UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

COURSE TITLE

INF112D-MathematicsForComputing_II_Edited

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019
INF112D – Mathematics for Computing II

Authors:
Franklin Kome Amoo (Lead)
Elliot Attipoe (Co-Author)

Email Address:
[email protected]
INF112D – MATHEMATICS FOR COMPUTING II
Unit 1 - Coordinate Geometry
Session 1 – 1.1.0. The Coordinate Plane
Session 2 – 1.2.0. The Distance and Midpoint Formulas
Session 3 – 1.3.0. Graphs of Equations in Two Variables
Session 4 – 1.4.0. Intercepts
Session 5 – 1.5.0. Circles
Session 6 – 1.6.0. Symmetry
Session 1 – 1.1.0. Coordinate Geometry
The coordinate plane is the link between algebra and geometry. In the coordinate plane we can
draw graphs of algebraic equations. The graphs, in turn, allow us to “see” the relationship between
the variables in the equation. In this session we will study the coordinate plane.

1.1.1. The Coordinate Plane

Just as points on a line can be identified with real numbers to form the coordinate line, points in a
plane can be identified with ordered pairs of numbers to form the coordinate plane or the Cartesian
plane. We do this by drawing two perpendicular lines to intersect (meet or cross) at 0 on each line.
Usually, one line is drawn horizontally with positive direction to the right, and negative direction
to the left, and it is called the 𝑥𝑥-axis; the other line is drawn vertically with positive direction
upward, and negative direction downwards, and it is known as the 𝑦𝑦-axis.

The point of intersection of the 𝑥𝑥-axis and the 𝑦𝑦-axis is the origin 𝑂𝑂, and the two axes divide the
plane into four quadrants, that ae labelled I, II, III, and IV as shown in the diagram labeled as
Figure 1. (The points on the coordinate axes are not assigned to any quadrant.)

Any point 𝑃𝑃 in the coordinate plane can be located by a unique ordered pair of numbers (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏), as
shown in Figure 1. The first number 𝑎𝑎 is called the 𝑥𝑥-coordinate of 𝑃𝑃; the second number 𝑏𝑏 is
called the 𝑦𝑦-coordinate of 𝑃𝑃.

We can think of the coordinates of 𝑃𝑃 as its “address,” because they specify its location in the
plane. Many points are labelled with their coordinates in Figure 2.
1.1.2. Coordinates as Addresses
The coordinates of a point in the 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥-plane uniquely determine its location. We can think of the
coordinates as the “address” of the point. In many parts of the world, addresses of most buildings
are expressed as coordinates. The cities are divided into quadrants with the vertical axis from
south to the north denoting the major streets from one end of the city to the other end; the
horizontal (east to west) indicate main streets from one end to the other.

With this logical system, it makes it possible for someone unfamiliar with the city to locate any
address immediately, as easily as we can locate a point in the coordinate plane.

1.1.3. Graphing Regions in the Coordinate Plane

Example 1.1.3.1.
Describe and sketch the regions indicated by the following sets.
a) {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) | 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0}
b) {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)| 𝑦𝑦 = 1}
c) {(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)| |𝑦𝑦| < 1}

Solution 1.1.3.1.

a) The point whose coordinates are 0 or positive lie on the 𝑦𝑦-axis or to the right of it, as
shown in the diagram in Figure 3(a)
b) The set of all points with 𝑦𝑦-coordinate 1 is a horizontal line one unit above the 𝑥𝑥-axis, as
shown in Figure 3(b)
c) It is important to note that the properties of absolute value of inequalities states that:
i. |𝑥𝑥| < 𝑐𝑐 −𝑐𝑐 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑐𝑐
ii. |𝑥𝑥| ≤ 𝑐𝑐 −𝑐𝑐 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑐𝑐
iii. |𝑥𝑥| > 𝑐𝑐 −𝑐𝑐 > 𝑥𝑥 > 𝑐𝑐
iv. |𝑥𝑥| ≥ 𝑐𝑐 −𝑐𝑐 ≥ 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑐𝑐
 We apply the absolute value properties of inequalities here.

The absolute value properties of inequalities say:

|𝑦𝑦| < 1 if and only if −1 < 𝑦𝑦 < 1

The given region consists of those points in the plane whose 𝑦𝑦-corrdinates lie between −1
and 1. Thus, the region consists of all points that lie between (but not on) the horizontal lines
𝑦𝑦 = 1 and 𝑦𝑦 = −1. These lines are shown as broken lines in Figure 3(c) to indicate that the
points on these lines do not lie in the set.
Session 2 – 1.2.0. The Distance and Midpoint Formulas
We now attempt to find a formula for the distance 𝑑𝑑(𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵) between two points 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and
𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) in the plane. We would like to note that the distance between any two points 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 on
a number line is 𝑑𝑑(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) = | 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑎𝑎 |.

From the image labelled Figure 4 above, we see that the distance between the points 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and
𝐶𝐶(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) on a horizontal line must be | 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 |, and the distance between 𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) and
𝐶𝐶(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) on a vertical line must be |𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 |.
Since triangle 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is a right-angled triangle, the Pythagorean Theorem gives us,

𝑑𝑑(𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵) = �|𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 |2 + |𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 |2 = �(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2

1.2.1. The Distance Formula

The distance between the points 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and 𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) in the plane is,

𝑑𝑑(𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵) = �(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 )2

1.2.2. Application of the Distance Formula
Example 1.2.2.1.
Which of the points 𝑃𝑃(1, −2) or 𝑄𝑄(8, 9) is closer to the point 𝐴𝐴(5, 3) ?

Solution 1.2.2.1.
The given points are 𝑃𝑃(1, −2) and 𝑄𝑄(8, 9). We find their distances from the point 𝐴𝐴(5, 3)

Using the Distance Formula.

The distance from 𝑃𝑃 to 𝐴𝐴 is given by,

2
𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃, 𝐴𝐴) = �(5 − 1)2 + �3 − (−2)� = �42 + 52 = √16 + 25 = √41

Also, the distance from 𝐴𝐴 to 𝑄𝑄 is given by,

𝑑𝑑(𝑄𝑄, 𝐴𝐴) = �(5 − 8)2 + (3 − 9)2 = �(−3)2 + (−6)2 = √9 + 36 = √45

By comparison,

√45 = 6.7082 > √41 = 6.4031

This shows that 𝑑𝑑(𝑃𝑃, 𝐴𝐴) < 𝑑𝑑(𝑄𝑄, 𝐴𝐴), so the point 𝑃𝑃 is closer to the point 𝐴𝐴 than the point 𝑄𝑄 is to the
point 𝐴𝐴 as shown in the image below (Figure 5).
1.2.3. The Midpoint of a Line.
We will now find the coordinates (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) of the midpoint 𝑀𝑀 of the line segment that joins two
points 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) to another point 𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ). In the image labelled Figure 6 below, we notice that
triangles 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 are congruent because 𝑑𝑑(𝐴𝐴, 𝑀𝑀) = 𝑑𝑑(𝑀𝑀, 𝐵𝐵) and are the corresponding
angles are equal.

It follows that 𝑑𝑑(𝐴𝐴, 𝑃𝑃) = 𝑑𝑑(𝑀𝑀, 𝑄𝑄), so

𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥

When we solve the equation for 𝑥𝑥, we get the following expression.
2𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2
So,
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2
𝑥𝑥 =
2
Similarly,
𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2
𝑦𝑦 =
2
This leads us to the following formula.
1.2.4. The Midpoint Formula
The midpoint of the line segment from 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) to 𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) is,
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑥2 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑦2
� , �
2 2

1.2.5. Application of the Midpoint Formula

Example 1.2.5.1.
Show that the quadrilateral with vertices 𝑃𝑃(1, 2), 𝑄𝑄(4, 4), 𝑅𝑅(5, 9), and 𝑆𝑆(2, 7) is a parallelogram
by proving that its two diagonals bisect each other.

Solution 1.2.5.1.
For the two diagonals to bisect each other, they must have the same midpoint. Here is a sketch of
the parallelogram.

We begin by finding the midpoints of the diagonals.

The midpoint of the diagonal 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is:

1+5 2+9 6 11 11
� , � = � , � = �3, �
2 2 2 2 2

Also, the midpoint for the diagonal 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 is:

4+2 4+7 6 11 11
� , � = � , � = �3, �
2 2 2 2 2
 11
The midpoints of the two diagonals meet at the same point, �3, 2 �, the diagonals bisect each other
as can be seen in Figure 7 in the above image.

A theorem from basic geometry states that the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

Session 3 – 1.1.0. Graphs of Equations in Two Variables
An equation in two variables, such as 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1, expresses a relationship between two
quantities. A point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) satisfies the equation if it makes the equation true when the values for 𝑥𝑥
and 𝑦𝑦 are substituted into the equation.

For example, the point (3, 10) satisfies the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 , because 10 = 32 + 1 = 9 + 1,
but the point (1, 3) does not satisfy the equation, because 12 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 ≠ 3

1.3.1. Fundamental Principle of Analytic Geometry

A point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) lies on the graph of an equation if its coordinates satisfy the equation.

1.3.2. The Graph of an Equation.

The graph of an equation in 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 is the set of all points (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) in the coordinate plane that
satisfy the equation.

The graph of an equation is a curve, so to graph an equation, we will plot as many points as we
can, then we connect the points by drawing a smooth curve along their paths.

Example 1.3.2.1.
Sketch the graph of the equation 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 3.

Solution 1.3.2.1.
We begin by solving the given equation for the variable 𝑦𝑦 as follows:
We have been given the equation. 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 3. We make 𝑦𝑦 the subject of the equation by moving
all other terms to one side of the equal sign and leave the variable 𝑦𝑦 alone on one side of the equal
sign.

We rearrange the terms by moving the term 2𝑥𝑥 to the other side of the equation. When positive 2𝑥𝑥
moves from the left-hand side to the right-hand side, it becomes negative -2𝑥𝑥.
 −𝑦𝑦 = 3 − 2𝑥𝑥

We then multiply through by −1, so that −𝑦𝑦 becomes positive 𝑦𝑦, and −2𝑥𝑥 also becomes positive,
2𝑥𝑥, but 3 will become −3.

The final equation is now like we see below:

𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 3

Alternatively, we can move the terms in 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 3 as follows.

We begin by subtracting 2𝑥𝑥 from both sides as in

2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 3 − 2𝑥𝑥
We get,
0 − 𝑦𝑦 = 3 − 2𝑥𝑥

To make −𝑦𝑦 positive, we multiply through by negative one, −1 to get,

−1(−𝑦𝑦) = −1(3 − 2𝑥𝑥)
𝑦𝑦 = −3 + 2𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 3

With this, we can calculate the 𝑦𝑦-coordinates for different values of 𝑥𝑥.

We choose some values from 𝑥𝑥 = −3 to 𝑥𝑥 = 5

When 𝑥𝑥 = −3, we have 𝑦𝑦 = 2(−3) − 3 = −6 − 3 = −9 (−3, −9)

When 𝑥𝑥 = −2, we have 𝑦𝑦 = 2(−2) − 3 = −4 − 3 = −7 (−2, −7)
When 𝑥𝑥 = −1, we have 𝑦𝑦 = 2(−1) − 3 = −2 − 3 = −5 (−1, −5)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 0, we have 𝑦𝑦 = 2(0) − 3 = 0 − 3 = −3 (0, −3)

When 𝑥𝑥 = 1, we have 𝑦𝑦 = 2(1) − 3 = 2 − 3 = −1 (1, −1)

When 𝑥𝑥 = 2, we have 𝑦𝑦 = 2(2) − 3 = 4 − 3 = 1 (2, 1)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 3, we have 𝑦𝑦 = 2(3) − 3 = 6 − 3 = 3 (3, 3)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 4, we have 𝑦𝑦 = 2(4) − 3 = 8 − 3 = 5 (4, 5)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 5, we have 𝑦𝑦 = 2(5) − 3 = 10 − 3 = 7 (5, 7)

We can produce the results in a table just as we can see in the table below.

We can plot the curve as shown in the graph next to the table above:

We note that, there are infinitely many points on the graph, but it is impossible to plot all the
possible points.

We note again that, the more points we plot, the better we picture the relationship between the
variables 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 and what their relationship truly represents.

As we can see in the image labelled Figure 8, they appear to lie on, or they form a straight line. We
complete the graph by joining the points by a line along each point if possible.
Example 1.3.2.2.
Sketch the graph of the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2.

Solution 1.3.2.2.
We begin by finding some of the points that satisfy the equation. We put them in a table as shown
below.

We will work with a range of values for 𝑥𝑥 from −3 to 3.

When 𝑥𝑥 = −3 , 𝑦𝑦 = (−3)2 − 2 = 9 − 2 = 7, (−3, 7)

When 𝑥𝑥 = −2 , 𝑦𝑦 = (−2)2 − 2 = 4 − 2 = 2 (−2, 2)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 0 , 𝑦𝑦 = 02 − 2 = 0 − 2 = −2 (0, −2)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦𝑦 = 12 − 2 = 1 − 2 = −1 (1, −1)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦𝑦 = 22 − 2 = 4 − 2 = 2 (2, 2)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 3 , 𝑦𝑦 = 32 − 2 = 9 − 2 = 7 (3, 7)

We plot the points and draw or sketch a smooth curve through them. The curve shown in Figure 9
is known as a parabola. Parabolas are produced by quadratic functions (quadratic equations).
1.3.3. Absolute Value and Distance
The absolute value of a number 𝑎𝑎, denoted by |𝑎𝑎|, is the distance from 𝑎𝑎 to 0 on the real number
line as shown in the image below, labelled Figure 9.

Distance is always measured as positive or zero, so we

have |𝑎𝑎| ≥ 0 for every number 𝑎𝑎. Remembering that −𝑎𝑎
is positive when 𝑎𝑎 is negative, we have the following
definition.

When working with absolute values we use the following properties.

Example 1.3.3.1.
Sketch the graph of the equation 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥|.

Solution 1.3.3.1.
We begin by construction a table of values for the equation.

We will choose our values from 𝑥𝑥 = −3 to 𝑥𝑥 = 3.

We refer to the absolute value properties above.

We proceed as follows:

When 𝑥𝑥 = −3 , 𝑦𝑦 = |3| = 3, (−3, 3)

When 𝑥𝑥 = −2 , 𝑦𝑦 = |2| = 2 , (−2, 2)
When 𝑥𝑥 = −1 , 𝑦𝑦 = |1| = 1 , (−1, 1)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 0 , 𝑦𝑦 = |0| = 0 , (0, 0)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 1 , 𝑦𝑦 = |1| = 1 , (1, 1)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 2 , 𝑦𝑦 = |2| = 2 , (2, 2)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 3 , 𝑦𝑦 = |3| = 3 , (3, 3)

We can create a table for the values as shown below.

The corresponding graph is shown Figure 10, next to the table.
Session 4 – 1.4.0. Intercepts
1.4.1. The x-Intercept
The 𝑥𝑥-coordinates of the points where a graph intersects the 𝑥𝑥-axis are called the 𝑥𝑥-intercepts of
the graph and are obtained by setting 𝑦𝑦 = 0 in the equation of the graph.

1.4.2. The y-Intercept

The 𝑦𝑦-coordinates of the points where a graph intersects the 𝑦𝑦-axis are called the 𝑦𝑦-intercepts of
the graph and are obtained by setting 𝑥𝑥 = 0 in the equation of the graph.

1.4.3. Finding Intercepts

Example 1.4.3.1.
Find the 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦-intercpts of the graph of the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2

Solution 1.4.3.1.
From the definitions, to find the 𝑥𝑥-intercept, we set equation to zero, i.e., 𝑦𝑦 = 0.

Alternatively, we say that, at the 𝑥𝑥-intercepts, 𝑦𝑦 = 0.

We have been given the equation,
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2
It implies that, at the 𝑥𝑥-intercepts, where 𝑦𝑦 = 0,
𝑥𝑥 2 − 2 = 0

𝑥𝑥 2 = 2

𝑥𝑥 = ±√2

The 𝑥𝑥-intercepts are √2 and −√2.

Also, to find the 𝑦𝑦-intercepts, we set 𝑥𝑥 = 0, and solve for 𝑦𝑦.

It means, at the 𝑦𝑦-intercepts, 𝑥𝑥 = 0.

Therefore, when 𝑥𝑥 = 0, we have

𝑦𝑦 = 02 − 2
𝑦𝑦 = −2
The 𝑦𝑦-intercept is −2.

The graph of the equation is shown below in Figure 11.

Session 5 – 1.5.0. Circles
1.5.1. Circles in the X-Y Plane
The preceding sessions in this unit has taught us how to find the graph of an equation in 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦.
The opposite problem is to learn how to find the graph, that is, an equation that represents a given
curve in the 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥-plane. Such an equation is satisfied by the coordinates of the points on the curve
and by no other point. This is the other half of the fundamental principle of analytic geometry as
formulated by Descartes and Fermat. The idea is that if a geometric curve can be represented by
an algebraic equation, then the rules of algebra can be used to analyse the curve.

As an example of this type of problem, let us attempt to find the equation of a circle whose radius
is 𝑟𝑟 and its centre is at the point (ℎ, 𝑘𝑘).

By definition, a circle is the set of all points 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) whose distance from the centre 𝐶𝐶(ℎ, 𝑘𝑘) is 𝑟𝑟 as
illustrated in the image labelled as Figure 12 below.

We can say that 𝑃𝑃 is on the circle if and only if 𝑑𝑑(𝐶𝐶, 𝑃𝑃) = 𝑟𝑟.

From the distance formula, we have

�(𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑘𝑘)2 = 𝑟𝑟

Squaring both sides results in the following:

(𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑘𝑘)2 = 𝑟𝑟 2

This is the desired equation of the circle whose radius is 𝑟𝑟 and its centre is at (ℎ, 𝑘𝑘) .
1.5.2. The Equation of a Circle
An equation of the circle with center (ℎ, 𝑘𝑘) and radius 𝑟𝑟 is given by,
(𝑥𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑘𝑘)2 = 𝑟𝑟 2

The equation is called the standard form for the equation of a circle. If the center of the circle is
the origin (0, 0), then the equation is simply given by,
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑟𝑟 2

1.5.3. Graphing a Circle

Example 1.5.3.1.
Graph each of the following equations.
(a) 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 25
(b) (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 1)2 = 25

Solution 1.5.3.1.
(a) We have been given the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 25

We can rewrite the equation as 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 52 . In this form, we can

see that the equation is a circle of radius 5 and centered at the origin
(0, 0). Its graph is shown in Figure 13.

(b) We have been given the equation (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 1)2 = 25

We can rewrite the equation as (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 1)2 = 52 . In this form, we can see that
the equation is a circle of radius 5 and centered at the (2, −1). Its graph is shown below in
Figure 14.
1.5.4. Finding an Equation of a Circle
Example 1.5.4.1.
(a) Find an equation of the circle with radius 3, and center (2, −5)
(b) Find an equation of the circle that has the points 𝑃𝑃(1, 8), and 𝑄𝑄(5, −6) as the endpoints of
a diameter.

Solution 1.5.4.1.
(a) Using the equation of a circle with 𝑟𝑟 = 3, ℎ = 2 and 𝑘𝑘 = −5, we obtain the equation,
(𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 5)2 = 32

(𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦𝑦 + 5)2 = 9

The graph is shown in Figure 15

(b) We want to note that the center is the midpoint of the diameter given as 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃. We can use
the midpoint formula to find the coordinate of the center of the circle. The Midpoint
Formula says that,
1+5 8−6 6 2
� , � = � , � = (3, 1)
2 2 2 2

The radius is the distance from 𝑃𝑃(1, 8) to the center or from 𝑄𝑄(6, −6) to the center.

We want to use the Distance Formula to calculate from 𝑃𝑃(1, 8) to the center 𝑟𝑟(3, 1)

𝑟𝑟 2 = (3 − 1)2 + (1 − 8)2 = 22 + (−7)2 = 4 + 49 = 53

The equation of the circle is,

(𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 1)2 = 53

Alternatively, we want to find the distance from 𝑄𝑄(5, −6) to the centre 𝑟𝑟(3, 1)

Using the Distance Formula,

2
𝑑𝑑(𝑄𝑄, 𝑟𝑟) = 𝑟𝑟 2 = (3 − 5)2 + �1 − (−6)� = (−2)2 + (7)2 = 4 + 49 = 53

Thus, the equation of the circle with center (3, 1) and radius √53 is given by,

(𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 1)2 = 53

The graph of the circle is shown below in the image labelled Figure 16.

Furthermore, we can expand the equation of the circle in the preceding example as follows:
In standard form, the equation of the circle is,

(𝑥𝑥 − 3)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 1)2 = 53

We proceed with the expansion of the squares as,

𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 9 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 1 = 53
 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 9 − 9 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 2𝑦𝑦 + 1 − 1 = 53 − 9 − 1

𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 43

This is the equation of the circle in expanded form.

Suppose we are given the equation of a circle in expanded form. Then to find its center and radius,
we must put the equation back in standard form. It means that we must reverse the steps in the
preceding calculation, and to do that we need to know what to add to an expression like 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥
to make it a perfect square – that is, we need to complete the square, as we will see in the next
example.

1.5.5. Identifying an Equation of a Circle.

Example 1.5.5.1.
Show that the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 6𝑦𝑦 + 7 = 0 represents a circle and find the center and
radius of the circle.

Solution 1.5.5.1.
We begin by grouping the 𝑥𝑥-terms and 𝑦𝑦-terms. Then we complete the square within each
grouping. That is, we complete the square for 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 by adding half the square of the coefficient
1 2
of 𝑥𝑥, i.e., �2 × 2� = 1, and do the same for the 𝑦𝑦-terms, i.e, 𝑦𝑦 2 − 6𝑦𝑦 by adding half the square
1 2
of the coefficient of 𝑦𝑦, i.e., �2 × (−6)� = 32 = 9.

Here is the procedure:

Grouping the like terms:
(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 6𝑦𝑦 ) = −7
Next, we complete the squares:
Remember we must add the same numbers to each side of the equation to maintain equality,
(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝟏𝟏 ) + (𝑦𝑦 2 − 6𝑦𝑦 + 𝟗𝟗) = −7 + 𝟏𝟏 + 𝟗𝟗
Next, we factor and simplify.
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦𝑦 − 3)2 = 3

This is the equation of the circle.

Comparing this equation with the standard equation of a circle, we can see that ℎ = −1, 𝑘𝑘 = 3,
and 𝑟𝑟 = √3, so the given equation represents a circle whose center is (−1, 3) and radius √3.
Session 6 – 1.6.0. Symmetry
1.6.1. Concept of Symmetry
The image on the left hand-side, with label Figure 17, shows a graph
of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 . Notice that the part of the graph to the left of the 𝑦𝑦-axis is
the mirror image of the part to the right of the 𝑦𝑦-axis. The reason is
that if the point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is on the graph, then so is (−𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦), and these
points are reflections of each other about the 𝑦𝑦-axis. In this situation
we say that the graph is symmetric with respect to the 𝒚𝒚-axis.
Similarly, we say that the graph is symmetric with respect to the 𝒙𝒙-
axis if whenever the point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is on the graph, then so is (𝑥𝑥, −𝑦𝑦). A
graph is symmetric with respect to the origin if whenever (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is on the graph, so is (−𝑥𝑥, −𝑦𝑦).

The remaining examples show how symmetry helps us to sketch graphs of equations.
1.6.2. Using Symmetry to Sketch a Graph
Example 1.6.2.1.
Test the equation 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 2 for symmetry and sketch the graph.

Solution 1.6.2.1.
We begin by replacing 𝑦𝑦 by −𝑦𝑦 in the equation 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 2.

If we replace 𝑦𝑦 by −𝑦𝑦 in the equation 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 2, we get,

𝑥𝑥 = (−𝑦𝑦)2
Simplifying, we get
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 2

The equation remains unchanged after we replaced 𝑦𝑦 by −𝑦𝑦. Therefore, the graph is symmetric
about the 𝑥𝑥-axis. However, if we change 𝑥𝑥 to −𝑥𝑥, we get the equation −𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 2 , which is not the
same as the original equation, indicating that the graph is not symmetric about the 𝑦𝑦-axis.

We will use the symmetry about the 𝑥𝑥-axis to sketch the graph by first plotting the points just for
𝑦𝑦 > 0 from 𝑦𝑦 = 0 to 𝑦𝑦 = 3, and then reflecting the graph in the 𝑥𝑥-axis.

We have been given 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 2

When 𝑦𝑦 = 0, 𝑦𝑦 2 = 02 = 0, 𝑥𝑥 = 0, (0, 0)
When 𝑦𝑦 = 1, 𝑦𝑦 2 = 12 = 1, 𝑥𝑥 = 1, (1, 1)
When 𝑦𝑦 = 2, 𝑦𝑦 2 = 22 = 4, 𝑥𝑥 = 4, (4, 2)
When 𝑦𝑦 = 3, 𝑦𝑦 2 = 32 = 9, 𝑥𝑥 = 9, (9, 3)

This is shown in a table below and the corresponding graph is shown in Figure 18.
Example 1.6.2.2.
Test the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 9𝑥𝑥 for symmetry and sketch its graph.

Solution 1.6.2.2.
We begin the test by replacing 𝑥𝑥 by −𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 by −𝑦𝑦 in the given equation.
If we replace 𝑥𝑥 by −𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 by −𝑦𝑦 in the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 9𝑥𝑥, we get,
−𝑦𝑦 = (−𝑥𝑥)3 − 9(−𝑥𝑥)

−𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥𝑥 3 + 9𝑥𝑥

Simplifying, we get,
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 9𝑥𝑥

The equation remains unchanged. This means that the graph is symmetric with respect to the
origin. We can sketch the graph by plotting the points for 𝑥𝑥 > 0 and then using the symmetry
about the origin.

We want to use the values for 𝑥𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥𝑥 = 4 in steps of 0.5 to obtain the corresponding 𝑦𝑦-values.

Given
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 9𝑥𝑥
When 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑦𝑦 = 03 − 9(0) = 0, (0, 0)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 0.5, 𝑦𝑦 = 0.53 − 9(0.5) = 0.125 − 4.5 = −4.375, (0.5, −4.375)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 1, 𝑦𝑦 = 13 − 9(1) = 1 − 9 = −8, (1, −8)

When 𝑥𝑥 = 1.5, 𝑦𝑦 = 1.53 − 9(1.5) = 3.375 − 13.5 = −10.125, (1.5, −10.125)

When 𝑥𝑥 = 2, 𝑦𝑦 = 23 − 9(2) = 8 − 18 = −10, (2, −10)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 2.5, 𝑦𝑦 = 2.53 − 9(2.5) = 15.625 − 22.5 = −6.875, (2.5, −6.875)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 3, 𝑦𝑦 = 33 − 9(3) = 27 − 27 = 0, (3, 0)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 3.5, 𝑦𝑦 = 3.53 − 9(3.5) = 42.875 − 31.5 = 0, (3.5, 11.375)
When 𝑥𝑥 = 4, 𝑦𝑦 = 43 − 9(4) = 64 − 36 = 28, (4, 28)

The values are in the table below, and the corresponding graph is shown in the image labelled,
Figure 19.

This is the end of Unit 1.

Unit 2 Lines
At the end of this unit, we will be able to:
(i) define and determine the slope of a line from any two points.
(ii) determine the equation of a line from a given point and a given slope.
(iii) determine the equation of a line from a given slope and 𝑦𝑦-intercept.
(iv) distinguish between equation of vertical lines from horizontal lines.
(v) determine the equations of parallel and perpendicular lines.
Session 1 – 2.1.0. The Slope of a Line
Session 2 – 2.2.0. Point Slope Form of the Equation of a Line
Session 3 – 2.3.0. Slope Intercept Form of the Equation of Line
Session 4 – 2.4.0. Vertical and Horizontal Lines
Session 5 – 2.5.0. General Equation of a Line
Session 6 – 2.6.0. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Session 1 – 2.1.0. The Slope of a Line
2.1.1. Introduction
In this session, we will learn how to derive the equations for straight lines that lie in a coordinate
plane. The equations will depend on how the line is inclined. Therefore, we will begin by
discussing the concept of slope.

2.1.2. The Concept of Slope

First, we need a way to measure the steepness of a line, or how quickly it rises (or falls) as we
move from the left to the right. We define run to be the distance we move to the right, and we
define rise to be the corresponding distance that the line rises (or falls). The slope of a line is the
ratio of the rise to the run:
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

𝑦𝑦

𝑥𝑥

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 2.1.2

As illustrated in Figure 2.1.2., the slope is defined as the ratio of the 𝑦𝑦 −component to the 𝑥𝑥 −
component.
𝑦𝑦
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑥𝑥

In the image labelled Figure 1, we see different situations in which slope is important. Carpenters
use the term pitch for the slope of a roof or a staircase; the term grade is used for the slope of a
road.
If a line lies in a coordinate plane, then the run is the change in the 𝑥𝑥-coordinate and the rise is the
corresponding change in the 𝑦𝑦-coordinate between any two points on the line, as we can see in in
the image labelled Figure 2 and our sketch Figure 1.12. This gives us the following definition of a
slope.

2.1.3. – Definition of a Slope of a Line

The slope 𝑚𝑚 of a nonvertical line that passes through the points 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and 𝐵𝐵(𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ) is,
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2
𝑚𝑚 = = =
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑥𝑥2

The slope of a vertical line is not defined.

The slope is independent of which two points we choose on the line if we use that line to draw any
triangle. We can see that this is true from the similar triangles below.

𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 𝑦𝑦2′ − 𝑦𝑦1′

=
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2′ − 𝑥𝑥1′
It is important to note that, lines with positive slopes slant upward to the right, whereas lines that
have negative slopes slant downward to the right.

Horizontal lines have zero slopes.

We begin with some examples of finding slopes.

2.1.4.1.- Finding the Slope of a Line Through Two Points.

Example 2.1.4.1.
Find the slope of the line that passes through the points 𝑃𝑃(2, 1) and 𝑄𝑄(8, 5).

Solution 2.1.4.1.
It is helpful to make a sketch of the points in a 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 cartesian coordinates. We will leave the
sketch as an exercise for the learners.
Any two points are enough to determine or sketch of a straight line, since only one line passes
through those two points.

From the definition of the slope 𝑚𝑚, we have

𝑦𝑦2 − 𝑦𝑦1 5 − 1 4 2
𝑚𝑚 = = = =
𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 8 − 2 6 3

This result says that for every 3 units we move to the right, the line rises 2 units. We urge the
learners to draw or make a sketch of the line.
Exercises for Practice:

Exx1
Find the slope of the line that passes through the points 𝐴𝐴(2, 1) and B(3, 4).

Exx2
Find the slope of the line that passes through the points 𝑀𝑀(2, 6) and N(3, 8).
Session 2 - 2.2.0. Point-Slope Form of the Equation of a Line
We will find the equation of a line that passes through a given point 𝑃𝑃1 (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and has a slope, 𝑚𝑚.
A point 𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) with 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 𝑥𝑥1 lies on this line if and only if the slope of the line that passes through
point 𝑃𝑃1 and point 𝑃𝑃 is equal to 𝑚𝑚, (see Figure 1.2.0.), that is,
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1
= 𝑚𝑚
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1
𝑦𝑦

𝑃𝑃(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1

𝑃𝑃1 (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 )

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1

0 𝑥𝑥

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 2.2.0.

The equation,
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1
= 𝑚𝑚
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1
can be rewritten in the form 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 ); note that the equation is also satisfied when
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥1 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦1 . Therefore, it is an equation of the given line.

Definition:
An equation of the line that passes through the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and has a slope 𝑚𝑚 is defined by,
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

2.2.1. Finding the Equation of a Line with Given Point and Slope
Example 2.2.1.1.
1
a. Find an equation of the line through (1, −3) with slope − 2 .
b. Sketch the line.
Solution 2.2.1.1.
1
a) We will use the point-slope form with 𝑚𝑚 = − 2, 𝑥𝑥1 = 1, and 𝑦𝑦1 = −3. We obtain an
equation of the line as follows:
1
The 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑚𝑚 = − 2, and the point (1, −3)

1
𝑦𝑦 − (−3) = − (𝑥𝑥 − 1)
2

We multiply both sides by 2 to obtain,

2𝑦𝑦 + 6 = −𝑥𝑥 + 1
We rearrange to obtain,
𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 + 5 = 0

b) We leave the sketching of the line as an exercise for the learner.

Example 2.2.1.2.
Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (5, 2) with a slope −3.

Solution 2.2.1.2.
Again, we use the point-slope method to determine the equation of the line through (5, 2) with
slope −3.

We begin by subtracting the given 𝑥𝑥1 = 5 and 𝑦𝑦1 = 2 coordinates of the given point from the
general point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
𝑦𝑦 − 2 = −3(𝑥𝑥 − 5)
We expand and rearrange to obtain the equation of the line as follows:
𝑦𝑦 − 2 = −3𝑥𝑥 + 15
Rearranging, gives us,
3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 2 − 15 = 0
 3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 − 17 = 0

2.2.2. Finding the Equation of a Line Through Two Given Points

Example 2.2.2.1.
Find the equation of the line through the points (-1, 2) and (3, -4).

