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9th CBSE
Structure of the Atom
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Structure of the Atom

Syllabus
Sr. No. Topic Page No. Remark

2 Introduction: Discovery of Electrons and 3–5 100% Exam

Cathode Rays
3 Determination of e/m (charge/mass) Ratio Basic Concept
5
4 Electrons are Fundamental Particles of an Atom Exam.com

5 Experiments by Michael Faraday 6 Basic Concept

Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
6 Canal Rays or Positive Rays or Anode Rays 7 Exam.com
7 Thomson’s model of an Atom 8 100% Exam
8 Discovery of Atomic Nucleus 9 Exam.com
9 Rutherford’s Model of an Atom
10 100% Exam
10 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model of an Atom
11 Bohr’s Model of an Atom 11 100% Exam

12 Bohr and Bury Scheme for Distribution of 12 100% Exam

Electron in Different Energy Levels
13 Discovery of Neutron Basic Concept
14 Atomic Number&Mass Number 12-14 Exam.com
15 Discovery of Isotopes & Applications Exam.com
16 Isobars&Isotones 15 Basic Concept
17 Valence Electrons&Valency 16-17 Basic Concept

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Introduction
Many attempts have been made to know as to what is the ultimate particle of matter. The first scientific
theory about the structure of matter was given by John Dalton in 1808 which considered atoms as
indivisible particles and are the fundamental building blocks of matter. The existence of different types
of matter is considered to be due to different types of atoms constituting them.
Faraday in 1833 showed that the flow of electricity is due to the flow of charged particles. G.J. Stoney
(1874) first suggested the name electron for this electrical particle. However, it was J.J. Thomson who
showed the existence of electrons as an essential constituent of all matter.
According to the modern atomic theory, all atoms have a similar basic structure. They are composed of
many particles. The three main sub-atomic particles are protons, neutrons and electrons.
• Protons are positively charged particles that are found in the nucleus of an atom.
• Neutrons are electrically neutral particles that are also found in the nucleus. Neutrons are slightly
heavier than protons.
• Electrons are negatively charged particles that are found outside the nucleus.
Note:-The name atom comes from the Greek word atomos, which means uncuttable; this implies that atoms
are the smallest unit and are not dividable. They are often described as the basic unit of matter.
1. Discovery of Electrons and Cathode Rays: Cathode rays (or electrons) were discovered by J. J.
Thomson, originating or emitting from the cathode in a gas discharge tube that is why called cathode
rays having following properties :
(i) When these rays strike the glass walls of the tube, a greenish glow (fluorescence) is produced.
(ii)They are affected by electric field, i.e., they are inflected towards the positive field and deflected from
the negative field. This shows that they carry negative charge.
(iii) When a strong magnetic field is applied, cathode rays are deflected which shows cathode rays consist of
moving charged particles.
(iv)If a solid is placed in their path, its shadow is observed on a screen showing that cathode rays move in
straight lines.
(v) They produce X-rays: When a beam of cathode rays is made to fall upon hard metallic targets like tungsten,
X-rays are produced.
(vi) When a wheel is placed in their path, it starts moving, showing that cathode rays consist of material
particles possessing kinetic energy.
(vii). They cause ionization of the gas through which they pass.

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Thomson concluded that:

(i) cathode rays consist of negativity charged particles, now called electrons.
[The name ‘electron,’ meaning ‘atom of negative electricity,’ was given by Johnson Stoney].
(ii) these negatively–charged particles are an integral part of all atoms.
(iii) electrons have both definite mass and charge , both of which are independent of the nature of the gas in
the discharge tube.
2. Cause of Formation of Cathode Rays : When an energetic electron like the one in cathode rays,
hits an atom, it leads to ejection of electrons from the atom. The energy of an electron in a stable orbit
may increase due to collision to such a level that it is able to overcome the attractive forces between an
electron and the positively charged nucleus and move put of the atom.
This explains the ionization of gases and also the formation of cathode rays in discharge tubes

