NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

Monterey, California
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering

Laboratory Experiments Booklet

EC2650
Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Fields

Laboratory Operating Conditions and Policies.………………...………………..………….. 2

Lab Title

1 Lab-Volt Exercise 7 - STANDING WAVES …………………………………. 6

2 Lab-Volt Exercise 11 - IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT …………………. 31

3 PULSES ON TRANSMISSION LINES ……………………………………...57

Available Help Sheets

Appendix A: dB vs dBm
Appendix B: Measuring VSWR
Appendix C: Using the Slotted Line (0.5-4 GHz)
Appendix D: Reading the SWR Meter
Appendix E: Using the Cavity Frequency Meter
Appendix F: Using the Slotted Line (8-12.4 GHz)
Appendix G: Slotted Line Measurements Using the Smith Chart
Appendix H: Measuring the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
Appendix I: Using the HP438A Power Meter

Corrections, comments and suggestions for improvement are greatly appreciated.

Assembled: M. A. Morgan 28 March 2015

1
 MICROWAVE AND ANTENNA LABORATORY

OPERATING CONDITIONS

Staff: Bob Broadston, Microwave Laboratory Director, 656-3445

Equipment Situation: Laboratory Facilities will permit two Lab Groups to operate
simultaneously. Experiments may require 1-4 hours depending upon expertise of lab group.
Laboratory assistance may not always be available. Please try to follow the laboratory
guidelines posted at the entrance to the Microwave Lab (S-419). Assistance will be provided
best when you schedule your lab period in advance.

OPERATING POLICY & PROCEDURES

• SIGN UP EARLY FOR YOUR LAB. Labs are conducted over a one or two week period.
Student travel or illness are the ONLY reasons authorized for extensions beyond the two
week period.
• SIGN UP BY 1400 OF THE PREVIOUS DAY. At 1400 hours of the prior day, lab
personnel will cross out vacant lab hours. This crossing out does indicate that a lab period
has been cancelled. The Lab Director will notify groups if a lab period must be cancelled
due to illness or other issues. Arrangements to conduct experiments during these crossed out
times must be made in person with the Lab Director and may be granted provided support
personnel are available. One signup sheet for each Microwave Lab exercise is provided to
avoid conflicts between multiple classes.
• SHOW UP ON TIME FOR YOUR LAB. If you're going to cancel please notify the lab so
others may use it. Lab phone is x3445 and a message machine will pick up for after hours
notices.

MICROWAVE LABORATORY FACILITIES

MICROWAVE LAB (ROOM 419, PHONE x3445)

Located on 4th floor. Laboratory experiments are generally performed in this area.
ANTENNA LAB (ROOM 703, PHONE x2561)
Located on 7th floor roof. Take north elevator (where coffee mess is) to roof, turn right & go out
door onto 6th deck, turn left, walk about 100 ft and go up ladder to 7th deck, turn left, Room 703
is behind large white satellite dish. The lab director will provide the cipher lock combinations.
ANECHOIC CHAMBER (ROOM 604, PHONE x2561)
Located on 6th floor roof. Take east elevator (near the Ed Tech office) to roof, turn right & go
out door onto 6th deck, turn left, walk about 120 ft PAST up ladder, Room 604 is on left.
QUALIFIED MICROWAVE LABORATORY STAFF WILL OPERATE ALL ANECHOIC CHAMBER
EQUIPMENT.

COMPUTATIONAL FACILITIES
The Microwave Lab PCs have several antenna & electromagnetic propagation modeling
programs that you can use to verify your experimental data.

2
MICROWAVE RF RADIATION HAZARDS

Excessive exposure to electromagnetic fields, including microwave radiation, can be harmful.

Although the power levels used in our ECE Electromagnetics Lab are very low and should not
present a health risk, it is still prudent to,

• be aware of the recommended safe power limits

• be aware of the power densities with which you will be working
• use good work habits to minimize exposure to radiated fields

The question of what is a "safe" radiation level is controversial; like highway speed limits, all we
can say with total certainty is that less is safer. Microwave radiation is nonionizing, so the main
biological effect is induced heating, which may occur relatively deep inside the body to affect
sensitive organs. Health risks increase according to the power density and the duration of the
exposure. The eye is the most sensitive organ, and studies have shown that cataracts can develop
from exposures as short as 1.5 hours to power densities of 150 mW/cm2. Thus, using a safety
factor of more than 10, the current U.S. Navy safety standard, NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-
1-529, recommends a maximum exposure power density of 10 mW/cm2, at frequencies above 10
GHz, and lower levels at lower frequencies.

By comparison, the power density from the sun on a clear day is about 100 mW/cm2, but most of
this power is beyond the microwave spectrum, and so does not enter deeply into the body.

The sources used in the ECE Electromagnetics Laboratory, such as sweep generators and Gunn
diodes, have power outputs in the 10-20 mW range. In most cases, there is little danger of being
exposed to radiation at these power levels because our experiments use coaxial lines or
waveguide, which provide a high degree of shielding. It is possible, however, to encounter power
densities near the Navy recommended limit at the end of an open-ended coaxial cable or
waveguide. Such power densities exist only right at the open end of the coax line or waveguide,
due to the 1/r2 decrease of radiated power with distance. For example, at a distance of 10 cm
from a waveguide flange with an input power of 20 mW, the Friis formula gives the power
density as,

=S
PG
=
( 20 )(=
2.5 )
0.04 mW / cm 2
4π R 2 4π (10 )
2

which is seen to be far below the recommend safety limits.

Even though there should be little danger from microwave radiation hazards in the lab, the
following work habits are recommended whenever working with RF or microwave equipment:

• Never look into the open end of a waveguide or transmission line that is connected to
other equipment.
• Do not place any part of your body against the open end of a waveguide or transmission
line.
• Turn off the microwave power source when assembling or disassembling components

3
The attached table from NAVSEA OP 3565/NAVAIR 16-1-529 gives the maximum exposure
levels for a controlled lab environment. This level of exposure is used by the NPS ECE
Department Electromagnetics Lab.

For the actual equipment used in the Electromagnetics Lab, the following information is
provided:

NPS ECE Department Electromagnetics Lab RF Exposure Levels

Course
Transmitter Power Power Density @ 10 cm Limit per C95.1-2005
Lab Exercise Antenna Gain
at antenna input mW/cm2 mW/cm2
Frequency
EC2650 11 dBm 0 dB 0.01 3.33
Slotted Line
1 GHz
EC3600 Carrier 3.81 dBm 14 dB .048 3.050
Dipole and Yagi
915 MHz Modulated 0.81 dBm 14 dB .020 3.050
EC3600 Carrier 11.52 dBm 17 dB .566 10
Pyramid Horns
10.52 GHz Modulated 9.09 dBm 17 dB .324 10
EC3600 5 dBm 26.8 dB 1.205 10
Millimeter Wave Link
23.8 GHz
EC3610 13 dBm 3 dB .032 10
Klystron Oscillator
9 GHz

RF exposure levels for research work will calculated as needed. RF exposure levels in the
Anechoic Chamber, SP-604, vary depending on the transmitting antenna and system
configuration. Standard operating procedure is to turn the final amplifier OFF before entering
the chamber; however, certain experiments may require the chamber to be occupied during
operation, and RF exposure levels will be calculated for each operation.

4
5
 Exercise 7
Standing Waves

EXERCISE OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this exercise, you will know how standing waves are
created in waveguides. You will be able to perform microwave frequency
measurements and standing wave measurements with the Slotted Line and the
SWR Meter of LVDAM-MW.

DISCUSSION

Creation of Standing Waves

When a sinusoidal microwave source is connected to a waveguide, sinusoidal waves

of voltage and current propagate along it.

Note: In fact, we could also say that both an electric field wave and a magnetic
field wave propagate inside the waveguide. Considering voltages and currents
instead of electric and magnetic fields is simply a different way of viewing
things. The voltage is present between the top and the bottom of the
waveguide, whereas the current flows in the side walls. Throughout this
exercise, we will deal with voltages and currents to facilitate the understanding.

The amplitude of the voltage and the current depend on the characteristic impedance
of the waveguide and on the impedance of the terminating load.

When the impedance of the load is equal to the characteristic impedance of the
waveguide, the load continually absorbs all the received energy. No energy is
reflected back toward the source. The waves travel only from the source to the load.

Conversely, when the impedance of the load is not equal to the characteristic
impedance of the waveguide, not all the received energy is absorbed by the load.
Instead, part of it is reflected back toward the source.

Figure 7-1, for example, shows the waves traveling along a waveguide when the
impedance of the load is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the waveguide.

In this example, the load is in the short-circuit condition:

• the incident wave is completely reflected at the load end.

• the reflected and incident waves travel through each other, but in opposite
directions, thereby combining vectorially.

This results in the creation of a standing wave along the waveguide. The standing
wave is the sum of the instantaneous values of the incident and reflected waves at
each point all along the line. This wave does not move or travel along the line, hence
the term "standing".

7-1
Standing Waves

Figure 7-1. Creation of a standing wave along a short-circuited waveguide.

Conventional Representation of Standing Waves

Even if the voltage or current of standing waves continually changes polarity with
time, the conventional way of representing these waves is with their negative and
positive half-cycles pointing upward.