Solution 2.2.2.1.
We have not been given the slope of the line. We need to determine the slope of the line through
the two given points.

We begin by determine the slope as follows:

Remember, we learned in 1.1.3. that the slope is independent of which of the two points we
choose on the line to determine the slope
−4 − 2 6 3
𝑚𝑚 = =− =−
3 − (−1) 4 2

3
We use the point-slope form with 𝑚𝑚 = − 2 , 𝑥𝑥1 = −1 and 𝑦𝑦1 = 2 , we obtain,

3
𝑦𝑦 − 2 = − �𝑥𝑥 − (−1)�
2
We multiply through by 2 to obtain,
2𝑦𝑦 − 4 = −3(𝑥𝑥 + 1)

2𝑦𝑦 − 4 = −3𝑥𝑥 − 3

3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 4 + 3 = 0

3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 − 1 = 0
Example 2.2.2.2.
Find the equation of the line through the points (3, 5) and (4, 7).

Solution 2.2.2.2.
We obtain the slope as follows:
7−5 2
𝑚𝑚 = = =2
4−3 1
First approach:
We use any one of the points and the slope to determine the equation of the line.

Using the point (3, 5), with slope 2, we obtain

𝑦𝑦 − 5 = 2(𝑥𝑥 − 3)
We expand to obtain,
𝑦𝑦 − 5 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 6

2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 − 6 + 5 = 0

2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 − 1 = 0
Second Approach:
Using the point (4, 7), with slope 2 we obtain
𝑦𝑦 − 7 = 2(𝑥𝑥 − 4)
We expand to obtain,
𝑦𝑦 − 7 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 8

2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 − 8 + 7 = 0

2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 − 1 = 0
The same solution as the first approach.

Exercises for Practice:

Exx1
Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (2, −4) and has a slope −3.

Exx2
What is the equation of the line that goes through (2, 1) and (3, 4)?
Session 3 – 2.3.0. Slope Intercept Form of the Equation of Line
Suppose a nonvertical line has a slope 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑦𝑦-intercept 𝑏𝑏 (see Figure 1.3.0.). This means that the
line intersects the 𝑦𝑦-axis at the point (0, 𝑏𝑏), so the point-slope form of the equation of the line,
with 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏, becomes,
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 0)

This equation simplifies to 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏, which is called the slope-intercept form of the equation
of a line.

𝑦𝑦

(0, 𝑏𝑏)

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏

0
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 2.3.0. 𝑥𝑥

Definition:
An equation of the line that has slope 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑦𝑦-intercept 𝑏𝑏 is defined by,
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏

2.3.1. Line in Slope-Intercept Form

Example 2.3.1.1.
a) Find the equation of the line with slope 3 and 𝑦𝑦-intercept −2
b) Find the slope and 𝑦𝑦-intercept of the line 3𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥 = 1.

Solution 2.3.1.1.
a) We have been given the slope 𝑚𝑚 = 3, and the 𝑦𝑦-intercept 𝑏𝑏 = −2. From the slope-
intercept form of the equation of a line, we get,

𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 − 2

b) This time, we have been given the equation of the line, and we are to determine the slope
and the 𝑦𝑦-intercept from the equation.
 We first write the equation in slope-intercept form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏:

3𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥 = 1

We add 2𝑥𝑥 to both sides to obtain,

3𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑥𝑥

3𝑦𝑦 + 0 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1

We divide both sides by 3 to obtain,

2 1
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 +
3 3
It is now in the form,
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏

2 1
Where 𝑚𝑚 = 3 and 𝑏𝑏 = 3

2 1
Therefore, the slope 𝑚𝑚 = 3 and the 𝑦𝑦-intercept is 3.

Example 2.3.1.2.
a) Find the equation of the line with slope -5 and 𝑦𝑦-intercept 4
b) Find the slope and 𝑦𝑦-intercept of the line 2𝑦𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑥 = 12.

Solution 2.3.1.2.
a) We have been given the slope 𝑚𝑚 = −5, and the 𝑦𝑦-intercept 𝑏𝑏 = 4. From the slope-
intercept form of the equation of a line, we get,

𝑦𝑦 = 4 − 5𝑥𝑥

b) Again, we have been given the equation of the line, and we are to determine the slope and
the 𝑦𝑦-intercept from the equation.

We first write the equation in slope-intercept form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏:

2𝑦𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑥 = 12
 We subtract 4𝑥𝑥 from both sides to obtain,

2𝑦𝑦 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑥𝑥 = 12 − 4𝑥𝑥

2𝑦𝑦 + 0 = 12 − 4𝑥𝑥

We divide both sides by 2 to obtain,

𝑦𝑦 = 6 − 2𝑥𝑥
OR
𝑦𝑦 = −2𝑥𝑥 + 6

𝑦𝑦 = −(2𝑥𝑥 − 6)

Where 𝑚𝑚 = −2 and 𝑏𝑏 = 6

Therefore, the slope 𝑚𝑚 = −2 and the 𝑦𝑦-intercept 𝑏𝑏 = 6.

Exercises for Practice.

Exx1.
Find the equation of the line with slope 5 and an intercept on the 𝑦𝑦-axis −3
Session 4 – 2.4.0. Vertical and Horizontal Lines
If a line is horizontal, its slope is 𝑚𝑚 = 0, so its equation is 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏, where 𝑏𝑏 is the 𝑦𝑦-intercept.
A vertical line does not have a slope, but we can write its equation as 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎, where 𝑎𝑎 is its 𝑥𝑥-
intercept, because the 𝑥𝑥-coordinate of every point on the line is 𝑎𝑎.
The image below illustrates the horizontal and vertical lines.

An equation of the vertical line through (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) is 𝑥𝑥 = 3.

An equation of the horizontal line through (𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏) is 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 .

Example 2.4.0.1.
a. An equation for the vertical line through (3, 5) is 𝑥𝑥 = 3.
b. The graph of the equation 𝑥𝑥 = 3 is a vertical line with 𝑥𝑥-intercept 3.
c. An equation for the horizontal line through (8, −2) is 𝑦𝑦 = −2.
d. The graph of the equation 𝑦𝑦 = −2 is a horizontal line with 𝑦𝑦-intercept −2.

The graphs are illustrated in the diagram below.

Exercises for Practice.

Exx1.
a. Sketch the graph of the equation 𝑦𝑦 + 6 = 0
b. Sketch the graph of the equation 𝑥𝑥 − 3 = 0
Session 5 – 2.5.0. General Equation of a Line
A linear equation is an equation of the form,
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 = 0
Where 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶 are constants and 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are not both 0. The equation of a line is a linear
equation:
 A nonvertical line has the equation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏 or −𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑏𝑏 = 0, which is a linear
equation with 𝐴𝐴 = −𝑚𝑚, 𝐵𝐵 = 1, and 𝐶𝐶 = −𝑏𝑏.
 A vertical line has the equation 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 or 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 = 0, which is a linear equation with values
for 𝐴𝐴 = 1, 𝐵𝐵 = 0, and 𝐶𝐶 = −𝑎𝑎
Conversely, the graph of a linear equation is a line.
 If 𝐵𝐵 ≠ 0 the equation becomes,
𝐴𝐴 𝐶𝐶
𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑥𝑥 −
𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵

And this the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line (with 𝑚𝑚 = −𝐴𝐴/𝐵𝐵 and
𝑏𝑏 = −𝐶𝐶/𝐵𝐵).
 If 𝐵𝐵 = 0 the equation becomes
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐶𝐶 = 0

or 𝑥𝑥 = −𝐶𝐶/𝐴𝐴, which represents a vertical line.

We have proved that:

o The graph of every linear equation
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 = 0 (𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵 both not zero) is a line. Conversely, every line is the graph of a
linear equation.

2.5.1. Graphing a Linear Equation

Example 2.5.1.1.
Sketch the graph of the equation 2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 − 12 = 0.
Solution 2.5.1.1.
The equation is a linear equation, so its graph is a line.
To draw the graph, it is enough to find any two points on the line. The intercepts are the easiest to
find.
The 𝑥𝑥-intercept: Substitute 𝑦𝑦 = 0, to get, 2𝑥𝑥 − 3(0) − 12 = 0, 2𝑥𝑥 = 12, so 𝑥𝑥 = 6
The 𝑦𝑦-intercept: Substitute 𝑥𝑥 = 0, to get, 2(0) − 3𝑦𝑦 − 12 = 0, −3𝑦𝑦 = 12, so 𝑦𝑦 = −4

With these points, (6, 0) and (0, −4), we can sketch the graph as follows:

Alternative Solution:
We write the equation in slope-intercept form:
2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 − 12 = 0
Add 12 to both sides.
2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 − 12 + 12 = 0 + 12
2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 = 12
Subtract 2𝑥𝑥 from both sides.
2𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥 = 12 − 2𝑥𝑥
−3𝑦𝑦 = 12 − 2𝑥𝑥
Divide through (both sides) by 3
3𝑦𝑦 12 − 2𝑥𝑥
− =
3 3
12 − 2𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 =
3
 12 − 2𝑥𝑥
−𝑦𝑦 =
3

2
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 4
3

2
This equation is of the form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏, so the slope is 𝑚𝑚 = 3 and the 𝑦𝑦-intercept is 𝑏𝑏 = −4.

To sketch the graph, we plot 𝑦𝑦-intercept and then move 3 units to the right and 2 units up as
shown in the mage below.
Session 6 – 2.6.0. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
2.6.1. Parallel Lines
We have learned that slope is a measurement of steepness of a line. It is reasonable that parallel
lines should have the same slope.

2.6.2. About Parallel Lines

Two nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope.

The Proof:
Let the lines 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 represent any two lines with slope 𝑚𝑚1 and 𝑚𝑚2 . If the lines are parallel, then
we can draw any right-angled triangle on each line. For example, a triangle 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 on line 𝑙𝑙1 will be
similar to another right-angled triangle on 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 on line 𝑙𝑙2 (see Figure 13) below.

From the two triangles, we apply the Distance Formula from (Session 2 – 1.2.0.) as follows:

𝑑𝑑(𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶) 𝑑𝑑(𝐸𝐸, 𝐹𝐹)

𝑚𝑚1 = = = 𝑚𝑚2
𝑑𝑑(𝐴𝐴, 𝐶𝐶) 𝑑𝑑(𝐷𝐷, 𝐹𝐹)

We have proved that two parallel lines have the same slope.

One the other hand, if the slopes are equal, then the triangles will be similar, so ∠𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = ∠𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
and the lines are parallel.
2.6.3. Finding the Equation of Line Parallel to a Given Line.
Example 2.6.3.1.
Find an equation of the line through the point (5, 2) that is parallel to the line 4𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑦𝑦 + 5 = 0.

Solution 2.6.3.1.
First, we will write the given equation of the line in the slope-intercept form, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑏𝑏.

We have been given.

4𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑦𝑦 + 5 = 0

We subtract 4𝑥𝑥 + 5 from both sides to get,

4𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑦𝑦 + 5 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 5 = −4𝑥𝑥 − 5

6𝑦𝑦 = −4𝑥𝑥 − 5

We divide both sides by 6 or we divide through by 6

4 5
𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑥𝑥 −
6 6

2 5
𝑦𝑦 = − 𝑥𝑥 −
3 6
2
The given line has slope 𝑚𝑚 = − 3.

We have been informed that the required line is parallel to the given line. Therefore, the required
2
must have the same slope as the given line, 𝑚𝑚 = − 3.
From the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we use the given point (5, 2) and the slope
2
𝑚𝑚 = − 3 to get,

2
𝑦𝑦 − 2 = − (𝑥𝑥 − 5)
3
We multiply through by 3 to obtain,
3𝑦𝑦 − 6 = −2𝑥𝑥 + 10
We rearrange the terms to obtain,

2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 16 = 0

Therefore, the equation of the required line is,

2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦 − 16 = 0

2.6.4. Perpendicular Lines

The condition for perpendicular lines is not as obvious as that for parallel lines.

Two lines with slopes 𝑚𝑚1 and 𝑚𝑚2 are perpendicular if and only if 𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 = −1, that is, their slopes
are negative reciprocals:
1
𝑚𝑚1 = −
𝑚𝑚2
Also, a horizontal line (slope 0) is perpendicular to a vertical line (no slope).

Figure 14 shows two lines intersecting at the origin. (If the lines
intersect at some other point, we consider lines parallel to these that
intersect at the origin. These lines have the same slopes as the original
lines.)
If the lines 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝑙𝑙2 have slopes 𝑚𝑚1 and 𝑚𝑚2 , then their equations are 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑚𝑚2 𝑥𝑥.
Notice that 𝐴𝐴(1, 𝑚𝑚1 ) lies on 𝑙𝑙1 and 𝐵𝐵(1, 𝑚𝑚2 ) lies on 𝑙𝑙2 . By the Pythagorean Theorem and its
converse, (which we shall state soon), 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 is perpendicular to 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 if and only if,
[𝑑𝑑(𝑂𝑂, 𝐴𝐴)]2 + [𝑑𝑑(𝑂𝑂, 𝐵𝐵)]2 = [𝑑𝑑(𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵)]2

By the Distance Formula, this becomes,

(12 + 𝑚𝑚12 ) + (12 + 𝑚𝑚22 ) = (1 − 1)2 + (𝑚𝑚2 − 𝑚𝑚1 )2
2 + 𝑚𝑚12 + 𝑚𝑚22 = 0 + 𝑚𝑚22 − 2𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 + 𝑚𝑚12
2 = −2𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2
𝑚𝑚1 𝑚𝑚2 = −1

We have proved the condition for two perpendicular lines.

Example 2.6.4.1.
Show that the points 𝑃𝑃(3, 3), 𝑄𝑄(8, 17), and 𝑅𝑅(11, 5) are the vertices of a right triangle.

Solution 2.6.4.1.
We proceed by finding the slopes for the sides, say side 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄

We are given 𝑃𝑃(3, 3), 𝑄𝑄(8, 17), and 𝑅𝑅(11, 5)

The slope for the side 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is,

17 − 3 14
𝑚𝑚1 = =
8−3 5

Also, the slope for the side 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is,

5−3 2 1
𝑚𝑚2 = = =
11 − 3 8 4
Also, the slope for the side 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 is,
(5 − 17) −12
𝑚𝑚3 = = = −4
11 − 8 3

1
We have the slopes 𝑚𝑚2 = 4 and 𝑚𝑚3 = −4

1
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚3 = × (−4) = −1
4

It means the lines 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 are perpendicular, hence the points 𝑃𝑃(3, 3), 𝑄𝑄(8, 17) and 𝑅𝑅(11, 5)
are the vertices of a right-angled triangle.

Its graph is shown in the image labelled as Figure 15

2.6.5. Finding an Equation of a Line Perpendicular to a Given Line.

Example 2.6.5.1.
Find an equation of the line that is perpendicular to the line 4𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑦𝑦 + 5 = 0 and passes through
the origin.

Solution 2.6.5.1.
We have seen this equation before: 4𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑦𝑦 + 5 = 0.

Do we remember or can we recognize this equation? We have a minute to remember it.

We met it in Example 2.6.3.1.

2
We found the slope of the line 4𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑦𝑦 + 5 = 0 to be − 3.

Therefore, the slope of a line that is perpendicular to 4𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑦𝑦 + 5 = 0 is the negative reciprocal
2 −1 3
of − 3, i.e., 2 = 2
−
3

Also, we have been informed that the line passes through the origin, (0, 0)

Using the point-slope form, we get,

3
𝑦𝑦 − 0 = (𝑥𝑥 − 0)
2

3
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
2

We have come to the end of Unit 2.

Unit 3 The Binomial Series (Binomial Theorem)
At the end of this unit, we will be able to:
(i) use the Pascal’s Triangle to expand a binomial.
(ii) use Permutation and Combinations to determine number of arrangements.
(iii) use the Binomial Theorem to expand any binomial expression.
(iv) How to multiply or expand any number of binomial expressions.
Session 1 – 3.1.0. The Pascal’s Triangle
Session 2 – 3.2.0. Permutation and Combinations
Session 3 – 3.3.0. The Binomial Series
Session 4 – 3.4.0. Multiplication of Binomials
Session 5 – 3.5.0. Worked Examples on the Binomial Series
Session 6 – 3.6.0. More Worked Examples of the Binomial Series
Session 1 – 3.1.0. The Pascal’s Triangle
3.1.1. A binomial expression is an expression that contains two terms connected by a plus (the
addition) or a minus (a subtraction) sign. It looks like (𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞), (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)2 , (2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)3 are some
examples of binomial expression. The expansion of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 for integer values of 𝑛𝑛 from 0 to 6
gives the following results.

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)2 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑥𝑥 0 + 2𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥 2

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)3 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎3 𝑥𝑥 0 +𝑎𝑎2 𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 3 =
𝑎𝑎3 𝑥𝑥 0 + 3𝑎𝑎2 𝑥𝑥1 + 3𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥 3

A close observation of the expansions reveals some important patterns:

(i) ′𝑎𝑎′ (the first term) decreases in power as the terms increase in number, i.e., moving
from left to right.
(ii) ′𝑥𝑥′ (the second term) increases in power as the terms increase in number, i.e., moving
from left to right.
(iii) The coefficients of each term of the expansions are symmetrical about the middle
coefficient when 𝑛𝑛 is even and symmetrical about the two middle coefficients when 𝑛𝑛
is odd.
(iv) The coefficients are shown separately in the table labelled as Table 16.1 and this
arrangement is known as Pascal’s Triangle. A coefficient of a term may be obtained by
adding the two adjacent coefficients immediately above in the previous row. This is
 shown by the triangles in Table 16.1, where, for example, 1 + 3 = 4, 10 + 5 = 15,
and so on and on.
(v) Pascal’s triangle method is used for expansions of the form (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 for integer values
of 𝑛𝑛 less than about 8.

Example 3.1.1.1.
Use the Pascal’s triangle method to determine the expansion of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)7 .

Solution 3.1.1.1.
Let us look at the Table 16.1 again. Look at the row corresponding to the expansion of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)6 .
We add the adjacent coefficients of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)6 to give the coefficients of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)7 is as shown in
the image below.

The first and last terms of the expansion of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)7 are 𝑎𝑎7 and 𝑥𝑥 7 respectively. The powers of ′𝑎𝑎′
decreases and the powers of ′𝑥𝑥 ′ increases moving from the left to the right. Hence, the expansion
of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)7 is as follows:
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)7 = 𝑎𝑎7 𝑥𝑥 0 + 7𝑎𝑎6 𝑥𝑥1 + 21𝑎𝑎5 𝑥𝑥 2 + 35𝑎𝑎4 𝑥𝑥 3 + 35𝑎𝑎3 𝑥𝑥 4 + 21𝑎𝑎2 𝑥𝑥 5 + 7𝑎𝑎1 𝑥𝑥 6 + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥 7

The Pascal’s triangle can be shown in the following image for the first six expansions of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 .

Example 3.1.1.2.
Determine, using Pascal’s triangle method, the expansion of (2𝑝𝑝 − 3𝑞𝑞)5 .
Solution 3.1.1.2.
By comparing (2𝑝𝑝 − 3𝑞𝑞)5 with (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)5 in the Pascal’s triangle, it shows that 𝑎𝑎 = 2𝑝𝑝 and 𝑥𝑥 =
−3𝑞𝑞.

Using Pascal’s Triangle method:

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)5 = 𝑎𝑎5 + 5𝑎𝑎4 𝑥𝑥 + 10𝑎𝑎3 𝑥𝑥 2 + 10𝑎𝑎2 𝑥𝑥 3 + 5𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 5

Hence putting 2𝑝𝑝 = 𝑎𝑎 and 3𝑞𝑞 = 𝑥𝑥 in the above expansion, we get,

(2𝑝𝑝 − 3𝑞𝑞)5 = (2𝑝𝑝)5 + 5(2𝑝𝑝)4 (−3𝑞𝑞) + 10(2𝑝𝑝)3 (−3𝑞𝑞)2 + 10(2𝑝𝑝)2 (−3𝑞𝑞)3 + 5(2𝑝𝑝)(−3𝑞𝑞)4 +
(−3𝑞𝑞)5

(2𝑝𝑝 + 3𝑞𝑞)5 = 32𝑝𝑝5 − 240𝑝𝑝4 𝑞𝑞 + 720𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞 2 − 1080 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 3 + 810 𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞 4 − 243 𝑞𝑞 5

Exercises for Practice.

Exx1
a. Use Pascal’s triangle to expand (𝑝𝑝 − 𝑞𝑞)7
b. Expand (2𝑚𝑚 + 3𝑚𝑚)5 using the Pascal’s triangle.
Session 2 – 3.2.0. Combinations and Permutation
3.2.1. Combinations
A combination is the number of selections of 𝑟𝑟 different items from 𝑛𝑛 distinguishable items when
order of selection is ignored. A combination is denoted by n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 , where,
n!
n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 =
r! (n − r)!

where, for example, 4! denotes 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 and is termed ‘factorial 4’ or ‘4 factorial’.

Therefore,
5! 5! 5 ×4×3×2×1
5𝐶𝐶3 = = =
3! (5 − 3)! 3! 2! 3 × 2 × 1 × 2 × 1

5! 5! 5 ×4×2
5𝐶𝐶3 = = =
3! (5 − 3)! 3! 2! 2×1

5! 5!
5𝐶𝐶3 = = =5×2
3! (5 − 3)! 3! 2!

5! 5!
5𝐶𝐶3 = = = 5 × 2 = 10
3! (5 − 3)! 3! 2!

Please note:
The number 2 in the numerator is a result of the 2 in the denominator cancelling out the 4 in the
numerator, resulting in 5 × 2 as we can see in the next line below.

5! 5!
5𝐶𝐶3 = = = 5 × 2 = 10
3! (5 − 3)! 3! 2!
For instance, the five letters 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶, 𝐷𝐷, 𝐸𝐸 can be arranged in groups of three as follows:
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵, 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵, 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶, i.e., there are ten groups of three. The
above calculation
5! 5!
5𝐶𝐶3 = = = 5 × 2 = 10
3! (5 − 3)! 3! 2!
produces the answer of 10 combinations without having to list all the ten possible arrangements.

The combination 8𝐶𝐶3 also produces 56 without having to list all the 56 arrangements.
8! 8! 8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
8𝐶𝐶3 = = =
3! (8 − 3)! 3! 5! 3 × 2 × 1 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1

8! 8! 8×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
8𝐶𝐶3 = = =
3! (8 − 3)! 3! 5! 3 × 2 × 1 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1

8! 8!
8𝐶𝐶3 = = = 8 × 7 = 56
3! (8 − 3)! 3! 5!

Example 3.2.1.1.
Evaluate:
(a) 8𝐶𝐶5
(b) 10𝐶𝐶6

Solution 3.2.1.1.
(a) We proceed by multiplying the number on the top (the numerator, 8) by all the numbers
that less than 8 that precede it to one, just we have listed here, and divide by the numbers at
the bottom (the denominators, 5 and 3) and all the numbers that precede them down to one

8! 8! 8×7×6 ×5×4×3×2×1
8𝐶𝐶5 = = =
5! (8 − 5)! 5! 3! (5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1) × (3 × 2 × 1)
 We notice that most of the numbers in the denominator, especially the (𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟)!, term will
cancel out a greater part of the numerator. For example, the 5! in the denominator will
cancel all the numbers from 5 in the numerator and the 𝑟𝑟! part will cancel some of the
values in the numerator.

The values 3 × 2 × 1 will cancle the 6 in the numerator leaving 8 × 7 = 56

8! 8! 8×7×6 ×5×4×3×2×1
8𝐶𝐶5 = = = = 56
5! (8 − 5)! 5! 3! (5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1) × (3 × 2 × 1)

With this in mind, we can solve the problem in (b) below:

(b) We begin by multiplying all the numbers from 10 × 9 × … down to 1 as follows:

10! 10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
10𝐶𝐶6 = = =
6! (10 − 6)! 6! 4! (6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1) × (4 × 3 × 2 × 1)

After cancelling out 6!, we are left with 4! in the denominator. The values 4 and 2 will
cancel out the value 8 in the numerator. Then, the value 3 in the denominator will cancel a
3 out from the value 9 in the numerator.

10! 10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 3
10𝐶𝐶6 = = =
6! (10 − 6)! 6! 4! (4 × 3 × 2 × 1)

10! 10!
10𝐶𝐶6 = = = 10 × 7 × 3
6! (10 − 6)! 6! 4!

We are left with the value 10 × 7 × 3 = 210 as the final result/answer.

3.2.2. Permutations.
A permutation is the number of ways of selecting 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑛𝑛 objects from 𝑛𝑛 distinguishable objects
when order of selection is important. A permutation is denoted by 𝑛𝑛𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 where,
𝑛𝑛𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 + 1)

Or
𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 =
(𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟)!

See the difference between the two formulas.

Combination says,
n!
n𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 =
r! (n − r)!

Thus

4! 4! 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
4𝑃𝑃2 = = = = 12
(4 − 2)! 2! 2×1

Example 3.2.2.1.
Evaluate:
(a) 7𝐶𝐶4
(b) 10𝐶𝐶7

Solution 3.2.2.1.
(a)
7! 7! 7×6×5×4×3×2× 1
7𝐶𝐶4 = = = = 35
4! (7 − 4)! 4! 3! (4 × 3 × 2 × 1)(3 × 2 × 1)
7! 7! 7×6×5
7𝐶𝐶4 = = = = 35
4! (7 − 4)! 4! 3! (3 × 2 × 1)
 7! 7!
7𝐶𝐶4 = = = 7 × 5 = 35
4! (7 − 4)! 4! 3!

(b)
10! 10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
10𝐶𝐶7 = = = = 120
7! (10 − 7)! 7! 3! (7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1)(3 × 2 × 1)

Example 3.2.2.2.
Evaluate:
(a) 6𝑃𝑃2
(b) 9𝑃𝑃5
Solution 3.2.2.2.
(a)
6! 6! 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
6𝑃𝑃2 = = = = 30
(6 − 2)! 4! 4×3×2×1

(b)
9! 9! 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
9𝑃𝑃5 = = = = 15120
(9 − 5)! 4! 4×3×2×1
Exercises for Practice.
Exx1
Evaluate the following:
(a) 9𝐶𝐶6
(b) 3𝐶𝐶1

Exx2
Evaluate the following:
(a) 4𝑃𝑃2
(b) 7𝑃𝑃4

Exx3
Evaluate:
(a) 6𝐶𝐶4 × 6𝑃𝑃4
(b) 7𝑃𝑃3 × 5𝐶𝐶3
(c) 9𝐶𝐶6 × 4𝑃𝑃2
(d) 5𝑃𝑃3 × 4𝐶𝐶2
Session 3 – 3.3.0. The Binomial Series
The binomial series or the binomial theorem is a formula for raising a binomial expression to any
power without lengthy multiplication. The general binomial expansion of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 is given by:
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1) 𝑛𝑛−2 2 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) 𝑛𝑛−3 3
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
2! 3!
where, for example, 3! denotes 3 × 2 × 1 and is termed ‘factorial 3’.

It can also be expressed as,

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 = 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 + 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛−1 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛−2 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−2 𝑥𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝐶0 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
where 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 , 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛−1 , … are coefficients found from the Pascal’s triangle. Note that the two end
coefficient 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 = 𝐶𝐶0 = 1. Also note that the coefficients next to the ends, 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛−1 and 𝐶𝐶1 are both
equal to 𝑛𝑛.

With the binomial theorem, 𝑛𝑛 may be a fraction, a decimal fraction or a positive or negative
integer. In the general expansion of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 it is noted that the 4th term is:
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) 𝑛𝑛−3 3
𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥
3!

The number 3 is very evident in this expansion.

For any term in a binomial expansion, say the 𝑟𝑟′th term, (𝑟𝑟 − 1) is evident. It may therefore be
reasoned that the 𝒓𝒓′th term of the expansion (𝒂𝒂 + 𝒙𝒙)𝒏𝒏 is:

𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) … 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡(𝑟𝑟 − 1)𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛−(𝑟𝑟−1) 𝑟𝑟−1

𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥
(𝑟𝑟 − 1)!

If 𝑎𝑎 = 1 in the binomial expansion of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 then:

𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) 3
(1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯
2! 3!
which is valid for −1 < 𝑥𝑥 < 1.
When 𝑥𝑥 is small compared with 1 then:
(1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 ≈ 1 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Session 4 – 3.4.0. Multiplication of Binomials
4.4.1. Multiplying Algebraic Expressions That Involve Binomials
To find the product of polynomials or other algebraic expressions, we need to use the Distributive
Property repeatedly. Using it three times on the product of two binomials, we get,

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑) = 𝑎𝑎(𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑) + 𝑏𝑏(𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

This says that we multiply the two factors by multiplying each term in one factor by each term in
the other factor and adding these products. Schematically, we have

(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

It has been nicely illustrated in the image below.

The acronym FOIL helps us remember that the product of two binomials is the sum of the
products of the First terms, the Outer (Outside) terms, the Inner (Inside) terms, and the Last
terms.

In general, we can multiply two algebraic expressions by using the Distributive Property and the
Laws of Exponents.
We can summarise the procedure as:
Multiply
The First terms in each bracket.
The Outside terms.
The Inside terms.
The Last terms.

4.4.2. Multiplying Binomials Using FOIL

Example 4.4.2.1.
Use the FOIL method to multiply (2𝑥𝑥 + 1) by (3𝑥𝑥 − 5).

Solution 4.4.2.1.
The multiplication of the two binomials will follow in this manner:
(2𝑥𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥𝑥 − 5) =

We begin by identifying the First terms in each binomial, 2𝑥𝑥 and 3𝑥𝑥 respectively. Their product is
(2𝑥𝑥)(3𝑥𝑥) = 6𝑥𝑥 2
Next is to identify the Outer terms, 2𝑥𝑥 and -5. Their product is (2𝑥𝑥)(−5) = −10𝑥𝑥
Next is to identify the Inner terms, 1 and 3𝑥𝑥. Their product is (1)(3𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥
Next is to identify the Last terms, 1 and −5. Their product is (1)(−5) = −5

Having identified the members of the FOIL ad their products, we bring them together and combine
or sum the like terms together as follows:

(2𝑥𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥𝑥 − 5) = 6𝑥𝑥 2 − 10𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 5

Summing the like terms 3𝑥𝑥 and 10𝑥𝑥, the sum is 3𝑥𝑥 − 10𝑥𝑥 = −7𝑥𝑥
Finally, we get,
(2𝑥𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥𝑥 − 5) = 6𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 − 5

The procedure is illustrated in the image below.

Example 4.4.2.2
Use the FOIL method to multiply (𝑥𝑥 + 3) by (𝑥𝑥 + 2)

Solution 4.4.2.2.
The product (multiplication) of the two binomials is as follows:

(𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 2) = (𝑥𝑥 × 𝑥𝑥) + (𝑥𝑥 × 2) + (3 × 𝑥𝑥) + (3 × 2)

F O I L

(𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 2) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 6

(𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 2) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 6

Special Note:
The process of multiplying brackets is also known as expanding the brackets.
Example 4.4.2.3.
Expand (𝑥𝑥 + 4)(𝑥𝑥 + 5)

Solution 4.4.2.3.
Using the FOIL method for expanding (𝑥𝑥 + 4)(𝑥𝑥 + 5), we get,

(𝑥𝑥 + 4)(𝑥𝑥 + 5) = (𝑥𝑥 × 𝑥𝑥) + (𝑥𝑥 × 5) + (4 × 𝑥𝑥) + (4 × 5)

F O I L

𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 20

4.4.3. Special Product Formulas

Certain types of products occur so frequently in algebra that it is important to memorise or know
their products. You can verify the following formulas by performing the multiplications involved.

The key idea in using these formulas (or any other formula in algebra) is the Principle of
Substitution: We may substitute any algebraic expression for anu letter in a formula.

For example, to find (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 3 )2 , we use the Product Formula 2, by substituting 𝑥𝑥 2 for 𝐴𝐴 and 𝑦𝑦 3
for 𝐵𝐵 to get,
(𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 3 )2 = (𝑥𝑥 2 )2 + 2(𝑥𝑥 2 )(𝑦𝑦 3 ) + (𝑦𝑦 3 )2
as in
 (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵)2 = 𝐴𝐴2 + 2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 2

Exercises for Practice.

Exx1.
Expand the following binomials.
(a) (𝑥𝑥 + 5)(𝑥𝑥 − 1)
(b) (2𝑥𝑥 + 3)(3𝑥𝑥 + 5)
(c) (3𝑥𝑥 − 1)(4𝑥𝑥 − 2)
Session 5 – 3.5.0. Worked Examples on the Binomial Series
Example 3.5.0.1
Use the binomial series to determine the expansion of (2 + 𝑥𝑥)7

Solution 3.5.0.1.
The binomial expansion is given by:
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1) 𝑛𝑛−2 2 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) 𝑛𝑛−3 3
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 0 + 𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥
2! 3!
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2)(𝑛𝑛 − 3) 𝑛𝑛−4 4
+ 𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
4!