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3. Determination of e/m (charge/mass) Ratio : J. J. Thomson studied the deflections of cathode rays
under an electric field to determine the charge/mass ratio (e/m) for the particles present in cathode rays,
where ‘e’ is the charge of a particle, ‘m’ is its mass.
The value of e/m was found to be equal to 1.76 × 1011 C/kg.
Charge of Electron, e = 1.6  10-19C
Mass of Electron, m = 9.1  10-31 Kg
e/m = 1.6  10-19 C/ 9.1  10-31 Kg = 1.76  1011 C/kg
4. Electrons are Fundamental Particles of an Atom : It was observed that e/m of particles did
not change even when the material of electrodes was changed or when different gases were
introduced in the discharge tube. It showed that the particles present in cathode rays were present
in all atoms. These particles named electrons are fundamental particles of all atoms, i.e., present in
all the atoms.
5. Experiments by Michael Faraday : It was observed that positive ions moved towards -ve electrode
(cathode) whereas negative ions moved towards +ve electrode (anode), e.g., in electrolysis of NaCl, Na+
ions moved towards the cathode, and CI~ ions moved towards the anode under an electric field.
The elm ratio of particles of cathode was found to be 2,000 times larger than that of H+ ion.
1
It was found that the mass of a particle of cathode rays was about th part of 1 atom of hydrogen.
2,000
6. Millikan Oil Drop Experiment: R.A. Millikan observed that when charged oil droplets moved in space
under the influence of an applied electric field, the charge on droplets was always a multiple of 1.6 × 10-19 C
(Coulomb).
It was found that (elm) ratio of particles ejected from metals on heating or exposing to ultra-violet
radiations was same as that of particles in cathode rays. The charge on particles of cathode rays .
The charge on particles of cathode rays was 1.6 × 10-19 C.
e
= 1.76  1011 C / kg
m
1.6  10−19 C
m= = 9.1  10−31 kg . Thus J.J. Thomson discovered the electron.
1.76  10 C / kg
11

7. Electrons : They are negatively charged particles with charge 1.6 × 10 -19 C and mass 9.1 × 10-31 kg.
Electrons can be removed from an atom under specific conditions like those created in a discharge tube.
Atom is electrically neutral, therefore, the remaining part of an atom after the removal of electrons must
be positively charged.

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8. Canal Rays or Positive Rays or Anode Rays : In 1886, Goldstein noticed that when a perforated
cathode was used in the above discharge tube, another set of rays travelling in a direction opposite to
that of the cathode rays is seen, i.e. from the anode towards the cathode, as shown in Fig. He called
these rays as canal rays since these passed through holes or 'canals' in the cathode. Later on these rays
were named as positive rays or anode rays.

Anode rays have the following properties :

(i) When a strong electric field of 2,000 volts is applied canal rays move towards the -ve electrode cathode
showing that they consist of + vely charged particles. These are also called positive rays.
(ii) They are also deflected in a magnetic field in opposite direction to that of cathode rays.
(iii) They form image on photographic plate.
(iv) They travel in straight line.
9. Protons : They are positively charged particles having positive charge equal to 1.602 × 10-19C
and mass nearly equal to that of Hydrogen atom. Atom as a whole is neutral and electrons are present in all

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atoms, therefore, protons must be present in all atoms, i.e., they are fundamental particles.

10. Thomson’s model of an Atom : Thomson’s model of atom was compared to a Christmas pudding. The
electrons in a sphere of positive charge were likened to currants (dry fruits) in a spherical Christmas
pudding.

According to this model:-

1. An atom is considered to be a sphere of uniform positive charge and electrons are embedded into it.
2. The total positive charge is equal to the total negative charge so the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral.
3. The mass of the atom is considered to be uniformly distributed.

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The following are postulates of atomic structure by Thomson :

(i) Inside the atom electrons are present.
(ii) These electrons are embedded in sphere of positive charge.
(iii) Mass of an atom is due to electrons only.
(iv) The negative and positive charges balance each other.
(v) Atom as whole is neutral.
11. Discovery of Atomic Nucleus – Rutherford’s Model:
Rutherford bombarded thin sheets of gold foil with cc-rays.
He observed:

