Unit 2: Network Architecture

2.1 Network Topologies

Network topology is the arrangement of the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a communication network.
Network topology can be used to define or describe the arrangement of various types of telecommunication
networks, including command and control radio networks, industrial fieldbuses and computer networks. It is
the arrangement of a network which comprises of nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver. The
various network topologies are:

BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable.
When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

• It transmits data only in one direction.
• Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology
• It is cost effective.
• Cable required is least compared to another network topology.
• Used in small networks.
• It is easy to understand.
• Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
• Cables fails then whole network fails.
• If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
• Cable has a limited length.
• It is slower than the ring topology.
RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with the
last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have
to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
• The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between
each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
• In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them.
Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
 • Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each
node of the network, till the destination node.
Advantages of Ring Topology
• Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having
tokens can transmit data.
• Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
• Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
• Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

• Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
• Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
• Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.
Advantages of Star Topology
• Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
• Easy to troubleshoot.
• Easy to setup and modify.
• Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
• Cost of installation is high.
• Expensive to use.
• If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
• Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

MESH Topology
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to each other.
Mesh has
n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are:
• Routing
• Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data
to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links,
and it avoids those nodes etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
MESH Topology: Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The network is robust,
and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.
Types of Mesh Topology
• Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as mesh
topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
• Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology
• Fully connected.
• Robust.
• Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Each connection can carry its own data load.
• It is robust.
• Fault is diagnosed easily.
• Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• Cabling cost is more.
• Bulk wiring is required.
TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology.
It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

• Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
• Used in Wide Area Network.
Advantages of Tree Topology
• Extension of bus and star topologies.
• Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
• Easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
• Heavily cabled.
• Costly.
• If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
• Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology
It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example, if in an office
in one department ring topology is used and, in another star, topology is used, connecting these topologies will
result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
• It is a combination of two or topologies
• Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• Reliable as Error detecting and troubleshooting is easy.
• Effective.
• Scalable as size can be increased easily.
• Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
• Complex in design.
• Costly.
2.2 Network Types:
a. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the computer network which relatively occupies small geographical area such as a single room or
a building. The numbers of computers in LAN may vary from just two or three computers to hundreds of
different kinds of computers. Computers in LAN are nearer to each other and are connected in a way that
enables them to communicate by cables or wireless devices.
Along with the limited space or area, LANs are also typically owned, managed, controlled by the single
organization or person. Networking done in computer lab is example of LAN.

Features of LAN
• It covers limited geographical area.
• It offers bandwidth of 10 to 100 Mbps (Megabits per second)
• It is owned and controlled by single organization.
Advantages of LAN
• It has higher bandwidth.
• Low cost
• Easy configuration
• Easy to manage
Disadvantages of LAN
• It covers small geographical region.
• Limitation in exchanging information.
• Difficult to set up the network.
b. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): The computer network which is speeded over the metropolitan
area or city is called metropolitan area network. It is the medium sized network larger than LAN and
smaller than WAN. Several LANs are connected together to form a MAN using different wires or wireless
technologies. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body or
large cooperation.
 Features of MAN
• It covers larger geographical area than LAN.
• The number of computers connected are also more than LAN.
• Multiple LANs are connected to form a MAN
• It is owned by single or multiple organizations.
Advantages of MAN
• It covers wider area than LAN.
• MAN requires fewer resources in comparison to WAN.
• Higher security.
• Increases the efficiency of handling data.
Disadvantages of MAN
• The large the network becomes difficult to manage.
• Difficult to make system secure from hackers.
c. Wide Area Network (WAN): The computer network which is spreads all over the world connecting
hundreds of thousands of computers. It is the largest network in the world where several LANs and MANs
are connected through satellite links or microwave system. This network connects two or more computers
generally across a wide geographical area such as cities, districts and countries. Internet is the example of
WAN.

Features of WAN:
• It is not restricted to a geographical locating; it is spreads all over the world.
• Satellites links and microwave system is used for connectivity.
• The technology is high speed and expensive.
• Data transmission is slower in comparison to LANs.
Advantages of WAN:
• It covers large geographical area.
• Ease update to the data and information.
• Scope of activities are not limited.
Disadvantages of WAN:
• The cost is higher.
• More associated errors occur.
• Need to invest on good firewall system.
• High security challenges from hackers.
2.3 Layered network architecture, protocols, interfaces, services:
Layered network architecture:
A network architecture is the set of rules which govern the connection and interaction of the network
components; it includes the data formats, protocols and logical structures for the functions which provide
effective communication between data processing systems connected to the network. Layering separates the
functions into distinct levels which communicate individually with like levels in distant nodes.
Network architectures may be classified as hierarchical or peer coupled. In a hierarchical network architecture,
such as SNA, a master system is aware of the entire network configuration and performs network management
and control. A peer-coupled (or distributed) network, such as DNA, gives each system information on the
network topology and all sessions take place between peer systems which offer a range of services to the users
and share the network management functions. Additional classifications which may be applied to network
architectures are end-user-oriented (which offers user services to the end users) and communication-oriented
(which offers transport facilities and protocol conversion facilities which make the network transparent to the
user). SNA and DNA are end-user oriented but a public X.25 data network is communication oriented.