Figure 7-2 shows the conventional representation of a standing wave of voltage

along a short-circuited waveguide.

• The points where the voltage is minimum are called minima, or nodes.

• The points where the voltage is maximum are called maxima, or loops.

The amplitude of the minima and maxima is determined by the amplitude of the
reflected wave. The amplitude of the reflected wave is determined by the nature of
the load.

When the load is a short circuit or an open circuit, the amplitude of the reflected
wave is maximum. In fact, the amplitude of the maxima is theoretically equal to twice
the amplitude of the incident wave, while the amplitude of the minima is null (or
practically zero).

7-2
Standing Waves

Figure 7-2. Conventional representation of a standing wave of voltage along a short-circuited

waveguide.

Frequency Measurement

When examining Figure 7-2, the statements below can be inferred.

• At the load end of the waveguide, a minimum invariably occurs.

• Minima also occur at every even multiple of λg/4 from the load end (where λg is
the wavelength of the propagating wave in the waveguide.)

• Maxima occur at every odd multiple of λg/4 from the load end.

Figure 7-2 allows you to determine the frequency of a microwave signal propagating
in a short-circuited waveguide:

1. Measure the distance d between two successive minima.

(Since minima are usually more sharply defined than maxima, measuring the
distance between minima provides more accurate results. The presence of large
reflections is also advantageous. Terminating the waveguide by a short-circuited
load provides large reflection. A matched load could not be used as there would
be no standing wave in this case.)

2. Multiply the measured distance by 2 to obtain the wavelength of the guided

signal, λg.

3. Calculate the frequency of the guided signal, f, using the following equation:

where c = velocity of propagation of the signal in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s);
λg = wavelength of the guided signal (m);
a = width of the waveguide (m);
f = frequency of the guided signal (Hz).

7-3
Standing Waves

The Lab-Volt Slotted Line

Figures 7-3 and 7-4 show the Lab-Volt Slotted Line, Model 9520. This device can be
used to measure the distance between the minima and the maxima of a standing
wave.

The Slotted Line consists of a low-loss waveguide section with a narrow, longitudinal
slot in the top wall, as Figure 7-3 shows. A sliding carriage, containing a probe
connected to a crystal detector, can be moved along the waveguide.

The probe is inserted into the waveguide to sense the electric field, as Figure 7-4
shows. This causes a microwave signal to be induced at the probe output. The
crystal detector detects this signal and produces a proportional DC voltage. This
voltage is available at the BNC output of the probe holder.

A thumbscrew allows you to adjust the depth of the probe and, therefore, the
magnitude of the DC voltage at the BNC output. The marks and the pointer provide
an indication of the depth of the probe.

The voltage produced at the BNC output of the Slotted Line decreases as the probe
is withdrawn from the waveguide; conversely, the voltage increases as the depth of
penetration of the probe is increased.

Figure 7-3. The Lab-Volt Slotted Line and its symbolic representation.

7-4
Standing Waves

Figure 7-4. Cut-away view of the Lab-Volt Slotted Line.

Microwave Frequency Measurements and Standing Wave Measurements

The Lab-Volt Slotted Line can be used with the SWR Meter of LVDAM-MW to
perform microwave frequency measurements and standing wave measurements.

To do this, the Slotted Line is connected to the input of the Data Acquisition
Interface (DAI) that is dedicated to the SWR Meter: MULTI-FUNCTION INPUT 3.
This connection is usually made via the Lab-Volt 60-dB Amplifier, Model 9593, to
obtain the maximum dynamic range.

The SWR Meter is set to read power. Its power reading is directly related to the
DC voltage at the Slotted Line output and, therefore, to the magnitude of the electric
field in the waveguide.

When the carriage is moved along the waveguide, the position of the probe changes,
causing the DC voltage produced by the crystal detector to change as a function of
the variation in magnitude of the electric field along the waveguide.

Two positioning scales on the waveguide and the carriage indicate the location of the
carriage. This allows you to locate the minima and the maxima in the standing wave
produced by various loads, and to measure the wavelength and the frequency of the
microwave signal in the waveguide.

The measurements made with a slotted line are limited by the scale graduations. The
accuracy of measurement decreases as the frequency of the guided signal is
increased.

7-5
Standing Waves

Startup Procedure to Follow When Using the Lab-Volt Slotted Line and the
SWR Meter of LVDAM-MW

Before using the Lab-Volt Slotted Line and the SWR Meter, the following startup
procedure must be performed. This procedure allows you to obtain the maximum
dynamic range on the SWR Meter, while operating the crystal detector of the Slotted
Line in its square-law region to obtain valid SWR Meter readings.

1. The microwave signal injected into circuit is amplitude modulated by a 1-kHz

square wave, provided by the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply. The microwave
signal is then attenuated in order for the crystal detector of the Slotted Line to
operate in its square-law region and the SWR Meter to provide valid readings.

2. The Slotted Line's probe is located close to the maximum nearest the load in
order for the Slotted Line output voltage to be maximum. This voltage is applied
to MULTI-FUNCTION INPUT 3 of the DAI (input dedicated to the SWR Meter of
LVDAM-MW).

3. The depth of the Slotted Line's probe is set to the initial default position of 1/3 of
maximum.

4. With the minimum sensitivity (0-dB gain) on Input 3, the frequency of the SWR
Meter's amplifier is tuned to obtain the maximum signal level on the SWR Meter.

5. The Slotted Line's probe depth is then adjusted so that the maximum signal level
indicated by the SWR Meter is between 70 and 90% of full scale.

6. The Slotted Line's probe is accurately positioned over the maximum, and the
probe depth is fine tuned, if necessary, to obtain the maximum signal level on the
SWR Meter.

7. The reference level (0.0 dB) is set on the SWR Meter.

Particular attention must be paid to the adjustment of the probe depth inside the
Slotted Line. If the probe penetrates too deep into the Slotted Line, the field
distribution can be distorted, especially when the SWR is high. Moreover, the probe's
crystal detector is then more likely to operate outside of its square-law region,
causing the measurements to be erroneous.

To obtain a good accuracy of measurement, the central frequency of the

SWR Meter must be readjusted whenever the microwave circuit is modified or used
for a prolonged period of time, as the central frequency drifts over time. The drift in
the central frequency of the SWR Meter is due, among other things, to variations in
ambient temperature and equipment temperature.

Similarly, the SWR Meter's reference may vary slightly over time. Small drifts are
acceptable. However, it is recommended that you verify the reference from time to
time and readjust it to 0.0 dB, to maintain a good accuracy of measurement.

7-6
Standing Waves

Procedure Summary

In this exercise, you will measure the guided wavelength and the frequency of a
microwave signal, using the Slotted Line and the SWR Meter.

You will then plot the standing-wave patterns for a short circuit, an attenuator and
short-circuit load, and a matched load.

Note: For detailed information on how t use the SWR Meter of LVDAM-MW to
perform SWR measurements, please refer to Section 3 of the Lab-Volt User
Guide "Microwave Data Acquisition and Management", part number 85756-E.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix F of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

System Setup

G 1. Make sure that all power switches are in the O (off) position. Set up the
modules and assemble the microwave components as shown in Figure 7-5.

The Slotted Line must be connected, via the 60-dB Amplifier, to the analog
input of the Data Acquisition Interface (DAI) that is dedicated to the SWR
Meter of LVDAM-MW: MULTI-FUNCTION INPUT 3.

The supply cable of the 60-dB Amplifier must be connected to the

DB-9 connector on the bottom of the Data Acquisition Interface.

G 2. Referring to the attenuation-versus-blade position curve (or the

corresponding Data Table) of the Lab-Volt Variable Attenuator obtained in
Exercise 4, determine the attenuator blade's position required for this
attenuator to provide an attenuation of 20 dB approximately.

Set the Variable Attenuator’s blade to this position, which will limit the
microwave signal incident to the Slotted Line's crystal detector to make it
operate in its square-law region.

Attenuator blade’s position: mm

G 3. Make the following settings on the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply:

VOLTAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MIN.
MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 kHz
METER SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 V

7-7
Standing Waves

G 4. Turn on the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply and the Data Acquisition
Interface (DAI) by setting their POWER switch to the "I" (ON) position.

Set the Gunn Oscillator supply voltage to 8.5 V. Wait for about 5 minutes to
allow the modules to warm up.

Figure 7-5. Computer and module arrangement (showing electrical connections to microwave
components), and microwave setup.

7-8
Standing Waves

Preliminary Adjustment of the Slotted Line and SWR Meter

G 5. Move the probe of the Slotted Line along the waveguide and set it over the
45-mm position. (The 45-mm mark on the waveguide scale intersects the
rightmost ("0") mark on the carriage scale, as Figure 7-6 shows).

The 45-mm position approximately corresponds to the location of the

standing wave maximum nearest the load.

Figure 7-6. Locating the Slotted Line's probe over the 45-mm position and adjusting the probe's
depth to 1/3 of maximum (pointer aligned with the second lowermost mark).

G 6. On the Slotted Line, loosen the thumbscrew of the sliding carriage and
partially withdraw the probe holder (by gently pulling up on the 60-dB
Amplifier connected to the probe holder).