Scattering a  -particles by a gold foil

(i) Most of the rays passed undeviated which shows ‘Most part of an atom is hollow’.
(ii) Some  -particles were scattered with large angular deviations showing that ‘the centre of an atom
is positively charged’.
(iii) A few of these rays were reflected back which showed that they had direct collision with the entire
mass of material and that the whole mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
1
(iv) The size of the nucleus (10 -15 m) is very small i.e., of the size of the atom (10−10 m ) .
1,00,000
(v) The density of the nucleus is very high because of its small size and the whole mass of the atom
being concentrated in the nucleus.
12. Rutherford’s Model - Structure of an Atom: Rutherford proposed a model in which electrons
were assumed to be revolving around the nucleus in well-defined paths called orbits.
He suggested that electrons move around the nucleus as planets move around the sun in fixed orbits
in our solar system.
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13. Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model of an Atom: Any charged particle when accelerated is expected
to radiate energy.
To remain in a circular orbit, the electron would need to undergo acceleration. Therefore, it would
radiate energy.
The loss of energy would lead to shrinking of the orbit in size. In a short time, it would hit the nucleus.
Therefore, an atom cannot be expected to be stable.
Question: (a) List three main features of Rutherford's model of an atom. [CBSE Board-2013-14]
(b) What are  - particles?
(c) Why did Rutherford select a gold foil for his experiment?
14. Bohr’s Model of an Atom:In 1913, Neil Bohr, a Danish physicist, explained the causes of the stability of
the atom in a different manner.
Main postulates of Bohr’s atomic model are:
(i) An atom consists of a positively charged centre called the nucleus where the whole mass of the
atom is concentrated.
(ii) Electrons revolve in orbits with well-defined energy levels.
(iii) Under normal conditions, the energy of the I st energy level will be lowest, say, E1. Other orbits,
2nd, 3rd ……… will have energies E2, E3 ……………

(iv) As long as an electron revolves in the same orbit, it does not radiate energy.
(v) When we supply energy to an electron, it can go to higher energy levels.
(vi) When an electron falls from a higher energy level to lower energy level, the difference in energy between
the two energy levels is radiated
(vii) Since each atom has its specific energy levels, it can emit radiations of specific wavelengths or
energy which leads to characteristic spectra of different atoms.

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15. Bohr and Bury Scheme for Distribution of Electron in Different Energy Levels :
(i) The maximum number of electrons in an energy level is equal to 2n2where ‘n’ is the energy level.
1st energy level can have 2n2 = 2 × I2 = 2 electrons.
2nd energy level can have 2 × 22 = 8 electrons.
3rd energy level can have 2 × 32 = 18 electrons.

(ii) The last energy level (outermost energy level) cannot have more than 8 electrons.
(ii) The last but one shell (penultimate shell) cannot have more than 18 electrons.
(iv) The last but second shell (anti-penultimate shell) cannot have more than 32 electrons.
16. Discovery of Neutron: In the nucleus of an atom, there is another particle, called a neutron, which
possesses no electrical charge but is almost of an equal in mass as the proton.
It was in 1932 that Chadwick discovered these neutral particles by bombarding light nuclei like
beryllium with alpha particles i.e. helium nuclei.
17. Neutron: They are electrically, neutral particles and are as heavy as protons.
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. The nucleus of helium atom contains 2 nrotons and
2 neutrons which account for its mass.
Properties of Neutrons
1. This particle was not found to be deflected by any magnetic or electric field, proving
that it is electrically neutral.
2. Its mass is equal to 1.676  10–24 g.
18. Atomic Number
19. It is defined as the number of protons present in a nucleus of an atom.
It is also equal to the number of electrons in case of a neutral atom. It is denoted by ‘Z’.

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20. Mass Number: It is defined as the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. It is denoted
by ‘A’.
The atomic number, the mass number and the symbol of an element are written as
1
1 H, 42 He, 37 Li

Atomic weight is nearly equal to the mass number. It is twice the atomic number in Case of
many atoms, e.g., for carbon Z = 6 and atomic weight is 12 times that of proton but for chromium
Z = 24 and atomic mass is nearly 52 times that of proton which is more than twice of atomic
number. Higher the value of ‘Z’, more will be the difference.
Number of Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number
Formation of NaCl:
The electronic configuration of a Sodium atom is 2,8,1. It has an electronic configuration with one
electron in excess than that of the nearest noble gas Neon (2, 8). Therefore, the Sodium atom shows a
tendency to give up the electron from its outermost shell.
Na - 1e- ® Na+
(2, 8, 1) (2, 8)
atom cation
The electronic configuration of chlorine is 2,8,7. It has an electronic configuration with one electron less
than that of the nearest noble gas argon (2, 8, 8). Therefore, the chlorine atom shows a tendency to
acquire an electron to attain octet in its outermost shell.
Cl + 1e- ® Cl-
(2, 8, 7) (2, 8, 8)
atom anion

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21. Discovery of Isotopes:Ionised atoms are also deviated from their path by the application of
electric and magnetic fields. J.J. Thomson could determine elm ratios of such ions. This method
could be used to determine the mass of the atom since the charge of the ionised atoms could be
determined by experiments like electrolysis.
This method is widely known as Mass Spectrometry.
It was observed that ionised atoms of many elements did not have unique mass. There were atoms
of more than one mass for the same element. Their chemical properties were identical and charges on
ionized species were exactly the same.
22. Isotopes : Those species which only differ in mass (atomic mass) but have same electric charges
on their nuclei and have same atomic number and chemical properties, are called Isotopes, e.g.
Carbon (atomic number 6) has three isotopes, of mass numbers 12, 13 and 14 respectively. These are
represented by the symbols 12
6 C, 13
6 C and 14
6 C respectively.