In the given problem, 𝑎𝑎 = 2 and 𝑛𝑛 = 7:

Substituting 𝑎𝑎 = 2 and 𝑛𝑛 = 7 in the general binomial expansion, we get,

7(6) (7)(6)(5) (7)(6)(5)(4)

(2 + 𝑥𝑥)7 = 27 + 7(2)6 𝑥𝑥1 + (2)5 𝑥𝑥 2 + (2)4 𝑥𝑥 3 + (2)3 𝑥𝑥 4
(2)(1) (3)(2)(1) (4)(3)(2)(1)
(7)(6)(5)(4)(3) (7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)
+ (2)2 𝑥𝑥 5 + (2)1 𝑥𝑥 6
(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) (6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
(7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
+ (2)0 𝑥𝑥 7
(7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)

(2 + 𝑥𝑥)7 = 128 + 448 𝑥𝑥 + 672 𝑥𝑥 2 + 560 𝑥𝑥 3 + 280 𝑥𝑥 4 + 84 𝑥𝑥 5 + 14 𝑥𝑥 6 + 𝑥𝑥 7

Example 3.5.0.2.
1 5
Expand �𝑐𝑐 − 𝑐𝑐 � using the binomial series.

Solution 3.5.0.2.
The binomial series is given by,
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−2 2 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2)𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−3 3
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏 0 + 𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛−1 𝑏𝑏1 + 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑏𝑏 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎0 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
2! 3!
 1
We have been given, 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐, 𝑏𝑏 = − 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑛𝑛 = 5.

1
We proceed by substituting 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐, 𝑏𝑏 = − 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑛𝑛 = 5 in the binomial series for the given
expression.

1 5 5
1 0 4
1 1 (5)(4) 3 1 2 (5)(4)(3) 2 1 3
�𝑐𝑐 − � = 𝑐𝑐 �− � + 5𝑐𝑐 �− � + 𝑐𝑐 �− � + 𝑐𝑐 �− �
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 2! 𝑐𝑐 3! 𝑐𝑐
(5)(4)(3)(2) 1 1 4 (5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 0 1 5
+ 𝑐𝑐 �− � + 𝑐𝑐 �− �
4! 𝑐𝑐 5! 𝑐𝑐

1 5 5 4
1 (5)(4) 3 1 2 (5)(4)(3) 2 1 3
�𝑐𝑐 − � = 𝑐𝑐 + 5𝑐𝑐 �− � + 𝑐𝑐 �− � + 𝑐𝑐 �− �
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 (2)(1) 𝑐𝑐 (3)(2)(1) 𝑐𝑐
4
(5)(4)(3)(2) 1 1 (5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 0 1 5
+ 𝑐𝑐 �− � + 𝑐𝑐 �− �
(4)(3)(2)(1) 𝑐𝑐 (5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 𝑐𝑐

1 5 10 5 1
�𝑐𝑐 − � = 𝑐𝑐 5 − 5𝑐𝑐 3 + 10𝑐𝑐 − + 3− 5
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐

Example 3.5.0.3.
Without fully expanding (3 + 𝑥𝑥)7 , determine the fifth term.

Solution 3.5.0.3.
The 𝑟𝑟′th term of the expansion (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 is given by:
𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) … 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑟𝑟 − 1) 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛−(𝑟𝑟−1) 𝑟𝑟−1
𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥
(𝑟𝑟 − 1)!

We substitute 𝑛𝑛 = 7, 𝑎𝑎 = 3, 𝑟𝑟 − 1 = 5 − 1 = 4 gives,
 (7)(6)(5)(4)
(3)7−4 𝑥𝑥 4
(4)(3)(2)(1)

i.e., the fifth term of the expansion (3 + 𝑥𝑥)7 = 35(3)3 𝑥𝑥 4 = 945𝑥𝑥 4 .

Example 3.5.0.4.
1 10
Find the middle term of �2𝑝𝑝 − 2𝑞𝑞� .

Solution 3.5.0.4.
In the expansion of a binomial series, (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 , there are (𝑛𝑛 + 1) terms. Similarly, in the
expansion of (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑥𝑥)10 there are (10 + 1), i.e., 11 terms. Hence the middle term of 11 terms is
the sixth term.

1
Using the general expression for the 𝑟𝑟’th term where 𝑎𝑎 = 2𝑝𝑝, 𝑥𝑥 = − 2𝑞𝑞, 𝑛𝑛 = 10 and the desired
𝑟𝑟 − 1 = 6 − 1 = 5, we get:

The middle term, or the sixth term is,

(10)(9)(8)(7)(6) 10−5
1 5
= (2𝑝𝑝) �− �
(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 2𝑞𝑞

1 5
= (9)(7)(2)(2) (2𝑝𝑝)5 �− �
2𝑞𝑞

1 5
= 252 (2𝑝𝑝)5 �− �
2𝑞𝑞

1
= 252(32𝑝𝑝5 ) �− �
32𝑞𝑞 5
Hence the middle term of the expansion,

1 10 𝑝𝑝5
�2𝑝𝑝 − � = −252 5
2𝑞𝑞 𝑞𝑞

Example 3.5.0.5.
Evaluate (1.002)9 using the binomial theorem correct to
(a) 3 decimal places
(b) 7 significant figures

Solution 3.5.0.5.
(a) We refer to the general binomial theorem for,

𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) 3

(1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯
2! 3!

Also, we can express (1.002)9 as (1 + 0.002)9

We substitute 𝑥𝑥 = 0.002 and 𝑛𝑛 = 9 in the general expansion for (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 which gives,
(9)(8) (9)(8)(7)
(1 + 0.002)9 = 19 + 9(1)8 (0.002)1 + (1)7 (0.002)2 + (1)6 (0.002)3 +
2! 3!
(9)(8)(7)(6)
(1)5 (0.002)4 + ⋯
4!

(1 + 0.002)9 = 1 + 0.018 + 0.000144 + 0.000000672 + 0.000000002016 + ⋯

(1 + 0.002)9 = 1.018 correct to 3 decimal places.

(b) (1 + 0.002)9 = 1.018145 correct to 7 significant figures.

Example 3.5.0.6.
Determine the value of (3.039)4 correct to 6 significant figures using the binomial theorem.

Solution 3.5.0.6.
We can rewrite (3.039)4 in the form (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 as:

(3.039)4 = (3 + 0.039)4
We can use the binomial theorem to expand (3 + 0.039)4 as:

0.039 4
(3 + 0.039)4 = �3 �1 + ��
3

0.039
Note that 3
= 0.013

(3 + 0.039)4 = 34 (1 + 0.013)4

(4)(3) (4)(3)(2)
= 34 (1 + 0.013)4 = 34 (1 + 4(0.013) + (0.013)2 + (0.013)3 + ⋯ )
2! 3!

(4)(3) (4)(3)(2)
= 34 (1 + 0.013)4 = 34 (1 + 4(0.013) + (0.013)2 + (0.013)3 + ⋯ )
(2)(1) (3)(2)(1)

= 34 (1 + 0.013)4 = 34 (1 + 0.052 + 0.001014 + 0.000008788 + ⋯ )

= 34 (1 + 0.013)4 = 34 (1.053022788)

= 34 (1 + 0.013)4 = 81(1.053022788)
 = 34 (1 + 0.013)4 = 81(1.053022788)

= 34 (1 + 0.013)4 = 85.294845828

(3.039)4 = 34 (1 + 0.013)4 = 85.2948, correct to 6 significant figures.

Session 6 – 3.6.0. More Worked Examples of the Binomial Series
Example 3.6.0.1.
1
a) Expand (1+2𝑥𝑥)3 in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥 as far as the term in 𝑥𝑥 3 , using the binomial series.
b) State the limits of 𝑥𝑥 for which the expansion is valid.

Solution 3.6.0.1.
a) Using the binomial expansion of (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 where 𝑛𝑛 = −3 and 𝑥𝑥 is replaced by 2𝑥𝑥 i.e., we
get,
1
= (1 + 2𝑥𝑥)−3 =
(1 + 2𝑥𝑥)3

(−3)(−4)(−1)−5 (−3)(−4)(−5)
(1 + 2𝑥𝑥)−3 = 1−3 + (−3)(1)−4 (2𝑥𝑥) + (2𝑥𝑥)2 + (2𝑥𝑥)3
2! 3!
+⋯

(−3)(−4)(−1)−5 (−3)(−4)(−5)
(1 + 2𝑥𝑥)−3 = 1−3 + (−3)(1)−4 (2𝑥𝑥) + (2𝑥𝑥)2 + (2𝑥𝑥)3
2 ×1 3 ×2 ×1
+⋯

(1 + 2𝑥𝑥)−3 = 1 − 6𝑥𝑥 + 24 𝑥𝑥 2 + 80𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯

b) The expansion is valid provided |2𝑥𝑥| < 1, i.e.,

1 1 1
|𝑥𝑥| < or − < 𝑥𝑥 <
2 2 2

Example 3.6.0.2.
1
a) Expand (4−𝑥𝑥)2 in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥 as far as the term in 𝑥𝑥 3 using the binomial
theorem.
b) What is the limit of 𝑥𝑥 for which the expansion in (a) is true?
Solution 3.6.0.2.
1 1 1 1 1 𝑥𝑥 −2
a) (4−𝑥𝑥)2
= 𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2
= 1 𝑥𝑥 2
= 16 �1 − 4�
�4�1− �� 42 �1− � �1− �
4 4 16 4

1 𝑥𝑥 −2
We can now use the expansion of (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 to expand 16 �1 − 4� to get,

1 𝑥𝑥 −2 1 𝑥𝑥 (−2)(−3) 𝑥𝑥 2 (−2)(−3)(−4) 𝑥𝑥 3
16
�1 − 4� = 16 �1 + (−2) �− 4� + �− 4� + �− 4� + ⋯ �
2! 3!

1 𝑥𝑥 −2 1 𝑥𝑥 (−2)(−3) 𝑥𝑥 2 (−2)(−3)(−4) 𝑥𝑥 3
�1 − � = �1 + (−2) �− � + �− � + �− �
16 4 16 4 2 ×1 4 3 ×2 ×1 4

+⋯�

1 𝑥𝑥 −2 1 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
�1 − � = �1 + + + +⋯�
16 4 16 2 16 16

1 1 𝑥𝑥 −2
b) The expansion of (4−𝑥𝑥)2 = 16 �1 − 4� is true provided,

𝑥𝑥
�4� < 1 i.e., |𝑥𝑥| < 4 or −4 < 𝑥𝑥 < 4

Example 3.6.0.3.

Use the binomial theorem to expand √4 + 𝑥𝑥 in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥 to four terms. Give the
limits of 𝑥𝑥 for which the expansion is valid.

Solution 3.6.0.3.

We can rewrite or simplify √4 + 𝑥𝑥 as,

1
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2
√4 + 𝑥𝑥 = �4 �1 + � = √4 ��1 + � = 2 �1 + �
4 4 4

We can now use the expansion of (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 ,

 1 1 1 1 1 3
𝑥𝑥 2 1 𝑥𝑥 �2� �− 2� 𝑥𝑥 2 �2� �− 2� �− 2� 𝑥𝑥 2
2 �1 + � = 2 �1 + � � � � + � � + � � +⋯�
4 2 4 2! 4 3! 4

1 1 1 1 1 3
𝑥𝑥 2 1 𝑥𝑥 �2� �− 2� 𝑥𝑥 2 �2� �− 2� �− 2� 𝑥𝑥 2
2 �1 + � = 2 �1 + � � � � + � � + � � +⋯�
4 2 4 2 × 1 4 3 ×2 ×1 4

1
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
2 �1 + � = 2 �1 + − + −⋯�
4 8 128 1024

1
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3
2 �1 + � = 2 + − + −⋯
4 4 64 512

𝑥𝑥
The expansion is valid when �4� < 1, i.e.,
𝑥𝑥
� �<1
4
OR

−4 < 𝑥𝑥 < 4

Example 3.6.0.4.
1
Expand in ascending powers of 𝑡𝑡 as far as the term in 𝑡𝑡 3 . State the limits of 𝑡𝑡 for which the
√1−2𝑡𝑡
expression is valid.

Solution 3.6.0.4.
1
The expression can be rewritten as,
√1−2𝑡𝑡
 1 1
= (1 − 2𝑡𝑡)−2
√1 − 2𝑡𝑡

1
We can use the expansion of (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 to expand the expression (1 − 2𝑡𝑡)−2 as,

1 3 1 2 5
1 1 �− 2� �− 2� �− 2� �− 3� �− 2�
−
(1 − 2𝑡𝑡) 2 = 1 + �− � (−2𝑡𝑡) + (−2𝑡𝑡)2 + (−2𝑡𝑡)3 + ⋯
2 2! 3!

1 3 1 2 5
1 1 �− 2� �− 2� �− 2� �− � �− �
(1 − 2𝑡𝑡)−2 = 1 + �− � (−2𝑡𝑡) + (−2𝑡𝑡)2 + 3 2 (−2𝑡𝑡)3 + ⋯
2 2 ×1 3 ×2 ×1

1 3 5
(1 − 2𝑡𝑡)−2 = 1 + 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑡𝑡 3 + ⋯
2 2

1 1 1
The expression is valid when |2𝑡𝑡| < 1. i.e., |𝑡𝑡| < 2 or − 2 < 𝑡𝑡 < 2

Example 3.6.0.5.
1
(1−3𝑥𝑥)3 √1+𝑥𝑥
Simplify 𝑥𝑥 3
given that powers of 𝑥𝑥 above the first may be neglected.
�1+ �
2

Solution 3.6.0.5.
1
(1−3𝑥𝑥)3 √1+𝑥𝑥
We can rewrite the expression 𝑥𝑥 3
as,
�1+ �
2

1
(1 − 3𝑥𝑥)3 √1 + 𝑥𝑥 1 1 𝑥𝑥 −3
= (1 − 3𝑥𝑥) 3 (1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 �1 + �
𝑥𝑥 3 2
�1 + 2�
We have been told that powers of 𝑥𝑥 above the first term may be neglected. We therefore attempt to
expand each of the three terms up to their 𝑥𝑥 terms as in the following expansions.

1 1 𝑥𝑥 −3 1 1 𝑥𝑥
(1 − 3𝑥𝑥)3 (1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 �1 + � ≈ �1 + � � (−3𝑥𝑥)� �1 + � � (𝑥𝑥)� �1 + (−3) � ��
2 3 2 2

We have expanded each term by the binomial theorem as far as the 𝑥𝑥 term only.

We simplify to get,

1 1 𝑥𝑥 −3 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥
(1 − 3𝑥𝑥)3 (1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 �1 + � ≈ (1 − 𝑥𝑥) �1 + � �1 − �
2 2 2
We apply FOIL on the right had side to obtain,

3𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥 2 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 3𝑥𝑥 3

�1 − + − − 𝑥𝑥 + − + �
2 2 4 2 2 4

We will neglect the powers of 𝑥𝑥 higher than 1 to obtain,

3𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
�1 − + − 𝑥𝑥�
2 2

We simplify to obtain,

2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥
2

2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥
2
 2 − 4𝑥𝑥
= 1 − 2𝑥𝑥
2

1 1 𝑥𝑥 −3
(1 − 3𝑥𝑥)3 (1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 �1 + � ≈ 1 − 2𝑥𝑥
2

Example 3.6.0.6.
√1+2𝑥𝑥
Express 1 as a power series as far as the term in 𝑥𝑥 2 . State the range of values of 𝑥𝑥 for which
�√1−3𝑥𝑥�3
the series is convergent.

Solution 3.6.0.6.
√1+2𝑥𝑥
We can rewrite 1 as,
�√1−3𝑥𝑥�3

√1 + 2𝑥𝑥 1 1
1 = (1 + 2𝑥𝑥)2 (1 − 3𝑥𝑥)−3
3
�√1 − 3𝑥𝑥�

We can apply the binomial theorem of (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 to each of the expression to obtain,
1 1
1 1 �2� �− 2�
(1 + 2𝑥𝑥)2 = 1 + � � (2𝑥𝑥) + (2𝑥𝑥)2 + ⋯
2 2!

1 𝑥𝑥 2
(1 + 2𝑥𝑥)2 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − +⋯
2
1
which is valid for |2𝑥𝑥| < 1, i.e., |𝑥𝑥| < 2

Also,
1 4
1 1 �− 3� �− 3�
(1 − 3𝑥𝑥)−3 = 1 + �− � (−3𝑥𝑥) + (−3𝑥𝑥)2 + ⋯
3 2!
 1
(1 − 3𝑥𝑥)−3 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 + ⋯
1
which is also valid for |3𝑥𝑥| < 1, i.e., |𝑥𝑥| < 3.

√1+2𝑥𝑥
Hence, 1
�√1−3𝑥𝑥�3

1 1
= (1 + 2𝑥𝑥)2 (1 − 3𝑥𝑥)−3

𝑥𝑥 2
= �1 + 𝑥𝑥 − + ⋯ � (1 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 + ⋯ )
2

We apply FOIL to simplify to obtain,

5𝑥𝑥
= 1 + 2𝑥𝑥 + +⋯
2

The series is convergent if,

1 1
− < 𝑥𝑥 <
3 3
Exercises for Practice.
Exx1.
Use the binomial theorem to expand the following expressions in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥. State the
limit in each case for which the series is valid.
1
a) (1+𝑥𝑥)2
1
b) (2+𝑥𝑥)3

Exx2
Use the binomial theorem to expand the following expressions in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥. State the
limit in each case for which the series is valid.

a) √2 + 𝑥𝑥
1
b)
√1+3𝑥𝑥

End of Unit 3
Unit 4 – Introduction to Differential Calculus
At the end of this Unit, learners should be able to:
i. Use the general rule for Differentiate to find the gradient of a curve.
ii. Differentiate polynomial functions 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 .
iii. Differentiate Sine and Cosine functions.
iv. Differentiate functions of the form 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 and ln 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
Session 1 – Introduction to Calculus
Session 2 – The Gradient of a Curve
Session 3 – Differentiation of Functions of the Form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
Session 4 – Differentiation of Sums and Differences
Session 5 – The Function of a Function (Chain Rule of Differentiation)
Session 6 – More on Function of a Function (More on Chain Rule)
Session 1 – 4.1.0. Introduction to Calculus.
4.1.1. Differential Calculus.
Calculus is a branch of mathematics involving or leading to calculations dealing with continuously
varying functions, such as velocity and acceleration, rates of change and maximum and minimum
values of curves.

Calculus has widespread of applications in science and engineering and is used to solve
complicated problems for which algebra alone is insufficient.

Calculus is a subject that falls into two parts:

(i) Differential calculus (or differentiation) and
(ii) Integral calculus (or integration)

Differentiation is used in calculations involving velocity and acceleration, rates of change, and
maximum and minimum values of curves.

At the end of this Unit, learners should be able to:

i. Differentiate common functions.
ii. Differentiate a product using the product rule.
iii. Differentiate a quotient using the quotient rule.
iv. Differentiate a function of a Function.
v. Differentiate successively.

4.1.2. – Functional Notation

In an equation such as 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 5, 𝑦𝑦 is said to be a function of 𝑥𝑥 and may be written as
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).

An equation written in the form, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 5 is termed functional notation. The value
of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) when 𝑥𝑥 = 0 is denoted by 𝑓𝑓(0), and the value of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) when 𝑥𝑥 = 2 is denoted by 𝑓𝑓(2)
and so on. Thus when 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 5, then,
𝑓𝑓(0) = 3(0)2 + 2(0) − 5 = −5
And
𝑓𝑓(2) = 3(2)2 + 2(2) − 5
𝑓𝑓(2) = 3(4) + 2(2) − 5
𝑓𝑓(2) = 12 + 4 − 5 = 11

Example 4.1.2.1.
If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2, find:
(i) 𝑓𝑓(0)
(ii) 𝑓𝑓(3)
(iii) 𝑓𝑓(−1)
(iv) 𝑓𝑓(3) − 𝑓𝑓(−1)

Solution 4.1.2.1.
We have been given 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2
(i) 𝑓𝑓(0) = 4(0)2 − 3(0) + 2
= 0+0+2= 2

(ii) 𝑓𝑓(3) = 4(3)2 − 3(3) + 2

= 36 − 9 + 2 = 29

(iii) 𝑓𝑓(−1) = 4(−1)2 − 3(−1) + 2

= 4+3+2= 9

(iv) We know the value of 𝑓𝑓(3) = 29 and the value of 𝑓𝑓(−1) = 9. Thus, we can simply
find their difference by substituting their values in
𝑓𝑓(3) − 𝑓𝑓(−1) = 29 − 9 = 20
Example 4.1.2.2.
Given that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 7, determine:
(i) 𝑓𝑓(2) ÷ 𝑓𝑓(1)
(ii) 𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎)
(iii) 𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(3)
𝑓𝑓(3+𝑎𝑎)−𝑓𝑓(3)
(iv)
𝑎𝑎

Solution 4.1.2.2.
The given function is 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 7. We proceed by substituting the values in the function
and perform the required operations on the function.
(i) 𝑓𝑓(2) = 5(2)2 + 2 − 7 = 5(4) + 2 − 7 = 22 − 7 = 15
𝑓𝑓(1) = 5(1)2 + 1 − 7 = 5 + 1 − 7 = −1
15
∴ 𝑓𝑓(2) ÷ 𝑓𝑓(1) = = −15
−1

(ii) 𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) = 5(3 + 𝑎𝑎)2 + (3 + 𝑎𝑎) − 7

𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) = 5(9 + 6𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎2 ) + (3 + 𝑎𝑎) − 7
𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) = 45 + 30𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2 + 3 + 𝑎𝑎 − 7
𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) = 45 + 3 − 7 + 30𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2
𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) = 48 − 7 + 31𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2
(3 + 𝑎𝑎) = 41 + 31𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2

(iii) 𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(3)

We know 𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) from (ii). We need to determine 𝑓𝑓(3).
𝑓𝑓(3) = 5(3)2 + 3 − 7 = 5(9) + 3 − 7 = 45 + 3 − 7 = 41
𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(3) = (41 + 31𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2 ) − 41 = 31𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2
𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(3) = 31𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2

(iv) We know 𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) = 31𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2 and we know 𝑓𝑓(3) = 41, and we know,
𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(3) = 31𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2
𝑓𝑓(3 + 𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(3) 31𝑎𝑎 + 5𝑎𝑎2
∴ = = 31 + 5𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
i.e., the 𝑎𝑎 in the denominator will cancel the one 𝑎𝑎 from 31 and cancel another one 𝑎𝑎
from the 5𝑎𝑎2 to obtain 31 + 5𝑎𝑎 as the final result.
Exercises for Practice.
Exx1
If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 6𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 1, find:
(i) 𝑓𝑓(0)
(ii) 𝑓𝑓(1)
(iii) 𝑓𝑓(−1)
(iv) 𝑓𝑓(−3)

Exx2
If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = −𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 + 6, find:
(i) 𝑓𝑓(2)
(ii) 𝑓𝑓(2 + 𝑎𝑎)
(iii) 𝑓𝑓(2 + 𝑎𝑎) − 𝑓𝑓(2)
𝑓𝑓(2+𝑎𝑎)−𝑓𝑓(2)
(iv)
𝑎𝑎
Session 2 – 4.2.0. The Gradient of a Curve
(a) If a tangent is drawn at a point 𝑃𝑃 on a curve, then the gradient of this tangent is said to be
the gradient of the curve at 𝑃𝑃. In the image labelled as Figure 42.1 below, the gradient of
the curve at 𝑃𝑃 is equal to the gradient of the tangent 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃.

(b) For the curve shown in the image labelled Figure 42.2, let the points 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 have co-
ordinates (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) and (𝑥𝑥2 , 𝑦𝑦2 ), respectively.

In functional notation, 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 ) and 𝑦𝑦2 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥2 ) as shown.

The gradient of the chord 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 (𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 − 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶)
= =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥2 ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥1 )

= =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

(c) For the curve 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 shown in the image labelled as Figure 42.3:
(i) the gradient of chord 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑓𝑓(3) − 𝑓𝑓(1) 9 − 1
= = =4
3−1 2
 (ii) the gradient of chord 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑓𝑓(2) − 𝑓𝑓(1) 4 − 1
= = =3
2−1 1
(iii) the gradient of chord 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑓𝑓(1.5) − 𝑓𝑓(1) 2.25 − 1
= = = 2.5
1.5 − 1 0.5

(iv) if 𝐸𝐸 is the point on the curve, (1.1, 𝑓𝑓(1.1)) then the gradient of chord 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝑓𝑓(1.1) − 𝑓𝑓(1) 1.21 − 1

= = = 2.1
1.1 − 1 0.1

(v) if 𝐹𝐹 is the point on the curve, (1.01, 𝑓𝑓(1.01)) then the gradient of chord 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

𝑓𝑓(1.01) − 𝑓𝑓(1) 1.0201 − 1

= = = 2.01
1.01 − 1 0.01

Thus, as point 𝐵𝐵 moves closer and closer to point 𝐴𝐴, the gradient of the chord approaches nearer
and nearer to the value 2. This is called the limiting value of the gradient of the chord 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 and
when 𝐵𝐵 coincides with 𝐴𝐴 the chord becomes the tangent to the curve.

4.2.1. Differentiation from First Principles.

i. In the image labelled Figure 42.4, 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 are two points very close together on a curve,
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 (delta 𝑥𝑥) and 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 (delta 𝑦𝑦) representing small increments in the 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 directions, respectively.

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
Gradient of chord 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

However, 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

Hence,

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

=
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
As 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 approaches zero, 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 approaches a limiting value and the gradient of the chord approaches
the gradient of the tangent at 𝐴𝐴.

ii) When determining the gradient of a tangent to a curve there are two notations used. The
gradient of the curve at 𝐴𝐴 in the image labelled Figure 42.4, can either be written as:
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
limit � �
𝑥𝑥→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
OR
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
limit � �
𝑥𝑥→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

In Leibniz notation,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
= limit
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

In functional notation,
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(iii) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
is the same as 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) and is called the differential coefficient, or the derivative. The
process of finding the differential coefficient is called differentiation.

In summary, the differential coefficient,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
= 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
= limit � �
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

It is sometimes more convenient to represent or replace 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 by ℎ in the differentiation formula,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

as in the following expression:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
= 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

Example 4.2.1.1.
Differentiate from first principles 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 and determine the value of the gradient of the curve
at 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

Solution 4.2.1.1.
To “differentiate from first principles” means “to find 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥)’ by using the expression,
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

The given function is 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 .

We start by substituting (𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) for 𝑥𝑥 to get,

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) = (𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿)2

(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿)2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 + 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥 2

Hence,
 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿)2 − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 + 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥 2 ) − (𝑥𝑥 2 )

𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

′ (𝑥𝑥)
2𝑥𝑥 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 + 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥 2
𝑓𝑓 = limit � �
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

The function above is equivalent to,

′ (𝑥𝑥)
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿𝑥𝑥 2
𝑓𝑓 = 2𝑥𝑥 +
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

The 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 in the denominator will cancel one each of the 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿’s in the numerator as in the step below.

𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit{2𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿}

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿→0

As 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 → 0, [2𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿] → [2𝑥𝑥 + 0]

Thus,
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥

Which is called the differential coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 2 .

At 𝑥𝑥 = 2, the gradient of the curve, 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 2(2) = 4.

Alternatively, we would solve the same problem by replacing 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 with the single letter symbol, ℎ
in the formula.

To “differentiate from first principles” means “to find 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥)’ by using the expression,
 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
ℎ→0 ℎ

The given function is 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 2 .

We start by substituting (𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) for 𝑥𝑥 to get,

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)2

(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥ℎ + ℎ2

Hence,
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)2 − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
ℎ→0 ℎ

(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) − (𝑥𝑥 2 )

𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
ℎ→0 ℎ

2𝑥𝑥ℎ + ℎ2
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
ℎ→0 ℎ

The function above is equivalent to,

′ (𝑥𝑥)
2𝑥𝑥ℎ ℎ2
𝑓𝑓 = +
ℎ ℎ

The ℎ in the denominator will cancel one each of the ℎ’s in the numerator as in the step below.

′ (𝑥𝑥)
2𝑥𝑥ℎ ℎ2
𝑓𝑓 = +
ℎ ℎ
 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = limit{2𝑥𝑥 + ℎ}
ℎ→0

As ℎ → 0, [2𝑥𝑥 + ℎ] → [2𝑥𝑥 + 0]

Thus,
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥

Which is called the differential coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 2 .

At 𝑥𝑥 = 2, the gradient of the curve, 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 2(2) = 4.

Note:
For convenience, we will adopt the use of ℎ instead of 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 in the examples that follow.

Example 4.2.1.2.
Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑥.

Solution 4.2.1.2.
By definition,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

The given function to be differentiated is 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 5𝑥𝑥. Substituting (𝑥𝑥 + 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿) for 𝑥𝑥, we get,
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) = 5(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) = 5𝑥𝑥 + 5ℎ
Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (5𝑥𝑥 + 5ℎ) − (5𝑥𝑥)
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5ℎ
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit{5}
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0

Since the term 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 does not appear in [5] the limiting value as ℎ → 0 of 5 is 5.

Thus,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
i.e., the differential coefficient of 5𝑥𝑥 is 5.

The equation 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑥 represents a straight line of gradient 5.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The ‘differential coefficient’ (i.e., 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥)) means ‘the gradient of the curve’, and since the
slope of the line 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑥 is 5 this result can be obtained by inspection.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hence, in general, if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (where 𝑘𝑘 is a constant), then the gradient of the line is 𝑘𝑘 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘.

Example 4.2.1.3.
Find the derivative of 𝑦𝑦 = 8.

Solution 4.2.1.3.
We have 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 8.
There are no 𝑥𝑥-values in the given equation. Therefore, if we substitute (𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) for 𝑥𝑥, it will still
be 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) = 8.

Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ
 8−8 0
= limit � �= =0
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Thus, when 𝑦𝑦 = 8, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.

The equation 𝑦𝑦 = 8 represents a straight horizontal line and the gradient of a horizontal line is
zero, hence the result could have been determined by inspection.

‘Finding the derivative’ means ‘finding the gradient’, hence, in general, for any horizontal line if
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑘𝑘 (where 𝑘𝑘 is a constant) then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.

Example 4.2.1.4.
Differentiate from first principles 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 3 .

Solution 4.2.1.4.
We begin by substituting (𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) for 𝑥𝑥

Substituting (𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) for 𝑥𝑥 gives us,

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) = 2(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)3

We will use the binomial theorem to expand (𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)3 to obtain,

(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)3 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 ℎ + 3𝑥𝑥ℎ2 + ℎ3

Thus,
2(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)3 = 2(𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 ℎ + 3𝑥𝑥ℎ2 + ℎ3 )

2(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)3 = 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 ℎ + 6𝑥𝑥ℎ2 + 2ℎ3

 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ (𝑥𝑥)
(2𝑥𝑥 3 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 ℎ + 6𝑥𝑥ℎ2 + 2ℎ3 ) − (2𝑥𝑥 3 )
= 𝑓𝑓 = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ (𝑥𝑥)
6𝑥𝑥 2 ℎ + 6𝑥𝑥ℎ2 + 2ℎ3
= 𝑓𝑓 = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

The ℎ in the denominator cancels out each of ℎ terms in the numerator, and we get, the following,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit{6𝑥𝑥 2 + 6𝑥𝑥ℎ + 2ℎ2 }
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0

As the limit of ℎ → 0,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 6𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

i.e., the differential coefficient of 2𝑥𝑥 3 is 6𝑥𝑥 2 .

Example 4.2.1.5.
Find from first principles, the differential coefficient of 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 3 and determine the
gradient of the curve at 𝑥𝑥 = −3

Solution 4.2.1.5.
We proceed by substituting (𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) in each place for 𝑥𝑥 in the given function,
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 3
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) = 4(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 5(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) − 3
 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) = 4(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) + 5𝑥𝑥 + 5ℎ − 3
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) = 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 8𝑥𝑥ℎ + 4ℎ2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 5ℎ − 3

From,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

We get,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ (𝑥𝑥)
(4𝑥𝑥 2 + 8𝑥𝑥ℎ + 4ℎ2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 5ℎ − 3) − (4𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 3)
= 𝑓𝑓 = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (4𝑥𝑥 2 + 8𝑥𝑥ℎ + 4ℎ2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 5ℎ − 3) − (4𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 3)

= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (8𝑥𝑥ℎ + 4ℎ2 + 5ℎ)

= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

The ℎ terms in both the numerator and in the denominator will cancel out as follows:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ (𝑥𝑥)
(8𝑥𝑥ℎ + 4ℎ2 + 5ℎ)
= 𝑓𝑓 = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

We will get,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit{8𝑥𝑥 + 4ℎ + 5}
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0

As the limit of ℎ → 0,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 8𝑥𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
At 𝑥𝑥 = −3, the gradient of the curve is,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 8(−3) + 5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = −24 + 5 = −19
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

From the preceding examples, we note that differentiation from first principles can be a lengthy
and a tedious process. It will not be convenient to go through this procedure every time we want to
differentiate a function. In reality, we do not have to because a set of general rules have been
developed from the above procedures which we want to consider in the next session.
Session 3 – 4.3.0. Differentiation of Functions of the Form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
4.3.1. General Rule of Differentiation of Functions of the Form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
As noted earlier, to find a derivative of a function using first principles can be a tedious task. For
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
example, if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥10 and we want to obtain an expression for 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , we would have to expand
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)10 and then find :
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

= 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = limit � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 + ℎ)10 − 𝑥𝑥10

= limit
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ℎ→0 ℎ

However, from the differentiation by first principles of many examples such as those in the
preceding session, a general rule for differentiating 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 emerges, where 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑛𝑛 are
constants.