Adjust the depth of the Slotted Line's probe to approximately 1/3 of

maximum (the Slotted Line's pointer must be aligned with the second
lowermost mark approximately, as Figure 7-6 shows); then tighten the
thumbscrew.

Note: Particular attention must be paid to the adjustment of the

probe depth inside the Slotted Line. If the probe penetrates too
deep into the Slotted Line, the field distribution can be distorted,
especially when the SWR is high. Moreover, the probe's crystal
detector is then more likely to operate outside of its square-law
region, causing the measurements to be erroneous.

7-9
Standing Waves

G 7. On the host computer, start the LVDAM-MW software. In the Application

Selection window, make sure the Work in stand-alone box is unchecked,
and click OK.

In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, make the following settings:

Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

Function Input 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SWR Meter
Input 3 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 dB
60 dB Ampli on Input 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

G 8. In LVDAM-MW, start the SWR Meter and set it to display decibels (dB).

G 9. Tune the frequency of the SWR Meter's amplifier: using the cursor of the
SWR Meter, scan through the frequency tuning range of this meter (from
900 to 1100 Hz) to find the frequency at which the Signal Level (indicated
as a percentage below the horizontal indicator bar of the meter) is
maximum.

a. If the maximum signal level obtained on the SWR Meter is between 70

and 90% of full scale and the horizontal indicator bar stays green, the
equipment is properly adjusted. Go immediately to step 10.

Note: To obtain the maximum dynamic range of measurement on

the SWR Meter (once its amplifier has been tuned), a maximum
level between 70 and 90% on the SWR Meter with Input 3 Gain
set to 0 dB is ideal.

b. If the maximum signal level obtained on the SWR Meter is between

10% and 70% of full scale, loosen the thumbscrew of the Slotted Line
and very slightly readjust the depth of its probe so that the maximum
signal level indicated by the SWR Meter is between 70 and 90% of full
scale (and the green bar stays green) once the thumbscrew of the
Slotted Line has been re-tightened (the tightening of the thumbscrew
will cause the signal level to vary slightly).

Make sure not to insert the probe too deep inside the Slotted Line,
otherwise the measurements may be erroneous. Instead slightly
readjust the attenuation provided by the Variable Attenuator if the
maximum reachable Signal Level stays below 70% of full scale, until
this signal is within 70 and 90% of full scale.

Note: The adjustment process may be tedious at first, since a

small change in probe depth results in a significant change in the
SWR Meter's signal level, however it will become easier with
practice.

c. If you are unable to tune the SWR Meter's amplifier because the
maximum signal level exceeds the measurement scale (the horizontal
indicator bar of the meter turns to red), loosen the thumbscrew of the
Slotted Line. Readjust the depth of the Slotted Line's probe in order to
obtain a significant reading on the SWR Meter (a signal level of, for

7-10
Standing Waves

example, about 25% of full scale, once the thumbscrew of the Slotted
Line has been re-tightened since its tightening will cause the signal level
to change slightly). Then, tune the frequency of the SWR Meter to
obtain the maximum signal level on this meter. If this level is not
between 70 and 90% of full scale, very slightly readjust the depth of the
Slotted Line's probe so that the maximum signal level indicated by the
SWR Meter is between 70 and 90% of full scale (and the green bar
never turns from green to red) once the thumbscrew of the Slotted Line
has been re-tightened.

d. If the maximum signal level stays null or too low (below 10% of full scale
with a blue indicator bar or no bar displayed) when trying to tune the
SWR Meter's amplifier, slightly decrease the attenuation produced by
the Variable Attenuator in order to obtain a significant level on the SWR
Meter (a signal level of, for example, about 25% of full scale). Then,
tune the meter frequency in order to obtain the maximum signal level on
this meter. If the maximum signal level is not between 70 and 90% of
full scale, slightly readjust the Variable Attenuator for the signal to be
within this range.

Note: The voltage produced by the Slotted Line decreases as the

probe is withdrawn from the waveguide; conversely, the voltage
increases as the depth of penetration of the probe is increased.
The probe needs to be partially withdrawn from the Slotted Line's
waveguide to obtain valid measurements on the SWR Meter and
a good dynamic range. The probe must not be fully inserted into
the Slotted Line's waveguide, otherwise its crystal detector may
not operate in the square-law region, causing the SWR Meter
readings to be erroneous.

G 10. Very slightly move the probe of the Slotted Line around the 45-mm position
on the graduated waveguide, while observing the Signal Level on the SWR
Meter; locate the probe over the maximum (if not already there) to obtain the
maximum Signal Level on the SWR Meter.

Note: If this causes the Signal Level to become lower than 70%
or higher than 90% of full scale, very slightly readjust the depth of
the Slotted Line's probe to bring the Signal Level back to 70-90%
of full scale, with a green bar that never turns to red, when the
probe is at the maximum.

G 11. Click on the REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference
level to 0.0 dB.

Measuring the Guided Wavelength and the Microwave Signal Frequency

G 12. Move the Slotted Line's probe along the waveguide to locate the minima
and the maxima. Record the position of each of them in Table 7-1. Do not
modify any equipment setting, except Gain Input 3 when necessary.

– To locate the maxima, set Gain Input 3 to 0 dB and find the probe
locations for which the signal level is maximum on the SWR Meter.

7-11
Standing Waves

– To locate the minima, set Gain Input 3 to 20 dB and then 40 dB to find

the probe locations for which the signal level is minimum on the
SWR Meter—this level will be approximately null, causing jerky and
small irregular moves of the SWR Meter's indicator bar in the blue
(lowest) range area.

Note: When the Slotted Line’s probe is at a minimum and the

indicator bar of the SWR Meter turns to blue, the indicated level
is very low and fluctuates continuously. In this case, take the
approximate meter value, as it is not possible to perform an
accurate measurement.

DISTANCE FROM THE DISTANCE FROM THE

MINIMUM MAXIMUM
LOAD (mm) LOAD (mm)

m1 (nearest from load) M1 (nearest from load)

m2 M2

m3 M3

m4 M4

m5 M5 —

Table 7-1. Location of minima and maxima when the load consists of a short circuit.

G 13. Based on the data recorded in Table 7-1, evaluate the distance, d, between
two successive minima.

d= mm

Multiply the distance, d, by 2 to obtain the wavelength of the signal in the

waveguide, λg.

λg = 2d = mm

Based on the obtained wavelength, λg, calculate the frequency of the signal
in the waveguide, f, using the formula below.

where c = velocity of propagation of the signal in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s);
λg = wavelength of the signal in the waveguide (m);
a = width of the waveguide, equal to 0.0229 m;
f = frequency of the signal in the waveguide (Hz).

7-12
Standing Waves

Standing Wave Produced Along the Slotted Line when the Waveguide Is Short-
Circuited

G 14. In LVDAM-MW, select the Data Table function and enter the column titles
and figures already recorded in Table 7-2 below. Save your Data Table.

DISTANCE FROM THE

SWR METER READING (dB) E/E MAX.
LOAD (mm)

45 0 1
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73

Table 7-2. E/E MAX. ratios along the Slotted Line when the waveguide is short-circuited.

7-13
Standing Waves

G 15. Set the Gain on Input 3 to 0 dB.

Locate the Slotted Line's probe over the maximum nearest the load (around
the 45.0-mm position) in order to obtain the maximum signal level on the
SWR Meter.

Verify that the frequency of the SWR Meter is properly tuned for the Signal
Level displayed on the SWR Meter to be maximum. Click on the
REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference level to 0.0 dB.

G 16. Fill in your Data Table: by moving the Slotted Line's probe away from the
load in steps of 1.0 mm, set this probe to each of the locations listed in the
Data Table and, for each location, perform the steps below.

a. Record the SWR Meter power reading under the column "SWR METER
READING" (increase or decrease Gain Input 3 as necessary, but do not
change the Reference on the SWR Meter).

b. Using the SWR Meter reading recorded in step a., use the equation
below to calculate the ratio E/E MAX.. Record your result under the
column "E/E MAX.". Save your table.

where E = Voltage of the standing wave at the current probe

location (V);
E MAX. = Voltage of the standing wave at the location of the
maximum (V);
SWR Meter Reading = Ratio of the standing wave voltage, E, to the
maximum voltage, E MAX. of this wave, in decibels
(dB).

G 17. In LVDAM, select the Graph function of the Data Table and plot the
E/E MAX.-versus-distance from the load curve: select "DISTANCE FROM
THE LOAD" for the X-Axis and "E/E max" for the Y-Axis.

Have the X-Axis coordinates of your graph graduated like the Slotted Line's
ruler (right-to-left increase) by making the following settings in the Graph
window:

X-Axis Coordinates
Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON
Scale
X-Axis Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manual
X Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
X Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
X Min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

Your graph should show part of the standing-wave pattern, as Figure 7-7
shows. Print your graph, then plot the rest of the standing wave freehand
based on the minima and the maxima recorded in Table 7-1.

7-14
Standing Waves

Remember that a standing wave repeats itself every half-wavelength. The

distance between the minima and maxima remains constant.

