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9.9 SLAB ANALYSIS BY THE DIRECT DESIGN METHOD (DDM).

The direct-design method also could have been called “the direct-analysis method,” because
this method essentially prescribes values for moments in various parts of the slab panel
without the need for a structural analysis. The reader should be aware that this design
method was introduced in an era when most engineering calculations were made with a
slide rule and computer software was not available to do the repetitive calculations required
to analyze a continuous-floor slab system. Thus, for continuous slab panels with relatively
uniform lengths and subjected to distributed loading, a series of moment coefficients were
developed that would lead to safe flexural designs of two-way floor systems.

9.9.1 Limitations on the Use of the Direct-Design Method.

The direct-design method is easier to use than the equivalent-frame method, but can be
applied only to fairly regular multipanel slabs. The limitations, given in ACI Code Section
13.6.1, include the following:
1. There must be a minimum of three continuous spans in each direction. Thus, a
ninepanel structure ( ) is the smallest that can be considered. If there are fewer
than three panels, the interior negative moments from the direct-design method
tend to be too small.
2. Rectangular panels must have a long-span/short-span ratio that is not greater than .
One-way action predominates as the span ratio reaches and exceeds .
3. Successive span lengths in each direction shall not differ by more than one third of
the longer span. This limit is imposed so that certain standard reinforcement cutoff
details can be used.
4. Columns may be offset from the basic rectangular grid of the building by up to 0.1
times the span parallel to the offset. In a building laid out in this way, the actual
column locations are used in determining the spans of the slab to be used in
calculating the design moments.
5. All loads must be due to gravity only and uniformly distributed over an entire panel.
The direct-design method cannot be used for unbraced, laterally loaded frames,
foundation mats, or prestressed slabs.
6. The service (unfactored) live load shall not exceed two times the service dead load.
Strip or checkerboard loadings with large ratios of live load to dead load may lead to
moments larger than those assumed in this method of analysis.
7. For a panel with beams between supports on all sides, the relative stiffness of the
beams in the two perpendicular directions given by ( ) ( ) shall not be less
than or greater than . The term was defined in the prior section, and and
are the spans in the two directions.
Limitations and do not allow use of the direct-design method for slab panels that
transmit load as one-way slabs.

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9.9.2 Column and middle strips.

In both direct design and equivalent frame methods, a typical panel is divided, for purposes
of design, into column strips and middle strips. A column strip is defined as a strip of slab
having a width on each side of the column centerline equal to one-fourth the smaller of the
panel dimensions and . Such a strip includes column-line beams, if present. A middle
strip is a design strip bounded by two column strips. In all cases, , is defined as the span in
the direction of the moment analysis and as the span in the lateral direction measured
center to center of the support. In the case of monolithic construction, beams are defined to
include that part of the slab on each side of the beam extending a distance equal to the
projection of the beam above or below the slab (whichever is greater) but not greater
than 4 times the slab thickness (see Section 9.4).

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9.9.3 Total Static Moment at Factored Loads.

For purposes of calculating the total static moment in a panel, the clear span in the
direction of moments is used. The clear span is defined to extend from face to face of the
columns, capitals, brackets, or walls but is not to be less than . The total factored
moment in a span, for a strip bounded laterally by the centerline of the panel on each side of
the centerline of supports, is

The face of the support where the

negative moments should be
calculated is illustrated in the figure
below. The length is measured in a
direction perpendicular to and
equals the direction between center
to center of supports (width of slab).
The total moment calculated in
the long direction will be referred to
here as and that in the short
direction, as .
Once the total moment, , is
calculated in one direction, it is
divided into a positive moment,
, and a negative moment, ,
such that . Then
each moment, and , is
distributed across the width of the slab between the column and middle strips.

9.9.4 Assignment of positive and negative moments.

For interior spans, the total static moment is apportioned between the critical positive and
negative bending sections according to the following ratios:
Negative factored moment:
Positive factored moment:
The critical section for negative bending is taken at the face of rectangular supports, or at
the face of an equivalent square support having the same cross-sectional area as a round
support.
In the case of end spans, the apportionment of the total static moment among the three
critical moment sections (interior negative, positive, and exterior negative, as illustrated by
the figure below) depends upon the flexural restraint provided for the slab by the exterior
column or the exterior wall, as the case may be, and depends also upon the presence or
absence of beams on the column lines. ACI Code 13.6.3 specifies five alternative sets of
moment distribution coefficients for end spans, as shown in the next table and figure.