The rule is: if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , then,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
OR

If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

OR, if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , then

𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1
This is true for all real values of 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑛𝑛.
Each of the worked examples from (Examples 4.2.1.1 to 4.2.1.5), in the preceding session could
have been obtained using this general rule.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Therefore, if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥10 , then, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10𝑥𝑥10−1 = 10𝑥𝑥 9

Results of differentiation can be expressed in different ways.

For example:
Consider 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 , then 𝑎𝑎 = 3, 𝑛𝑛 = 2, so
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 = (3)(2)𝑥𝑥 2−1 = 6𝑥𝑥1 = 6𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(i) If 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 , then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 6𝑥𝑥
(ii) If 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 , then 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) = 6𝑥𝑥
(iii) The differential coefficient of 3𝑥𝑥 2 is 6𝑥𝑥
(iv) The derivative of 3𝑥𝑥 2 is 6𝑥𝑥, and
𝑑𝑑
(v) (3𝑥𝑥 2 ) = 6𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , and 𝑛𝑛 = 0, then

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (𝑎𝑎)(0)𝑥𝑥 0−1 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

This implies that the differential coefficient of a constant is zero.

Example 4.3.1.1.
Using the general rule, differentiate the following with respect to 𝑥𝑥.
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑥 7
(b) 𝑦𝑦 = 3√𝑥𝑥
4
(c) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2

Solution 4.3.1.1.
(a) Comparing 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑥 7 with 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , shows that 𝑎𝑎 = 5, and 𝑛𝑛 = 7. Using the general rule
of differentiation, we have
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 = (5)(7)𝑥𝑥 7−1 = 35𝑥𝑥 6
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
1
(b) Also, 𝑦𝑦 = 3√𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 . Hence 𝑎𝑎 = 3 and 𝑛𝑛 = 2.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 = (3) � � 𝑥𝑥 2−1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

3 −1 3
= 𝑥𝑥 2 = 1
2
2𝑥𝑥 2

3 3
= 1 =
2𝑥𝑥 2 2√𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2√𝑥𝑥

4
(c) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 = 4𝑥𝑥 −2 . Hence 𝑎𝑎 = 4, and 𝑛𝑛 = −2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 8
= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 = (4)(−2)𝑥𝑥 −2−1 = −8𝑥𝑥 −3 = − 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
Example 4.3.1.2.
2 4
Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦𝑦 = 5 𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 3 + 4√𝑥𝑥 5 + 7

Solution 4.3.1.2.
The given function is,
2 3 4
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 3 + 4�𝑥𝑥 5 + 7
5 𝑥𝑥
Which is the same as,
2 5
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 4𝑥𝑥 −3 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 7
5

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 5 5
= � � (3)𝑥𝑥 3−1 − (4)(−3)𝑥𝑥 −3−1 + (4) � � 𝑥𝑥 2−1 + 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6 3
= � � 𝑥𝑥 2 + 12𝑥𝑥 −4 + (10)𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6 2 12
= 𝑥𝑥 + 4 + 10�𝑥𝑥 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5 𝑥𝑥

Example 4.3.1.3.
1
If 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 5𝑡𝑡 + √𝑡𝑡 3 , find 𝑓𝑓′(𝑡𝑡).

Solution 4.3.1.3.
1 1 3
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 5𝑡𝑡 + = 5𝑡𝑡 + 3 = 5𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 −2
√𝑡𝑡 3 𝑡𝑡 2

3 3
𝑓𝑓′(𝑡𝑡) = (5)(1)𝑡𝑡1−1 + �− � 𝑡𝑡 −2−1
2
 3 5
𝑓𝑓 ′(𝑡𝑡) = (5) − � � 𝑡𝑡 −2
2

3
𝑓𝑓 ′(𝑡𝑡) = 5 − 5
2𝑡𝑡 2

3
𝑓𝑓 ′(𝑡𝑡) = 5 −
2�√𝑡𝑡 5 �

3
𝑓𝑓 ′(𝑡𝑡) = 5 −
2√𝑡𝑡 5

Example 4.3.1.4.
(𝑥𝑥+2)2
Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = with respect to 𝑥𝑥 or (w.r.t. 𝑥𝑥)
𝑥𝑥

Solution 4.3.1.4.
(𝑥𝑥+2)2
We can rewrite 𝑦𝑦 = by expanding the numerator using the binomial theorem as follows:
𝑥𝑥

(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥𝑥 2 + (2)(2)𝑥𝑥 + 22 )

𝑦𝑦 = =
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2 (𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 4)

𝑦𝑦 = =
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 4) 𝑥𝑥 2 4𝑥𝑥 4

𝑦𝑦 = = + +
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

4
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 4 +
𝑥𝑥
 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + 4 + 4𝑥𝑥 −1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∴ = 1 + 0 − 4𝑥𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4
∴ =1− 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

There are general formulae for finding the derivative of many functions such as exponential,
trigonometry, logarithmic, etc. Some of the common formulae are set out in the following table.
Generally, it is easier to use the formulae in the table than to use differentiation from principles
approach.
Exercises for Practice.
Exx1.
Determine the differential coefficients of the of the following functions w.r.t. the variable.
1
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 7𝑥𝑥 4 (b) 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 (c) 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑡𝑡 3 (d) 𝑦𝑦 = 6 + 𝑥𝑥 3

Exx2.
Differentiate 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 6𝑥𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 5, and find the gradient of the curve at
(a) 𝑥𝑥 = −1 (b) 𝑥𝑥 = 2, (c) 𝑥𝑥 = 1 (d) 𝑥𝑥 = −2

Exx3
Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 1, and determine the gradient of the
curve at
(a) 𝑥𝑥 = 2 (b) 𝑥𝑥 = −2 (c) 𝑥𝑥 = −3 (d) 𝑥𝑥 = −1
Session 4 – 4.4.0. Derivatives of Sums and Differences
4.4.1. Differentiation of Sums and Differences
In addition to the formulae in the above table, we also define:
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑢𝑢 ± 𝑣𝑣) = ±
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣 are functions of 𝑥𝑥. This formula means that we can differentiate each part
separately and then add or subtract the resulting functions.

Example 4.4.1.1.
Find the derivative of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + sin(𝑥𝑥)

Solution 4.4.1.1.
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + sin(𝑥𝑥), then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3𝑥𝑥 2 + cos(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Note:
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) = 𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(where 𝑘𝑘 is a constant) which means we can take out the constant term, 𝑘𝑘, and differentiate the
remaining expression. For example,

If 𝑦𝑦 = 10 cos(𝑥𝑥), then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 10[− sin(𝑥𝑥)] = −10 sin(𝑥𝑥)
Example 4.4.1.2.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in each of the following cases:

(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 6
(b) 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 7 + 𝑥𝑥 6
3
(c) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + + tan(𝑥𝑥)
√𝑥𝑥

Solution 4.4.1.2.
(a) If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 6 , then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑥𝑥 6−1 = 6𝑥𝑥 5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(b) If 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 7 + 𝑥𝑥 6 = (7 × 3)𝑥𝑥 7−1 + 6𝑥𝑥 6−1 = 21𝑥𝑥 6 + 6𝑥𝑥 5

3
(c) If 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + + tan 𝑥𝑥
√𝑥𝑥

We can find the derivatives of 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and tan 𝑥𝑥 from Formulae Table 1, 6.5 and 6.8
respectively.

3
The problem is how to find the derivative or how to differentiate .
√𝑥𝑥

3
We need to convert to a power:
√𝑥𝑥

1 1
3 3
We can rewrite as 1 = 3𝑥𝑥 −2 (remembering that √𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 )
√𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2

1
We rewrite the function as 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 −2 + tan(𝑥𝑥)

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
From the formulae table, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (tan(𝑥𝑥) = sec 2 (𝑥𝑥)

Therefore,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + �− × 3� 𝑥𝑥 −2−1 + sec 2 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 3
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + �− � 𝑥𝑥 −2 + sec 2 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 3
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 −2 + sec 2 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − 3 + sec 2 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 √𝑥𝑥

Example 4.4.1.3.
The displacement, 𝑠𝑠, of a particle is by:
(a) 𝑠𝑠 = 80𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡 3
(b) 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑡𝑡 3 − 12𝑡𝑡 2 + 18𝑡𝑡.
In each case, find the velocity, 𝑣𝑣 (rate of change of displacement with respect to time), where
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

Solution 4.4.1.3.
(a) For 𝑠𝑠 = 80𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = 80 − 3𝑡𝑡 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(b) For 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑡𝑡 3 − 12𝑡𝑡 2 − 18𝑡𝑡,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = 3𝑡𝑡 2 − 24𝑡𝑡 − 18 = 3(𝑡𝑡 2 − 8𝑡𝑡 − 6)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
Notice that: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (18𝑡𝑡) = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (18𝑡𝑡1 ) = (18 × 1)𝑡𝑡1−1 = 18𝑡𝑡 0 = 18

𝑑𝑑
Similarly, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (80𝑡𝑡) = 80

In general, if 𝑘𝑘 is any constant, then,

𝑑𝑑
(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) = 𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Differentiation itself is not difficult, but the algebra involved might be more demanding. It might
be helpful to invest some time in the revision of indices and how to deal with exponents.

Example 4.4.1.4.
3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 5 cos(𝑥𝑥).

Solution 4.4.1.5.
3
Given 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 5 cos(𝑥𝑥).

Using the formulae table, we have:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 3−1
= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 5[− sin(𝑥𝑥)]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 1
= 𝑥𝑥 2 − 5 sin(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
Session 5 – 4.5.0. The Function of a Function (Chain Rule of Differentiation)
4.5.1. Application of the Chain Rule.
The chain rule says that if 𝑦𝑦 is a function of 𝑢𝑢, and 𝑢𝑢 is a function of 𝑥𝑥, then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The ‘chain rule’ is also called a ‘a function of a function rule’. Let us apply the chain rule to an
example.

Example 4.5.1.1.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 if 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)3.

Solution 4.5.1.1.

We have been given 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)3 for us to find its derivative or for the differentiation process.
At this present moment, we cannot use any of the derivative formulae in the Formulae Table 1 for
the above function.

We begin by employing a method of substitution.

For 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)3 ,

Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2, then it follows that, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢3 .
In this case, we expressed 𝑢𝑢 in terms 𝑥𝑥, and by extension, 𝑦𝑦 is in terms of 𝑢𝑢. Remember the
definition of the ‘chain rule’, 𝑦𝑦 is a function of 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑢𝑢 is a function of 𝑥𝑥.

So far, we have broken down the function,

𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)3
into two pieces that will form a chain, i.e.,
 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2
and
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢3

We can differentiate the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢3 with respect to 𝑢𝑢 to obtain,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3𝑢𝑢2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We can differentiate the function 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 with respect to 𝑥𝑥 to obtain,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We are looking for 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , not 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
How can we obtain 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ?

We apply the chain rule which says,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= . = (3𝑢𝑢2 ) . � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We already have 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑥𝑥.

We put it in,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= . = (3𝑢𝑢2 ) . � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

To get,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= . = (3𝑢𝑢2 ) . (2𝑥𝑥) = 6𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Is this the final answer?
No, because
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
involves the variable 𝑢𝑢, which was not part of the original function. Earlier on in the problem,
we used the variable 𝑢𝑢 as a substitute for 𝑢𝑢 = (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2). We need to replace 𝑢𝑢 by the original
expression in the �inal answer.

Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢2 = 6𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
That is how to apply the chain rule.

Example 4.5.1.2.
3
�𝑥𝑥 2 +2�2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = , find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
3

Solution 4.5.1.2.
3
�𝑥𝑥 2 +2�2
We have been given, 𝑦𝑦 = 3

The formulae in the Formulae Table 1 cannot be of help in this example. We employ the use of
substitution again.

3
𝑢𝑢2
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2, which means 𝑦𝑦 = .
3

If we differentiate the two functions, we obtain,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and we obtain,
3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 𝑢𝑢2−1 1 1
= = 𝑢𝑢2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 3 2
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We need to find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 not 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . We do so by applying the chain rule, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1

= . = � 𝑢𝑢2 � (2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

Remember, 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
= . = � (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)2 � (2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1

= . = 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 4.5.1.3.
2 −2𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

Solution 4.5.1.3.
Again, [6.5] in the Formulae Table 1, we have the derivative of 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 , but we do not have the
2
derivative for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 −2𝑥𝑥 . Therefore, we use the substitution approach.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥, and we have 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 , [Formulae Table 1, 6.5]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
How do we obtain 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ?
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We apply the chain rule, so we need 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

From 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑥𝑥 − 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Applying the chain rule,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
gives us,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 . (2𝑥𝑥 − 2) = (2𝑥𝑥 − 2)𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 −2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 4.5.1.4.
If 𝑦𝑦 = sin(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘), where 𝑘𝑘 is a constant, show that,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Solution 4.5.1.4.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, then 𝑦𝑦 = sin(𝑢𝑢) and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = cos(𝑢𝑢)

It is worth remembering that the derivative of 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (and the derivative of cosine is -sine)
We have 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= . = 𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑢𝑢) = 𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[by replacing 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘]

By applying the chain rule, we have been able to show that,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑘𝑘 cos(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, where 𝑘𝑘 is a constant.
Rather than applying the chain rule each time you can use the Formulae Tables to differentiate
functions of the type shown in the table. For example, if we have a function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 10 , it is similar
to 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 and we have the formula,
𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
(𝑒𝑒 ) = 𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If we put 𝑘𝑘 = 10, we will get,
𝑑𝑑 10𝑥𝑥
(𝑒𝑒 ) = 10𝑒𝑒 10𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Similarly, if we have,
𝑑𝑑
[sin(5𝑥𝑥)] = 5 cos (5𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And
𝑑𝑑
[cos(3𝑥𝑥)] = −3 sin (3𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

It will be helpful if we invest time in learning the formulae from the table because these functions
crop up in so many examples.

Summary:
It is easier to use the tables of formulae to find the derivatives rather than to use the formula for
first principles. The chain rule says that if 𝑦𝑦 is a function 𝑢𝑢, and 𝑢𝑢 is a function of 𝑥𝑥, then,
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

4.5.2. The Chain Rule Revisited.

We will now apply the chain rule to differentiate some complicate functions.

4.5.3. Applications of the Chain Rule.

Applying the chain rule to differentiate functions such as
2
sin (𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥), 𝑒𝑒 cos(𝑥𝑥)+𝑥𝑥 , ln [tan(𝑥𝑥) + sec(𝑥𝑥)] can be laborious.

Using the chain rule on the following sine functions, we obtain:

𝑑𝑑
[sin(𝑥𝑥 2 )] = 2𝑥𝑥 cos (𝑥𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
[sin(𝑥𝑥 5 )] = 5𝑥𝑥 4 cos(𝑥𝑥 5 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
[sin(𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)] = (3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2) cos (𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

What do we observe in the above examples?

𝑑𝑑
[sin(𝑢𝑢)] = (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑢𝑢) × cos (𝑢𝑢)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[sin(𝑢𝑢)] = cos (𝑢𝑢)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑢𝑢 is a function of 𝑥𝑥, and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is a derivative. Note the similarity with the derivative given in
the Formulae Table 1:
𝑑𝑑
[sin (𝑥𝑥)] = cos(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[sin(𝑢𝑢)] = cos(𝑢𝑢)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We find this similarity with each derivative of Formulae Table 1, for example:

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
[cos(𝑢𝑢)] = − sin(𝑢𝑢) [cos(𝑥𝑥)] = − sin(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 ) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 (𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑢𝑢 is a function of 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the derivative of 𝑢𝑢.

Thus, we can use Formulae Table 1 in a slightly modified form to differentiate complicated
functions. The modifications are:
1. replace the 𝑥𝑥 in Formulae Table 1 with 𝑢𝑢 where 𝑢𝑢 is a function of 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2. multiply your result of 1 by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

By implementing these two steps and adding more functions, we obtain the results shown in
Formulae Table 3.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

So, in the last column we have the chain rule, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . The first part gives 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and then we multiply
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
this by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

For example, 6.14 says:

 𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[𝑢𝑢 ] = 𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛−1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 𝑛𝑛
[𝑢𝑢 ] = 𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛−1 × (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑢𝑢)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑢𝑢 is a function of 𝑥𝑥.

Example 4.5.3.1.
Find the derivatives with respect to 𝑥𝑥 of,
(a) (𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)5
(b) tan (𝑥𝑥 7 − 5𝑥𝑥)
(c) sinh (𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥)

Solution 4.5.3.1.
(a) (𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)5
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We use 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛−1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 with 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑
[(𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)5 ] = 5(𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)4 × (3𝑥𝑥 + 2) = 5(𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)4 (3𝑥𝑥 + 2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 (b) tan (𝑥𝑥 7 − 5𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Similarly, we use 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [tan(𝑢𝑢)] = sec 2 (𝑢𝑢) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , with 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 7 − 5𝑥𝑥

We get,
𝑑𝑑
[tan(𝑥𝑥 7 − 5𝑥𝑥)] = sec 2 (𝑥𝑥 7 − 5𝑥𝑥) × (7𝑥𝑥 6 − 5) = (7𝑥𝑥 6 − 5) sec 2(𝑥𝑥 7 − 5𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(c) sinh (𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥)

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We use 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [sinh(𝑢𝑢)] = cosh(𝑢𝑢) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 with 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑
[sinh(𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥)] = cosh(𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥) × (2𝑥𝑥 + 3) = (2𝑥𝑥 + 3) cosh (𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 4.5.3.2.
𝑑𝑑
Determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [sin(𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)].

Solution 4.5.3.2.
𝑑𝑑
To determine, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [sin(𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)], we use,

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[sin(𝑢𝑢) = cos(𝑢𝑢) .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Where 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥, then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑
[sin(𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)] = cos(𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥) . (3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2) = (3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2) cos (𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 4.5.3.3.
𝑑𝑑 2 +cos(𝑥𝑥)
Obtain 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ].

Solution 4.5.3.3.
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We use 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 ) = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , with 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + cos (𝑥𝑥), where, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2𝑥𝑥 − sin (𝑥𝑥)
 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2 +cos(𝑥𝑥) 2
�𝑒𝑒 � = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 +cos(𝑥𝑥) × [2𝑥𝑥 − sin(𝑥𝑥)]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2 +cos(𝑥𝑥) 2
�𝑒𝑒 � = [2𝑥𝑥 − sin(𝑥𝑥)]𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 +cos(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 4.5.3.4.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 given that 𝑦𝑦 = ln[cos(𝑥𝑥)].

Solution 4.5.3.4.
𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We apply (6.18) in Formula Table 3, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [ln(𝑢𝑢)] = 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , with 𝑢𝑢 = cos (𝑥𝑥), and so 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − sin(𝑥𝑥)

Therefore,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= × = × [− sin(𝑥𝑥)]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos(𝑥𝑥)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sin(𝑥𝑥)
=− = − tan(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos(𝑥𝑥)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= − tan(𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 4.5.3.5.
𝑡𝑡
−
The voltage, 𝑣𝑣 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 2×10−6 , across a capacitor of capacitance 𝐶𝐶 = 0.2 × 10−6F, has a current
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖, given by: 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐶𝐶 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . Find 𝑖𝑖.

Solution 4.5.3.5.
We begin by substituting the given values to yield:
𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑 −
𝑖𝑖 = (0.2 × 10−6 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − 𝑒𝑒 2×10−6 � Equation 4.5.3.5*
Let us call the expression for 𝑖𝑖 above Equation 4.5.3.5*.

When we differentiate the 1 inside the square bracket, it gives 0, so we are left with differentiating
the exponential function.

We use (6.16) in Formulae Table 3, as follows:

𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[𝑒𝑒 ] = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
with,
𝑡𝑡
𝑢𝑢 = −
2 × 10−6
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 × 10−6
𝑑𝑑
[Using 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) = 𝑘𝑘]

We have,
𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 1 𝑡𝑡
− −6 ) − −6 )
�1 − 𝑒𝑒 (2×10 � = 0 − �− −6
� 𝑒𝑒 (2×10
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 × 10

𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑 − 1 −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
�1 − 𝑒𝑒 �2×10−6 �
� = 2×10−6 𝑒𝑒 �2×10−6 �
Equation 4.5.3.5**

𝑑𝑑
Let us call the expression for the derivative 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 above Equation 4.5.3.5**.

We will substitute Equation 4.5.3.5 ** into Equation 4.5.3.5* to give us,

1 𝑡𝑡
−
𝑖𝑖 = (0.2 × 10−6 ) 𝑒𝑒 (2×10−6 )
2 × 10−6

𝑡𝑡
−
𝑖𝑖 = 0.1𝑒𝑒 (2×10−6 )
Session 6 – 4.6.0. More on Function of a Function (More on Chain Rule)
4.6.1. Differentiation Using Substitutions (Further Applications of the Chain Rule)
It is often easier to make substitution before differentiating a function.

We have learned earlier that if 𝑦𝑦 is a function of 𝑥𝑥, then,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
This expression is known as the ‘function of function’ rule (or popularly known as the chain rule).

For example, if 𝑦𝑦 = (3𝑥𝑥 − 1)9 then, by making the substitution 𝑢𝑢 = (3𝑥𝑥 − 1), then it implies that
the expression becomes 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢9 which is of the standard form.

Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 9𝑢𝑢8
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Then, applying the chain rule, we get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= × = (9𝑢𝑢8 )(3) = 27𝑢𝑢8
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Remembering that 𝑢𝑢 = (3𝑥𝑥 − 1), and rewriting 𝑢𝑢 = (3𝑥𝑥 − 1) gives us,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 27(3𝑥𝑥 − 1)8
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Since 𝑦𝑦 is a function of 𝑢𝑢, and 𝑢𝑢 is a function of 𝑥𝑥, then 𝑦𝑦 is a function of a function of 𝑥𝑥.
4.6.2. Application of the Function of a Function Rule (the Change Rule)
Example 4.6.2.1.
Differentiate: 𝑦𝑦 = 3 cos(5𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)

Solution 4.6.2.1.
We begin by making the substitutions as follows:
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 5𝑥𝑥 2 + 2, then it follows that 𝑦𝑦 = 3 cos 𝑢𝑢.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
From, 𝑢𝑢 = 5𝑥𝑥 2 + 2, we have 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Also, from 𝑦𝑦 = 3 cos 𝑢𝑢 , we have 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −3 sin 𝑢𝑢

Using the function of a function rule (the chain rule),

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (−3 sin 𝑢𝑢) × (10𝑥𝑥) = −30𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Rewriting 𝑢𝑢 as 5𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 gives us:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −30𝑥𝑥 sin(5𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 4.6.2.2.
Find the derivative of: 𝑦𝑦 = (4𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡)6 .

Solution 4.6.2.2.
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 4𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡, then 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢6

Hence,
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 12𝑡𝑡 2 − 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑢𝑢5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Using the function of a function rule,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= × = (6𝑢𝑢5 )(12𝑡𝑡 2 − 3)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Rewriting the 𝑢𝑢 as (4𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡) gives us:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6(4𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡)5 (12𝑡𝑡 2 − 3)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6(4𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡)5 3(4𝑡𝑡 2 − 1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 18(4𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡)5 (4𝑡𝑡 2 − 1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Or
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 18(4𝑡𝑡 2 − 1)(4𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡)5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 4.6.2.3.

Determine the differential coefficient of 𝑦𝑦 = √3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 1

Solution 4.6.2.3.

We can rewrite 𝑦𝑦 = √3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 1 as follows:

1
𝑦𝑦 = �3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 1 = (3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 1)2
 1 1
Let 𝑢𝑢 = (3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 1)2 , then 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢2

Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑥𝑥 + 4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 −1 1
= 𝑢𝑢 2 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2√𝑢𝑢

Using the function of a function rule, we get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= × =� � (6𝑥𝑥 + 4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2√𝑢𝑢

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=� � (6𝑥𝑥 + 4)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2√𝑢𝑢

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3𝑥𝑥 + 2
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √𝑢𝑢
Remembering that 𝑢𝑢 = √3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 1

We have,
3𝑥𝑥 + 2
√3𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 1
Example 4.6.2.4.
Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = 3 tan4 3𝑥𝑥

Solution 4.6.2.4.
Let 𝑢𝑢 = tan 3𝑥𝑥, then 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑢𝑢4

Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3 sec 2 3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Also,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 12𝑢𝑢3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The function of a function rule says,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= × = (12𝑢𝑢3 )(3 sec 2 3𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 12(tan 3𝑥𝑥)3 (3 sec 2 3𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 36 tan3 3𝑥𝑥 sec 2 3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 4.6.2.5.
2
Find the differential coefficient of: 𝑦𝑦 = (2𝑡𝑡 3−5)4.

Solution 4.6.2.5.
2
We begin by rewriting 𝑦𝑦 = (2𝑡𝑡 3 −5)4 as 𝑦𝑦 = 2(2𝑡𝑡 3 − 5)−4
Let 𝑢𝑢 = (2𝑡𝑡 3 − 5), then 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑢𝑢−4
Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑡𝑡 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 8
= −8𝑢𝑢−5 = − 5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢

The function of a function (chain) rule says,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 8
= × = �− 5 � (6𝑡𝑡 2 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −48𝑡𝑡 2
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2𝑡𝑡 3 − 5)5
Exercises for Practice
Exx1
Find the differential coefficients with respect to the variable.
(i) 𝑦𝑦 = (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)6
(ii) 𝑦𝑦 = 2 sin (3𝜃𝜃 − 2)
(iii) 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡+1
(iv) 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑒𝑒 tan 𝜃𝜃

Exx2
𝜋𝜋
(i) Differentiate: 𝜃𝜃 sin �𝜃𝜃 − 3 � with respect to 𝜃𝜃, and evaluate, correct to 3 significant
𝜋𝜋
figures, when 𝜃𝜃 = 2
(ii) The extension, 𝑥𝑥 metres, of an undamped vibrating spring after 𝑡𝑡 seconds is given by:
𝑥𝑥 = 0.54 cos(0.3𝑡𝑡 − 0.15) + 3.2.
Calculate the speed of the spring given by
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
, when
(a) 𝑡𝑡 = 0
(b) 𝑡𝑡 = 2s.
Exx3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in each of the following expressions.

(a) 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2)3

(b) 𝑦𝑦 = sin(𝑥𝑥 2 )
(c) 𝑦𝑦 = cos (𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥)
(d) 𝑦𝑦 = ln (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥)
(e) 𝑦𝑦 = sinh (3𝑥𝑥 5 + 𝑥𝑥 3 )

Exx4
Differentiate the following with respect to 𝑥𝑥 and simplify your answer:
(a) ln[𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑥𝑥)]
(b) ln[𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ(𝑥𝑥)]
(c) tan[𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝑥𝑥)]
(d) 𝑦𝑦 = ln (𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥)
(e) 𝑦𝑦 = sinh (3𝑥𝑥 5 + 𝑥𝑥 3 )
Summary.
Rather than applying the chain rule to differentiate complicated functions, it is much easier to use
the Formulae Table 3.

This the End of Unit 4

Unit 5 - Methods of Differentiation.
Session 1. Differentiation of Sine and Cosine Functions
Session 2. Differentiation of Functions of the form 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 and ln 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Session 3. Worked Problems of Introductory Differentiation
Session 4 - Differentiation of a Product (The Product Rule)
Session 5 - Differentiation of a Quotient (The Quotient Rule)
Session 6 – Successive Differentiation (Second Derivatives)
At the end of this Unit, learners should be able to:
i. Differentiate common functions.
ii. Differentiate a product using the product rule.
iii. Differentiate a quotient using the quotient rule.
iv. Differentiate a function of a Function.
v. Differentiate successively (second order differentiation).
Session 1 – 5.1.0. Differentiation of Sine and Cosine Functions
5.1.1. The Sine Function and Its Curve
The image labelled as Figure 42.5(a) shows a graph of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃. The gradient is continually
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
changing as the curve moves from 0 to 𝐴𝐴 to 𝐵𝐵 to 𝐶𝐶 to 𝐷𝐷. The gradient, given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, may be plotted
in a corresponding position below 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃, as shown in Figure 42.5(b).

(i) At 0, the gradient is positive and is at its steepest. Hence 0′ is a maximum positive
value.
(ii) Between 0 and 𝐴𝐴 the gradient is positive but is decreasing in value until at 𝐴𝐴 the
gradient is zero, shown as 𝐴𝐴′.
(iii) Between 𝐴𝐴 and 𝐵𝐵 the gradient is negative but is increasing in value until at 𝐵𝐵 the
gradient is at its steepest negative value. Hence 𝐵𝐵 ′ is a maximum negative value.
(iv) If the gradient of 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃 is further investigated between 𝐵𝐵 and 𝐶𝐶 and 𝐶𝐶 and 𝐷𝐷 then
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
the resulting graph of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑is seen to be a cosine wave. Hence the rate of change of sin 𝜃𝜃
is cos 𝜃𝜃, i.e.,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃 then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = cos 𝜃𝜃

By a similar construction to that shown in Figure 42.5, it may also be shown that:
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If y = sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (where 𝑎𝑎 is a constant)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If a similar exercise is followed for 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝜃𝜃 then the graphs of Figure 42.6 results, showing 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
to be a graph of sin 𝜃𝜃, but displaced by 𝜋𝜋 radians.

If each point on the curve 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃 (as shown in Figure 42.5(a)) were to be made negative, (i.e.
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
+ 2 is made − 2 , − 3 is made + 3 , and so on) then the graph shown in Figure 42.6(b) would result.

This latter graph therefore represents the curve of − sin 𝜃𝜃.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Thus, if 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝜃𝜃, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − sin 𝜃𝜃
It may also be shown that:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
if 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (where 𝑎𝑎 is a constant) and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
if 𝑦𝑦 = cos(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝛼𝛼), 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑎𝑎 sin (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝛼𝛼), (where 𝑎𝑎 and 𝛼𝛼 are constants)

5.1.2. Standard Derivatives

If graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝜃𝜃, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥 are plotted and their gradients investigated, their
differential coefficients may be determined in a similar manner to that shown for 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃. The
rate of change of a function is a measure of the derivative.

The summary of standard derivatives as shown below may be proved theoretically and are true for
all real values of 𝑥𝑥.

The differential coefficient of a sum or a difference is the sum or difference of the differential
coefficients of the separate terms.
Thus, if 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) − 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥), (where 𝑓𝑓, 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, and 𝑟𝑟 are functions), then,
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 𝑝𝑝′ (𝑥𝑥) + 𝑞𝑞 ′ (𝑥𝑥) − 𝑟𝑟′(𝑥𝑥)
Example 5.1.2.1.
Differentiate the following with respect to the variable:
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 2 sin 5𝜃𝜃 (b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 3 cos 2𝑡𝑡

Solution 5.1.2.1.
(a) Given that, y= 2 sin 5𝜃𝜃, this is similar to 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 or 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 where 𝑎𝑎 = 5, and
𝜃𝜃 = 𝑥𝑥, 𝑐𝑐 = 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∴ = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Substituting the various constants by their given values in the given equation, we get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (2)(5) sin 5𝜃𝜃 = 10 cos 5𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(b) Given that, 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 3 cos 2𝑡𝑡, this is also similar to 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 or 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 where
𝑎𝑎 = 2, and 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥, 𝑏𝑏 = 3.

𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = (3)(−2) sin 2𝑡𝑡 = −6 sin 2𝑡𝑡

Example 5.1.2.2.
Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦𝑦 = 7 sin 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 cos 4𝑥𝑥

Solution 5.1.2.2.
Given 𝑦𝑦 = 7 sin 2𝑥𝑥 − 3 cos 4𝑥𝑥 we apply the standard method as follows:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (7)(2) cos 2𝑥𝑥 − (3)(−4) sin 4𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 14 cos 2𝑥𝑥 + 12 sin 4𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Example 5.1.2.3.
Differentiate the following with respect to the variable:
(a) 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) = 5 sin(100𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 0.4) (b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 2 cos(5𝑡𝑡 + 0.20)

Solution 5.1.2.3.
(a) We are asked to differentiate with respect to the variable. There are two variables in the
equation 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) = 5 sin(100𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 0.40), 𝜃𝜃 and 𝜋𝜋. Which of them do we use? Note that the
function is defined in terms of the variable 𝜃𝜃 i.e., 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃), and not in terms of 𝜋𝜋. In this case 𝜋𝜋
is a constant. Therefore, we differentiate with respect to 𝜃𝜃.

𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) = 5 sin(100𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 0.40)

𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝜃𝜃) = 5[100𝜋𝜋 cos(100𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 0.40)]

𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝜃𝜃) = 500𝜋𝜋 cos (100𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 0.40)

(b) The given function is 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 2 cos(5𝑡𝑡 + 0.20). In this example, the variable is obvious, 𝑡𝑡.
Therefore, we differentiate with respect to 𝑡𝑡.
If (𝑡𝑡) = 2 cos(5𝑡𝑡 + 0.20), then,

𝑓𝑓′(𝑡𝑡) = 2[−5 sin(5𝑡𝑡 + 0.20)]

𝑓𝑓 ′(𝑡𝑡) = −10 sin(5𝑡𝑡 + 0.20)

Example 5.1.2.4.
An alternating volt is given by: 𝑣𝑣 = 100 sin 200𝑡𝑡 volts, where 𝑡𝑡 is the time in seconds. Calculate
the rate of change of voltage when:
(a) 𝑡𝑡 = 0.005s and, (b) 𝑡𝑡 = 0.01s

Solution 5.1.2.4.
The given function is 𝑣𝑣 = 100 sin 200𝑡𝑡.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The rate of change of 𝑣𝑣 is also given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .
Therefore,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (100)(200) cos 200𝑡𝑡 = 20000 cos 200𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(a) When 𝑡𝑡 = 0.005s,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (100)(200) cos(200)(0.005) = 20000 cos 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The value of cos 1 is in radians, (make sure the calculator is set to radians, not degrees)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (100)(200) cos(200)(0.005) = 20000 × 0.54030
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (100)(200) cos(200)(0.005) = 10,806.046117 ≈ 10806
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Hence the rate of change in voltage at 𝑡𝑡 = 0.005 is 10806 volts per second.

(b) When 𝑡𝑡 = 0.01s,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (100)(200) cos(200)(0.01) = 20000 × cos 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Note: cos 2 is also in radians.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (100)(200) cos(200)(0.01) = 20000 × (−0.41614683)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (100)(200) cos(200)(0.01) = −8322.9367309 ≈ −8323
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Hence the rate of change in voltage at 𝑡𝑡 = 0.01 is −8323 volts per second.
Session 2 - 5.2.0. Differentiation of Functions of the form 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 and ln 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
5.2.1. Differentiation of Exponential Functions
A graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is shown in the image labelled as Figure 42.7(a). The gradient of the curve at
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
any point is given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and is continually changing. By drawing tangents to the curve at many
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦
points on the curve and measuring the gradient of the tangents, values of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 for corresponding
values of 𝑥𝑥 may be obtained. These values are shown graphically Figure 42.7(b).

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The graph of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 against 𝑥𝑥 is identical to the original graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 . It follows that: if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ,
then
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

It may also be shown that, if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 , then

 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Therefore, if 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 , then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (2)(6)𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 = 12 𝑒𝑒 6𝑥𝑥 .

5.2.2. A graph of 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥 is shown in Figure 42.8(a). The gradient of the curve at any point is
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and is continually changing. By drawing tangents to the curve at many points on the
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
curve and measuring the gradient of the tangents, values of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 for corresponding values of 𝑥𝑥 may
be obtained. These values are shown graphically in Figure 42.8(b).

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
The graph of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 against 𝑥𝑥 is the graph of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥.

It follows that: if 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥, then,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
It may also be shown that: if 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

Special Note:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
It is important to note that in the later expression ′𝑎𝑎′ does not appear in the 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 term)

Thus if 𝑦𝑦 = ln 4𝑥𝑥, then

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
Example 5.2.2.1.
Differentiate the following with respect to (w.r.t.) the variable:
4
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 (b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 3𝑒𝑒 5𝑡𝑡

Solution 5.2.2.1.
(a) If 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 , then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (3)(2)𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 = 6𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4
(b) If 3𝑒𝑒 5𝑡𝑡 , then,
4 4
5𝑡𝑡
= 𝑒𝑒 −5𝑡𝑡
3𝑒𝑒 3
Then,
4 20 −5𝑡𝑡 20
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = � � (−5)𝑒𝑒 5𝑡𝑡 = − 𝑒𝑒 = − 5𝑡𝑡
3 3 3𝑒𝑒
Example 5.2.2.2.
Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = 5 ln 3𝑥𝑥.

Solution 5.2.2.2.
If 𝑦𝑦 = 5 ln 3𝑥𝑥, then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 5
= (5) � � =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

Exercises for Practice.

Exx1.
Differentiate with respect to 𝑥𝑥:
2
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 (b) 𝑦𝑦 = 7𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 (c) 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑒𝑒 5𝑥𝑥

Exx2.
Given 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) = 5 ln 2𝜃𝜃 − 4 ln 3𝜃𝜃, determine 𝑓𝑓′(𝜃𝜃).

Exx3.
5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑒𝑒 4𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑒𝑒 3𝑥𝑥 + 8 ln 5𝑥𝑥, evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when 𝑥𝑥 = 1, correct to 3 significant figures.
Session 3 – 5.3.0. Worked Problems of Introductory Differentiation
5.3.1. Worked Examples of Introductory Differentiation
In this session we will solve some examples of the topics we have considered from Unit 4. We will
recommend and encourage the learner to make personal effort to follow the solutions of the
examples. Then the learner will attempt to solve them on their own until they have mastered how
to solve the problems.

Example 5.3.1.1.
Find the differential coefficients of,
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 12𝑥𝑥 3
12
(b) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3

Solution 5.3.1.1.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1

(a) In the given equation, 𝑦𝑦 = 12𝑥𝑥 3 , 𝑎𝑎 = 12, and 𝑛𝑛 = 3, thus,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (12)(3)𝑥𝑥 3−1 = 36𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
12
(b) The given equation, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 , can be rewritten in standard 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 form as 𝑦𝑦 = 12𝑥𝑥 −3 and in
the general rule for differentiation, 𝑎𝑎 = 12, and 𝑛𝑛 = −3, thus,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 36
= (12)(−3)𝑥𝑥 −3−1 = −36𝑥𝑥 −4 = − 4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
Example 5.3.1.2.
Differentiate
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 6 (b) 𝑦𝑦 = 6𝑥𝑥

Solution 5.3.1.2.
(a) We can rewrite 𝑦𝑦 = 6 as 𝑦𝑦 = 6𝑥𝑥 0 , i.e., in the standard form and apply the general rule for
𝑎𝑎 = 6 and 𝑛𝑛 = 0.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (6)(0)𝑥𝑥 0−1 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Special Note:
In general, the differential coefficient of a constant is always zero.

(b) The given function is 𝑦𝑦 = 6𝑥𝑥. Using the general rule, 𝑎𝑎 = 6 and 𝑛𝑛 = 1.
Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (6)(1)𝑥𝑥1−1 = 6𝑥𝑥 0 = 6
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Special Note:
In general, the differential coefficient of 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, where 𝑘𝑘 is a constant, is always 𝑘𝑘.

Example 5.3.1.3.
Find the derivatives of

(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 3√𝑥𝑥
5
(b) 𝑦𝑦 = 3
√𝑥𝑥4

Solution 5.3.1.3.
1
1
(a) We rewrite 𝑦𝑦 = 3√𝑥𝑥 in standard differential form as 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 , where 𝑎𝑎 = 3 and 𝑛𝑛 = 2.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
= (3) � � 𝑥𝑥 2−1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 −1 3
= 𝑥𝑥 2 = 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
2𝑥𝑥 −2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2√𝑥𝑥

4
5 5 4
(c) Also, 𝑦𝑦 = 3 = 4 = 5𝑥𝑥 −3 in the standard differential form, where 𝑎𝑎 = 5, 𝑛𝑛 = − 3.
√𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥 3

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 4 20 7
= (5) �− � 𝑥𝑥 −3−1 = − 𝑥𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 3

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 20 7 −20 −20

= − 𝑥𝑥 −3 = 7 = 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 7
3𝑥𝑥 3 3 √𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −20 −20

= 7 = 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 7
3𝑥𝑥 3 3 √𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 20
=− 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3√𝑥𝑥 7

Example 5.3.1.4.
Differentiate, with respect to 𝑥𝑥,
1 1
𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑥 4 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 2
+ −3
2𝑥𝑥 √𝑥𝑥

Solution 5.3.1.4.
1
1 1 1
We proceed by rewriting 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑥 4 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 + − 3 as 𝑦𝑦 = 5𝑥𝑥 4 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 −2 + 𝑥𝑥 −2 − 3
√𝑥𝑥

Special Note:
When differentiating a sum, each term is differentiated in turn and summed up
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1 1
= (5)(4)𝑥𝑥 4−1 + (4)(1)𝑥𝑥1−1 + �− � (−2)𝑥𝑥 −2−1 + (1) �− � 𝑥𝑥 −2−1 − 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 3
= 20𝑥𝑥 3 + 4 + 𝑥𝑥 −3 − 𝑥𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
= 20𝑥𝑥 3 + 4 + 3 − 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
2𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
= 20𝑥𝑥 3 + 4 + 3 −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2√𝑥𝑥 3

Example 5.3.1.5.
Find the differential coefficients with respect to the variable of:
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 3 sin 4𝑥𝑥
(b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 2 cos 3𝑡𝑡

Solution 5.3.1.5.
(a) When 𝑦𝑦 = 3 sin 4𝑥𝑥, then, the differential coefficient is,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (3)(4) cos 4𝑥𝑥 = 12 cos 4𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(b) When 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 2 cos 3𝑡𝑡 , then, the differential coefficient is,

𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = (2)(−3) sin 3𝑡𝑡 = −6 sin 3𝑡𝑡

Example 5.3.1.6.
Determine the derivatives of
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑒𝑒 5𝑥𝑥
2
(b) 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) = 𝑒𝑒 3𝜃𝜃
(c) 𝑦𝑦 = 6 ln 2𝑥𝑥

Solution 5.3.1.6.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(a) If 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑒𝑒 5𝑥𝑥 , then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (3)(5)𝑒𝑒 5𝑥𝑥 = 15𝑒𝑒 5𝑥𝑥

2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6
(b) If 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) = 𝑒𝑒 3𝜃𝜃 = 2 𝑒𝑒 −3𝜃𝜃 , then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (2)(−3)𝑒𝑒 −3𝜃𝜃 = −6 𝑒𝑒 −3𝜃𝜃 = − 𝑒𝑒 3𝜃𝜃

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 6
(c) If 𝑦𝑦 = 6 ln 2𝑥𝑥, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 6 �𝑥𝑥� = 𝑥𝑥

Example 5.3.1.7.
Find the gradient of the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 4 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 2 at the points (0, −2) and (1,4).

Solution 5.3.1.7.
The gradient of a curve at a given point is given by the corresponding value of the derivative. The
given function is 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 4 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 − 2, thus the gradient of the curve is
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 12𝑥𝑥 3 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

At the point (0, −2), 𝑥𝑥 = 0, therefore, the gradient is = 12(0)3 − 4(0) + 5 = 5

At the point (1,4), 𝑥𝑥 = 1, therefore, the gradient is = 12(1)3 − 4(1) + 5 = 12 − 4 + 5 = 13

Example 5.3.1.8.
Determine the co-ordinates of the point on the graph 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 2 where the gradient is −1.

Solution 5.3.1.8.
The gradient of the curve is given by the derivative.

If 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 2 , then

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑥𝑥 − 7
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
At the point where the gradient is −1, it means 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −1.

It implies that,
6𝑥𝑥 − 7 = −1
Adding 7 to both sides, we get
6𝑥𝑥 − 7 + 7 = −1 + 7

6𝑥𝑥 = 6
Dividing both sides by 6, we get,

6𝑥𝑥 6
=
6 6

𝑥𝑥 = 1
We substitute 𝑥𝑥 = 1 in the original equation to find the corresponding value of 𝑦𝑦 to get,
𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 2

𝑦𝑦 = 3(1)2 − 7(1) + 2
 𝑦𝑦 = 3 − 7 + 2

𝑦𝑦 = −2

Hence the co-ordinate or the point where the gradient is −1 is (1, −2).
Session 4 – 5.4.0. Differentiation of a Product (The Product Rule)
5.4.1. When 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, and 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣 are both functions of 𝑥𝑥, then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
This is known as the product rule of differentiation.
We apply the product rule in the next few examples right away.

Example 5.4.1.1.
Find the differential coefficient of 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥𝑥.

Solution 5.4.1.1.
We have been given 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥𝑥.

It is important to note that, 3𝑥𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥𝑥 is a product of two terms 3𝑥𝑥 2 and sin 2𝑥𝑥, i.e., 3𝑥𝑥 2
multiplied by sin 2𝑥𝑥.

Let 𝑢𝑢 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑣𝑣 = sin 2𝑥𝑥

Then it implies that 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Using the product rule to find the differential coefficient 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , we have,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (3𝑥𝑥 2 ) (2 cos 2𝑥𝑥) + (sin 2𝑥𝑥) (6𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑥𝑥 2 cos 2𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑥 sin 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 cos 2𝑥𝑥 + sin 2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Special Note:
It is important to note that the differential coefficient of a product is not obtained by merely
differentiating each term and multiplying the two answers together. The product rue must be used
when differentiating products.

Example 5.4.1.2.

Find the rate of change of 𝑦𝑦 with respect to 𝑥𝑥 given that 𝑦𝑦 = 3√𝑥𝑥 ln 2𝑥𝑥

Solution 5.4.1.2.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The rate of change of 𝑦𝑦 with respect to 𝑥𝑥 is given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

1
We can rewrite 𝑦𝑦 = 3√𝑥𝑥 ln 2𝑥𝑥 as 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 ln 2𝑥𝑥, which is a product.

1
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑣𝑣 = ln 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1 3 1 3
= (3) � � 𝑥𝑥 −2 = 𝑥𝑥 −2 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2 2√𝑥𝑥
And
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
Using the product rule, we have,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Substituting the various terms in the product rule, we have,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1 1 1
= �3𝑥𝑥 2 � � � + (ln 2𝑥𝑥) �3 � � �𝑥𝑥 2−1 ��
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 3 1
= 3𝑥𝑥 2−1 + (ln 2𝑥𝑥) � � 𝑥𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 3 1
= 3𝑥𝑥 −2 + 𝑥𝑥 −2 (ln 2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
Note that,
1 1 1
𝑥𝑥 −2 = 1 =
𝑥𝑥 2 √𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 3
= + (ln 2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √𝑥𝑥 2√𝑥𝑥

3
Factorise to obtain,
√𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 1
= �1 + ln 2𝑥𝑥�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √𝑥𝑥 2

Example 5.4.1.3.
Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 cos 3𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑥𝑥

Solution 5.4.1.3.
We have a product of three terms.

Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 3 cos 3𝑥𝑥 (which is a product) and 𝑣𝑣 = ln 𝑥𝑥

First, we will use the product rule for 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 3 cos 3𝑥𝑥 .

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

where,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (𝑥𝑥 3 )(−3 sin 3𝑥𝑥) + (cos 3𝑥𝑥) (3𝑥𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= (𝑥𝑥 3 cos 3𝑥𝑥) � � + (ln 𝑥𝑥)[−3𝑥𝑥 3 sin 3𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 cos 3𝑥𝑥 ]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑥𝑥 2 cos 3𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 ln 𝑥𝑥(cos 3𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 sin 3𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑥𝑥 2 {cos 3𝑥𝑥 + 3 ln 𝑥𝑥(cos 3𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 sin 3𝑥𝑥)}
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 5.4.1.4.
Determine the rate of change of voltage, given 𝑣𝑣 = 5𝑡𝑡 sin 2𝑡𝑡 volts when 𝑡𝑡 = 0.2s.

Solution 5.4.1.4.
The given expression, 𝑣𝑣 = 5𝑡𝑡 sin 2𝑡𝑡 is a product which requires the use of the product rule.
Let 𝑚𝑚 = 5𝑡𝑡 and 𝑛𝑛 = sin 2𝑡𝑡
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2 cos 2𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The rate of change of voltage is given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑚𝑚 + 𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (5𝑡𝑡)(2 cos 2𝑡𝑡) + (sin 2𝑡𝑡)(5)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 10𝑡𝑡 cos 2𝑡𝑡 + 5 sin 2𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We want to determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when 𝑡𝑡 = 0.2.

When 𝑡𝑡 = 0.2,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 10(0.2) cos 2(0.2) + 5 sin 2(0.2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2 cos 0.4 + 5 sin 0.4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Note:
The values of cos 0.4 and sin 0.4 in radians, time 𝑡𝑡 is not an angle.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2(0.92106) + 5(0.38942)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 1.84212 + 1.9471
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3.78922 ≈ 3.7892
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
i.e., the rate of change of voltage when 𝑡𝑡 = 0.2s is 3.79 volts/s, correct to 3 significant figures.

Exercises for Practice.

Exx1.
Differentiate the following products with respect to the variable.
(i) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥
(ii) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥
(iii) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 3𝑡𝑡 sin 4𝑡𝑡
(iv) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 4𝜃𝜃 ln 3𝜃𝜃
Exx2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(i) Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , correct to 4 significant figures, when 𝑡𝑡 = 0.1, and 𝑖𝑖 = 15𝑡𝑡 sin 3𝑡𝑡.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(ii) Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , correct to 4 significant figures, when 𝑡𝑡 = 0.5 given that 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑒𝑒 3𝑡𝑡 sin 2𝑡𝑡.
Session 5 – 5.5.0. Differentiation of a Quotient (The Quotient Rule)
5.5.1. The Quotient Rule.
𝑢𝑢
When 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑣𝑣 , and 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣 are both defined as functions of 𝑥𝑥, then,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
This rule is known as the quotient rule of calculus.

Example 5.5.1.1.
Find the differential coefficient of:
4 sin 5𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 =
5𝑥𝑥 4

Solution 5.5.1.1.
4 sin 5𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢
We note that 5𝑥𝑥 4
is quotient (a fraction), of the form 𝑣𝑣 , with 𝑢𝑢 = 4 sin 5𝑥𝑥 and 𝑣𝑣 = 5𝑥𝑥 4 , hence
the quotient rule will apply here.

(Note: It is important to note that 𝑣𝑣 is always the denominator and 𝑢𝑢 is the numerator).

The quotient rule says,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When 𝑢𝑢 = 4 sin 5𝑥𝑥, then, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (4)(5) cos 5𝑥𝑥 = 20 cos 5𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When 𝑣𝑣 = 5𝑥𝑥 4 , then, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 20𝑥𝑥 3

Substituting the values into the quotient rule,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
We get,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (5𝑥𝑥 4 )(20 cos 5𝑥𝑥) − (4 sin 5𝑥𝑥)(20𝑥𝑥 3 )
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (5𝑥𝑥 4 )2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 100𝑥𝑥 4 cos 5𝑥𝑥 − 80𝑥𝑥 3 sin 5𝑥𝑥

=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 25𝑥𝑥 8

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 20𝑥𝑥 3 [5𝑥𝑥 cos 5𝑥𝑥 − 4 sin 5𝑥𝑥]

=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 25𝑥𝑥 8

The 𝑥𝑥 3 will cancel 𝑥𝑥 3 from the denominator to 𝑥𝑥 5 , and 5 will cancel the numerator to 4 and the
denominator to 5. The result will be,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4
= 5 (5𝑥𝑥 cos 5𝑥𝑥 − 4 sin 5𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5𝑥𝑥

It is important to note that the differential coefficient of the quotient is NOT obtained by merely
differentiating each term in turn, and then dividing the numerator by the denominator. The
quotient rule must be followed and used according to the rule when differentiating quotients.

Example 5.5.1.2.
Determine the differential coefficient of 𝑦𝑦 = tan 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 .

Solution 5.5.1.2.
sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
The given function 𝑦𝑦 = tan 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 can rewritten as 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. Thus, the differentiation of tan 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is
treated as a quotient with 𝑢𝑢 = sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 and 𝑣𝑣 = cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When 𝑢𝑢 = sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, and when 𝑣𝑣 = cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Putting the obtained values in the quotient rule,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
we get,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) (𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) − (sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)(−𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎 cos 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑎𝑎 sin2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎 (cos 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + sin2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)

=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Remember that, cos2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + sin2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎 (cos2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + sin2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) 𝑎𝑎

= 2
= 2
= 𝑎𝑎 sec 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

1
Because, cos2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = sec 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Hence
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑎𝑎 sec 2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 5.5.1.3.
Find the derivative of 𝑦𝑦 = sec 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎.
Solution 5.5.1.3.
1
The given function 𝑦𝑦 = sec 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 can be rewritten as cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, which is a quotient (or a fraction) with
𝑢𝑢 = 1 and 𝑣𝑣 = cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When 𝑢𝑢 = 1, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, and when 𝑣𝑣 = cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Applying and substituting the values in the quotient rule,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
We get,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)(0) − (1)(−𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sin 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 1

= 𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑎𝑎 tan 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 sec 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎 sec 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 tan 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 5.5.1.4.
𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡
Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡

Solution 5.5.1.4.
𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡
The function 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 is a quotient, whose numerator is a product, i.e., 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡
Considering the numerator as 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 and the denominator as 𝑣𝑣 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡, then

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (𝑡𝑡)(2𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 ) + (𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 )(1) = 2𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

We apply the quotient rule as follows:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2 cos 𝑡𝑡) [2𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 ] − (𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 )(−2 sin 𝑡𝑡)
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2 cos 𝑡𝑡)2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 2𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 cos 2 𝑡𝑡

The factor 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 is common and can be factored out as follows:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 [2𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 + cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡 ]

=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 cos 2 𝑡𝑡

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡
= (2𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 + cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 cos2 𝑡𝑡

Example 5.5.1.5.
5𝑥𝑥 √3
Determine the gradient of the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 +4 at the point �√3, �.
2

Solution 5.5.1.5.
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 5𝑥𝑥 and let 𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4.
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑢𝑢 = 5𝑥𝑥, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 5.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Also, if 𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4𝑥𝑥

Substituting the above expressions into the quotient rule,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 2
We get,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4)(5) − (5𝑥𝑥)(4𝑥𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4)2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10𝑥𝑥 2 + 20 − 20𝑥𝑥 2 20 − 10𝑥𝑥 2

= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4)2 (2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4)2

√3
At the point �√3, �, 𝑥𝑥 = √3, hence we substitute 𝑥𝑥 = √3 in
2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 20 − 10𝑥𝑥 2
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4)2
to obtain,

2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 20 − 10�√3�
= 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
�2�√3� + 4�

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 20 − 30
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [2(3) + 4]2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 20 − 30 10
= = −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (6 + 4)2 102
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10 1
=− 2=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10 10

Exercises for Practice.

Exx1.
Differentiate the quotients with respect to the appropriate variable.
sin 𝑥𝑥
(i) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
2 cos 3𝑥𝑥
(ii) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3
ln 2𝑡𝑡
(iii) 𝑦𝑦 =
√𝑡𝑡
3√𝜃𝜃3
(iv) 𝑦𝑦 = 2 sin 2𝜃𝜃

Exx2.
2𝑥𝑥
(i) Find the gradient of the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2−5 at the point (2, −4)
Ans: [−18]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 2 +3
(ii) Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 at 𝑥𝑥 = 2.5 correct to 3 significant figures, given that 𝑦𝑦 = ln 2𝑥𝑥
.
Ans: [3.82]
Session 6 – 5.6.0. Successive Differentiation (Second Derivatives)
5.6.1. Second Order Derivatives.
When a function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is differentiated with respect to 𝑥𝑥, the differential coefficient is written
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
as 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 or 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥).

If the expression is differentiated again, the second differential coefficient is obtained and is
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
written as 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 (pronounced dee two 𝑦𝑦 by dee 𝑥𝑥 squared) or 𝑓𝑓′′(𝑥𝑥) (pronounced 𝑓𝑓 double-dash 𝑥𝑥).

𝑑𝑑3 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑4 𝑦𝑦
By successive differentiation further higher derivatives such as 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 3 and 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 4 may be obtained.

Thus if𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 4 ,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 12𝑥𝑥 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
2
= 36𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑3 𝑦𝑦
= 72𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 3
𝑑𝑑4 𝑦𝑦
= 72
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 4
𝑑𝑑 5 𝑦𝑦
=0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 5

5.6.2. Determining Second Derivatives

Example 5.6.2.1.
If 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 5 − 4𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 5, find 𝑓𝑓′′(𝑥𝑥)

Solution 5.6.2.1.
The given function is 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 5 − 4𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 5.
The first derivative is given by 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥) = 10𝑥𝑥 4 − 12𝑥𝑥 2 + 3

The second derivative is given by 𝑓𝑓 ′′ (𝑥𝑥) = 40𝑥𝑥 3 − 24𝑥𝑥 = 4𝑥𝑥(10𝑥𝑥 2 − 6)

Example 5.6.2.2.
𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
If 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 − sin 𝑥𝑥, evaluate 𝑥𝑥, in the range 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2 , when 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 is zero.

Solution 5.6.2.2.
If 𝑦𝑦 = cos 𝑥𝑥 − sin 𝑥𝑥, then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= − sin 𝑥𝑥 − cos 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and,
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
= − cos 𝑥𝑥 + sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
When 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 is zero,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= − cos 𝑥𝑥 + sin 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
sin 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥
OR, when we divide both sides by cos 𝑥𝑥 we have,
sin 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥
= =1
cos 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥
Hence,
tan 𝑥𝑥 = 1
𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎1 = tan−1 1 = 45𝑜𝑜 =
4
 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
The value of 𝑥𝑥 = 4
radians lies in the range 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2

Example 5.6.2.3.
Given that 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 , show that,
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 6 + 9𝑦𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Solution 5.6.2.3.
Note that 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 is product, hence we apply the product rule.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (2𝑥𝑥)(−3𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 )(2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −6𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
We differentiate again to obtain 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 as follows:

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= [(−6𝑥𝑥)(−3𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 )(−6)] + (2)(−3)𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 18𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 − 6𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 − 6𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 18𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 − 12𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Substituting the first and second derivatives we have obtained so far into, 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 + 6 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 9𝑦𝑦, we
obtain,
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
+6 + 9𝑦𝑦 = (18𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 − 12𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 ) + 6(−6𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 ) + 9(2𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 )
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
+6 + 9𝑦𝑦 = 18𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 − 12𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 − 36𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 + 12𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 + 18𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2
+6 + 9𝑦𝑦 = 36𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 − 36𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 − 12𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 + 12𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Thus when 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 −3𝑥𝑥 , 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 + 6 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 9𝑦𝑦 = 0

Example 5.6.2.4.
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 when 𝜃𝜃 = 0 given 𝑦𝑦 = 4 sec 2𝜃𝜃.

Solution 5.6.2.4.
Given that 𝑦𝑦 = 4 sec 2𝜃𝜃,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (4)(2) sec 2𝜃𝜃 tan 2𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 8 sec 2𝜃𝜃 tan 2𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
We differentiate the second time to obtain 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃2 , noting that 8 sec 2𝜃𝜃 tan 2𝜃𝜃 is a product.

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= (8 sec 2𝜃𝜃) (2 sec 2 2𝜃𝜃) + (tan 2𝜃𝜃)[(8)(2) sec 2𝜃𝜃 tan 2𝜃𝜃]
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2
 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 16 sec 3 2𝜃𝜃 + 16 sec 2𝜃𝜃 tan2 2𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2

When 𝜃𝜃 = 0,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 16 sec 3 0 + 16 sec 0 tan2 0
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 16(1) + 16(1)(0)
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 16 + 0 = 16
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2
Exercises for Practice.

Exx1
If 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 2, find,
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(i) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑3 𝑦𝑦
(ii) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 3

Exx2
𝑡𝑡
The charge 𝑞𝑞 on the plate of a capacitor is given by 𝑞𝑞 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑒𝑒 −𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 , where 𝑡𝑡 is the time, 𝐶𝐶 is the
capacitance and 𝑅𝑅 is the resistance. Determine
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(a) The rate of change of charge, which is given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑞𝑞
(b) The rate of change of current, which is given by 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2

Exx3
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Show that the differential equation 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 4𝑦𝑦 = 0 is satisfied when 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥

Exx4
Find the second differential coefficients of the following functions:
(i) 3 sin 2𝑡𝑡 + cos 𝑡𝑡
(ii) 2 ln 4𝜃𝜃

This the End of Unit 5.

Unit 6
Session 1 - Some Applications of Differentiation
Session 2 - Turning Points and Stationary Points (Maxima and Minima) Points
Session 3 – Tangents and Normals
Session 4 – Parametric Differentiation
Session 5 - Differentiation of Implicit Functions
Session 6 - Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
Session 1 – 6.1.0. Some Applications of Differentiation
In the previous units (Units 4 and 5), we explored some basic techniques for differentiation. Those
techniques are sufficient to allow us to look at some useful applications of differential calculus.
Some practical rates of change problems will be explained, followed by some practical velocity
and acceleration problems. We will learn to determine the maximum and minimum points and
points of inflexion on curves, together with some practical maximum and minimum problems will
follow. Tangents and normals to curves and errors and approximations will complete this initial
look at some applications of differentiations. In general, with these applications, the differentiation
tends to be straightforward.

At the end of this unit, we should be able to:

(i) determine rates of change using differentiation.
(ii) solve velocity and acceleration problems.
(iii) understand turning points.
(iv) determine the turning points on a curve and determine their nature.
(v) solve practical problems involving maximum and minimum values.
(vi) determine points of inflexion on a curve.
(vii) determine tangents and normal to a curve.
(viii) determine small changes in functions.
(ix) Differentiation of parametric functions
(x) Differentiation of Implicit functions
(xi) Differentiation of logarithmic functions
6.1.1. Rates of change
If a quantity 𝑦𝑦 depends on and varies with a quantity 𝑥𝑥 then the rate of change of 𝑦𝑦 respect to 𝑥𝑥 is
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
. Thus, for example, the rate of change of pressure 𝑝𝑝 with height ℎ is 𝑑𝑑ℎ.

A rate of change with respect to time is usually just called the ‘the rate of change’, the ‘with
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
respect to time’ being assumed. Thus, for example, a rate of change of current, 𝑖𝑖, is 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and a rate of
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
change temperature, 𝜃𝜃 is 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
, and so on.

Example 6.1.1.1.
The length 𝑙𝑙 metres of a certain metal rod at temperature 𝜃𝜃 𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶 is given by the relation defined as
𝑙𝑙 = 1 + 0.00005𝜃𝜃 + 0.0000004𝜃𝜃 2 .
Determine the rate of change of length, in 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶, when the temperature is
(a) 100𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶 and
(b) 400𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶

Solution 6.1.1.1.
The rate of change we are to determine is the rate at which the length of the metal rod is changes
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
with temperature, 𝜃𝜃, thus we are to find, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

The given relationship between the length 𝑙𝑙 and the temperature 𝜃𝜃 is,
𝑙𝑙 = 1 + 0.00005𝜃𝜃 + 0.0000004𝜃𝜃 2
The rate of change is,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.00005 + (0.000000.4)(2)𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.00005 + 0.0000008𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(a) When 𝜃𝜃 = 100𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶,

 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.00005 + 0.0000008(100)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.00005 + 0.00008
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.00013𝑚𝑚/𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.13𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(b) When 𝜃𝜃 = 400𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.00005 + 0.0000008(400)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.00005 + 0.00032
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.00037𝑚𝑚/𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.37𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚/𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.1.1.2.
The luminous intensity 𝐼𝐼 candelas of a lamp at varying voltage 𝑉𝑉 is given by 𝐼𝐼 = 4 × 10−4 𝑉𝑉 2 .
Determine the voltage at which the light is increasing at a rate of 0.6 candelas per volt.

Solution 6.1.1.2.
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The rate of change of light with respect to voltage is given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

Since 𝐼𝐼 and 𝑉𝑉 are related by, 𝐼𝐼 = 4 × 10−4 𝑉𝑉 2 ,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (4 × 10−4 )(2)𝑉𝑉 = 8 × 10−4 𝑉𝑉
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

When the light is increasing at 0.6 candelas per volt, then +0.6 = 8 × 10−4 𝑉𝑉, from which, the
voltage,
0.6
𝑉𝑉 = = 0.075 × 10+4
8 × 10−4

𝑉𝑉 = 750 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

Example 6.1.1.3.
Newton’s law of cooling is given by 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃0 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 , where the excess of temperature at zero time is
𝜃𝜃0𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶 and at the time 𝑡𝑡 seconds is 𝜃𝜃 𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶. Determine the rate of change of temperature after 40s,
given that 𝜃𝜃0 = 16𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶 and 𝑘𝑘 = −0.03.

Solution 6.1.1.3.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The rate of change we want is 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
.