Figure 7-7. Standing wave produced along the Slotted Line when the waveguide is short-circuited.

G 18. Save and close your Data Table.

7-15
Standing Waves

Standing Wave Produced Along the Slotted Line When the Load Consists of
a 6-dB Attenuator and a Short Circuit

G 19. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, set the Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power
to OFF.

G 20. Taking care not to modify the adjustment of the Variable Attenuator
and Slotted Line’s probe depth, modify your microwave circuit in order to
obtain the circuit shown in Figure 7-8.

Leave the rest of the equipment connected and set as before.

Figure 7-8. Modified microwave circuit to plot the standing-wave pattern when the load consists
of a 6-dB attenuator and a short circuit.

G 21. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, make the following settings:

Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

Input 3 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 dB

Wait for about 5 minutes to allow the modules to warm up.

G 22. Locate the Slotted Line's probe over the maximum nearest the load (around
the 36.0-mm position) in order to obtain the maximum signal level on the
SWR Meter.

Verify that the frequency of the SWR Meter is properly tuned for the Signal
Level displayed on the SWR Meter to be maximum. Slightly move the

7-16
Standing Waves

Slotted Line's probe around the 36-mm position to locate the probe over the
maximum (if not already there) and obtain the maximum Signal Level on the
SWR Meter. If the maximum signal level is below 70% of full scale, very
slightly readjust the attenuation provided by the Variable Attenuator or the
depth of the Slotted Line's probe so that the maximum level is between 70
and 90% of full scale.

Click on the REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference
level to 0.0 dB.

G 23. Move the probe of the Slotted Line along the graduated waveguide to locate
the minima and the maxima. Record the position of each of them in
Table 7-3. Do not modify any equipment setting, except Gain Input 3 if
necessary.

Note: The magnitude of the minima and the maxima may slightly
change as the probe is moved along the line due to power lost by
reflection along the guide. Reflections and reflection losses will be
studied in another exercise.

DISTANCE FROM THE DISTANCE FROM THE

MINIMUM MAXIMUM
LOAD (mm) LOAD (mm)

m1 (nearest from load) M1 (nearest from load)

m2 M2

m3 M3

m4 M4

m5 — M5

Table 7-3. Location of minima and maxima when the load consists of a 6-dB attenuator and a short
circuit.

7-17
Standing Waves

G 24. In LVDAM-MW, select the Data Table function and enter the column titles
and figures already recorded in Table 7-4 below. Save your Data Table.

DISTANCE FROM THE

SWR METER READING (dB) E/E MAX.
LOAD (mm)

36 0 1

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

Table 7-4. E/E MAX. ratios along the Slotted Line when the load consists of a 6-dB attenuator and a
short circuit.

7-18
Standing Waves

G 25. Locate the Slotted Line's probe over the maximum nearest the load (around
the 36.0-mm position) in order to obtain the maximum signal level on the
SWR Meter.

Verify that the frequency of the SWR Meter is properly tuned for the Signal
Level displayed on the SWR Meter to be maximum. Click on the
REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference level to 0.0 dB.

G 26. Fill in your Data Table: by moving the Slotted Line's probe away from the
load in steps of 1.0 mm, set this probe to each of the locations listed in the
Data Table and, for each location, perform the steps below.

a. Note the SWR Meter power reading and record it under the column
"SWR METER READING".

Note: When the SWR Meter's Signal Level fluctuates,

approximate this level.

b. Using the SWR Meter reading recorded in step a., use the equation
below to calculate the ratio E/E MAX. Record your result under the
column "E/E MAX.". Save your table.

where E = Voltage of the standing wave at the current probe

location (V);
E MAX. = Voltage of the standing wave at the location of the
maximum (V);
SWR Meter Reading = Ratio of the standing wave voltage, E, to the
maximum voltage, E MAX. of this wave, in decibels
(dB).

G 27. In LVDAM, select the Graph function of the Data Table and plot the
E/E MAX.-versus-distance from the load curve.

Have the X-Axis coordinates of your graph graduated like the Slotted Line's
ruler by making the following settings in the Graph window:

X-Axis Coordinates
Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON
Scale
X-Axis Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manual
X Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
X Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
X Min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

7-19
Standing Waves

Your graph should show part of the standing-wave pattern, as Figure 7-9
shows. Observe that the peak-to-peak amplitude of the standing wave is
lower than that of the standing wave previously obtained with the short-
circuited load.

Print your graph, then plot the rest of the standing wave freehand based on
the minima and the maxima recorded in Table 7-3.

Remember that a standing wave repeats itself every half-wavelength. The

distance between the minima and maxima remains constant.

Figure 7-9. Standing wave produced along the Slotted Line when the load consists of a 6-dB
attenuator and a short circuit.

G 28. Save and close your Data Table.

7-20
Standing Waves

Standing Wave Produced Along the Slotted Line with a Matched Load

G 29. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, set the Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power
to OFF.

G 30. Taking care not to modify the adjustment of the Variable Attenuator
and Slotted Line's probe, modify your microwave circuit in order to obtain
the circuit shown in Figure 7-10.

Leave the rest of the equipment connected and set as before.

Figure 7-10. Modified microwave circuit to plot the standing-wave pattern with a matched load.

G 31. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, make the following settings:

Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

Input 3 Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 dB

G 32. In LVDAM-MW, select the Data Table function and enter the column titles
and figures already recorded in Table 7-5 below. Save your Data Table.

7-21
Standing Waves

PROBE LOCATION (mm) SWR METER READING (dB) E/E MAX.

40 0 1

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

Table 7-5. E/E MAX. ratios along the Slotted Line with a matched load.

G 33. Locate the Slotted Line's probe over the 40-mm position.

Verify that the frequency of the SWR Meter is properly tuned for the Signal
Level displayed on the SWR Meter to be maximum. If this level is below
70% of full scale, very slightly readjust the attenuation provided by the
Variable Attenuator or the depth of the Slotted Line's probe so that the
maximum level is between 70 and 90% of full scale.

Click on the REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference
level to 0.0 dB.

G 34. Fill in your Data Table: by moving the Slotted Line's probe away from the
load, set this probe to each of the locations listed in the Data Table and, for
each location, perform the steps below.

a. Note the SWR Meter power reading and record it under the column
"SWR METER READING".

Note: When the SWR Meter's Signal Level fluctuates,

approximate this level.

b. Using the SWR Meter reading recorded in step a., use the equation
below to calculate the ratio E/E MAX. Record your result under the
column "E/E MAX." Save your table.

7-22
Standing Waves

where E = Voltage of the standing wave at the current probe

location (V);
E MAX. = Voltage of the standing wave at the location of the
maximum (V);
SWR Meter Reading = Ratio of the standing wave voltage, E, to the
maximum voltage, E MAX. of this wave, in decibels
(dB).

G 35. In LVDAM, select the Graph function of the Data Table and plot the
E/E MAX.-versus-distance from the load curve.

Have the X-Axis coordinates of your graph graduated like the Slotted Line's
ruler by making the following settings in the Graph window:

X-Axis Coordinates
Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON
Scale
X-Axis Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manual
X Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
X Max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
X Min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0

Your graph should resemble that shown in Figure 7-11.

Observe that the amplitude of the standing wave stays nearly constant
around a ratio E./EMAX. of 1, since the impedance of the load is matched to
the characteristic impedance of the waveguide.

G 36. Save and close your Data Table.

G 37. Turn off the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply and the Data Acquisition
Interface by setting their POWER switch to the O (OFF) position.
Disassemble the setup and return all components to their storage location.

G 38. Close the LVDAM-MW software.

7-23
Standing Waves

Figure 7-11. Standing wave produced along the Slotted Line with a matched load.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, the concepts of characteristic impedance, reflected waves, and

standing-waves were introduced. You became familiar with the use of a slotted line
by evaluating the guided wavelength and the frequency of a microwave signal. You
also determined the standing-wave patterns for a short circuit, an attenuator and
short-circuit load, and a matched load.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What does a standing-wave pattern represent?

7-24
Standing Waves

2. What is the distance, in terms of wavelengths, between successive minima in a

standing-wave pattern?

3. What causes a maximum on a standing-wave?

4. Explain how to determine a microwave signal's frequency with a slotted line.

5. What physical parameter does a slotted line measure?

7-25
 Exercise 11
Impedance Measurements

EXERCISE OBJECTIVES

When you have completed this exercise, you will know how a Smith Chart is
constructed, and how to use it to determine load impedances. You will be able to
measure load impedances by using a slotted line and the Smith Chart.

DISCUSSION

Relationship Between the Reflection Coefficient at the Load and the Load
Impedance

As you have already learned, when the impedance of the load does not perfectly
match the characteristic impedance of the waveguide, Z0, not all the energy incident
at the load is absorbed by the load. Instead, part of this energy is reflected back
toward the source by a reflection coefficient ΓL.

The relationship between ΓL and Z0 is as follows:

or

where ΓL = Reflection coefficient at the load (dimensionless number, comprised

between +1 and -1);
ZL = Impedance of the load (Ω);
Z0 = Characteristic impedance of the line (Ω).