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9.9.5 Lateral Distribution of Moments (between Column Strips and Middle Strips)
Having distributed the moment to the positive and negative-moment sections as just
described, the designer still must distribute these design moments across the width of the
critical sections. For design purposes, it is convenient to consider the moments constant
within the bounds of a middle strip or column strip unless there is a beam present on the
column line. In the latter case, because of its greater stiffness, the beam will tend to take a
larger share of the column-strip moment than the adjacent slab. The distribution of total
negative or positive moment between slab middle strips, slab column strips, and beams
depends upon the ratio , the relative stiffness of the beam and the slab, and the degree
of torsional restraint provided by the edge beam.
A convenient parameter defining the relative stiffness of the beam and slab spanning in
either direction is

in which and are the moduli of elasticity of the beam and slab concrete (usually the
same) and and are the moments of inertia of the effective beam and the slab.
Subscripted parameters and are used to identify computed for the directions of
, and , respectively.
The flexural stiffnesses of the beam and slab may be based on the gross concrete section,
neglecting reinforcement and possible cracking, and variations due to column capitals and
drop panels may be neglected. For the beam, if present, and for the slab, are
defined as in Section 9.4.
The relative restraint provided by the torsional resistance of the effective transverse edge
beam is reflected by the parameter , defined as

where , as before, is calculated for the slab spanning in direction , and having width
bounded by panel centerlines in the direction. The constant pertains to the torsional
rigidity of the effective transverse beam, which is defined according to ACI Code 13.7.5 as
the largest of the following:
1. A portion of the slab having a width equal to that of the column, bracket, or capital in
the direction in which moments are taken,
2. The portion of the slab specified in 1 plus that part of any transverse beam above and
below the slab,
3. The transverse beam defined as in Section 9.4.
The constant is calculated by dividing the section into its component rectangles, each
having smaller dimension and larger dimension , and summing the contributions of all
the parts by means of the equation

∑( )

The subdivision can be done in such a way as to maximize .

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With these parameters defined, ACI Code 13.6.4 distributes the negative and positive
moments between column strips and middle strips, assigning to the column strips the
percentages of positive and negative moments shown in the next table. Linear interpolations
are to be made between the values shown.

Example (Calculation of Moments in an Interior Panel of a Flat Plate).

An interior panel of a flat-plate floor in an apartment building shown below. The slab
thickness is . The slab supports a design live load of and a superimposed
dead load of for partitions. The columns and slab have the same strength of
concrete. The story height is . Compute the column-strip and middle-strip moments
in the short direction of the panel.

Solution:

1. Compute the factored loads.

2. Compute the moments in the short span of the slab.

(a) Compute and and divide the slab into column and middle strips.

The column strip extends the smaller of or on each side of the column
centerline (ACI Code Section 13.2.1). Thus, the column strip extends on each
side of column centerline. The total width of the column strip is . Each half-middle strip
extends from the edge of the column strip to the centerline of the panel. The total width of
two half-middle strips is .

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(b) Compute .

(c) Divide into negative and positive moments. From ACI Code Section 13.6.3.2,

Negative moment
Positive moment

This process is illustrated in the figure (a) below, and the resulting distribution of total
moments is shown in figure (b).

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(d) Divide the moments between the column and middle strips.
Negative moments: From Table (page 299) for ( because there
are no beams between columns and in this panel),

Half of this goes to each adjacent half-middle strip. Because the

adjacent bays have the same width, , a similar moment will be assigned to the other half of
each middle strip so that the total middle-strip negative moment is .

Positive moments: From Table (page 299), where

These calculations are illustrated in figure (a) below. The resulting distributions of moments
in the column strip and middle strip are summarized in figure (c).

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In the next figure, the moments in each strip have been divided by the width of that strip.

3. Compute the moments in the long span of the slab. Although it was not asked for in
this example, in a slab design, it now would be necessary to repeat steps 2(a) to 2(d)
for the long span.