Since 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑡𝑡 are related by 𝜃𝜃 = 𝜃𝜃0 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 , then,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (𝜃𝜃0 )(−𝑘𝑘)𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = −𝑘𝑘𝜃𝜃0 𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When 𝜃𝜃0 = 16, 𝑘𝑘 = −0.03 and 𝑡𝑡 = 40, then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.48𝑒𝑒 −(−0.03)(40)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (0.48)𝑒𝑒 1.2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (0.48)(3.320117)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1.593656 ≈ 1.594𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶/𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.1.1.4.
The displacement 𝑠𝑠 cm of the end of a stiff spring at time 𝑡𝑡 seconds is given by:
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. Determine the velocity of the end of the spring after 1s, if 𝑎𝑎 = 2, 𝑘𝑘 = 0.9,
and 𝑓𝑓 = 5.

Solution 6.1.1.4.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The velocity 𝑣𝑣 is 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , where 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. (i.e., a product requiring the use of the product
rule).

Using the product rule, we get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = (𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 cos 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) + (sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)(−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = (𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 cos 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) − (sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑒𝑒 −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When we substitute 𝑎𝑎 = 2, 𝑘𝑘 = 0.9, 𝑓𝑓 = 5, and 𝑡𝑡 = 1, into the expression for 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 above, we
get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = (2𝑒𝑒 −(0.9)(1) )(2𝜋𝜋(5) cos 2𝜋𝜋(5)(1) − (sin 2𝜋𝜋(5)(1))(2)(0.9)𝑒𝑒 −0.9 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = (2𝑒𝑒 −0.9 )(10𝜋𝜋 cos 10𝜋𝜋) − (sin 10𝜋𝜋) �(2)(0.9)𝑒𝑒 −(0.9)(1) �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = (2(0.40656966))(10𝜋𝜋 cos 10𝜋𝜋) − (sin 10𝜋𝜋)�(2)(0.9)(0.40656966)�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

When using 𝜋𝜋 = 3.14159

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = (25.5455)(cos 10𝜋𝜋) − (0.7318) (sin 10𝜋𝜋)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Also, cos 10𝜋𝜋 = 1 and sin 10𝜋𝜋 = 0,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = (25.5455)(1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑣𝑣 = 25.5455 ≈ 25.55 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐/𝑠𝑠

(Note that cos 10𝜋𝜋 means ‘the cosine of 10𝜋𝜋 radians’, and not degrees, also the value of
cos 10𝜋𝜋 ≡ cos 2𝜋𝜋 = 1)
Exercises for Practice.
Exx1
An alternating current, 𝑖𝑖 amperes, is given by 𝑖𝑖 = 10 sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, where 𝑓𝑓 is the frequency in hertz,
and 𝑡𝑡 the time in seconds. Determine the rate of change of current when 𝑡𝑡 = 20 ms, given that 𝑓𝑓 =
150 Hz.

Exx2
The luminous intensity, 𝐼𝐼 candelas, of a lamp is given by 𝐼𝐼 = 6 × 10−4 𝑉𝑉 2, where 𝑉𝑉 is the voltage.
Find,
(a) the rate of change of luminous intensity with voltage when 𝑉𝑉 = 200 volts, and
(b) the voltage at which the light is increasing at a rate of 0.3 candelas per volt.

Exx3
𝑡𝑡
The voltage across the plates of a capacitor at any time 𝑡𝑡 seconds is given by 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒 −𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 , where
𝑉𝑉, 𝐶𝐶 and 𝑅𝑅 are constants.
Given 𝑉𝑉 = 300 volts, 𝐶𝐶 = 0.12 × 10−6F and 𝑅𝑅 = 4 × 106 Ω, find,
(a) the initial rate of change of voltage, and
(b) the rate of change of voltage after 0.5s
6.1.2. Velocity and Acceleration.
6.1.2.a. The Velocity/Time Graph
When a car moves a distance 𝑥𝑥 metres in a time 𝑡𝑡 seconds along a straight road, if the velocity 𝑣𝑣 is
𝑥𝑥
constant then 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 i.e., the gradient of the distance/time graph shown in Figure 44.1 is
constant.

If, however, the velocity of the car is not constant the distance/time graph will not be a straight
line as shown in the image of Figure 44.2.

The average velocity over a small time 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 and distance 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 is given by the gradient of the chord
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴, i.e., the average velocity over time 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 is,
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
As 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 → 0, the chord 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 becomes a tangent, such that at point 𝐴𝐴, the velocity is given by:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Hence the velocity of the car at any instant is given the gradient of the distance/time graph. If an
expression for the distance 𝑥𝑥 is known in terms of time, 𝑡𝑡, then the velocity is obtained by
differentiating the expression.
6.1.2.b. The Acceleration /Time Graph
The acceleration, 𝑎𝑎, of the car is defined as the rate of change of velocity. A velocity/time graph is
shown in Figure 44.3.

If 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 is the change in velocity, 𝑣𝑣, and 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿, the corresponding change in time, then,
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝑎𝑎 =
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

As 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 → 0, the chord 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 becomes a tangent, such that at point 𝐶𝐶, the acceleration is given by:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Hence the acceleration of the car at any instant is given by the gradient of the velocity/time graph.
If an expression for velocity is known in terms of time 𝑡𝑡, then the acceleration is obtained by
differentiating the expression.

Acceleration, 𝑎𝑎 is given by,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
However, 𝑣𝑣, is given by,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Hence,
 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥
𝑎𝑎 = � � = 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

The acceleration is given by the second differential coefficient of distance, 𝑥𝑥 with respect to time,
𝑡𝑡.

In summary, if a body moves a distance 𝑥𝑥 metres in a time, 𝑡𝑡 seconds, then:

(i) Distance 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(ii) Velocity 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑓𝑓′(𝑡𝑡) or 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
which is the gradient of the distance/time graph.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥
(iii) Acceleration 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑓𝑓 ′′ (𝑡𝑡) or 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
, which is the gradient of the velocity/time
graph.

Example 6.1.2.1.
The distance 𝑥𝑥 metres moved by a car in a time 𝑡𝑡 seconds is given by 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑡 3 − 2𝑡𝑡 2 + 4𝑡𝑡 − 1.
Determine the velocity and acceleration when:
(a) 𝑡𝑡 = 0 and
(b) 𝑡𝑡 = 1.5s

Solution 6.1.2.1.
We note that the expression is defined as 𝑥𝑥 in terms of 𝑡𝑡. The variable 𝑥𝑥 denotes the distance
moved by the car in time 𝑡𝑡.
Distance 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑡 3 − 2𝑡𝑡 2 + 4𝑡𝑡 − 1 metres (m).

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The velocity, 𝑣𝑣 is given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 as follows:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = 9𝑡𝑡 2 − 4𝑡𝑡 + 4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The acceleration, 𝑎𝑎, is given by 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
as follows:
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 = = 18𝑡𝑡 − 4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(a) When 𝑡𝑡 = 0, the velocity, 𝑣𝑣 is,

𝑣𝑣(0) = 9(0)2 − 4(0) + 4 = 4𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
The acceleration at 𝑡𝑡 = 0,
𝑎𝑎(0) = 18(0) − 4 = −4 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
The negative indicates deceleration (slowing down to a stop)

(b) When the time is 𝑡𝑡 = 1.5 s

The velocity 𝑣𝑣(1.5) = 9(1.5)2 − 4(1.5) + 4

𝑣𝑣(1.5) = (9)(2.25) − (6) + 4

𝑣𝑣(1.5) = 20.25 − 6 + 4

𝑣𝑣(1.5) = 18.25
And the acceleration at 𝑡𝑡 = 1.5,

𝑎𝑎(1.5) = 18(1.5) − 4

𝑎𝑎(1.5) = 27 − 4 = 23 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2

Example 6.1.2.2.
Supplies are dropped from a helicopter and the distance fallen in a time 𝑡𝑡 seconds is given by,
1
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2
2
where 𝑔𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2 . Determine the velocity and acceleration of the supplies after it has fallen for
2 seconds.

Solution 6.1.2.2.
1 1
The distance 𝑥𝑥 = 2 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2 = 2 (9.8)𝑡𝑡 2 = 4.9𝑡𝑡 2 m

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The velocity, 𝑣𝑣, is the first differential coeeficient, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
of the distance 𝑥𝑥.
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = 9.8𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and the acceleration is,
𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥
𝑎𝑎 = 2 = 9.8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

When 𝑡𝑡 = 2, the velocity, 𝑣𝑣 is,

𝑣𝑣 = (9.8)(2) = 19.6 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
And the acceleration, 𝑎𝑎 is.
𝑎𝑎 = 9.8 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 2
Which is the acceleration due to gravity.

Example 6.1.2.3.
The distance 𝑥𝑥 metres travelled by a vehicle in time 𝑡𝑡 seconds after the brakes are applied is given
by:
5
𝑥𝑥 = 20𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡 2
3
Determine:
(a) The speed of the vehicle (in km/h) at the instant the brakes are applied, and
(b) The distance the car travels before it stops.

Solution 6.1.2.3.
5
(a) The distance 𝑥𝑥 = 20𝑡𝑡 − 3 𝑡𝑡 2 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The velocity 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
, hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10
𝑣𝑣 = = 20 − 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3

At the instant the brakes are applied, time 𝑡𝑡 = 0.

Hence, the velocity is,
20 × 60 × 60
𝑣𝑣 = 20 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/ℎ
1000
 𝑣𝑣 = 20 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 = 72 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/ℎ

(Note: changing from 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠 to 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/ℎ merely involves multiplying 3.6)

(b) When the car finally stops, the velocity is zero, i.e.,

10
𝑣𝑣 = 20 − 𝑡𝑡 = 0
3

10
𝑡𝑡 = 20
3

20 × 3
𝑡𝑡 = =6
10

Hence the distance travelled by the car before it stops is given by substituting 𝑡𝑡 = 6 in the
original equation of the distance travelled by the car:

5
𝑥𝑥 = 20𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡 2
3

5
𝑥𝑥(6) = 20(6) − (6)2
3

5
𝑥𝑥(6) = 120 − (36)
3

𝑥𝑥(6) = 120 − 60 = 60 𝑚𝑚

Example 6.1.2.4.
The angular displacement, 𝜃𝜃 radians of a flywheel varies with time 𝑡𝑡 seconds and follows the
equation,
𝜃𝜃 = 9𝑡𝑡 2 − 2𝑡𝑡 3
Determine:
(a) The angular velocity and acceleration of the flywheel when the time, 𝑡𝑡 = 1s and
(b) The time when the angular acceleration is zero.

Solution 6.1.2.4.
 (a) The angular displacement is 𝜃𝜃 = 9𝑡𝑡 2 − 2𝑡𝑡 3 rad.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The angular velocity, 𝜔𝜔 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜔𝜔 = = 18𝑡𝑡 − 6𝑡𝑡 2 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠/𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

When 𝑡𝑡 = 1s,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜔𝜔 = = 18(1) − 6(1)2 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝜔𝜔 = 128 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠

𝑑𝑑2 𝜃𝜃
The angular acceleration 𝛼𝛼 is given by, 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝜃𝜃
𝛼𝛼 = 2 = 18 − 12𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

When time 𝑡𝑡 = 1,
𝛼𝛼 = 18 − 12(1) = 6 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟/𝑠𝑠 2

(b) When the angular acceleration is zero,

18 − 12𝑡𝑡 = 0
12𝑡𝑡 = 18

18 3
𝑡𝑡 = = = 1.5 𝑠𝑠
12 2

Example 6.1.2.5.
The displacement 𝑥𝑥 cm of the slide valve of an engine is given by:
𝑥𝑥 = 2.2 cos 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 3.6 sin 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

Evaluate the velocity (in m/s) when time 𝑡𝑡 = 30 ms.

Solution 6.1.2.5.
The displacement 𝑥𝑥 is given by:

𝑥𝑥 = 2.2 cos 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 3.6 sin 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋

 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The velocity, 𝑣𝑣 is the first differential coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 = 2.2 cos 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 3.6 sin 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = (2.2)(−5𝜋𝜋) sin 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + (3.6)(5𝜋𝜋) cos 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = −11𝜋𝜋 sin 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 18𝜋𝜋 cos 5𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

When 𝑡𝑡 = 30𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 30 × 10−3 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐/𝑠𝑠

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = −11𝜋𝜋 sin(5𝜋𝜋 × 30 × 10−3 ) + 18𝜋𝜋 cos(5𝜋𝜋 × 30 × 10−3 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Using 𝜋𝜋 = 3.14159

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = −11𝜋𝜋 sin(5𝜋𝜋 × 30 × 10−3 ) + 18𝜋𝜋 cos(5𝜋𝜋 × 30 × 10−3 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = −(11)(3.14159) sin�(15.70795) × (0.03)�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ (18)(3.14159) cos( (15.70795)(0.03))

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = −(11)(3.14159)(0.45399) + (18)(3.14159)(0.891007)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = −15.688754 + 50.385216
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 = = 34.696461 ≈ 34.70𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐/𝑠𝑠 = 0.347𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Exercises for Practice
Exx1
𝑡𝑡
The angular displacement, 𝜃𝜃, of a rotating disc is given by 𝜃𝜃 = 6 sin 4, where 𝑡𝑡 is the time in
seconds. Determine,
(a) the angular velocity of the disc when 𝑡𝑡 = 1.5s
(b) the angular acceleration when 𝑡𝑡 = 5.5 s, and
(c) the first time when the angular velocity is zero.

Exx2
A particle has a displacement 𝑠𝑠, given by 𝑠𝑠 = 30𝑡𝑡 + 27𝑡𝑡 2 − 3𝑡𝑡 3 metres, where time 𝑡𝑡 is in
seconds. Determine the time at which the acceleration will be zero.
Session 2 – 6.2.0. Turning Points and Stationary Points (Maxima and Minima) Points
At the end of this session, we should be able to:
(i) determine rates of change using differentiation.
(ii) solve velocity and acceleration problems.
(iii) understand turning points.
(iv) determine the turning points on a curve and determine their nature.
(v) solve practical problems involving maximum and minimum values.
(vi) determine points of inflexion on a curve.
(vii) determine tangents and normal to a curve.
(viii) determine small changes in functions.
6.2.1. Turning Points

In Figure 44.4, the gradient (or rate of change) of the curve changes from positive between 𝑂𝑂 and
𝑃𝑃 to negative between 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄, and then positive again between 𝑄𝑄 and 𝑅𝑅. At point 𝑃𝑃, the gradient
is zero and, as 𝑥𝑥 increases, the gradient of the curve changes from positive just before 𝑃𝑃 to
negative just after. Such a point is called a maximum point and appears as the ‘crest of a wave’.

At point 𝑄𝑄, the gradient is also zero and, as 𝑥𝑥 increases, the gradient of the curve changes from
negative just before 𝑄𝑄 to positive just after. Such a point is called a minimum point and appears
as the ‘bottom of a valley’.

Points such as 𝑃𝑃 and 𝑄𝑄 are given the general name of turning points.
It is possible to have a turning point, the gradient on either side of which is the same. Such a point
is given the special name of a point of inflexion, and examples are shown in Figure 44.5.
Maximum and minimum points and points of inflexion are given the general term of stationary
points.
Procedure for finding and distinguishing between stationary points.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(i) Given 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (i.e., 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥)).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(ii) Let 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, and solve for the values of 𝑥𝑥.
(iii) Substitute the values of 𝑥𝑥 into the original equation, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), to find the
corresponding 𝑦𝑦-ordinate values. This establishes the co-ordinates of the stationary
points.

To determine the nature of the stationary points:

Either

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(iv) Find 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 and substitute into it the values of 𝑥𝑥 found in (ii), i.e., the values of 𝑥𝑥 when
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0.

If the result is:

(a) positive – the point is a minimum.
(b) negative – the point is a maximum.
(c) zero – the point is a point of inflexion.
Or
(v) Determine the sign of the gradient of the curve just before and just after the stationary
points. If the sign change for the gradient of the curve is:
(a) positive to negative – the point is a maximum one.
(b) negative to positive – the point is minimum one.
(c) positive to positive or negative to negative – the point is a point of inflexion.

Example 6.2.1.1.
Locate the turning point on the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥 and determine its nature by examining the
sign of the gradient on either side.
Solution 6.2.1.1.
We follow the procedure outlined above from (i) to (v) as follows:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(i) We have been given 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥, it means 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 6𝑥𝑥 − 6
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(ii) At the turning point, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0, hence 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 6𝑥𝑥 − 6 = 0, from which 6𝑥𝑥 = 6, and 𝑥𝑥 = 1
(iii) When 𝑥𝑥 = 1, the original equation becomes 𝑦𝑦 = 3(1)2 − 6(1) = 3 − 6 = −3
Hence the co-ordinate of the turning point is (1, −3)
(iv) We determine the nature of the turning point, whether it is a minimum or a maximum
point.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑥𝑥 is slightly less than 1, say, 0.9, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 6(0.9) − 6 = 5.4 − 6 = −0.6, i.e.,
negative.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑥𝑥 is slightly greater than 1, say, 1.1, then, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 6(1.1) − 6 = 6.6 − 6 = 0.6, i.e.,
positive.

Since the gradient of the curve is negative just before the turning point and positive just
after the turning point (i.e., - ∪+), (1, −3) is a minimum turning point.

Example 6.2.1.2.
Find the maximum and minimum values of the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 5 by
(a) examining the gradient on either side of the turning points, and
(b) determining the sign of the second derivative.

Solution 6.2.1.2.
We have been given 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
To test for maximum or minimum values, we put 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 to zero, thus,

3𝑥𝑥 2 − 3 = 0
From which we have,
3𝑥𝑥 2 = 3
and
𝑥𝑥 2 = 1
𝑥𝑥 = ±1

When 𝑥𝑥 = 1, then 𝑦𝑦 = (1)3 − 3(1) + 5 = 1 − 3 + 5 = 3, hence we have (1, 3) as a turning

point.
Also, when 𝑥𝑥 = −1, then 𝑦𝑦 = (−1)3 − 3(−1) + 5 = −1 + 3 + 5 = 7, hence we have (−1, 7) as
another turning point.

The turning points are, (1, 3) and (−1, 7).

(a) Considering the point (1, 3):

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑥𝑥 is slightly less than 1, say, 0.9, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3(0.9)2 − 3 = 2.43 − 3 = −0.57, which is
negative.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑥𝑥 is slightly greater than 1, say, 1.1, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3(1.1)2 − 3 = 3.63 − 3 = 0.63,
positive.

Since the gradient changes from negative to positive, the point (1, 3) is a minimum point.

Considering the point (−1, 7):

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑥𝑥 slightly less than −1, say, −1.1, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3(−1.1)2 − 3 = 3.63 − 3 = 0.63, which
is positive.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑥𝑥 slightly greater than −1, say, −0.9, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3(−0.9)2 − 3 = 3.43 − 3 = 0.57,
which is negative.

Since the gradient changes from positive to negative, the point (−1, 7) is a maximum
point.

(b) To determine the sign of the second derivative, we perform the second derivative,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
Since 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 3, the second derivative, 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = 6𝑥𝑥
 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
When 𝑥𝑥 = 1, then 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = 6(1) = 6, which is positive, the point (1, 3) is a minimum point.

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
Also, when 𝑥𝑥 = −1, then 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = 6(−1) = −6, which is negative, thus the point (−1, 7) is
a maximum point.

Therefore, the maximum value is 7 and occurs at (−1, 7) and minimum value is 3 and
occurs at (1, 3).

It can be seen that the second differential method of determining the nature of the turning
points is, in this case, quicker than investigating the gradient changing from positive to
negative or from negative to positive values.

Example 6.2.1.3.

Locate the turning point on the following curve 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝜃𝜃 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃 , and determine whether it is a
maximum or minimum point:

Solution 6.2.1.3.

Given that 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝜃𝜃 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃 ,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
For a maximum or a minmum,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hence,

𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃 = 4
And,
1
𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃 =
4

Taking natural log of both sides,

 1
log 𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃 = log
4
Which is the same as,
1
ln 𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃 = ln
4

From the laws of logarithms,

𝜃𝜃 ln 𝑒𝑒 = −1.386294
𝜃𝜃 = −1.3863
Since ln 𝑒𝑒 = 1

When 𝜃𝜃 = −1.3863, then,

𝑦𝑦 = 4(−1.3863) + 𝑒𝑒 −(−1.3863)

𝑦𝑦 = 4(−1.3863) + 𝑒𝑒 1.3863

𝑦𝑦 = −5.5452 + 4.0000

𝑦𝑦 = −1.5452

The turning point occurs at (−1.3863, −1.5452).

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
We determine the nature of the turning point by carrying out second derivative, 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃2 ,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Since 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃 ,

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2
When 𝜃𝜃 = −1.3863,
 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃 = 𝑒𝑒 −(−1.3863) = 𝑒𝑒 +1.3863 = 4.0
𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃 2

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
Since the value of 𝑑𝑑𝜃𝜃2 when 𝜃𝜃 = 1.3863 is 4 > 0, it is positive. Thus, the point
(−1.3863, −1.5452) is a minimum turning point.

Example 6.2.1.4.
Determine the co-ordinates of the maximum and minimum values of the graph,
𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 2 5
𝑦𝑦 = − − 6𝑥𝑥 + 3 and distinguish between them. Sketch the graph.
3 2

Solution 6.2.1.4.
We begin by following the given procedure:
𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 2 5
(i) The given curve is 𝑦𝑦 = − − 6𝑥𝑥 + 3
3 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3𝑥𝑥 2 2𝑥𝑥
Thus 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= − − 6 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 6
3 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 6
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(ii) At the turning point, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.
Hence 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 6 = 0
(𝑥𝑥 − 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 2) = 0
From which 𝑥𝑥 = −2 or 𝑥𝑥 = 3

(iii) When 𝑥𝑥 = −2,

(−2)3 (−2)2 5
𝑦𝑦 = − − 6(−2) +
3 2 3

8 4 5
𝑦𝑦 = − − + 12 +
3 2 3

8 5
𝑦𝑦 = − + − 2 + 12
3 3

3
𝑦𝑦 = − − 2 + 12
3
 𝑦𝑦 = −1 − 2 + 12 = 9

Thus (−2, 9) is a turning point.

When 𝑥𝑥 = 3,
(3)3 (3)2 5
𝑦𝑦 = − − 6(3) +
3 2 3

27 9 5
𝑦𝑦 = − − 18 +
3 2 3

9 5
𝑦𝑦 = 9 − − 18 +
2 3

9 5
𝑦𝑦 = −9 − +
2 3

Multiplying through by the common denominator, factor 6

−54 − 27 + 10 71 5
𝑦𝑦 = =− = −11
6 6 6

5
Thus �3, −11 6� is another turning point.

5
The co-ordinates of the turning points are (−2, 9) and �3, −11 6�.

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(iv) Determining the nature of the turning points requires 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Since 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 6, then,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 2𝑥𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

When 𝑥𝑥 = −2,
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 2(−2) − 1 = −4 − 1 = −5
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

which is negative, thus (−2, 9) is a maximum turning point.

 When 𝑥𝑥 = 3,
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
= 2(3) − 1 = 6 − 1 = 5
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
5
which is positive, hence �3, −11 6� is a minimum turning point.

5
To sketch the graph, we know(−2, 9) as the maximum turning point, and �3, −11 6� is
also a minimum turning point.

We determine the 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 intercepts by setting 𝑥𝑥 = 0 for the 𝑦𝑦-intercept and 𝑦𝑦 = 0 for
the 𝑥𝑥-intercept.

03 02 5 5 5
When 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝑦𝑦 = − − 6(0) + 3 = 3, which means �0, 3� is an intercept.
3 2

Having determined 𝑦𝑦 from 𝑥𝑥 = 0, and knowing the maximum and minimum points, a
sketch can be drawn as shown in Figure 44.6.

Example 6.2.1.5.
Determine the turning points on the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 4 sin 𝑥𝑥 − 3 cos 𝑥𝑥 in the range 𝑥𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝜋𝜋
radians and distinguish between them. Sketch the graph over one cycle.

Solution 6.2.1.5.
Since 𝑦𝑦 = 4 sin 𝑥𝑥 − 3 cos 𝑥𝑥, then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4 cos 𝑥𝑥 + 3 sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
For the turning points,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4 cos 𝑥𝑥 + 3 sin 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

From which,
4 cos 𝑥𝑥 = − 3 sin 𝑥𝑥

sin 𝑥𝑥 4
= − = tan 𝑥𝑥
cos 𝑥𝑥 3

Hence,
4
𝑥𝑥 = tan−1 �− � = 126.87𝑜𝑜
3
Or
4
𝑥𝑥 = tan−1 �− � = 306.87𝑜𝑜
3

Since tangent is negative in the second and fourth quadrants.

When 𝑥𝑥 = 126.87𝑜𝑜 ,
𝑦𝑦 = 4 sin 126.87𝑜𝑜 − 3 cos 126.87𝑜𝑜

𝑦𝑦 = 4 × 0.7999 − 3 × (−0.60000)

𝑦𝑦 = 3.1996 + 1.80 = 4.9996 ≈ 5

(126.87𝑜𝑜 , 5)

When 𝑥𝑥 = 306.87,
 𝑦𝑦 = 4 sin 306.87𝑜𝑜 − 3 cos 306.87𝑜𝑜

= 4 × (−0.7999) − 3 × 0.6000

𝑦𝑦 = −3.1996 − 1.8

𝑦𝑦 = −4.9996 ≈ −5
(306.87𝑜𝑜 , −5)

To covert 126.87𝑜𝑜 to radians, using 𝜋𝜋 = 3.14159

𝜋𝜋
126.87𝑜𝑜 = �126.87𝑜𝑜 × � = 2.22156
180
126.87𝑜𝑜 = 2.214 rad

𝜋𝜋
306.87𝑜𝑜 = �306.87𝑜𝑜 × � = 5.355887
180
306.87𝑜𝑜 = 5.356 rad

In radians, (2.214, 5) and (5.356, −5) are the co-ordinates of the turning points.

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
Determining the nature of the curves require 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4 cos 𝑥𝑥 + 3 sin 𝑥𝑥, then,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= −4 sin 𝑥𝑥 + 3 cos 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

When 𝑥𝑥 = 2.214 rad,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= −4 sin 2.214 + 3 cos 2.214
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= −4 × 0.8002 + 3 × (−0.5997)
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= −3.2007 − 1.7993
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= −3.2007 − 1.7993 = −5
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

The point (2.214, 5) is a maximum point.

When 𝑥𝑥 = 5.356,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= −4 sin 3.356 + 3 cos 3.356
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= −4(−0.212768) + 3(0.6001)
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 0.8511 + 1.8002 = 2.651272
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

Hence, the point (5.356, −5) is a minimum point.

A sketch of the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 4 sin 𝑥𝑥 − 3 cos 𝑥𝑥 is shown in Figure 44.7 below.

Exercises for Practice.

Exx1
In the following problems, find the turning points and distinguish between them whether they are
minimum turning point or a maximum turning point.
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 6𝑥𝑥
(b) 𝑦𝑦 = 8 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2
(c) 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 2
(d) 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 60𝑥𝑥 − 12
𝑡𝑡 2
(e) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 3 − − 2𝑡𝑡 + 4
2

6.2.2. Points of Inflexion

As mentioned earlier in this session, it is possible to have a turning point, the gradient on either
side of which is the same. This called a point of inflexion.
The procedure for determining points of inflexion is given below:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(i) Given 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(ii) Solve the equation 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = 0
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(iii) Test whether there is a change of sign occurring in 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 . This achieved by substituting
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
into the expression for 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 firstly a value of 𝑥𝑥 just less than the solution and then a
value just greater than the solution.
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(iv) A point of inflexion has been found if 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = 0 and there is a change of sign.
This procedure is demonstrated in the following examples.

Example 6.2.2.1.
Determine the point(s) of inflexion (if any) on the graph of the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 6𝑥𝑥 2 + 9𝑥𝑥 + 5.
Find also any other turning points. Hence sketch the graph.

Solution 6.2.2.1.
Using the above procedure:
(i) We have 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 6𝑥𝑥 2 + 9𝑥𝑥 + 5. It means,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 + 9
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and,
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
= 6𝑥𝑥 − 12
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(ii) We now solve the equation 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = 0, which results in 6𝑥𝑥 − 12 = 0 from which,
6𝑥𝑥 = 12 and 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

Hence, if there is a point of inflexion, it occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

(iii) Taking a value just less than 2, 1.9:

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 6𝑥𝑥 − 12 = 6(1.9) − 12 = 11.4 − 12 = −0.6 < 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
Which is negative.

Also taking a value just greater than 2 say, 2.1:

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 6𝑥𝑥 − 12 = 6(2.1) − 12 = 12.6 − 12 = 0.6 > 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
Which is positive.
(iv) Since a change of sign has occurred, it means a point of inflexion exists at 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

We determine the value of the function 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 6𝑥𝑥 2 + 9𝑥𝑥 + 5 when 𝑥𝑥 = 2 for the corresponding
value of 𝑦𝑦

When 𝑥𝑥 = 2,
 𝑦𝑦 = 23 − 6(2)2 + 9(2) + 5
𝑦𝑦 = 8 − 6(4) + 18 + 5
𝑦𝑦 = 8 − 24 + 18 + 5
𝑦𝑦 = 7

This means that a point of inflexion occurs at the point (2, 7).

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
To determine whether other turning points exist(s) or not, we solve 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

From above,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 + 9 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

3𝑥𝑥 2 − 12𝑥𝑥 + 9 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0

𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 0
We use the quadratic formula,
−𝑏𝑏 ± √𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑎𝑎

With 𝑎𝑎 = 1, 𝑏𝑏 = −4, 𝑐𝑐 = 3,

−𝑏𝑏 ± √𝑏𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑥𝑥 =
2𝑎𝑎

−(−4) ± �(−4)2 − 4(1)(3)

𝑥𝑥 =
2(1)

4 ± √16 − 12
𝑥𝑥 =
2

4 ± √4
𝑥𝑥 =
2

4±2
𝑥𝑥 =
2
 𝑥𝑥 = 2 ± 1

𝑥𝑥 = 2 + 1 = 3
And
𝑥𝑥 = 2 − 1 = 1

𝑥𝑥 = 1, 𝑥𝑥 = 3

Since 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 6𝑥𝑥 2 + 9𝑥𝑥 + 5, then when 𝑥𝑥 = 1,

𝑦𝑦 = 13 − 6(1)2 + 9(1) + 5

𝑦𝑦 = 1 − 6 + 9 + 5 = 9

The point (1, 9) is a turning point.

when 𝑥𝑥 = 3,

𝑦𝑦 = 33 − 6(3)2 + 9(3) + 5

𝑦𝑦 = 27 − 6(9) + 27 + 5

𝑦𝑦 = 27 − 54 + 27 + 5 = 5

The point (3, 5) is another turning point.

Hence, there are turning points at (1, 9) and (3, 5)

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
We know 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = 6𝑥𝑥 − 12, so we now use 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 and the values found for the turning
points to test for maximum and minimum points.

When 𝑥𝑥 = 1,
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 6𝑥𝑥 − 12 = 6(1) − 12 = 6 − 12 = −6 < 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

which is negative, hence it is a maximum turning point.

When 𝑥𝑥 = 3,
 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 6𝑥𝑥 − 12 = 6(3) − 12 = 18 − 12 = 6 > 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

which is positive, hence it is a minimum turning point.

Thus, the (1, 9) is a maximum point and the point (3, 5) is a minimum point.

A sketch of the graph 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 6𝑥𝑥 2 + 9𝑥𝑥 + 5 is shown below.

Example 6.2.2.2.
Determine the point(s) of inflexion (if any) on the graph of the function,
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 4 − 24𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 60.

Solution 6.2.2.2.
Again, we follow the same procedure:
(i) We have 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 4 − 24𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 60,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4𝑥𝑥 3 − 48𝑥𝑥 + 5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
= 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 48
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(ii) We solve the equation, 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 48 = 0 , which gives us,
12𝑥𝑥 2 − 48 = 0
12𝑥𝑥 2 = 48
𝑥𝑥 2 = 4
From which, we get,
 𝑥𝑥 = √4 = ±2

Hence, if there are points of inflexion, they occur at 𝑥𝑥 = 2 and at 𝑥𝑥 = −2.

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(iii) We test for values that are slightly less than 2, say 1.9: using 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 48
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 48 = 12(1.9)2 − 48 = 43.32 − 48 = −4.68 < 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
which is negative.

We test for another value which is slightly greater than 2, say 2.1:
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 48 = 12(2.1)2 − 48 = 52.92 − 48 = 4.92 > 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

which is positive.

Also, we test values that are near −2, say −1.9 and −2.1.
Taking −1.9, we have,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
= 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 48 = 12(−1.9)2 − 48 = 43.32 − 48 = −4.68 < 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

which is negative.

Taking −2.1, we have,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
2
= 12𝑥𝑥 2 − 48 = 12(−2.1)2 − 48 = 52.92 − 48 = 4.92 > 0
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥

which is positive.