The impedance of a load, ZL is a complex quantity: it is composed of a real, resistive

part, R, and an imaginary, reactive part ±jX. When ZL is not purely resistive, ΓL is a
vectorial quantity carrying both magnitude and phase information:

ΓL = ρ

where ΓL = Reflection coefficient at the load, expressed as a vector quantity;

ρ = Magnitude of the reflection coefficient;
φ = Phase angle of the reflection coefficient.

11-1
Impedance Measurements

The Smith Chart

The Smith Chart is a graphical computation tool developed by Dr. P. H. Smith in

1939. This chart simplifies evaluation of transmission line parameters, such as

• the SWR produced by a given load;

• the reflection coefficient, when the characteristic impedance and the load
impedance are known, and vice versa;
• the impedance of the load, when the SWR is known.

Figure 11-1 shows a Smith Chart. It consists of a set of impedance coordinates used
to represent impedance at any point along a line in rectangular form: R ± jX:

• R is the purely resistive component of the impedance;

• ± jX is the reactive component (reactance) of the impedance

All resistance and reactance values on the chart are normalized to the characteristic
impedance of the line, Z0. Resistance values correspond to R/Z0. Reactance values
correspond to ±jX/Z0.

Circles of Constant Resistance (R) Value

The "R" coordinates of a Smith Chart are a set of circles tangent at the right end of
the horizontal centerline of the chart, as Figure 11-2 (a) shows. The point of
tangency is called the common point, or infinity (4) point.

Each circle represents a constant resistance (or conductance, G, = 1/R) value, as

Figure 11-2 (b) shows:

• The largest circle, which outlines the chart, corresponds to a constant R value of
0 Ω.

• The smaller circles correspond to higher, constant R values.

The horizontal (center) line of the chart represents pure resistance, or zero
reactance. The normalized values for R/Z0 are marked all along the horizontal center
line. These values range from 0 to 50. The shown circles for constant R/Z0 values
of 0, 0.3, 1.0, 2.0, and 5.0 are emphasized.

11-2
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-1. The Smith Chart.

11-3
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-2. Circles of constant resistance (R/Z0) values.

11-4
Impedance Measurements

Arcs of Constant Reactance (±jX/Z0) Values

The "± jX" coordinates of a Smith Chart are a set of arcs starting from the common,
or infinity point, as Figure 11-3 (a) shows. Each arc represents a constant
reactance value.

• The upper half of the chart contains coordinates for inductive reactance (+ jX).
Thus, each arc curving upward represents a constant inductive reactance.

• The lower half of the chart contains coordinates for capacitive reactance (- jX).
Thus, each arc curving backward represents a constant capacitive reactance.

As Figure 11-3 (b) shows, the normalized values for ± jX/Z0 are marked on the inner
scale just beneath the 0-Ω R circle of the chart. These values range from 0 to 50.
The shown arcs for constant jX/Z0 values of +0.4, +1.2, +3.0, -0.6, -1.0, and -2.0 are
emphasized.

In the next sections, you will learn how to use the Smith Chart to perform various
measurements.

11-5
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-3. Arcs of constant reactance (±jX/Z0) values.

11-6
Impedance Measurements

Plotting a Normalized Impedance on the Smith Chart

The following impedance is measured at a point along a transmission line having a

characteristic impedance, Z0, of 50 Ω:

ZACTUAL = 5 + j25 Ω.

Plot this impedance on the Smith Chart of Figure 11-4.

1. First, normalize the impedance as follows:

2. From the center point of the Smith Chart (the mark "1.0", that is, 1 + j0), move to
the left along the horizontal line to find the 0.1 resistance circle, as Figure 11-4
shows.

3. Move around the 0.1 resistance circle to the point intersecting the 0.5 inductive
reactance arc. This point, marked "A" on the chart, represents the normalized
impedance 0.1 + j0.5.

11-7
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-4. Plotting a normalized impedance.

11-8
Impedance Measurements

Determining the SWR Produced by a Given Load

A 50-Ω line is terminated by a load impedance ZL = 50 + j35 Ω. Determine the SWR

produced by this load by drawing the corresponding SWR circle on the Smith Chart
of Figure 11-5.

1. Normalize the load impedance and then plot this impedance on the Smith Chart
(point marked "A" on the chart).

2. Using a compass, draw a circle having its origin at the center point of the chart,
and with a radius such that the circle crosses the load impedance (point A).

(This circle is a constant SWR circle: all load impedances located on this circle
will produce the same SWR.)

3. Read the SWR from this circle at the point where it cuts the centerline on the right
(SWR = 2).

Another way of determining the SWR and its corresponding value in decibels (dB)
is by using the RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS (scales at the bottom of the
Smith Chart). To do this, first set the compass for the distance from the center point
of the Smith Chart to point A. Then, place one leg of the compass on the line
"CENTER" (SWR = 1) of the RADIALLY SCALED PARAMETERS and determine
where the other leg cuts the scale "SWR". This scale gives the SWR as a
dimensionless number in dB (SWR = 2.0 or 6.0 dB).

11-9
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-5. Determining the SWR produced by a given load.

11-10
Impedance Measurements

Determining the Magnitude (ρ) and Phase Angle (φ) of the Reflection
Coefficient Produced by a Given Load

A 50-Ω line is terminated by a load impedance ZL = 150 + j100 Ω. Determine the

magnitude of the reflection coefficient, ρ.

(Refer to the Smith Chart of Figure 11-6.)

1. Normalize the load impedance.

2. Plot the normalized impedance on the Smith Chart (point A).

3. Draw the corresponding SWR circle on the Smith Chart.

4. Set the compass for the radius of the SWR circle. Transfer this distance to the
scale "REFLECTION COEFFICIENT, E or I" at the bottom of the chart, starting
at the "CENTER" line. Read off the magnitude of the reflection coefficient
(ρ = 0.63).

5. Draw a vector from the center point of the chart through point A to the scale
"ANGLE OF REFLECTION COEFFICIENT IN DEGREES", just beneath the outer
rim of the chart (point B). Read off the phase angle of the reflection coefficient
(φ – 18E).

Note: The complete reflection coefficient Γ may be written in its polar form as
, where ρ and φ are the magnitude and the phase angle of the reflection
coefficient, respectively.

The reverse procedure can be used to determine an unknown impedance when the
magnitude and the phase of the reflection coefficient are known.

11-11
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-6. Determining the magnitude (ρ) and phase (φ) of the reflection coefficient produced
by a given load.

11-12
Impedance Measurements

Determining the Impedance of a Load with a Slotted Line (Short-Circuit

Minima-Shift Method)

The SWR produced by a load is 3. This SWR has been measured by using a slotted
line and a SWR meter. Determine the impedance of the load.

1. Draw the SWR circle on a Smith Chart (Figure 11-8).

2. Determine the phase angle (φ) of the reflection coefficient, using the steps below.

a. Temporarily replace the load of unknown impedance by a short circuit, which

will produce a standing wave like the one shown in Figure 11-7. By using the
slotted line, locate a minimum of the standing wave, preferably the minimum
closest to the short circuit.

In Figure 11-7, the closest measurable minimum to the short circuit is MIN1.

Location of MIN1 = 31.9 mm

b. Then, locate the next minimum towards the source. In Figure 11-7, this
minimum is MIN2.

Location of MIN2 = 50.2 mm

c. Replace the short circuit with the load of unknown impedance. Locate the
minimum between the two minima previously measured with the short circuit.
In Figure 11-7, this minimum is MIN3.

Location of MIN3 = 37.9 mm

d. Determine the distance, d, that the minimum shifted:

d = MIN2 - MIN3 = 50.2 mm - 37.9 mm = 12.3 mm

e. Determine the guided wavelength, λg, based on the location of MIN1 and MIN2.

λg = 2 @ (MIN2 - MIN1) = 2 @ (50.2 mm - 31.9 mm) = 36.6 mm

f. Based on the guided wavelength, λg, calculate the phase angle (φ) of the
reflection coefficient:

3. On the Smith Chart of Figure 11-8, draw a vector from the center point of the
chart to the mark on the scale "ANGLE OF REFLECTION COEFFICIENT IN
DEGREES" that corresponds to the angle -62E(point B).

11-13
Impedance Measurements

The point where this vector crosses the SWR circle (point C) corresponds to the
normalized load impedance (ZL NORM. = 0.95 - j1.13).

Note: This method can also be used to determine the impedance seen
by the source at any point along the guide. Once you have determined
the impedance at that point, you can use the scale WAVELENGTHS
TOWARD GENERATOR on the outer rim of the Smith Chart to
determine the impedance at any other point along the waveguide.

Figure 11-7. Determining the phase angle (φ) of the reflection coefficient from the standing-wave
pattern.

11-14
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-8. Determining the load impedance with a slotted line (short-circuit minima-shift
method).

11-15
Impedance Measurements

Procedure Summary

In the first part of this exercise, you will measure the guided wavelength by locating
two successive minima in the standing wave produced by a short-circuited load.

In the second part of the exercise, you will measure the impedance of two loads by
using the short-circuit minima-shift method. The loads will consist of a short-circuited
Variable Attenuator set to produce two different attenuations.