4. Design the middle and the column strips for these moments and find the
reinforcement area for each strip.

9.10 SLAB ANALYSIS BY THE EQUIVALENT FRAME METHOD (EFM).

The ACI Code presents two general methods for calculating the longitudinal distribution of
moments in two-way slab systems. These are the direct-design method (presented in the
previous section) and equivalent-frame methods, which are presented in this section.
Equivalent-frame methods are intended for use in analyzing moments in any practical slab–
column frame. Their scope is thus wider than the direct-design method, which is subject to
the limitations presented in Section 9.9.1 (ACI Code Section 13.6.1). In the direct-design
method, the statical moment, is calculated for each slab span. This moment is then divided
between positive- and negative-moment regions using arbitrary moment coefficients, which
are adjusted to reflect pattern loadings. For equivalent-frame methods, a stiffness analyses
of a slab–column frame is used to determine the longitudinal distribution of bending
moments, including possible pattern loadings. The transverse distribution of moments to
column and middle strips, as defined in the prior section, is the same for both methods.
The design requirements can be explained as follows.
1. Description of the equivalent frame: An equivalent frame is a two-dimensional
building frame obtained by cutting the three-dimensional building along lines
midway between columns (see the figure below). The resulting equivalent frames are
considered separately in the longitudinal and transverse directions of the building.
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For vertical loads, each floor is analyzed separately, with the far ends of the upper
and lower columns assumed to be fixed. The slab-beam may be assumed to be fixed
at any support two panels away from the support considered, because the vertical
loads contribute very little to the moment at that support. For lateral loads, the
equivalent frame consists of all the floors and extends for the full height of the
building, because the forces at each floor are a function of the lateral forces on all
floors above the considered level. Analysis of frames can also be made using
computer programs.

2. Load assumptions: When the ratio of the service live load to the service dead load is
less than or equal to , the structural analysis of the frame can be made with the
factored dead and live loads acting on all spans instead of a pattern loading. When
the ratio of the service live load to the service dead load is greater than , pattern
loading must be used, considering the following conditions:
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a. Only of the full-factored live load may be used for the pattern loading
analysis.
b. The maximum negative bending moment in the slab at the support is
obtained by loading only the two adjacent spans.
c. The maximum positive moment near a midspan is obtained by loading only
alternate spans.
d. The design moments must not be less than those occurring with a full-
factored live load on all panels (ACI Code, Section 13.7.6).
e. The critical negative moments are considered to be acting at the face of a
rectangular column or at the face of the equivalent square column having
the same area for nonrectangular sections.
3. Slab-beam moment of inertia: The ACI Code specifies that the variation in moment
of inertia along the longitudinal axes of the columns and slab beams must be taken
into account in the analysis of frames. The critical region is located between the
centerline of the column and the face of the column, bracket, or capital. This region
may be considered as a thickened section of the floor slab. To account for the large
depth of the column and its reduced effective width in contact with the slab beam,
the ACI Code, Section 13.7.3.3, specifies that the moment of inertia of the slab beam
between the center of the column and the face of the support is to be assumed equal
to that of the slab beam at the face of the column divided by the quantity
— , where is the column width in the transverse direction and is the
width of the slab beam. The area of the gross section can be used to calculate the
moment of inertia of the slab beam.
4. Column moment of inertia: The ACI Code, Section 13.7.4, states that the moment of
inertia of the column is to be assumed infinite from the top of the slab to the bottom
of the column capital or slab beams.

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5. Column stiffness, , is defined by

∑ ∑
where ∑ is the sum of the stiffness of the upper and lower columns at their ends,

∑
( )

∑( )

6. Column moments: In frame analysis, moments determined for the equivalent

columns at the upper end of the column below the slab and at the lower end of the
column above the slab must be used in the design of a column.
7. Negative moments at the supports: The ACI Code, Section 13.7.7, states that for an
interior column, the factored negative moment is to be taken at the face of the
column or capital but at a distance not greater than from the center of the
column. For an exterior column, the factored negative moment is to be taken at a
section located at half the distance between the face of the column and the edge of
the support. Circular section columns must be treated as square columns with the
same area.
8. Sum of moments: A two-way slab floor system that satisfied the limitations of the
direct design method can also be analyzed by the equivalent frame method. To
ensure that both methods will produce similar results, the ACI Code, Section 13.7.7,
states that the computed moments determined by the equivalent frame method may
be reduced in such proportion that the numerical sum of the positive and average
negative moments used in the design must not exceed the total statical moment, .

9.11 SHEAR DESIGN IN FLAT PLATES.

Shear strength of two-way slabs was discussed in section 9.6.

Shear Reinforcement for Two-Way Slabs, two types of shear reinforcement will be discussed
only:

 Stirrups:
ACI Code Section 11.11.3 allows the use of single-leg, multiple-leg and closed stirrups,
provided there are longitudinal bars in all corners of the stirrups.
Stirrups are allowed in slabs with effective depths, , that exceed the larger of or
16 times the stirrup diameter. The precision required to bend and place either the closed
stirrups or the multiple-leg stirrups makes these types of shear reinforcement labor-
intensive and expensive. As a result, shear reinforcement consisting of stirrups or bent
reinforcement is not used widely.