(iv) Since we have seen changes in signs near 𝑥𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥𝑥 = 2, it means there points of
inflexions at 𝑥𝑥 = −2 and at 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

(v) We now determine 𝑦𝑦- values 𝑥𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

When 𝑥𝑥 = −2, we have,

𝑦𝑦 = (−2)4 − 24(−2)2 + 5(−2) + 60

𝑦𝑦 = 16 − 24(4) − 10 + 60

𝑦𝑦 = 16 − 96 − 10 + 60
 𝑦𝑦 = 76 − 106 = −30

The point (−2, −30) is a point of inflexion.

When 𝑥𝑥 = 2, we have,
𝑦𝑦 = (2)4 − 24(2)2 + 5(2) + 60

𝑦𝑦 = 16 − 24(4) + 10 + 60

𝑦𝑦 = 16 − 96 + 10 + 60

𝑦𝑦 = 86 − 96 = −10

The point (2, −10) is another point of inflexion.

Thus, we have points of inflexion occurring at the co-ordinates (−2, −30) and at
(2, −10).

Exx1
5
Find the points of inflexions, (if any) on the graph of the function, 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 18𝑥𝑥 − 8

Exx2
The displacement, 𝑠𝑠, of a particle is given by:
𝑠𝑠 = 3𝑡𝑡 3 − 9𝑡𝑡 2 + 10
Determine the maximum, minimum and the point of inflexion of 𝑠𝑠.
Session 3 - 6.3.0. Tangents and Normals.
6.3.1. – Tangents.
The equation of the tangent to a curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) at the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) is given by:
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑚𝑚 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = the gradient of the curve at (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ).

Example 6.3.1.1.
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2 at the point (1, −2).

Solution 6.3.1.1.
The gradient, 𝑚𝑚, is given by:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑚𝑚 = = 2𝑥𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
At the point, (1, −2), 𝑥𝑥 = 1, and 𝑚𝑚 = 2(1) − 1 = 1.
Hence the equation of the tangent is:
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
We have been given, 𝑥𝑥1 = 1 and 𝑦𝑦1 = −2.
Thus,
𝑦𝑦 − (−2) = 1(𝑥𝑥 − 1)

𝑦𝑦 + 2 = 𝑥𝑥 − 1
We subtract 2 from both sides to get,
𝑦𝑦 + 2 − 2 = 𝑥𝑥 − 1 − 2

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 3
The graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2 is shown in Figure 46.12 below. The line 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is the tangent to the
curve at the point 𝐶𝐶, i.e., (1, −2), and the equation of this line is 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 3.

6.3.2. – Normals.
The normal at any point on a curve is the line that passes through the point and is at right angles to
the tangent. Hence in Figure 44.12, the line 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 is the normal.

It may be shown that if two lines are at right angles then the product of their gradients −1. Thus if
1
𝑚𝑚 is the gradient of the tangent, then the gradient of the normal is − 𝑚𝑚.

Hence the equation of the normal at the point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) is given by:
1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = − (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
𝑚𝑚

Example 6.3.2.1.
Find the equation of the normal to the curve 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2 at the point (1, −2).

Solution 6.3.2.1.
From our previous Example 6.2.3.1.1., the gradient 𝑚𝑚 = 1, it implies the gradient of the normal is
1
− 1 = −1. Hence equation of the normal is,

1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = − (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
𝑚𝑚
 1
𝑦𝑦 − (−2) = − (𝑥𝑥 − 1)
1
We subtract 2 from both sides to obtain,
𝑦𝑦 + 2 − 2 = −𝑥𝑥 + 1 − 2

𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥𝑥 − 1

Thus, the line 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 in Figure 44.12 has the equation 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥𝑥 − 1.

Example 6.3.2.2.
𝑥𝑥 3 1
Determine the equations of the tangent and normal to the curve 𝑦𝑦 = at the point �−1, − 5�.
5

Solution 6.3.2.2.
𝑥𝑥 3
The gradient 𝑚𝑚 of the curve 𝑦𝑦 = is given by:
5

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3𝑥𝑥 2
𝑚𝑚 = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5

1
At the point, �−1, − 5� , 𝑥𝑥 = −1, and,

3(−1)2 3
𝑚𝑚 = =
5 5
Therefore, the equation of the tangent is,
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑚(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )

3 1
For 𝑚𝑚 = 5 , 𝑥𝑥1 = −1, 𝑦𝑦1 = − 5

1 3
𝑦𝑦 − �− � = �𝑥𝑥 − (−1)�
5 5

1 3
𝑦𝑦 + = (𝑥𝑥 + 1)
5 5
 5𝑦𝑦 + 1 = 3(𝑥𝑥 + 1)

5𝑦𝑦 + 1 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 3

5𝑦𝑦 − 3𝑥𝑥 = 2

The equation of the normal is:

1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = − (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
𝑚𝑚
3 1
For 𝑚𝑚 = 5 , 𝑥𝑥1 = −1, 𝑦𝑦1 = − 5,

1 1
𝑦𝑦 − �− � = − �𝑥𝑥 − (−1)�
5 3
5

1 5
𝑦𝑦 + = − (𝑥𝑥 + 1)
5 3

1 5 5
𝑦𝑦 + = − 𝑥𝑥 −
5 3 3

We now multiply through each term by common denominator, or the least common factor, (LCM)
15,
15𝑦𝑦 + 3 = −25𝑥𝑥 − 25
Simplifying further, we have,

15𝑦𝑦 + 25𝑥𝑥 + 28 = 0
Exercises for Practice.
Exx1
If 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 , find the equations of,
(a) the tangent at the point (1, 2).
(b) the normal at the point (1, 2).

Exx2.
If 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥, find the equations of
(a) the tangent at the point (2, 8).
(b) the normal at the point (2, 8).

Exx3.
If 𝑦𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 , find the equations of
(a) the tangent at the point (−2, −5).
(b) the normal at the point (−2, −5).
6.3.3. Small Changes.
If 𝑦𝑦 is a function of 𝑥𝑥, i.e., 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), and the approximate change in 𝑦𝑦 corresponding to a small
change 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 in 𝑥𝑥 is required, then:
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
≈
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
OR
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ 𝑓𝑓′(𝑥𝑥) . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

Example 6.3.3.1.
Given 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥, determine the approximate change in 𝑦𝑦 if 𝑥𝑥 changes from 1 to 1.02.

Solution 6.3.3.1.
Since 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥, then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 8𝑥𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The approximate change in 𝑦𝑦, is,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ (8𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When 𝑥𝑥 = 1 and 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = 0.02,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ [8(1) − 1](0.02)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ (7)(0.02)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ 0.14
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[Obviously, in this case, the exact value of 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 may be obtained by evaluating 𝑦𝑦 when 𝑥𝑥 = 1.02,
i.e., 𝑦𝑦 = 4(1.02)2 − 1.02 = 4(1.0404) − 1.02 = 4.1616 − 1.02 = 3.1416, and then subtracting
from it, the value of 𝑦𝑦, when 𝑥𝑥 = 1 , i.e., 4(1)2 − 1 = 3, giving us 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = 3.1416 − 3 = 0.1416.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Using 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 above gave us 0.14, which shows that the formula gives the approximate
change in 𝑦𝑦 for small change in 𝑥𝑥].

Example 6.3.3.2.

The time of swing 𝑇𝑇 of a pendulum is given by 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑘𝑘√𝑙𝑙, where 𝑘𝑘 is a constant. Determine the
percentage change in the time of swing if the length of the pendulum 𝑙𝑙 changes from 32.1 cm to
32.0 cm.

Solution 6.3.3.2.
1
If 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑘𝑘√𝑙𝑙 = 𝑘𝑘𝑙𝑙 2 , then,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1 𝑘𝑘
= 𝑘𝑘 � 𝑙𝑙 −2 � =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2√𝑙𝑙

The approximate change in 𝑇𝑇, is given by,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ � � 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2√𝑙𝑙

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ � � (−0.1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2√𝑙𝑙
It is negative because, the length 𝑙𝑙 decreases.
The percentage error is given by,

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑇𝑇

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = � � 100%
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇
 𝑘𝑘
� � (−0.1)
2√𝑙𝑙
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = × 100%
𝑘𝑘√𝑙𝑙

−0.1
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = � � 100%
2𝑙𝑙

−0.1
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = � � 100%
2(32.1)

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = −(0.0015576)100%

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = −0.156%

Hence the percentage change in the time of swing is a decrease of 0.156%

Example 6.3.3.3.
A circular template has a radius of 10 cm (±0.02). Determine the possible error in calculating the
area of thev template. Also find the percentage error.

Solution 6.3.3.3.
The area of circular template is given by, 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 , hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The approximate change in area of the circular template is,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ (2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)𝛿𝛿𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When 𝑟𝑟 = 10 cm, and 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = 0.02,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ . 𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ (2𝜋𝜋10) (0.02)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ (2𝜋𝜋10) (0.02) ≈ 20𝜋𝜋 × 0.02

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ 20𝜋𝜋 × 0.02 ≈ 0.4𝜋𝜋

Therefore,

𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ 0.4𝜋𝜋 cm2 i.e., the possible error in calculating the template area is approximately,
𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 ≈ 0.4 × 3.14159 ≈ 1.256636 ≈ 1.257 cm2.
The percentage error is given by,

0.4𝜋𝜋
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≈ � � 100% = 0.40%
𝜋𝜋(10)2

Exercises for Practice

Exx1
Determine the change in 𝑦𝑦 if 𝑥𝑥 changes from 2.50 to 2.51 when,
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2
5
(b) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
6.4.0. Differentiation of Parametric Equations
6.4.1. Why It Is Important to Understand Differentiation of Parametric Equations
Rather than using a single equation to define two variables withy respect to one another,
parametric equations exit as a set that relates two variables to one another with respect to a third
variable. Some curves are easier to describe using a pair of parametric equations. The coordinates
𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 of the curve are given using a third variable 𝑡𝑡, such as 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡), where 𝑡𝑡 is
referred to as the parameter. Hence for a given value of 𝑡𝑡, a point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is determined. For
example, let 𝑡𝑡 be the time while 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 are the positions of a particle; the parametric equations
then describe the path of the particle at different times. Parametric equations are useful in defining
three-dimensional curves and surfaces, such as determining the velocity or acceleration of a
particle following a three-dimensional path. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) systems use
parametric versions of equations. Sometimes in engineering, differentiation of parametric
equations is necessary, for example, when determining the radius of curvature of part of the
surface when finding the surface tension of a liquid. Knowledge of standard differentials and the
function of a function rule from the previous units are needed to be able to differentiate parametric
equations.

At the end of this session, the learners should be able to:

(a) recognize parametric equations – ellipse, parabola, hyperbola, rectangular hyperbola,
cardioids, astroid and cycloid.
(b) differentiate parametric equations.
6.4.2. Introduction to Parametric Equations
Certain mathematical functions can be expressed more simply by expressing, say, 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦
separately in terms of a third variable. For example, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃, 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃. Then, any value
given to 𝜃𝜃 will produce a pair of values for 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦, which may be plotted to provide a curve of
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).

The third variable, 𝜃𝜃, is called a parameter and the two expressions for 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑥𝑥 are called
parametric equations.

The above example of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 are the parametric equations for a circle. The
equation of any point on a circle, centre at the origin of radius 𝑟𝑟 is given by: 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑟𝑟 2 , as
shown in Unit 1, Session 5 (1.5.2).
To show that 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃, are suitable parametric equations for such a circle, we
refer to Unit 1, Session 5 (1.5.2) for the equation of the circle:
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑟𝑟 2
The left-hand side of the equation,
= 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
= (𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃)2 + (𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃)2
= 𝑟𝑟 2 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑟𝑟 2 sin2 𝜃𝜃
Factor out 𝑟𝑟 2
= 𝑟𝑟 2 (cos2 𝜃𝜃 + sin2 𝜃𝜃)
= 𝑟𝑟 2 = the right-hand side
(since cos 2 𝜃𝜃 + sin2 𝜃𝜃 = 1)

6.4.3. Some Common Parametric Equations

The following are some of the most common parametric equations, and Figure 45.1 shows typical
shapes of these curves.
Some Common Parametric Equations.
No Name Its Equation 𝑥𝑥 Its Equation 𝑦𝑦
(a) Ellipse 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏 sin 𝜃𝜃
(b) Parabola 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 2 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
(c) Hyperbola 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 sec 𝜃𝜃 𝑏𝑏 tan 𝜃𝜃
𝑐𝑐
(d) Rectangular Hyperbola 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡
(e) Cardiod 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎(2 cos 𝜃𝜃 − cos 2𝜃𝜃) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎( 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 − sin 2𝜃𝜃)
(f) Astroid 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 cos 3 𝜃𝜃 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎 sin3 𝜃𝜃
(g) Cycloid 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎(𝜃𝜃 − sin 𝜃𝜃) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)

6.4.4. Differentiation in Parameters

When 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 are given in terms of a parameter, say, 𝜃𝜃, then by the function of a function rule of
differentiation, [from Unit 4, Sessions 5 and 6 – (4.5.0, 4.6.0) ]:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
It may be shown that this can be written as:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Eqn 6.4.4.1.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

For the second differential,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= � � = � �.
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
OR
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 � �
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Eqn 6.4.4.2.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.4.4.1.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Given 𝑥𝑥 = 5𝜃𝜃 − 1 and 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝜃𝜃(𝜃𝜃 − 1), determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in terms of 𝜃𝜃.
Solution 6.4.4.1.
𝑥𝑥 = 5𝜃𝜃 − 1
Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Also, 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝜃𝜃(𝜃𝜃 − 1) = 2𝜃𝜃 2 − 2𝜃𝜃
Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4𝜃𝜃 − 2 = 2(𝜃𝜃 − 1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

From Eqn 6.4.4.1.,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2(2𝜃𝜃 −) 2
= = = (2𝜃𝜃 − 1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5 5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
= (2𝜃𝜃 − 1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5

Example 6.4.4.2.
The parametric equations of a function are given by 𝑦𝑦 = 3 cos 2𝑡𝑡, and 𝑥𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑡𝑡. Determine
expressions for
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(a) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(b) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

Solution 6.4.4.2.
(a) 𝑦𝑦 = 3 cos 2𝑡𝑡
Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −6 sin 2𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑡𝑡, hence,
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2 cos 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
From Eqn 6.4.4.1.,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −6 sin 2𝑡𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 cos 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −6(2 sin 𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡)
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 cos 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The cos 𝑡𝑡 in the denominator will cancel out or eliminate the cos 𝑡𝑡 in the numerator, and
the 2 in the denominator also cancels out or eliminates the 2 in the numerator, leaving the
minus (-6 sin 𝑡𝑡) as shown below.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −6 sin 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(b) For the second derivative (or second differential) we refer to Eqn 6.4.4.2.,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (−6 sin 𝑡𝑡)
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 cos 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 6 cos 𝑡𝑡
= −
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 2 cos 𝑡𝑡

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 3 6 cos 𝑡𝑡
= −
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 2 cos 𝑡𝑡

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
= −3
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

Example 6.4.4.3.
The equation of a tangent drawn to a curve at point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) is given by:
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1
Determine the equation of the tangent drawn to the parabola 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑡𝑡 2 , 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑡𝑡 at the point 𝑡𝑡.
Solution 6.4.4.3.
At point 𝑡𝑡, 𝑥𝑥1 = 2𝑡𝑡 2 , hence
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1
= 4𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And 𝑦𝑦1 = 4𝑡𝑡, hence
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦1
=4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

From Eqn 6.4.4.1.,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 1
= = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Hence the equation of the tangent to the parabola is:

𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1

1
𝑦𝑦 − 4𝑡𝑡 = (𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑡𝑡 2 )
𝑡𝑡

Example 6.4.4.4.
The parametric equation of a cycloid are 𝑥𝑥 = 4(𝜃𝜃 − sin 𝜃𝜃), 𝑦𝑦 = 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃). Determine
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(a) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(b) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

Solution 6.4.4.4.
(a) Given 𝑥𝑥 = 4(𝜃𝜃 − sin 𝜃𝜃) = 4𝜃𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃𝜃, hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4 − 4 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Also 𝑦𝑦 = 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) = 4 − 4 cos 𝜃𝜃, hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0 − 4(− sin 𝜃𝜃) = 4 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Again, we use Eqn 6.4.4.1.:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 sin 𝜃𝜃
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)

(b) Here also, we use Eqn 6.4.4.2.:

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − cos 𝜃𝜃�
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) (sin 𝜃𝜃) − (sin 𝜃𝜃) (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)
� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �
𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 2
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 �
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)

(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)(cos 𝜃𝜃) − (sin 𝜃𝜃)�−(− sin 𝜃𝜃)�

𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 � �
𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − cos 𝜃𝜃�
2 (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)2
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)

𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)(cos 𝜃𝜃) − (sin 𝜃𝜃)(sin 𝜃𝜃)

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − cos 𝜃𝜃� � (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)2
�
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)

𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃 − cos2 𝜃𝜃 − sin2 𝜃𝜃

2 �
𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 � (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)2
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)

𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 � cos 𝜃𝜃 − cos2 𝜃𝜃 − sin2 𝜃𝜃
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)3
 𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − cos 𝜃𝜃� cos 𝜃𝜃 − (cos2 𝜃𝜃 + sin2 𝜃𝜃)
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)3

𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 � cos 𝜃𝜃 − 1
2
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)3

𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 � −(cos 𝜃𝜃 − 1)
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)3

𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1 − cos 𝜃𝜃 � − (1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)3

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 −1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)2

Exercises for Practice.

Exx1
The parametric equations for an ellipse are 𝑥𝑥 = 4 cos 𝜃𝜃, and 𝑦𝑦 = sin 𝜃𝜃. Determine
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(a) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(b) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

Exx2
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The parametric equations for a rectangular hyperbola are 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑡𝑡, and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 . Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when
𝑡𝑡 = 0.40.

Exx3
The equation of a tangent drawn to a curve at point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) is given by:
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 ).
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1
Determine the equation of the tangent drawn to the ellipse 𝑥𝑥 = 3 cos 𝜃𝜃, and 𝑦𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 at the
𝜋𝜋
point where 𝜃𝜃 = 6 .

Exx4
The equation of a tangent drawn to a curve at point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) is given by:
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 ).
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1
5
Determine the equation of the tangent drawn to the rectangular hyperbola 𝑥𝑥 = 5𝑡𝑡 , and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 at
the point where 𝑡𝑡 = 2.

Exxx
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Propose a solution for determining first differential coefficient, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of the parametric equation
1 1
defined by 𝑥𝑥 = 4 𝑡𝑡 2 , and 𝑦𝑦 = 2.

Exxx2

second differential coefficient for parametric equations

6.4.5. More Worked Examples of Parametric Equations
Example 6.4.5.1.
The equation of the normal drawn to a curve at point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑦𝑦1 ) is given by:
1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = − (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦1
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1

Determine the equation of the normal drawn to the astroid 𝑥𝑥 = 2 cos 3 𝜃𝜃, and 𝑦𝑦 = 2 sin3 𝜃𝜃 at the
𝜋𝜋
point 𝜃𝜃 = 4 .

Solution 6.4.5.1.
We have been given:
𝑥𝑥 = 2 cos3 𝜃𝜃
And
𝑦𝑦 = 2 sin3 𝜃𝜃

Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −6 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6 sin2 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
From Eqn 6.4.4.1.,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6 sin2 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −6 cos 2 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6 sin 𝜃𝜃
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −6 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= = − tan 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝜋
When 𝜃𝜃 = 4 ,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜋𝜋
= − tan 𝜃𝜃 = − tan = −1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4

𝜋𝜋 3.14159
𝑥𝑥1 = 2 cos3 = 2 × cos 3 � �
4 4

𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥1 = 2 cos3 = 2 × cos 3 (0.7853982)
4

𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥1 = 2 cos3 = 2 × (0.70710676)3
4

𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥1 = 2 cos3 = 2 × 0.35355339
4

𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥1 = 2 cos 3 = 0.70710678
4

𝑥𝑥1 = 0.7071

And
𝜋𝜋 3.14159
𝑦𝑦1 = 2 sin3 = 2 × sin3 � �
4 4
 𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦1 = 2 sin3 = 2 × sin3 (0.7853982)
4

𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦1 = 2 sin3 = 2 × (0.707106807)3
4

𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦1 = 2 sin3 = 2 × 0.353553429
4

𝜋𝜋
𝑦𝑦1 = 2 sin3 = 0.7071068588
4

𝑦𝑦1 = 0.7071

Hence the equation of the normal is given by:

1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = − (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦1
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1

1
𝑦𝑦 − 0.7071 = − (𝑥𝑥 − 0.7071)
−1

𝑦𝑦 − 0.7071 = 𝑥𝑥 − 0.7071

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥

Example 6.4.5.2.
The parametric equations for a hyperbola are, 𝑥𝑥 = 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑦𝑦 = 4 tan 𝜃𝜃. Evaluate
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(a) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(b) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
,
correct to 4 significant figures, when 𝜃𝜃 = 1 radian.
Solution 6.4.5.2.
(a) We have been given 𝑥𝑥 = 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑦𝑦 = 4 tan 𝜃𝜃.
Hence,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 4 sec 2 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

From Eqn 6.4.4.1.,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 sec 2 𝜃𝜃
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 sec 𝜃𝜃
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 tan 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 �cos 𝜃𝜃�
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃
�cos 𝜃𝜃�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
= = = 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = 2 csc 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 2 csc 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When 𝜃𝜃 = 1 rad,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1 0.841470985
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
= = 2.3767902
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
= = 2.377
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When 𝜃𝜃 = 1 rad, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2.377, correct to 4 signi�icant �igures.

(b) From Eqn 6.4.4.2.,

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2 csc 𝜃𝜃)
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1
We note that csc 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, hence we apply the quotient rule for the numerator.

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2 csc 𝜃𝜃)
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1
� � �2 �sin 𝜃𝜃��
2
𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Applying the Quotient rule, we have,

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2((sin 𝜃𝜃)(0) − (1)(cos 𝜃𝜃))

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � sin2 𝜃𝜃
�
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 −2 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 � �
= sin2 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃

−2 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 �sin 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃�
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 1
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 −2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃

The 2’s will cancel out,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 − cot 𝜃𝜃 × csc 𝜃𝜃
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 − cot 𝜃𝜃 csc 𝜃𝜃
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃

We want to express the trigonometric functions in their major ratios, such as

sin 𝜃𝜃
cot 𝜃𝜃 = = tan 𝜃𝜃
cos 𝜃𝜃

1
csc 𝜃𝜃 =
sin 𝜃𝜃

1
sec 𝜃𝜃 =
cos 𝜃𝜃

Substituting the above ratios in,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 − cot 𝜃𝜃 csc 𝜃𝜃
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 sec 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃

We get,
cos 𝜃𝜃 1
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 − � sin 𝜃𝜃 � �sin 𝜃𝜃 �
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 1 sin 𝜃𝜃
�cos 𝜃𝜃� �cos 𝜃𝜃�

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 − �sin2 𝜃𝜃�
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
� 2 �
cos 𝜃𝜃
 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 cos 𝜃𝜃 cos 2 𝜃𝜃
= −� 2 � × � �
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 cos 3 𝜃𝜃
=−
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 sin3 𝜃𝜃

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
= − cot 3 𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

When 𝜃𝜃 = 1 rad,
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 1
= − cot 3 1 = −
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 (tan 1)3

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 3
1
= − cot 1 = −
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 (1.5574077)3

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 1
2
= − cot 3 1 = −
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 3.77752175

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 3
1
= − cot 1 = − = −0.2647
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 (tan 1)3

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
When 𝜃𝜃 = 1 rad, 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 = −0.2647, correct to 4 significant figures.

Example 6.4.5.3.
When determining the surface tension of a liquid, the radius of curvature, 𝜌𝜌, of part of the surface
is given by:

2 3
��1 + �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜌𝜌 =
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
Find the radius of curvature of the part of the surface having the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑡 2 ,
and 𝑦𝑦 = 6𝑡𝑡 at the point 𝑡𝑡 = 2.
Solution 6.4.5.3.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The given parametric equations are 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑡 2 , hence, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 6𝑡𝑡, and 𝑦𝑦 = 6𝑡𝑡, hence, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=6

From Eqn 6.4.4.1.,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6 1
= = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Also, from Eqn 6.4.4.2.,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑡𝑡 �
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 1
We can use either the quotient rule for 𝑡𝑡 , or we simply express 𝑡𝑡 as 𝑡𝑡 −1 and different using
the standard method.

1
We use the standard method by expressing 𝑡𝑡 as 𝑡𝑡 −1

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑 −1
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 𝑡𝑡 � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 )
= = =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6𝑡𝑡 6𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 −1
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 ) (−1)𝑡𝑡 −1−1
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 6𝑡𝑡 6𝑡𝑡

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 −2
= −
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 6𝑡𝑡

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 1
=−
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 (6𝑡𝑡)𝑡𝑡 2

𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 1
2
=− 3
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 6𝑡𝑡

Hence the radius of curvature given by:

 2 3
��1 + �𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑� �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜌𝜌 =
𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

2 3
��1 + �1� �
𝑡𝑡
𝜌𝜌 =
1
−
6𝑡𝑡 3

At the point where 𝑡𝑡 = 2,

2 3
��1 + �1� � 3
2 ��1 + 1�
4
𝜌𝜌 = =
1 1
− −
6(2)3 (6)(8)

3
��1 + 1� �(1 + 0.25)3
4
𝜌𝜌 = =
1 1
− −
(6)(8) (48)

�(1.25)3
𝜌𝜌 =
1
−
(48)

𝜌𝜌 = −(48)�(1.25)3

𝜌𝜌 = −(48)√1.953125

= −67.08
Exercises for Practice.

Exx1
A cycloid has parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 2(𝜃𝜃 − sin 𝜃𝜃), and 𝑦𝑦 = 2(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃).
Evaluate, at 𝜃𝜃 = 0.62 correct to 4 significant figures,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(a) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
(b) 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

Exx2
The equation of the normal drawn to a curve at point (𝑥𝑥1 , 𝑥𝑥2 ) is given by:
1
𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦1 = − (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥1 )
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦1
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥1

1 1
(a) Determine the equation of the normal drawn to the parabola 𝑥𝑥 = 4 𝑡𝑡 2 , 𝑦𝑦 = 2 𝑡𝑡 at 𝑡𝑡 = 2
(b) Find the equation of the normal drawn to the cycloid 𝑥𝑥 = 2(𝜃𝜃 − sin 𝜃𝜃) , 𝑦𝑦 = 2(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃)
𝜋𝜋
at 𝜃𝜃 = 2 rad.

Exx3
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝜋𝜋
Determine the value of 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 , correct to 4 significant figures, at the point where 𝜃𝜃 = 6
rad for the
cycloid 𝑥𝑥 = 5(2𝜃𝜃 − cos 2𝜃𝜃), 𝑦𝑦 = 5(2 sin 𝜃𝜃 − sin 2𝜃𝜃).
Session 5. – 6.5.0. Differentiation of Implicit Functions
Differentiation of implicit functions is another special technique, but it occurs often enough to be
important. It is needed for more complicated problems involving different rates of change. Up to
this session we have been finding derivatives of functions of the form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥); unfortunately,
not all functions fall into this form. However, implicit differentiation is nothing more than a
special case of the function of a function (or the chain rule) for derivatives. Engineering
applications where implicit differentiation is needed are found in optics, electronics, control, and
even some thermodynamics.

At the end of this session, the learners should be able to:

(a) recognize implicit functions.
(b) differentiate simple implicit functions.
(c) differentiate implicit functions containing products and quotients.

6.5.1. – Implicit Functions

When an equation can be written in the form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), it is said to be an explicit function of 𝑥𝑥.
Examples of explicit functions include:
𝑦𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 2
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 +𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = cos2 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 2
𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 4
𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑥𝑥
and
3𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 =
cos 𝑥𝑥

In the above examples, 𝑦𝑦 may be differentiated with respect to 𝑥𝑥 by using standard derivatives, the
product rule and quotient rule of differentiation respectively.

Sometimes with equations involving, say, 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑥𝑥, it is impossible to make 𝑦𝑦 the subject of the
formula. The equation is then called an implicit function and examples of such functions include;
 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 3 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑦𝑦 + tan 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 3 = 0
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 4 = 0
𝑦𝑦 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 = 𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑥
And
sin 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

6.5.2. The Difference Between Implicit and Explicit Functions

If 𝑦𝑦 can be explicitly expressed in terms of 𝑥𝑥, then we say that 𝑦𝑦 is an explicit function, as shown
by the first six examples; that is, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). However, if the relationship 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) is hidden, then
we say that the function is an implicit function, as shown by the last six examples.it is sometimes
impossible to extract 𝑦𝑦 in terms of 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), from an implicit function. An implicit function is
denoted by 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) = 0; that is, 𝑓𝑓 is a function of 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
In this Session, we are interested in finding the derivative, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of implicit functions. We can use the
Formulae Table 3.

6.5.2. – Differentiating Implicit Functions.

It is possible to differentiate an implicit function by using the function of a function rule, which
may be stated as
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Thus, to differentiate 𝑦𝑦 3 with respect to 𝑥𝑥, the substitution 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑦𝑦 3 is made, from which
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3𝑦𝑦 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hence, by the function of a function rule,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑦𝑦 3 ) = (3𝑦𝑦 2 ) ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

A simple rule for differentiating an implicit function is summerised as:

 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[𝑓𝑓(𝑦𝑦)] =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[𝑓𝑓(𝑦𝑦)] ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Eqn 6.5.2.1.

Example 6.5.2.1.
Differentiate the following functions with respect to 𝑥𝑥:
(a) 2𝑦𝑦 4
(b) sin 3𝑡𝑡

Solution 6.5.2.1.
(a) Let 𝑢𝑢 = 2𝑦𝑦 4 , then by the function of a function rule:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (2𝑦𝑦 4 ) ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 8𝑦𝑦 3 ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 8𝑦𝑦 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

(b) Let 𝑢𝑢 = sin 3𝑡𝑡, then, by the function of a function rule:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (sin 3𝑡𝑡) ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3 cos 3𝑡𝑡 ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3 cos 3𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Example 6.5.2.2.
Differentiate the following functions with respect to 𝑥𝑥:
(a) 4 ln 5𝑦𝑦
1
(b) 5 𝑒𝑒 3𝜃𝜃−2

Solution 6.5.2.2.
(a) Let 𝑢𝑢 = 4 ln 5𝑦𝑦, then, using the function of a function rule:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (4 ln 5𝑦𝑦) ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1
(b) Let 𝑢𝑢 = 5 𝑒𝑒 3𝜃𝜃−2, then, applying the function of a function rule:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1 3𝜃𝜃−2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= × = � 𝑒𝑒 �×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1 3𝜃𝜃−2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= � 𝑒𝑒 �×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 3 � 𝑒𝑒 3𝜃𝜃−2 � ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 3𝜃𝜃−2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑒𝑒
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
6.5.3. Differentiating Implicit Functions Containing Products and Quotients
The product and quotient rules of differentiation must be applied when differentiating functions
containing products and quotients of two variables.

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
For example, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑦𝑦) + (𝑦𝑦) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 2 ), by using the product rule.

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥 2 ) (𝑦𝑦) + (𝑦𝑦) (𝑥𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 (2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
By using Eqn 6.5.2.1.,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.5.3.1.
𝑑𝑑
Determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 2 ).

Solution 6.5.3.1.
The expression (2𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 2 ) is a product - [(2𝑥𝑥 3 )(𝑦𝑦 2 )]. Applying the product rule of differentiation,
let 𝑢𝑢 = 2𝑥𝑥 3 and let 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑦𝑦 2 .

Thus,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(2𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = (2𝑥𝑥 3 ) (𝑦𝑦 2 ) + (𝑦𝑦 2 ) (2𝑥𝑥 3 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = (2𝑥𝑥 3 )(2𝑦𝑦 ) + (𝑦𝑦 2 )(6𝑥𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = 4𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Factorizing, we note that 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 is a common factor, it comes out as shown below:

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑥𝑥 3 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 �2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑦𝑦�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.5.3.2.
𝑑𝑑 3𝑦𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �2𝑥𝑥 �.

Solution 6.5.3.2.
3𝑦𝑦
We note that 2𝑥𝑥 is a quotient. We will apply the quotient rule of differentiation with 𝑢𝑢 = 3𝑦𝑦 and
𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑥.

Therefore, we have,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 3𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢
� �= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣 2

Substituting 𝑢𝑢 = 3𝑦𝑦 and 𝑣𝑣 = 2𝑥𝑥 into the quotient rule, we get,

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 3𝑦𝑦 (2𝑥𝑥) (3𝑦𝑦) − (3𝑦𝑦) (2𝑥𝑥)
� �= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 (2𝑥𝑥)2
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 3𝑦𝑦 (2𝑥𝑥) �3 � − (3𝑦𝑦)(2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� �=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑 3𝑦𝑦 6𝑥𝑥 − 6𝑦𝑦
� �= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥 2

6 3
Simplifying by factorization, we get, 4𝑥𝑥 2 = 2𝑥𝑥 2 outside the bracket,

𝑑𝑑 3𝑦𝑦 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� � = 2 �𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.5.3.3.
Differentiate 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 cos 3𝑦𝑦 with respect to 𝑦𝑦.