Note: For detailed information on how to use the Smith Chart of LVDAM-MW,
please refer to Section 4 of the Lab-Volt User Guide "Microwave Data
Acquisition and Management", part number 85756-E.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart, in Appendix F of this manual, to obtain the
list of equipment required to perform this exercise.

PROCEDURE

Determining the Guided Wavelength with the Slotted Line

G 1. Make sure that all power switches are in the O (off) position. Set up the
modules and assemble the microwave components as shown in
Figure 11-9.

11-16
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-9. Computer and module arrangement (showing electrical connections to microwave
components), and microwave setup.

11-17
Impedance Measurements

G 2. Make the following settings on the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply:

VOLTAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MIN.
MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 kHz
METER SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 V

G 3. Turn on the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply and the Data Acquisition
Interface (DAI) by setting their POWER switch to the "I" (ON) position.

Set the Gunn Oscillator supply voltage to 8.5 V. Wait for about 5 minutes to
allow the modules to warm up.

G 4. Move the probe of the Slotted Line along the waveguide and locate it over
the 45-mm position. (The 45-mm mark on the waveguide scale intersects
the 0-mm (rightmost) mark on the carriage scale).

G 5. On the Slotted Line, loosen the thumbscrew of the sliding carriage adjust the
depth of the Slotted Line's probe to approximately 1/3 of maximum (the
Slotted Line's pointer must be aligned with the second lowermost mark
approximately), then tighten the thumbscrew.

Note: Particular attention must be paid to the adjustment of the

probe depth inside the Slotted Line. If the probe penetrates too
deep into the Slotted Line, the field distribution can be distorted,
especially when the SWR is high. Moreover, the probe's crystal
detector is then more likely to operate outside of its square-law
region, causing the measurements to be erroneous.

G 6. On the host computer, start the LVDAM-MW software. In the Application

Selection window, make sure the Work in stand-alone box is unchecked,
and click OK.

In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, make the following settings:

Gunn Oscillator/VCO Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

Function Input 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SWR Meter
Gain Input 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 dB
60 dB Ampli on Input 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ON

G 7. In LVDAM-MW, start the SWR Meter and set it to display decibels (dB).

G 8. Tune the frequency of the SWR Meter's amplifier: using the cursor of the
SWR Meter, scan through the frequency tuning range of this meter (from
900 to 1100 Hz) to find the frequency at which the signal level (indicated as
a percentage below the horizontal indicator bar of the meter) is maximum.

a. If the maximum signal level obtained on the SWR Meter is between 70

and 90% of full scale and the horizontal indicator bar stays green, the
equipment is properly adjusted. Go immediately to step 9.

11-18
Impedance Measurements

Note: To obtain the maximum dynamic range of measurement on

the SWR Meter (once its amplifier has been tuned), a maximum
level between 70 and 90% on the SWR Meter with Gain Input 3
set to 0 dB is ideal.

b. If you are unable to tune the SWR Meter's amplifier because the
maximum signal level exceeds the measurement scale (the horizontal
indicator bar of the meter turns to red), loosen the thumbscrew of the
Slotted Line. Readjust the depth of the Slotted Line's probe in order to
obtain a significant reading on the SWR Meter (a signal level of, for
example, about 25% of full scale, once the thumbscrew of the Slotted
Line has been re-tightened since its tightening will cause the signal level
to change slightly). Then, tune the frequency of the SWR Meter to
obtain the maximum signal level on this meter. If this level is not
between 70 and 90% of full scale, very slightly readjust the depth of the
Slotted Line's probe so that the maximum signal level indicated by the
SWR Meter is between 70 and 90% of full scale (and the green bar
never turns from green to red) once the thumbscrew of the Slotted Line
has been re-tightened.

c. If the maximum signal level obtained on the SWR Meter is between 10

and 70% of full scale, loosen the thumbscrew of the Slotted Line and
very slightly readjust the depth of its probe so that the maximum signal
level indicated by the SWR Meter is between 70 and 90% of full scale
(and the green bar stays green) once the thumbscrew of the Slotted
Line has been re-tightened (the tightening of the thumbscrew will cause
the signal level to vary slightly).

G 9. Click on the REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference
level to 0.0 dB.

G 10. While observing the SWR Meter reading, locate the Slotted Line's probe
over the minimum nearest the load. This will require you to increase Gain
Input 3 to 20 dB and then 40 dB. The minimum should be around 36 mm.

Record the location of this minimum, MIN1.

Location of MIN1 = mm

G 11. While observing the SWR Meter reading, slowly move the Slotted Line's
probe towards the source until you encounter the second minimum. This
minimum should be around 54 mm.

Record the location of this minimum, MIN2.

Location of MIN2 = mm

G 12. Calculate the guided wavelength, λg.

λg = 2 @ (MIN2 - MIN1) = mm

11-19
Impedance Measurements

Measuring the Load Impedance by Using the Short-Circuit Minima-Shift

Method

Measuring the Load Impedance with the Variable Attenuator Set for an Attenuation
of 5.0 dB

G 13. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, set the field Gunn Oscillator/VCO
Power to OFF.

G 14. Modify your microwave circuit in order to obtain the circuit shown in
Figure 11-10 (the 35-dB Variable Attenuator is added).

Leave the rest of the equipment connected and set as before.

Figure 11-10. Modified microwave circuit used to determine the load impedance by measuring the
phase angle of the reflection coefficient and then using the short-circuit minima-shift method.

G 15. In the Settings panel of LVDAM-MW, set the field Gunn Oscillator/VCO
Power to ON.

Wait for about 5 minutes to allow the modules to warm up.

G 16. Referring to the attenuation-versus-blade position curve (or the

corresponding Data Table) of the Lab-Volt Variable Attenuator obtained in
Exercise 4, determine the attenuator blade's position required for this
attenuator to provide an attenuation of 5.0 dB.

Set the Variable Attenuator's blade to this position.

11-20
Impedance Measurements

G 17. Set Gain Input 3 to 0 dB. While observing the SWR Meter reading, locate
the Slotted Line's probe over the maximum nearest the load to obtain the
maximum signal level on this meter.

Then, adjust the frequency of the SWR Meter's amplifier for the signal level
to be maximum on this meter. DO NOT modify the adjustment of the
Variable Attenuator's blade.

If the maximum signal level obtained on the SWR Meter is

a. between 70 and 90% of full scale and the horizontal indicator bar stays
green, the equipment is properly adjusted. Go immediately to step 18.

b. between 10 and 70% of full scale, loosen the thumbscrew of the Slotted
Line and very slightly readjust the depth of its probe so that the
maximum signal level indicated by the SWR Meter is between 70 and
90% of full scale (and the green bar stays green) once the thumbscrew
of the Slotted Line has been re-tightened (the tightening of the
thumbscrew will cause the signal level to vary slightly).

Note: If you cannot find the location of the maximum because the
signal level displayed by the SWR Meter exceeds the
measurement scale (the horizontal indicator bar of the meter turns
to red), DO NOT modify the adjustment of the Variable
Attenuator's blade. Instead readjust (decrease) the depth of the
Slotted Line's probe in order to obtain a significant reading on the
SWR Meter (for example, about 25% of full scale once the
thumbscrew of the Slotted Line has been re-tightened). Then,
locate the Slotted Line's probe over the maximum nearest the
load and perform step 17.

G 18. Click on the REFERENCE button of the SWR Meter to set the reference
level to 0.0 dB.

G 19. Locate the Slotted Line's probe over the minimum between the two minima
previously observed with the short-circuited load (that is, MIN1 and MIN2, as
recorded in steps 10 and 11). Record the location of this MIN below.

Then, set the SWR Meter to display the SWR as a dimensionless number
(linear scale). Record the SWR Meter reading below.

Location of MIN = mm

SWR =

11-21
Impedance Measurements

Calculate the distance, d, that the minimum shifted due to the change in
load impedance, using the equation below:

d = MIN2 - MIN = mm

where MIN2 = Location of the second minimum with the short-circuited

load, as recorded in step 11;
MIN = Current location of the Slotted Line's probe.

G 20. Based on the distance, d, obtained in the previous step, and on the guided
wavelength, λg, recorded in step 12, calculate the phase angle (φ) of the
reflection coefficient:

φ =

G 21. In LVDAM-MW, select the Smith Chart function, which will bring up this
chart.

In the Smith Chart Settings panel, enter the measured SWR (as recorded
in step 19) to plot the corresponding SWR circle.

Rotate the vector of the Smith Chart along the scale of the reflection
coefficient angle—on the outer rim of the chart—until it intersects the angle
(φ) recorded in step 20. (The field Reflection Coefficient Angle in the
Settings panel of the Smith Chart indicates this angle when the vector is
properly positioned.)

The point where the vector crosses the SWR circle corresponds to the
normalized load impedance. The real and imaginary part of this impedance
(reactance and inductance) are indicated in the Settings panel of the Smith
Chart. Record this impedance below.

ZL NORM. = +j

Figure 11-11 shows an example in which the normalized impedance is

1.35 + j0.62, when the SWR is 1.83 and the phase angle φ is 45.5E. This
impedance is indicated in the field Impedance of the Settings panel.

11-22
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-11. The normalized impedance corresponds to the point where the vector crosses the
SWR circle.

