Semidetached system includes developing a
new operating system (OS), a Database Management
System (DBMS), and complex inventory management
system.
3. Embedded: A development project is treated to be of an
embedded type, if the software being developed is strongly
coupled to complex hardware, or if the stringent regulations on
the operational method exist.

For Example: ATM, Air Traffic control.

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For three product categories, Bohem provides a different set of
expression to predict effort (in a unit of person month)and
development time from the size of estimation in KLOC(Kilo
Line of code) efforts estimation takes into account the
productivity loss due to holidays, weekly off, coffee breaks,
etc.

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Types of Models:

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COCOMO consists of a hierarchy of three increasingly
detailed and accurate forms. Any of the three forms can be

adopted according to our requirements. These are types of

COCOMO model:

COCOMO
Model
• Basic • Detailed
• Intermediate
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COCOMO COCOMO
Model
Priyanka Natani Model
1. Basic COCOMO Model:
Basic COCOMO is good for quick estimate of software costs.
However it does not account for differences in hardware
constraints, personnel quality and experience, use of modern
tools and techniques, and so on. The basic COCOMO model
provide an accurate size of the project parameters. The
following expressions give the basic COCOMO estimation
model:
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 Effort=a1*(KLOC) a2 PM
Tdev=b1*(efforts)b2 Months
Where

KLOC is the estimated size of the software product indicate in

Kilo Lines of Code, a1,a2,b1,b2 are constants for each group of
software products,

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Tdev is the estimated time to develop the software, expressed
in months,

Effort is the total effort required to develop the software

product, expressed in person months (PMs). Estimation of
development effort

For the three classes of software products, the formulas for

estimating the effort based on the code size are shown below:

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Organic: Effort = 2.4(KLOC) 1.05 PM

Semi-detached: Effort = 3.0(KLOC) 1.12 PM

Embedded: Effort = 3.6(KLOC) 1.20 PM

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Estimation of development time

For the three classes of software products, the formulas for

estimating the development time based on the effort are given
below:

Organic: Tdev = 2.5(Effort) 0.38 Months

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Semi-detached: Tdev = 2.5(Effort) 0.35 Months

Embedded: Tdev = 2.5(Effort) 0.32 Months Some insight

into the basic COCOMO model can be obtained by plotting

the estimated characteristics for different software sizes.

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By Plotting the Graph we will able to see the two condition of
graph i.e.:

1. Estimated effort versus Product Size

2. Development time versus Size
Fig shows a plot of estimated effort versus product size.

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Presented By:
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From fig, we can observe that the effort is somewhat
superliner in the size of the software product.

Thus, the effort required to develop a product increases very

rapidly with project size.
The development time versus the product size in KLOC is
plotted in fig.

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Presented By:
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From fig it can be observed that the development time is a sub
linear function of the size of the product, i.e.

when the size of the product increases by two times, the time
to develop the product does not double but rises moderately.

This can be explained by the fact that for larger products, a

larger number of activities which can be carried out
concurrently can be identified.
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The parallel activities can be carried out simultaneously by the
engineers. This reduces the time to complete the project.

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Example1: Suppose a project was estimated to be 400 KLOC.
Calculate the effort and development time for each of the three
model i.e., organic, semi-detached & embedded.

Solution: The basic COCOMO equation takes the form:

Effort=a1*(KLOC) a2 PM
Tdev=b1*(efforts)b2 Months
Estimated Size of project= 400 KLOC

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(i) Organic Mode
E = 2.4 * (400)1.05 = 1295.31 PM
D = 2.5 * (1295.31)0.38=38.07 PM

( ii)Semidetached Mode
E = 3.0 * (400)1.12=2462.79 PM
D = 2.5 * (2462.79)0.35=38.45 PM

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( iii) Embedded Mode
E = 3.6 * (400)1.20 = 4772.81 PM
D = 2.5 * (4772.8)0.32 = 38 PM
Example2: A project size of 200
KLOC is to be developed. Software
development team has average
experience on similar type of
projects. The project schedule is not
very tight.

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Calculate the Effort, development time, average staff size, and
productivity of the project.
\
Solution: The semidetached mode is the most appropriate
mode, keeping in view the size, schedule and experience of
development time.
Hence E=3.0(200)1.12=1133.12PM
D=2.5(1133.12)0.35=29.3PM

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Presented By:
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 P = 176 LOC/PM
Intermediate Model:
The basic Cocomo model considers that the effort is only a
function of the number of lines of code and some constants
calculated according to the various software systems. The
intermediate COCOMO model recognizes these facts and
refines the initial estimates obtained through the basic

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Priyanka Natani
COCOMO model by using a set of 15 cost drivers based on
various attributes of software engineering.
Classification of Cost Drivers and their attributes:

(i) Product attributes –

Required software reliability extent

Size of the application database
The complexity of the product

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Hardware attributes –

Run-time performance constraints

Memory constraints
The volatility of the virtual machine environment
Required turnabout time
Personnel attributes –

Analyst capability
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Software engineering capability
Applications experience
Virtual machine experience
Programming language experience

Project attributes –

Use of software tools

Application of software engineering methods

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Required development schedule
The cost drivers are divided into four categories:

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Intermediate COCOMO equation:
E=ai (KLOC) bi*EAF
D=ci (E)di

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Coefficients for intermediate COCOMO
Project ai bi ci di

Organic 2.4 1.05 2.5 0.38

Semidetached 3.0 1.12 2.5 0.35

Embedded 3.6 1.20 2.5 0.32

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3 . Detailed COCOMO Model :
Detailed COCOMO incorporates all qualities of the standard
version with an assessment of the cost driver?s effect on each
method of the software engineering process. The detailed
model uses various effort multipliers for each cost driver
property. In detailed cocomo, the whole software is
differentiated into multiple modules, and then we apply

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Priyanka Natani
COCOMO in various modules to estimate effort and then sum
the effort.
.
The Six phases of detailed COCOMO are:

Planning and requirements

System structure
Complete structure
Module code and test
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Integration and test
Cost Constructive model

The effort is determined as a function of program estimate,

and a set of cost drivers are given according to every phase of
the software lifecycle

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PUTNAM Model
The Lawrence Putnam model describes the time and effort
requires finishing a software project of a specified size.
Putnam makes a use of a so-called The Norden/Rayleigh
Curve to estimate project effort, schedule & defect rate as
shown in fig:

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Presented By:
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Putnam noticed that software staffing profiles followed the
well known Rayleigh distribution. Putnam used his
observation about productivity levels to derive the software
equation:

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Priyanka Natani
The various terms of this expression are as follows:
K is the total effort expended (in PM) in product development,
and L is the product estimate in KLOC .

td correlate to the time of system and integration testing.

Therefore, td can be relatively considered as the time required
for developing the product.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Ck Is the state of technology constant and reflects requirements
that impede the development of the program.
Typical values of Ck = 2 for poor development environment

Ck= 8 for good software development environment

Ck = 11 for an excellent environment (in addition to

following software engineering principles, automated tools
and techniques are used).

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
The exact value of Ck for a specific task can be computed from
the historical data of the organization developing it.
Putnam proposed that optimal staff develop on a project
should follow the Rayleigh curve.

Only a small number of engineers are required at the

beginning of a plan to carry out planning and specification
tasks.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
As the project progresses and more detailed work are
necessary, the number of engineers reaches a peak. After
implementation and unit testing, the number of project staff
falls.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Software Project Scheduling
A schedule in your project’s time table actually consists of
sequenced activities and milestones that are needed to be
delivered under a given period of time.

Project schedule simply means a mechanism that is used to

communicate and know about that tasks are needed and has to
be done or performed and which organizational resources will
Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
be given or allocated to these tasks and in what time duration
or time frame work is needed to be performed.
Effective project scheduling leads to success of project,
reduced cost, and increased customer satisfaction.

Scheduling in project management means to list out activities,

deliverables, and milestones within a project that are
delivered.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
It contains more notes than your average weekly planner
notes.

The most common and important form of project schedule is

Gantt chart.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Process :

The manager needs to estimate time and resources of project

while scheduling project.

All activities in project must be arranged in a coherent

sequence that means activities should be arranged in a logical
and well-organized manner for easy to understand.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Initial estimates of project can be made optimistically which
means estimates can be made when all favorable things will
happen and no threats or problems take place.
The total work is separated or divided into various small
activities or tasks during project schedule.

Then, Project manager will decide time required for each

activity or task to get completed.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Even some activities are conducted and performed in parallel
for efficient performance.

The project manager should be aware of fact that each stage of

project is not problem-free.
Problems arise during Project Development Stage :

People may leave or remain absent during particular stage of

development.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Hardware may get failed while performing.
Software resource that is required may not be available at
present, etc.
The project schedule is represented as set of chart in which
work-breakdown structure and dependencies within various
activities are represented. To accomplish and complete project
within a given schedule, required resources must be available
when they are needed. Therefore, resource estimation should be
done before starting development.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Advantages of Project Scheduling :

There are several advantages provided by project schedule in

our project management:

It simply ensures that everyone remains on same page as far

as tasks get completed, dependencies, and deadlines.
It helps in identifying issues early and concerns such as lack
or unavailability of resources.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
It also helps to identify relationships and to monitor process.
It provides effective budget management and risk
mitigation.

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
 Any Queries

Presented By:
Priyanka Natani
Presented By:
Priyanka Natani