Hydrogen has three isotopes, namely protium, deuterium (or heavy hydrogen) and tritium, each having
the same atomic number, i.e. 1 but different mass numbers i.e. 1, 2 and 3 respectively. In other words,
isotopes differ only in their numbers of neutrons. Thus, protium has no neutron, deuterium has one and
tritium has two neutrons. They are represented by 11 H and 12 H and 13 H, respectively.

Uranium has isotopes. Uranium, with atomic mass 238 is abundant. On the other hand,
Uranium with atomic mass 235 can undergo fission reaction (break down into smaller atoms)
and produce large amount of energy. In a uranium ore, its concentration is very small and it is
difficult to isolate it from most abundant isotope U-238.
23. Applications of Isotopes :
(i) U-235 is used for the production of electricity with the help of nuclear reactors.

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(ii) U-238 is used to determine the age of very old rocks and even the age of the earth.
14
(Hi) 6 C is used to determine the age of old bones of living organisms.
(iv) Cobalt-60 is used in the treatment of cancer.
(v) P-32 is used in agricultural research.
(vi) 1-131 is used in the treatment of thyroid problems.
(vii) Na-24 is used to detect blood clots.
24. Isobars : Those atoms which have same mass numbers but different atomic numbers are called
40 40
isobars, e.g., 20 Ca and 18 Ar isobars.
25. Isotones : Those atoms which have same number of neutrons are called isotones, e.g.,
14
6 C and 16
8 O are isotones.

Question: Explain with examples (i) Atomic number (ii) Mass number (iii) Isotopes and
(iv) Isobars. Give any two uses of isotopes.
26. Constituents of Atoms by X-rays : The ionisation produced in gases like nitrogen or oxygen
or even monoatomic gases like argon and helium showed that all of them possess minute
electrical charges as constituents.
This was the first direct evidence that:
(i) Atom has a complex structure.
(ii) It is made up of particles which are electrically charged.
(iii) It is not the ultimate indivisible particle.
(iv) Physicists tried to find the masses of constituent particles of atom by X-rays and mass
spectrometry.
(v) The values of the charges carried by these particles were calculated,
(vi) The number and type of the constituent particles, and the volume occupied by them was
determined.
(vii) The relations between emission and absorption of light and heat
waves(electromagnetic radiation) by atom were studied.
(viii) If all the atoms possess similar constituents or not, was also investigated.
Electronic Configuration: The distribution of electrons in various energy levels is called electronic
configuration. It is governed by Bohr and Bury Scheme.

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Electronic configuration is written with the help of atomic number. Atomic number is equal to the
number of protons, which is also equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom. Mass number is
equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons. Therefore, the number of neutrons is
equal to the difference in mass number and the atomic number. Pictorial distribution of electrons in
various energy-levels :
27. Valence Electrons : The electrons in the last shell (outermost shell) are called valence electrons.
They govern the chemical properties of atoms. They are mainly responsible for the emission spectra
of elements.
28. Valency : It is defined as the number of electrons lost or gained or shared by an atom to become stable.
Helium and Neon have complete outermost shells, therefore, they are chemically inert, ie., do not take
part in chemical reactions. Hydrogen has one valence electron. Its valency is one. Lithium, Sodium and
Potassium also have one valence’ electron each, their valency is 1. They can lose one electron to become
stable like Helium and Neon.
The valency of each of Mg, Ca and Ba is 2 because each has two valence electrons and they have tendency to
lose two electrons to become stable.

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The valency of each of Boron, Aluminium is three because each has 3 valence electrons. Carbon and
Silicon each has 4 valence electrons, their valency is 4, Nitrogen and Phosphorus each has 5
electrons, their valencies are 3 and 5 because they can gain 3 electrons to become stable. Phosphorus can
also share 5 electrons. Oxygen and Sulphur each has 6 valence electrons, their valency is 2 because they
can gain 2 electrons or share 2 electrons. Fluorine and Chlorine each has 7 valence electrons, their valency
is 1 because they can pm one electron or share 1 electron to become stable.
Question: Why do helium, neon and argon have a zero valency ?

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