Measuring the Load Impedance with the Variable Attenuator Set for an Attenuation
of 1.5 dB

G 22. Referring to the attenuation-versus-blade position curve (or the

corresponding Data Table) of the Lab-Volt Variable Attenuator obtained in
Exercise 4, determine the attenuator blade's position required for this
attenuator to provide an attenuation of 1.5 dB.

Set the Variable Attenuator's blade to this position.

G 23. Repeat steps 17 through 21 in order to determine the load impedance.

Record your results below.

Location of MIN = mm

SWR =

d = MIN2 - MIN = mm

φ =

ZL NORM. = +j

11-23
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-12 shows an example in which the normalized impedance is

0.37 + j1.10 when the SWR is 6.1 and the phase angle φ is 81E.

Figure 11-12. The normalized impedance corresponds to the point where the vector crosses the
SWR circle.

G 24. Turn off the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply and the Data Acquisition
Interface by setting their POWER switch to the O (OFF) position.
Disassemble the setup and return all components to their storage location.

G 25. Close the LVDAM-MW software.

CONCLUSION

In this exercise, you learned how to use a Smith Chart to obtain both the magnitude
and the phase of the reflection coefficient from a normalized impedance, and vice
versa.

You learned how to measure the normalized impedance of a load by using the short-
circuit minima-shift method. With this method, a slotted line and a SWR meter are
used to measure the SWR and the distance the minima in the standing wave shifted
due to the change in the load impedance. The SWR and the measured distance are

11-24
Impedance Measurements

then used to calculate the angle of the reflection coefficient and find the normalized
load impedance with the Smith Chart.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the two parts of a complex impedance?

2. What is the purpose of the Smith Chart as it was used in this exercise?

3. Explain how to plot the locus of all impedances which produce the same SWR
on a Smith Chart.

4. Explain how to plot a complex impedance on a Smith Chart.

5. On the Smith Chart in Figure 11-13, plot the axis of purely resistive loads.

11-25
Impedance Measurements

Figure 11-13. Plotting the locus of purely resistive loads.

11-26
 NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
Monterey, CA

PULSES ON TRANSMISSION LINES

1.0 OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate the time domain properties of signal reflection and transmission at impedance
discontinuities on a transmission line. The following areas will be investigated:

Part 1: Effect on Source Pulse when Transmission Line Cable is attached.

Part 2: Cable Length Measurement by Time Domain Reflectometry
Part 3: Estimate Z0 of the Transmission Line by Varying Source Impedance (RG)
Part 4: Investigate the effects of Varying Load Impedance (RL)
Part 5: Investigate the effects of Pulse and Reflections Overlap.

2.0 EQUIPMENT

The schematic diagram of the experiment is shown in Figure 1. Configurations for various
portions of this experiment are on the following figures. The lab staff uses Figure 1 to setup the
equipment.

Item Quantity Description

1 1 Function/Arbitrary Waveform Generator, Agilent 33250A or 33220A
2 1 Oscope, 2 channel, external trigger (Tektronix TDS-3032B)
3 4 BNC-BNC Test Leads, 50 ohms
4 1 Adapter Box, Metal (Drawer B-D3)
5 18 (2ea); 0,10,15,24,36,51,75,100,150 ohm Banana loads (RS & RL)
6 1 RG-11A/U Coax Cable
7 1 N-Banana adapter
8 2 Banana-BNC adapters
9 1 N-BNC Adapter
10 1 Single Banana Connection Extension
11 1 3 ½ inch (90 mm) Floppy Disk

Figure 1: Pulses on a transmission line equipment setup.

6
3.0 INTRODUCTION

Previous experiments have dealt with time-harmonic voltages on transmission lines. In the case
of continuous waves (CW), after a short transient time, the incident and reflected waves exist
over the entire length of the line. They add and cancel depending on their relative phases and
oscillate with an ω t time dependence. Standing waves result because the incident and reflected
exist simultaneously. On the other hand, if a very short pulse is transmitted, then the incident
and reflected fields will not exist over the entire length of the line.

In this experiment, the time domain properties of signal reflection and transmission at impedance
discontinuities will be investigated using voltage pulses injected onto a coaxial transmission line.
Knowledge of these properties becomes important in applications that interface high-speed
communication signals between different pieces of equipment and cabling such as in computer
networking. A signal propagating down a transmission line will be partially reflected if the load
is not matched to the characteristic impedance of the line. For example, if the impedance
discontinuity were the interface between a cable and a piece of electronic equipment, then not all
of the transmitted power would get to the equipment. Furthermore, the reflected power can be
reflected a second time at the source end of the line and transmitted back to the load (a second
time around signal). Thus the load would receive two signals: the original one plus a reflected
one that is delayed in time. This effect is often seen on cable or closed circuit television systems
as the familiar "ghosting" effect where multiple images of the same scene are displayed only
slightly offset. Another consequence of impedance mismatching can be shown in computer
network interfacing. Signal reflections from mismatches can result in confused signaling and
needless bandwidth consumption. Thus the need for 50 ohm terminators in coaxial Ethernet
connections.

This experiment uses a pulse generator to send narrow voltage pulses down a length of coaxial
cable (T-Line). The roundtrip pulse travel time from the cable's source end to the load end and
back is greater than the time width of the pulse, but is less than the period between pulses. This
condition permits the original and the reflected pulses to be observed before a new source pulse
is sent.

Two impedance discontinuity points on this circuit will be investigated. One is at the input to the
transmission line, and the other at the loaded end of the T-line, as shown in Figure 2. The
behavior at the T-line input is modified by changing the source (generator) impedance (RG).
This is done by inserting a series resistance (RS) into the circuit at the breakout box. T-line
output effects are modified by changing the load resistance (RL or RL).
PULSE GENERATOR OSCOPE OSCOPE
CH 1 CH 2

51Ω TP1
Rs TP2
VG RG-11/U CABLE RL
TP1

RG ≈ 51 + Rs

7
 Figure 2: Circuit diagram for pulses on a transmission line

Oscilloscope (voltage vs. time) waveforms are observed at both the source (sending) and load
(receiving) ends. The observed pulses will not be perfect rectangular shapes due to attenuation
and distortion effects of the cable at higher frequencies. However, this effect can be neglected as
long as we carefully define the leading edge of the pulse, which is used to measure the time at
which the pulse arrives. Various terminations will be used as called for in the instructions.
Waveform sketches and reflection diagrams will be made illustrating pulse reflections and their
dependency upon the relationship of the impedance discontinuity.

4.0 THEORY

Figure 3 shows a transmission line circuit with a d-c voltage source. Immediately after the
switch is closed, the total resistance across the battery is RG + Ro . Therefore, the fraction of
source voltage across the input of the line is
V R
Vo+ = G o
RG + Ro
This is the amplitude of the wave incident on the load for a lossless line. At the load, the
R − Ro
reflection coefficient is Γ = L and therefore the amplitude of the reflected wave is
RL + Ro
ΓVG Ro
Vo− = ΓVo+ =
RG + Ro
If the generator at the input side is not matched to the transmission line impedance, then another
reflection occurs at the input of the line. Mathematically there are an infinite number of
reflections if Γ > 0 . However, in practice they decay very rapidly for small reflection
coefficients. More details are discussed in the text.

PULSE GENERATOR

RG SWITCH
VG Zo = Ro RL

Figure 3: Step voltage on a transmission line.

A reflectometer is an instrument used to measure distances based on time delays. For example,
if a buried Transatlantic cable were to break, an estimate of the location of the break can be
obtained by measuring the round trip time delay of a short pulse. A break most likely would
appear as a short or open, providing a large reflection source. If a pulse is sent down the line
with a phase velocity v p and a large reflection measured a time Td later, then the estimated
distance of the break from the input is
v p Td
d=
2
8
5.0 PROCEDURE

5.0.1 Setup - Source pulse setting (Unloaded)

This procedure will set up the waveform from the pulse generator. The equipment settings below
are initial settings for the equipment. You will need to adjust the pulse generator and measure
its output using an oscilloscope (Oscope) connected as shown in Figure 4 to the pulse breakout
box. The breakout box provides a interface to measure signals coming out of the pulse generator
and going into the coaxial cable transmission line. The settings are provided to get you started,
you will need to adjust equipment to obtain the desired waveform.

a. Connect system as shown in Figure 6, for initial setting and measurement of the pulse
waveform. Energize function generator and Oscope. Set pulse generator settings and adjust
using the Oscope to measure. Set instrument controls to first view the pulse train on the
Oscope and then an individual pulse.

Function Generator initial settings:

Select Pulse Mode Frequency: 100 kHz
Amplitude: 3 VPP Pulse Width: 100 ns
Offset: 0 VDC

OscillOscope (Oscope) Settings: Use the QuickMenu button to set the initial values
(adjust time & volt scales as needed during experiment)

SELECT
MEASURE SAVE/RECALL QUICKMENU

=M
COARSE CURSOR DISPLAY UTILITY

VERTICAL HORIZONTAL TRIGGER ACQUIRE

RUN/
STOP
CH 1
SINGLE
SEQ

CH 2
~ SET TO
DELAY AUTOSET
OFF 50%

FORCE
TRIG

B TRIG
MATH

MEN REF MENU MENU MENU

U
OFF

CH 1 CH 2 EXT TRIG
! !