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According to ACI Code Sections:

11.11.3.1 — shall be computed by Eq. (11-2) ( ), where shall not be taken
greater than √ , and shall be calculated in accordance with 11.4.
In Eq. (11-15) ( ), shall be taken as the cross-sectional area of all legs
of reinforcement on one peripheral line that is geometrically similar to the
perimeter of the column section.
11.11.3.2 — shall not be taken greater than √ .
11.11.3.3 — The distance between the column face and the first line of stirrup legs that
surround the column shall not exceed . The spacing between adjacent stirrup legs in the
first line of shear reinforcement shall not exceed measured in a direction parallel to the
column face. The spacing between successive lines of shear reinforcement that surround the
column shall not exceed measured in a direction perpendicular to the column face

 Headed Shear Studs:

The headed shear studs shown in the figure below are permitted by the ACI Code Section
11.11.5. They act in the same mechanical manner as a stirrup leg, but the head of the shear
stud is assumed to provide better anchorage than a bar hook.
Headed shear-stud reinforcement at a slab-column connection consists of rows of vertical
rods, each with a circular head or plate welded or forged on the top end, as shown. These
rows are placed to extend out from the corners of the column. To aid in the handling and
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placement of the shear studs and to anchor the lower ends of the studs, they generally are
shop-welded to flat steel bars at the desired spacing. The vertical rods are referred to as
headed shear reinforcement or headed shear studs. The assembly of studs plus the bar is
called a stud rail.
ACI Section 11.11.5 — Headed shear stud reinforcement, placed perpendicular to the plane
of a slab or footing, shall be permitted in slabs and footings in accordance with 11.11.5.1
through 11.11.5.4. The overall height of the shear stud assembly shall not be less than the
thickness of the member less the sum of:
(1) the concrete cover on the top flexural reinforcement;
(2) the concrete cover on the base rail; and
(3) one-half the bar diameter of the tension flexural reinforcement.
Where flexural tension reinforcement is at the bottom of the section, as in a footing, the
overall height of the shear stud assembly shall not be less than the thickness of the member
less the sum of:
(1) the concrete cover on the bottom flexural reinforcement;
(2) the concrete cover on the head of the stud; and
(3) one-half the bar diameter of the bottom flexural reinforcement.
11.11.5.1 — For the critical section defined in 11.11.1.2, shall be computed using
Eq. (11-2) ( ), with and not exceeding √ and √ ,
respectively. shall be calculated using Eq. (11-15) ( ) with equal to the cross-
sectional area of all the shear reinforcement on one peripheral line that is approximately
parallel to the perimeter of the column section, where is the spacing of the peripheral
lines of headed shear stud reinforcement. shall not be less than √ .
11.11.5.2 — The spacing between the column face and the first peripheral line of
shear reinforcement shall not exceed . The spacing between peripheral lines of shear
reinforcement, measured in a direction perpendicular to any face of the column, shall be
constant. For prestressed slabs or footings satisfying 11.11.2.2, this spacing shall not exceed
; for all other slabs and footings, the spacing shall be based on the value of the shear
stress due to factored shear force and unbalanced moment at the critical section defined in
11.11.1.2, and shall not exceed:
(a) where maximum shear stresses due to factored loads are less than or
equal to √ ;
(b) where maximum shear stresses due to factored loads are greater than
√ .
11.11.5.3 — The spacing between adjacent shear reinforcement elements, measured
on the perimeter of the first peripheral line of shear reinforcement, shall not exceed .
11.11.5.4 — Shear stress due to factored shear force and moment shall not exceed
√ at the critical section located outside the outermost peripheral line of shear
reinforcement.

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Example (Checking One-Way and Two-Way Shear at an Interior Column in a Flat Plate):
The figure below shows an interior column in a large uniform flat-plate slab. The slab is
thick. An average effective depth, , as shown, normally is used in shear strength
calculations for two-way slabs. Both one-way and two-way punching shear usually is checked
near columns where top reinforcement is used in both principal directions to resist negative-
bending moments. ACI Code Section 7.7.2(c) states that the minimum clear cover for slab
reinforcement is . Thus, assuming
bars are used as flexural reinforcement, the
average value for determining shear strength
of the slab is

The slab supports a uniform, superimposed dead load of and a uniform,

superimposed live load of . The normal-weight concrete has a compressive
strength of . Check whether the shear capacity is adequate.
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Solution:
1. Determine the factored uniform load.