Solution 6.5.3.3.
We have been given 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 cos 3𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Note that differentiating with respect to 𝑦𝑦 means we will do 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and not the usual 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Therefore, we will do,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑
= (𝑥𝑥 ) + (3𝑥𝑥 cos 3𝑦𝑦)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

We note also that 3𝑥𝑥 cos 3𝑦𝑦 is a product, so we will apply the product rule of differentiation on
them.
Caution:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Be careful and resist the temptation to do any 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . Remember we are differentiating with respect 𝑦𝑦.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 2𝑥𝑥 � � + �(3𝑥𝑥)(−3 sin 3𝑦𝑦) + cos 3𝑦𝑦 �3 ��
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

We simplify from this point onwards.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 2𝑥𝑥 − 9𝑥𝑥 sin(3𝑦𝑦) + 3 cos(3𝑦𝑦)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.5.3.4.
𝑑𝑑
Determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 )

Solution 6.5.3.4.
We note that 3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 is a product so the product rule applies, 𝑢𝑢 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 and 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑦𝑦 3 .

Therefore,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 ) = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 ) = (3𝑥𝑥 2 ) (𝑦𝑦 3 ) + (𝑦𝑦 3 ) (3𝑥𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 ) = 3𝑥𝑥 2 �3𝑦𝑦 2 � + 𝑦𝑦 3 (6𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 ) = 9𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 + 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Factor out 3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(3𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 3 ) = 3𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 �3 + 2𝑦𝑦�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.5.3.5.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Given 𝑧𝑧 = 3�𝑦𝑦 cos 3𝑥𝑥 find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

Solution 6.5.3.5.
1 1
We note that 3�𝑦𝑦 cos 3𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑦𝑦 2 cos 3𝑥𝑥 is a product with 𝑢𝑢 = 3𝑦𝑦 2 and 𝑣𝑣 = cos 3𝑥𝑥.

Therefore,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1
= �3𝑦𝑦 2 � (cos 3𝑥𝑥) + (cos 3𝑥𝑥) �3𝑦𝑦 2 �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= �3𝑦𝑦 2 � (−3 sin 3𝑥𝑥) + (cos 3𝑥𝑥) � × 3� 𝑦𝑦 −2 � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −9 𝑦𝑦 2 sin 3𝑥𝑥 + cos 3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2�𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= cos 3𝑥𝑥 − 9 �𝑦𝑦 sin 3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2�𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos 3𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= �3 � � − 9 �𝑦𝑦 sin 3𝑥𝑥�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2�𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
6.5.4. Further Implicit Differentiation.
Let us now look at another form of implicit functions and how to differentiate them.

Example 6.5.4.1.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 2, find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

Solution 6.5.4.1.
We are familiar with differentiating 𝑥𝑥 3 and 𝑥𝑥 in the above expression and that is straightforward,
but how do we differentiate 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑦𝑦 2 with respect to 𝑥𝑥? If we differentiate 𝑦𝑦 with respect to 𝑥𝑥,
what derivative do we obtain?
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We obtain 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

This derivative is very important. We have done this numerous times in this course. For example,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
if 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3 , then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3𝑥𝑥 2 .

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Differentiating 𝑦𝑦 gives 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

How do we differentiate 𝑦𝑦 2 with respect to 𝑥𝑥?

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Using the general rule for differentiation, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑢𝑛𝑛−1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 with 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑛𝑛 = 2, we obtain,

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑦𝑦 ) = 2𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
So,
𝑑𝑑 3 𝑑𝑑 3 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 2) = (𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝑦𝑦 ) + (𝑥𝑥) + (𝑦𝑦) = (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 1 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 Eqn 6.5.4.1.
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
How do we find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 from this point?
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
By rearranging and collecting the 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 terms on one side of the above equation, Eqn 6.5.4.1., and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
collecting the remaining terms on the other side; that is, by transposing to make 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 the subject of
the equation.
From,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑦 +1+ =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3𝑥𝑥 2 and 1 will be moved to the right-hand side of the equation, and they become negative as
shown below.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑦𝑦 + = −3𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑦𝑦 + = −(3𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑦𝑦 + = −(3𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Next, we factor 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 out on the left-hand side to obtain,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑦𝑦 + 1) = −(3𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

We divide both sides by 2𝑦𝑦 + 1 to obtain, where they cancel on the left-hand side.
(2𝑦𝑦 + 1) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (3𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)
=−
2𝑦𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑦𝑦 + 1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Finally, we have obtained the expression for 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 as shown below.
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (3𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)
=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑦𝑦 + 1

Example 6.5.4.2.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
If 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 3, find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

How do we approach the differentiation of the term, 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 ?

We employ the use of the product rule of differentiation, since 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 × 𝑦𝑦 2 .

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 2 , then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑥𝑥 and let 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑦𝑦 2 , then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Hence, substituting into 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 of the product rule, it gives us,

𝑑𝑑 2 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 ) = (𝑦𝑦 2 ) (2𝑥𝑥) + (𝑥𝑥 2 ) �2𝑦𝑦 �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 ) = 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 Eqn 6.5.4.2.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Similarly, we can use the product rule to differentiate the other term, 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Let 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑥𝑥 , then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1, and let 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑦𝑦, then 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 1. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 2 (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 2 �𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢 �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 2 �𝑦𝑦. 1 + 𝑥𝑥 . �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥) = 2 �𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑
Hence, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 3) will give us,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 2 �𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 � = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Dividing through by 2, because 2 is a common in all the terms,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Collecting like terms together, the terms 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 and 𝑦𝑦, will become negative on the right-hand side.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 = −𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 𝑦𝑦
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Factorising 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 out,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥) = −(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Dividing both sides by (𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦
=− 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥
Factorizing 𝑦𝑦 out of the numerator and factorizing 𝑥𝑥 out of the denominator, we get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 1) 𝑦𝑦
= −� �=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 1) 𝑥𝑥

Example 6.5.4.3.
𝑑𝑑
Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 [ln 𝑦𝑦]

Solution 6.5.4.3.
From 6.18 of the Formulae Table 3,

𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[ln 𝑦𝑦] =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

We have demonstrated using the above examples, that, an implicit function defined in the form
3𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 = 2, may be differentiated term by term with respect to 𝑥𝑥. By using Eqn
6.5.2.1. and standard differentiation, this gives us:
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(3𝑥𝑥 2 ) + (𝑦𝑦 2 ) − (5𝑥𝑥) + (𝑦𝑦) = (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
6𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 5 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 Eqn 6.5.4.1.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
An expression for the derivative 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in terms of 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 may be obtained by rearranging this latter
equation, Eqn 6.5.4.1.:

Therefore, from
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
6𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 −5+1 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The rearrangement can be done by bringing like terms together on either side of the equal sign.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The terms involving 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 will be on one side, and the terms without 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 on another side just as
shown below:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑦𝑦 + 1) = 5 − 6𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Finally, we make 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 the subject by dividing both sides by 2𝑦𝑦 + 1:

2𝑦𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5 − 6𝑥𝑥

=
2𝑦𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑦𝑦 + 1

Which will cancel out on the left to leave,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 5 − 6𝑥𝑥
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑦𝑦 + 1

We now look at some examples of term-by-term implicit differentiation.

Example 6.5.4.4.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Given 2𝑦𝑦 2 − 5𝑥𝑥 4 − 2 − 7𝑦𝑦 3 = 0, determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .

Solution 6.5.4.4.
We proceed by differentiating each term in turn with respect to 𝑥𝑥.

Hence, we have,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(2𝑦𝑦 2 ) − (5𝑥𝑥 4 ) − (2) − (7𝑦𝑦 3 ) = (0)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4𝑦𝑦 − 20 𝑥𝑥 3 − 0 − 21𝑦𝑦 2 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Rearrange the derivative by grouping like terms on side of the equal sign.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4𝑦𝑦 − 21𝑦𝑦 2 = 20𝑥𝑥 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Factor out 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(4𝑦𝑦 − 21) = 20𝑥𝑥 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Divide both sides by 4𝑦𝑦 − 21 to make 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 the subject of the equation.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 20𝑥𝑥 3
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4𝑦𝑦 − 21

Example 6.5.4.5.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Determine the values of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when 𝑥𝑥 = 4 given that 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 25.

Solution 6.5.4.5.
We have been given 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 25.

Differentiating each term with respect to 𝑥𝑥 gives us:

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝑦𝑦 ) = (25)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Making 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 the subject of the equation, we get,
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
=− =−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦

The original equation given was, 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 25. When 𝑥𝑥 = 4, we have,

𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 42 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 25

𝑦𝑦 2 = 25 − 42

𝑦𝑦 = �25 − 42

𝑦𝑦 = √25 − 16

𝑦𝑦 = √9 = ±3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
Therefore, when 𝑥𝑥 = 4, 𝑦𝑦 = ±3, but we found, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 𝑦𝑦

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 4
=− =±
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ±3 3

We note that, 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 25 is the equation of a circle, whose centre is at the origin (0, 0) and has
radius 5, as shown in the image labelled as Figure 46.1 below.

We used implicit differentiation to differentiate the equation 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 25;

Actually, the equation could be transposed to 𝑦𝑦 = √25 − 𝑥𝑥 2 and differentiated using the function
of a function rule.
This will give us,
1
𝑦𝑦 = �25 − 𝑥𝑥 2 = (25 − 𝑥𝑥 2 )2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
= (25 − 𝑥𝑥 2 )−2 (−2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
= (25 − 𝑥𝑥 2 )−2 (−2𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √25 − 𝑥𝑥 2

When 𝑥𝑥 = 4,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √25 − 𝑥𝑥 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4 4
=− =±
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √25 − 42 3
Just the same result as we obtained earlier.

Example 6.5.4.6.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(a) Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 in terms of 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 given 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3 − 5𝑦𝑦 2 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(b) Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when 𝑥𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦𝑦 = 2.

Solution 6.5.4.6.
(a) We proceed by differentiating each term in turn with respect to 𝑥𝑥, to give:

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(4𝑥𝑥 2 ) + (2𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 3 ) − (5𝑦𝑦 2 ) = (0)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
8𝑥𝑥 + (2𝑥𝑥)(3𝑦𝑦 2 ) + (𝑦𝑦 3 )(2) − 10𝑦𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
8𝑥𝑥 + 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 + 2𝑦𝑦 3 − 10𝑦𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Rearrange to make 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 the subject of the equation.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 10𝑦𝑦) = −(8𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 3 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Dividing through by 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 10𝑦𝑦, we have,

6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 10𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 8𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 3

� � =−
6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 10𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 10𝑦𝑦

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 8𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 3

=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 − 10𝑦𝑦

We get rid of the negative sign by multiplying through by −1 to obtain,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 8𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 3 4𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 3

= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10𝑦𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 2 𝑦𝑦(5 − 3𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥)

(b) When 𝑥𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦𝑦 = 2,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4(1) + (23 )
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (2)[5 − 3(1)(2)]

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4+8
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2(5 − 6)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 12
= = −6
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −2
Example 6.5.4.7.
Find the gradients of the tangents drawn to the circle 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 3 at 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

Solution 6.5.4.7.
The given equation is 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 3 at 𝑥𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The gradient of the tangent is given by 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

We differentiate each term in the equation of the given circle with respect to 𝑥𝑥 to obtain an
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
expression for 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 which gives us:

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(𝑥𝑥 ) + (𝑦𝑦 2 ) − (2𝑥𝑥) − (−2𝑦𝑦) = (3)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑦 −2−2 =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

We rearrange by grouping like terms to obtain:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(2𝑦𝑦 − 2) = 2 − 2𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

We divide both sides by 2𝑦𝑦 − 2 to obtain:

(2𝑦𝑦 − 2) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 − 2𝑥𝑥

=
2𝑦𝑦 − 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑦𝑦 − 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 1 − 𝑥𝑥
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2𝑦𝑦 − 2 𝑦𝑦 − 1

After dividing through by 2

We now look for the value of 𝑦𝑦 when 𝑥𝑥 = 2 from the original equation, 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 3 at
𝑥𝑥 = 2.

Hence,
22 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 2(2) − 2𝑦𝑦 = 3

4 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 4 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 3

𝑦𝑦 2 − 2𝑦𝑦 − 3 = 0
This is a quadratic which factorises as:

𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑦 − 3𝑦𝑦 − 3 = 0

𝑦𝑦(𝑦𝑦 + 1) − 3(𝑦𝑦 + 1) = 0

(𝑦𝑦 + 1)(𝑦𝑦 − 3) = 0
We get 𝑦𝑦 = −1 or 𝑦𝑦 = 3

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We use the 𝑦𝑦-values obtained, 𝑦𝑦 = −1 and 𝑦𝑦 = 3 in the expression for the gradient, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
to the
tangents to the circle.

Hence, when 𝑥𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦𝑦 = −1, we have

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − 𝑥𝑥
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 − 1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1−2 1 1
= =− =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −1 − 1 −2 2
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1
=− =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −2 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

Also, when 𝑥𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦𝑦 = 3, we have

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 − 𝑥𝑥 1 − 2
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 − 1 3 − 1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

1
Therefore, the gradients of the tangents are ± 2

The circle whose equation is 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 3 has its centre at (1, 1) and radius 𝑟𝑟 = √5 as
shown in the image in Figure 32.2, with two gradients of the tangents.

Example 6.5.4.8.
Pressure 𝑝𝑝 and volume 𝑣𝑣 of a gas are related by the law 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾 = 𝑘𝑘, where 𝛾𝛾 and 𝑘𝑘 are constants.
Show that the rate of change of pressure,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −𝛾𝛾
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Solution 6.5.4.8.
The law given is 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾 = 𝑘𝑘

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We are to find an expression that involves 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Let us begin by making 𝑝𝑝 the subject of the given equation, or the law given. Then it follows that,
𝑘𝑘
𝑝𝑝 = = 𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 −𝛾𝛾
𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾

We can apply the function of a function rule on the above expression to obtain,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

From
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 −𝛾𝛾
We have,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
= (𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 −𝛾𝛾 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −𝛾𝛾 𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 −𝛾𝛾−1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾+1
We put
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾+1
in the expression for
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
to obtain,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾+1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

In the original law, 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾 = 𝑘𝑘.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When we put 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾 in the expression for 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
above, we have,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝛾𝛾(𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾+1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝛾𝛾(𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾+1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝛾𝛾 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

The 𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾 will cancel out,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾𝑣𝑣 𝛾𝛾 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝛾𝛾 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
And we obtain,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
which becomes,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −𝛾𝛾
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
as the required expression.
Exx1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 for the equations,

(a) 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑦𝑦 + 1 = 0

(b) 2𝑦𝑦 3 − 𝑦𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 2 = 0

Exx2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Given 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 9, evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when 𝑥𝑥 = √5 and 𝑦𝑦 = 2

Exx3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 for

(a) 𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 sin 4𝑦𝑦 = 0

(b) 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑥 3 = sin 𝑦𝑦
(c) 3𝑦𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 4 + 𝑥𝑥
Session 6. – 6.6.0. Logarithmic Differentiation.
Logarithmic differentiation is a means of differentiating algebraically complicated functions or
functions for which the ordinary rules of differentiation do not apply. The technique is performed
in cases where it is easier to differentiate the logarithm of the function rather than the function
itself. Logarithmic differentiation relies on the function of a function rule (i.e, the chain rule) as
well as properties logarithms (in particular, the natural logarithm, or logarithm to base 𝑒𝑒) to
transform products to sums and divisions into subtractions. It can also be applied to functions
raised to the power of variables of functions. Logarithmic differentiation occurs often enough in
engineering calculations to make it an important technique.

At the end of this session, the learner should be able to:

(a) state the laws of logarithms.
(b) differentiate simple logarithmic functions.
(c) differentiate an implicit function involving logarithms.
(d) differentiate more difficult logarithmic functions involving products and quotients.
(e) Differentiate functions of the form 𝑦𝑦 = [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)]𝑥𝑥 .

6.6.1. Introduction to Logarithmic Differentiation

With certain functions containing more complicated products and quotients, differentiation is often
made easier if the logarithm of the function is taken before differentiating. This technique, called
‘logarithmic differentiation’ is achieved with knowledge of
(i) The Laws of Logarithms
(ii) The differential coefficients of logarithmic functions and
(iii) The differentiation of implicit functions

6.6.2. Laws of Logarithms

Three laws of logarithms may be expressed as:
(i) log(𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵) = log 𝐴𝐴 + log 𝐵𝐵
𝐴𝐴
(ii) log �𝐵𝐵� = log 𝐴𝐴 − log 𝐵𝐵
(iii) log 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 log 𝐴𝐴

In calculus, Napierian logarithms (i.e., logarithms to a base of ‘e’) are invariably used. Thus for
two functions 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) the laws of logarithms may be expressed as:
 (i) ln[ 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)] = ln 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + ln 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
(ii) ln � � = ln 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) − ln 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
(iii) ln[𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)]𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 ln 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

Taking Napierian logarithms of both sides of the equation

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑦𝑦 =
ℎ(𝑥𝑥)
gives:
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥). 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln � �
ℎ(𝑥𝑥)

This above expression may be simplified using the above laws of logarithms, giving us,
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + ln 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) − ln ℎ(𝑥𝑥)

This latter form of the equation is often easier to differentiate.

6.6.3. Differentiation of Logarithmic Functions.

The differential coefficient of the logarithmic function ln 𝑥𝑥 if given by:
𝑑𝑑 1
(ln 𝑥𝑥) =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

More generally, it may be shown that:

𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[ln 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)] = Eqn 6.6.3.1.
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)

For example, if 𝑦𝑦 = ln(3𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 1), then,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 6𝑥𝑥 + 2
= 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3𝑥𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑥 − 1

Similarly, if 𝑦𝑦 = ln(sin 3𝑥𝑥), then

 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 cos 3𝑥𝑥
= = 3 cot 3𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sin 3𝑥𝑥

As explained in the Session 5, by using the function of a function rule:

𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(ln 𝑦𝑦) = �𝑦𝑦� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Eqn 6.6.3.2.

Differentiation of an expression such as,

(1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 �(𝑥𝑥 − 1)
𝑦𝑦 =
𝑥𝑥 �(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
may be achieved by using the product and quotient rules of differentiation; however, the working
would be rather complicated. With logarithmic differentiation the following procedure is adopted:
(i) Take the Napierian logarithms of both sides of the equation.

(1+𝑥𝑥)2 �(𝑥𝑥−1)
Thus ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln � �
𝑥𝑥�(𝑥𝑥+2)
1
(1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 (𝑥𝑥 − 1)2
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln � 1 �
𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2

(ii) Applying the laws of logarithms.

Thus
1 1
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln(1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 + ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1)2 − ln 𝑥𝑥 − ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)2

after applying the second law of logarithms, and simplifying further,

1 1
ln 𝑦𝑦 = 2 ln(1 + 𝑥𝑥) + ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1) − ln 𝑥𝑥 − ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
2 2

after applying the third law of logarithms.

(iii) We can now differentiate each term in turn with respect to 𝑥𝑥 by using Eqn 6.6.3.1. and
Eqn 6.6.3.2.

Therefore,
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1
(ln 𝑦𝑦) = (2 ln(1 + 𝑥𝑥)) + � ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1)� − (ln 𝑥𝑥) − � (𝑥𝑥 + 2)�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
 1 1
1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2 1
= + − − 2
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + 2

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 1 1 1
= + − −
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2(𝑥𝑥 − 1) 𝑥𝑥 2(𝑥𝑥 + 2)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 1 1 1
= 𝑦𝑦 � + − − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2(𝑥𝑥 − 1) 𝑥𝑥 2(𝑥𝑥 + 2)

(iv) Remember, originally,

(1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 �(𝑥𝑥 − 1)
𝑦𝑦 =
𝑥𝑥 �(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
(v) We substitute,

(1+𝑥𝑥)2 �(𝑥𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑦𝑦 = into the expression we have obtained for 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 to arrive at,
𝑥𝑥 �(𝑥𝑥+2)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 �(𝑥𝑥 − 1) 2 1 1 1

= � + − − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 �(𝑥𝑥 + 2) 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2(𝑥𝑥 − 1) 𝑥𝑥 2(𝑥𝑥 + 2)

Example 6.6.3.1.
Use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate,
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 2)3
𝑦𝑦 =
(𝑥𝑥 − 3)

Solution 6.6.3.1.
We have been given,
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 2)3
𝑦𝑦 =
(𝑥𝑥 − 3)

(i) We apply the procedure of taking the Napierian logarithms of both sides of the
equation,
 (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 2)3
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln � �
(𝑥𝑥 − 3)

(ii) Applying the laws of logarithms, Law (i) and Law (ii), we get,

ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln(𝑥𝑥 + 1) + ln(𝑥𝑥 − 2)3 − ln (𝑥𝑥 − 3)

Also, we apply Law (iii) to get,

ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln(𝑥𝑥 + 1) + 3 ln(𝑥𝑥 − 2) − ln (𝑥𝑥 − 3)

(iii) We differentiate the simplified equation with respect to 𝑥𝑥, by using Eqn 6.6.3.1. and
Eqn 6.6.3.2.
1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 3 1
= + −
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (𝑥𝑥 − 2) (𝑥𝑥 − 3)

(iv) Rearranging gives us,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 3 1
= 𝑦𝑦 � + − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (𝑥𝑥 − 2) (𝑥𝑥 − 3)

(𝑥𝑥+1)(𝑥𝑥−2)3
(v) Remembering to substitute the original value for 𝑦𝑦 = , we get,
(𝑥𝑥−3)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 2)3 1 3 1

= � + − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 − 3) (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (𝑥𝑥 − 2) (𝑥𝑥 − 3)

Example 6.6.3.2.
�(𝑥𝑥−2)3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥+1)2(2𝑥𝑥−1) with respect to 𝑥𝑥 and evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when 𝑥𝑥 = 3.

Solution 6.6.3.2.
We have been given,

�(𝑥𝑥 − 2)3
𝑦𝑦 =
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)
We follow the procedure for logarithmic differentiation.

(i) We take natural logarithms of both sides of the equation to obtain,

�(𝑥𝑥 − 2)3
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln � �
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)

3
(𝑥𝑥 − 2)2
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln � �
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)
(ii)
3
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln(𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 − ln(𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 − ln(2𝑥𝑥 − 1)

3
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln(𝑥𝑥 − 2) − 2 ln(𝑥𝑥 + 1) − ln(2𝑥𝑥 − 1)
2

(iii) Differentiating with respect to 𝑥𝑥, we get,

3
1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2 2
= − −
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 − 2) (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)
(iv)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 2 2
= 𝑦𝑦 � − − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2(𝑥𝑥 − 2) (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)

(v)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �(𝑥𝑥 − 2)3 3 2 2

= � − − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥𝑥 − 1) 2(𝑥𝑥 − 2) (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)
2

When 𝑥𝑥 = 3,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �(3 − 2)3 3 2 2

= � − − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (3 + 1) (2(3) − 1) 2(3 − 2) (3 + 1) (2(3) − 1)
2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �(1)3 3 2 2
= � − − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (4) (6 − 1) 2(1) (4) (6 − 1)
2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ±1 3 1 2
= � − − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 80 2 2 5
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 15 − 5 − 4
=± � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 80 10

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 3
=± � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 80 5

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3
=± = ±0.0075
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 400

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= ±0.0075
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.6.3.3.
3𝑒𝑒 2𝜃𝜃 sec 2𝜃𝜃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Given 𝑦𝑦 = determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
√𝜃𝜃−2

Solution 6.6.3.3.
(i) Since,
3𝑒𝑒 2𝜃𝜃 sec 2𝜃𝜃
𝑦𝑦 =
√𝜃𝜃 − 2

then,
3𝑒𝑒 2𝜃𝜃 sec 2𝜃𝜃
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln � �
√𝜃𝜃 − 2

3𝑒𝑒 2𝜃𝜃 sec 2𝜃𝜃

ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln � 1 �
(𝜃𝜃 − 2)2

(ii)
1
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln 3𝑒𝑒 2𝜃𝜃 + ln sec 2𝜃𝜃 − ln(𝜃𝜃 − 2)2

1
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln 3 + 2𝜃𝜃 ln 𝑒𝑒 + ln sec 2𝜃𝜃 − ln(𝜃𝜃 − 2)
2
 Please note:
ln 𝑒𝑒 = log 𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒 = 1

1
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln 3 + 2𝜃𝜃 + ln sec 2𝜃𝜃 − ln(𝜃𝜃 − 2)
2

(iii) We can now differentiate with respect to 𝜃𝜃.

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 sec 2𝜃𝜃 tan 2𝜃𝜃 1 1
= 0 +2 + −
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sec 2𝜃𝜃 2 𝜃𝜃 − 2

(iv) We rearrange to get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 sec 2𝜃𝜃 tan 2𝜃𝜃 1 1
= 𝑦𝑦 �2 + − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 sec 2𝜃𝜃 2 𝜃𝜃 − 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= 𝑦𝑦 �2 + 2 tan 2𝜃𝜃 − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2(𝜃𝜃 − 2)

(v) Substituting
3𝑒𝑒 2𝜃𝜃 sec 2𝜃𝜃
𝑦𝑦 =
√𝜃𝜃 − 2
into
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= 𝑦𝑦 �2 + 2 tan 2𝜃𝜃 − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2(𝜃𝜃 − 2)

We get
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3𝑒𝑒 2𝜃𝜃 sec 2𝜃𝜃 1
= �2 + 2 tan 2𝜃𝜃 − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √𝜃𝜃 − 2 2(𝜃𝜃 − 2)

Example 6.6.3.4.
𝑥𝑥 3 ln 2𝑥𝑥
Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥
with respect to 𝑥𝑥.
Solution 6.6.3.4.

We have been given,

𝑥𝑥 3 ln 2𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 sin 𝑥𝑥

As usual we use the logarithmic differentiation approach by taking logarithms on both sides of the
equation.
(i) Logarithms on both sides
𝑥𝑥 3 ln 2𝑥𝑥
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln � �
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥

(ii) Apply laws of logarithms to expand and simplify,

ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥 3 + ln(ln 2𝑥𝑥) − ln 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 − ln sin 𝑥𝑥

ln 𝑦𝑦 = 3 ln 𝑥𝑥 + ln (ln 2𝑥𝑥) − 𝑥𝑥 − ln sin 𝑥𝑥

(iii) Differentiating with respect to 𝑥𝑥, we get,

1
1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 �𝑥𝑥� cos 𝑥𝑥
= + −1−
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 ln 2𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥

(iv) We rearrange to obtain,

1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 �𝑥𝑥� cos 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑦𝑦 � + −1− �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 ln 2𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥

(v) Substituting
𝑥𝑥 3 ln 2𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 =
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 sin 𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
into 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , we get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 3 ln 2𝑥𝑥 3 1
= 𝑥𝑥 � + − 1 − cot 𝑥𝑥�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 sin 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 ln 2𝑥𝑥
Exx1
Use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate the given functions with respect to the variable.
(𝑥𝑥−2)(𝑥𝑥+1)
(i) 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥−1)(𝑥𝑥+3)
(𝑥𝑥+1)(2𝑥𝑥+1)3
(ii) 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥−3)2 (𝑥𝑥+2)4
𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥
(iii)
�(𝑥𝑥−4)

Exx2
Use logarithmic differentiation to differentiate the given functions with respect to the variable.
(i) 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
2𝑥𝑥 4 tan 𝑥𝑥
(ii) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑥𝑥 ln 2𝑥𝑥

Exx3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥+1)2 √2𝑥𝑥−1
Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when 𝑥𝑥 = 1, given that 𝑦𝑦 =
�(𝑥𝑥+3)3

6.6.4. Differentiation of [𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)]𝑥𝑥

Whenever an expression to be differentiated contains a term raised to a power which is itself a
function of the variable, then logarithmic differentiation must be used. For example, the
𝑥𝑥
differentiation of expressions such as 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 , (𝑥𝑥 + 2)𝑥𝑥 , �(𝑥𝑥 − 1) and 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥+2 can only be achieved
using logarithmic differentiation.
Example 6.6.4.1.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Determine 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 given 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 .

Solution 6.6.4.1.
We begin by taking the Napierian logarithms of both sides of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 , which gives us:
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
We apply the Law 3 for logarithms to obtain,
ln 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ln 𝑥𝑥
We differentiate both sides with respect 𝑥𝑥, noting that the RHS is a product.
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(ln 𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 (ln 𝑥𝑥) + ln 𝑥𝑥 (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We get,
1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= (𝑥𝑥) � � + ln 𝑥𝑥 (1)
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 1 + ln 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑦𝑦(1 + ln 𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦
We substitute the value of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 in the expression for 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 to get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 (1 + ln 𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.6.4.2.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when 𝑥𝑥 = −1, given 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 + 2)𝑥𝑥 .
Solution 6.6.4.2.
We begin by taking the Napierian logarithms of both sides. We get,
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)𝑥𝑥
We apply the Law 3 for logarithms to obtain,

ln 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
We differentiate both sides with respect 𝑥𝑥, by using the product rule on the RHS,

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(ln 𝑦𝑦) = (𝑥𝑥) (ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)) + [ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)] (𝑥𝑥)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= (𝑥𝑥) � � + [ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)](1)
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 + 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑦𝑦 � + ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 + 2

Originally, 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 + 2)𝑥𝑥 ,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
= (𝑥𝑥 + 2)𝑥𝑥 � + ln(𝑥𝑥 + 2)�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 + 2

When 𝑥𝑥 = −1,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −1
= (−1 + 2)−1 � + ln(−1 + 2)�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −1 + 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −1
= (1)−1 � + ln 1�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 1(−1 + 0) = (1)(−1) = −1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Example 6.6.4.3.
Determine
𝑥𝑥
(a) The differential coefficient of √𝑥𝑥 − 1 and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
(b) Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 when 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

Solution 6.6.4.3.
1 𝑚𝑚
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
(a) Given 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 − 1, it can rewritten as 𝑦𝑦 = (𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑥𝑥 , by the law of indices √𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛
Now, we can take the Napierian logarithms on both sides to get:

1
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑥𝑥
Applying Logarithms Law 3, we get

1
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1)
𝑥𝑥

We differentiate both sides with respect 𝑥𝑥 to get, by the product rule on the RHS,

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 1
= ([ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1)] + [ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1)] � �
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 1 1
= � � + [ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1)] �− 2 �
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 1 𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1)
= 𝑦𝑦 � − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 − 1) 𝑥𝑥 2

𝑥𝑥
But we began with 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 − 1.

𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Substituting 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 − 1 the expression for 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , we get,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 1 ln(𝑥𝑥 − 1)
= √𝑥𝑥 − 1 � − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 − 1) 𝑥𝑥 2
 (b) When 𝑥𝑥 = 2,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 1 ln(2 − 1)
= √2 − 1 � − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2(2 − 1) 22

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 ln(1)
= ±1 � − �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2(1) 4

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= ±1 � − 0�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
=±
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

Example 6.6.4.4.
Differentiate 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥+2 with respect to 𝑥𝑥.

Solution 6.6.4.4.

Let 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥+2
Taking the Napierian logarithms of both sides, gives us:
ln 𝑦𝑦 = ln 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥+2

Applying the third law logarithms, we get,

ln 𝑦𝑦 = (3𝑥𝑥 + 2) ln 𝑥𝑥

Differentiating with respect 𝑥𝑥, we have,

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
(ln 𝑦𝑦) = (3𝑥𝑥 + 2) (ln 𝑥𝑥) + (ln 𝑥𝑥) (3𝑥𝑥 + 2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= (3𝑥𝑥 + 2) � � + (ln 𝑥𝑥) (3)
𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= 𝑦𝑦 �(3𝑥𝑥 + 2) � � + (ln 𝑥𝑥) (3)�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3𝑥𝑥 + 2
= 𝑦𝑦 � + 3 ln 𝑥𝑥�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

But 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥+2

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Therefore, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 becomes,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3𝑥𝑥 + 2
= 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥+2 � + 3 ln 𝑥𝑥�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
= 𝑥𝑥 3𝑥𝑥+2 �3 + + 3 ln 𝑥𝑥�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
Exercises For Practice.
Exx1
(a) Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 with respect to 𝑥𝑥
(b) Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)𝑥𝑥 with respect to 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥
(c) Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = √𝑥𝑥 + 3 with respect to 𝑥𝑥
(d) Differentiate 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 4𝑥𝑥+1 with respect to 𝑥𝑥

Exx2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Show that when 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑥𝑥 = 1, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2

Exx3
𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥
Evaluate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � �(𝑥𝑥 − 2) � when 𝑥𝑥 = 3.

This is the of Unit 6.

This is the End of the Module.

References:
James Stewart, Lothar Redlin, Saleem Watson, Precalculus Mathematics for Calculus 6e
John Bird, Engineering Mathematics, Fifth Edition
John Bird, Higher Engineering Mathematics, Seventh Edition
Kuldeep Singh, Engineering Mathematics Through Applications, Second Edition