Fig. Comparison of hierarchical and peer coupled network architectures

Protocols:
Network protocols are sets of established rules that dictate how to format, transmit and receive data so
computer network devices -- from servers and routers to endpoints -- can communicate regardless of the
differences in their underlying infrastructures, designs or standards.
To successfully send and receive information, devices on both sides of a communication exchange must
accept and follow protocol conventions. Support for network protocols can be built into software,
hardware or both.
Standardized network protocols provide a common language for network devices. Without them,
computers wouldn't know how to engage with each other. As a result, except for specialty networks built
around a specific architecture, few networks would be able to function, and the internet as we know it
wouldn't exist. Virtually all network end users rely on network protocols for connectivity.
Network protocols break larger processes into discrete, narrowly defined functions and tasks across every
level of the network. In the standard model, known as the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model,
one or more network protocols govern activities at each layer in the telecommunication exchange.
Interfaces:
Network interfaces is a software or hardware interface between two pieces of equipment or protocol
layers in a computer network. A network interface will usually have some form of network address. This
may consist of a node identifier and a port number or may be a unique node ID in its own right. Network
interfaces provide standardized functions such as passing messages, connecting and disconnecting, etc.
Services:
In computer networking, a network service is an application running at the network application layer and
above, that provides data storage, manipulation, presentation, communication or other capability which is
often implemented using a client-server or peer-to-peer architecture based on application layer network
protocols. Network service provides functionality to the user, e.g. e-mail, WWW, DNS. The service has a
common name, e.g. the e-mail, but the technical side of it is governed by so-called protocols (in the case
of email, it could be IMAP4 or POP3 protocols).
2.4 OSI Reference Model: Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems.
OSI model is established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has seven layers:

• Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the application user. This
layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with the user.
• Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote host should be
presented in the native format of host.
• Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For example, once
user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains this session for a while and does
not ask for authentication again in that time span.
• Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.
• Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely addressing hosts
in a network.
• Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and onto the line.
Link errors are detected at this layer.
• Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power output, pulse rate etc.
2.5 TCP/IP Reference Model:
TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It was developed by the DoD
(Department of Defense) in the 1960s. It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model,
namely, TCP and IP. TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.
The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are:
1. Host-to- Network Layer: It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical transmission of
data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports all the standard protocols.
2. Internet Layer: It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the network. The
main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols ICMP
(Internet Control Massage Protocol), IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol), RARP
(Reverse Address Resolution Protocol), and ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
3. Transport Layer: It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data. The protocols
defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
4. Application Layer: This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host programs with the
transport layer services. This layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS (Domain
Name System), HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SMTP
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), etc.
2.6 Standardization Organization
An association of organizations, governments, manufacturers and users form the standards organizations and
are responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining the standards. The intent is that all data
communications equipment manufacturers and users comply with these standards. The primary standards
organizations for data communication are:
1. International Standard Organization (ISO)
ISO is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects. It is comprised mainly
of members from the standards committee of various governments throughout the world. It is even responsible
for developing models which provides high level of system compatibility, quality enhancement, improved
productivity and reduced costs. The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the
other standards organizations.
2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector (ITU-T):
ITU-T is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based in Geneva,
Switzerland. It has developed three sets of specifications: The V series for modem interfacing and data
transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data transmission over public digital networks, email and
directory services; the I and Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its extension
Broadband ISDN. ITU-T membership consists of government authorities and representatives from many
countries and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations

3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) :

IEEE is an international professional organization founded in United States and is comprised of electronics,
computer and communications engineers. It is currently the world’s largest professional society with over
200,000 members. It develops communication and information processing standards with the underlying goal
of advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any field related to electrical engineering.

4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI):

ANSI is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S voting representative for the ISO.
ANSI is a completely private, non-profit organization comprised of equipment manufacturers and users of
data processing equipment and services. ANSI membership is comprised of people form professional
societies, industry associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.

5. Electronics Industry Association (EIA) :

EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends industrial standards. EIA activities
include standards development, increasing public awareness, and lobbying and it is responsible for developing
the RS (recommended standard) series of standards for data and communications.

6. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) :

TIA is the leading trade association in the communications and information technology industry. It facilitates
business development opportunities through market development, trade promotion, trade shows, and standards
development. It represents manufacturers of communications and information technology products and also
facilitates the convergence of new communications networks.

7. Internet Architecture Board (IAB):

IAB earlier known as Internet Activities Board is a committee created by ARPA (Advanced Research Projects
Agency) so as to analyze the activities of ARPANET whose purpose is to accelerate the advancement of
technologies useful for U.S military. IAB is a technical advisory group of the Internet Society.

8. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF):

The IETF is a large international community of network designers, operators, vendors and researchers
concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and smooth operation of the Internet.

9. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) :

The IRTF promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Internet by creating focused, long-
term and small research groups working on topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture and
technology.