Figure 4: Tektronix TDS3032B Oscilloscope front panel

9
 After powering up the oscilloscope, press the QuickMenu button. You should see the following display:

Figure 5: QuickMenu Display

Set up the scope as outlined below:
TRIGGER ACQUIRE CURSOR
A Trig Type: Edge Normal Off
Mode: Auto Sample
Source: Ext
Coupling: DC
Slope: positive slope
Level: 500 mV

Use the CH 1 and CH 2 buttons to select the channels and change VERTICAL settings:
VERTICAL CH 1 & CH 2
Coupling: AC
Impedance: 1MΩ
Bandwidth: Full

Use the large knob under VERTICAL on the panel to set the vertical scales to 2 V/div for both
channels.

Use the large knob under HORIZONTAL to set the time scale
TIME/DIV: 2 μs/div for pulse train (to measure Pulse Repetition Rate-PRF)
100 ns/div for single pulse (to measure pulse width)

b. Pulse Repetition Frequency(PRF): Switch Oscope time/div controls to see pulse train (2
μs/div). Ensure that the Oscope trigger is set for external. While viewing the waveform on
the Oscope, ensure that the Pulse Repetion Interval (time between pulses) of 10 μs. This
equates to the PRF of 100 kHz.
10
c. Pulse width, delay and amplitude: Set Oscope time base controls to display a single pulse
(100 ns/div). Ensure that pulse width is 100ns and that the WIDTH for required pulse width
(100 ns): Ensure that the signal is 6 V (peak-to-peak).

Figure 6: Setup to measure input pulse.

5.1 Part 1: Effect on Source Pulse due to Connecting Transmission Line Cable

The RG-11A/U coaxial cable is connected to the output of the pulse generator (at breakout box)
and the effect on the open circuit source pulse previously measured (in 5.0.1) is investigated.

a. Connect system as shown in Figure 1 and set the oscilloscope to measure the reflected pulse
waveform. Make sure the CH1 probe is connected to TP2. Insert a short for RS, total source
impedance is the pulse generator internal impedance (RG=51ohms). Set RL to be an open
circuit (the 1MΩ impedance of CH2 is effectively an open circuit).
b. Measure the pulse amplitude at the input to the transmission line (Ch 1). Has it changed from
open circuit pulse amplitude previously set, if so why?
Hint: (1) you are no longer measuring an open circuit voltage (VOC is not V), and
(2) measured amplitude is the sum of the incident and reflected pulses, ( V + + V − ).
c. Using the values for source pulse and incident pulse amplitudes, estimate a value for the
characteristic impedance of the RG-11A/U transmission line.

OC Source Pulse: 6 Volts (set previously VOC)

Measured Pulse at Input:__________________ Z0 Estimated:__________________

11
5.2 Part 2: Cable Length Measurement by Time Domain Reflectometry

Assuming vp= 0.66c (manufacturer's data), calculate the length of the RG-11A/U coaxial cable
by measuring the time delays of the reflected pulse.

a. Connect System per Figure 1 and set Oscope to measure the reflected pulse waveform. Make
sure that the CH1 probe is attached to TP2. The displayed waveform is a time history of one
pulse bouncing back/forth on the transmission line (RG-11A/U cable). Set RL as an open
circuit (the 1MΩ impedance of CH2 is effectively an open circuit) for largest reflection, RS as
a short circuit.
b. Capture the CH1 & CH2 reflected pulse waveforms. Annotate each waveform with the one
way and roundtrip times. Show formulas and calculations of the cable length below the
waveform sketches. You may use the printer button on the oscilloscope to dump the screen to
a floppy disk. Simply press the button and make note of the file name that is assigned.

c. Estimate the cable's physical length by measuring cable coil diameter and counting the number
of coils.

TDR Cable Length:__________________ Estimated Length:_______________________

5.3 Part 3: Estimate Zo of the RG-11A/U Cable by Varying Source Impedance (RG=51 +
RS)

Estimate the characteristic impedance, Zo, of the transmission line by viewing the oscilloscope
waveforms as the source impedance RS is varied. Load impedance is set as an open circuit to
provide a fully reflected pulse from the cable end.

a. Connect equipment as shown in Figure 1. Set oscilloscope to measure the reflected pulse
waveform. Make sure that the CH1 probe is attached to TP2. Set RL as an open circuit for
largest reflection.

b. Match the line to the equivalent generator by varying RS. Hint: Observe the pulse reflected
from the source (on Ch 2), note when it is eliminated. Make one measurement with RG<Z0
and one with RG>Z0 before matching RG to Z0. Record matching value for the series
resistance RS. Impedance matching Source-Cable:

RS :__________________________ Total RG :_______________________

c. When the source is matched to the cable, capture the waveforms (Ch1 & Ch2). Draw the
reflection diagram for 2 roundtrips below the waveforms, provide values for each reflection
coefficient. Add a brief discussion of the magnitudes of the waveforms observed.

d. Increase RS such that the total source impedance is 2Zo. Sketch the waveforms (Ch1 & Ch2).

12
e. Draw the reflection diagram for 2 roundtrips below the oscope capture,and provide values for
each reflection coefficient. Add a brief discussion of the magnitudes of the waveforms
observed.

5.4 Part 4: Investigate the Effects of Varying Load Impedance (RL)

Source impedance (RG) will be matched to the transmission line and load impedance varied, so
that the effects on the reflected pulses can be observed.

a. Connect equipment as shown in Figure 1. Set oscilloscope to measure the reflected pulse
waveforms from Ch1 & Ch2. Set RS such that RG = Zo.
b. Substitute the following values for RL with RG = Zo:

(1) Open circuit (2) Zo (3) 2 Zo

(4) Short circuit (5) 1/2 Zo.

For each case, capture the waveforms (Ch1 & 2) noting the values for source and load
impedance. Draw the reflection diagram for each case below the waveform drawing. Provide a
short explanation justifying the voltage amplitudes and polarities recorded for each waveform.

5.5 Part 5: Case of Incident and Reflected Pulse Overlap

Matched source to the line (RG = Z0) set with RL = ∞ (open), gradually increase pulse width to 1
μsec (from 0.1 μsec). Capture the waveforms, draw reflection diagrams and explain the effects
when pulse width is 1 μs. Repeat for RL as a short.

a. Install the proper value for RS to set RG= Z0. Remove any RL to set it open circuited.
b. Select Pulse Width and use the grey knob to gradually increase pulse width. Observe the
waveforms and comment on the effects.
c. Increase pulse width to 1 μs. Capture the resulting waveforms and voltage reflection
diagrams. The reflection diagram will require some ingenuity to account for the fact that the
incident and reflected pulses are now overlapping
d. Repeat a, b and c with RL as a short circuit.

6.0 QUESTIONS

6.1 Summary of Data Analysis and Graphs

The following list summarizes the graphs to be made. Figure 6 provides an example of the
Waveform and Voltage Reflection Diagrams. Page 31 is a blank form that can be used to
produce bounce diagrams. This is also available as a PowerPoint slide. Provide circuit values of
the loads used in the pulse amplitude measurements. Show calculations of reflection and
transmission coefficients and the calculated values for the voltage pulses at the measured
locations. Note and provide comments on any discrepancies between your calculations and
measurements.

13
Part Name of Plot Type
5.2 Time Domain Reflectometry Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams
5.3c Varying RG=Z0, RL = open circuit Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams
5.3d Varying RG=2Z0,RL= open circuit Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams
5.4b RG=Z0, Varying RL = open circuit Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams
5.4b RG=Z0, Varying RL = Z0 Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams
5.4b RG=Z0, Varying RL = 2Z0 Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams
5.4b RG=Z0, Varying RL= short circuit Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams
5.4b RG=Z0, Varying RL =1/2 Z0 Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams
5.5c Pulse Overlap (RL = open) Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams
5.5d Pulse Overlap (RL= short) Waveform & Voltage Reflection Diagrams

Figure 7: Example of a reflection diagram.

14
 Part 5.2: Time Domain Reflectometry
Bounce Diagram
RG RL =RS ; RL
=

RG = Rg + RS = Ω + Ω = Ω
V+ =V
VG Z o V (Ω)
V+
= = = V
Z o + RG Ω + Ω
T V + ΤL =V RL − Z o Ω − Ω
=
ΓL = =
RL + Z o Ω + Ω
V +ΓL =V
RG − Z o Ω − Ω
=
ΓG = =
2T RG + Z o Ω + Ω
V + Γ L ΤG =V V +ΓL =V
+
V Γ L ΓG =V V + Γ L ΓG =V
V + Γ L 2ΓG =V
3T V + Γ L 2ΓG 2 =V
V + Γ L ΓG Τ L =V
ΤL = 1 − Γ L =
V + Γ L 2ΓG =V
ΤG = 1 − Γ G =

4T V + ΤL =V
V + Γ L 2 ΓG ΤG =V V + Γ L ΤG =V
V + Γ L 2ΓG 2 =V V + Γ L ΓG Τ L =V
V + Γ L 2 ΓG ΤG =V

15
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