2. Check the one-way shear. One-way shear is critical at a distance from the face of
the column. Thus, the critical sections for one-way shear are A–A and B–B.
The loaded areas causing shear on these sections are cross hatched. Their outer boundaries
are lines of symmetry on which Because the tributary area for section A–A is larger,
this section will be more critical.
(c) Compute at section A–A.

(d) Compute for one-way shear. Because there is no shear reinforcement,

we have

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where for one-way shear is

√ √
– the slab is OK in one-way shear.
3. Check the two-way punching shear. Punching shear is critical on a rectangular section
located at away from the face of the column. The load on the cross-hatched area
causes shear on the critical perimeter. Once again, the outer boundaries of this area
are lines of symmetry, where is assumed to be zero.

(a) Compute on the critical perimeter for two-way shear.

(b) Compute for the critical section. The length of the critical perimeter is

Now, is to be taken as the smallest of the following:

( )√ ( ) ( )

( )√ ( ) ( )

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Therefore, the smallest value is

( )√ √

So
Because exceeds the slab is OK in two-way shear.

Example (Design of an integral beam with vertical stirrups):

The flat plate slab with total thickness and effective depth is carried by
square columns on centers in each direction. A factored load of must be
transmitted from the slab to a typical interior column. Concrete and steel strengths used are,
respectively, and . Determine if shear reinforcement is required
for the slab; and if so, design integral beams with stirrups to carry the excess shear.

Solution:
The design shear strength of the concrete alone at the critical section from the face of
the column, is the smallest of the following:

( )√ ( ) ( )

( )√ ( ) ( )

where

Therefore, the smallest value is

√ √

This is less than , indicating that shear reinforcement is required. The effective
depth just satisfies the minimum allowed to use stirrup reinforcement, as
described in the beginning of this Section.
In this case, the maximum design strength allowed by the ACI Code is

√ √
satisfactorily above the actual . When shear is resisted by combined action of concrete and
bar reinforcement, the concrete contribution is reduced to

√ √

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The vertical closed hoop stirrups will be used since must be times the stirrup
diameter ( ) and arranged along four integral beams as shown below.
Thus, the provided is at the first critical section, a distance
from the column face, and the required spacing can be found from:

The spacing less than the maximum spacing of , and stirrups

at a constant spacing of will be used. In other cases, stirrup spacing might be
increased with distance from the column, as excess shear is less, although this would
complicate placement of the reinforcement and generally save little steel.
The required perimeter of the second critical section, at which the concrete alone can carry
the shear, is found from the controlling equation ( √ ) as follows:

√ √
from which the minimum perimeter . Using this value of in the other
equations for :

( )√ ( )√

( )√ ( )√

The first equation governs. It is easily confirmed that requires a minimum

projection of the critical section past the face of
the column of .

( √ ) ( )
√
( )
√

Five stirrups at a constant spacing will be

sufficient, the first placed at from
the column face, as indicated in the figure below.
This provides a perimeter at the second
critical section:

( √ )
which exceeds the requirement.
Note: the projection distance can be
calculated from the face of the column and assuming that is the column width.

( √ )
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Four longitudinal bars will be provided inside the corners of each closed hoop stirrup,
as shown, to provide for proper anchorage of the shear reinforcement.
Note that the approach taken here is somewhat conservative because the portion of the slab
load applied inside the perimeter of the critical section does not act on that section and can
thus be subtracted from the factored load of .

Example (Design of an Interior Slab–Column Connection with Headed Shear Reinforcement

– Studs):
A 20-cm-thick flat-plate slab with flexural reinforcement is supported by
square columns spaced at on centers N-S and on centers E-W. The
service loads on the slab are dead load (including self-weight) and live
load .The normalweight concrete has a compressive strength of
. Check the capacity of an interior slab-column connection. If necessary, design
shear reinforcement using headed-shear studs.

Solution:
1. Select the critical section for two-way shear around the column. At this stage in the
calculations, the designer does not know whether shear reinforcement will be
required.
We will assume it is not and will redo the calculations if we are wrong. Assuming
flexural reinforcement, the average effective depth of the slab is

The inner critical shear section for two-way shear in a flat plate extends around the column
at from the face of the column, as shown in the figure below.
The length of one side of the critical shear section around the column is
giving a shear perimeter

The area enclosed within the critical shear section is

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2. Compute the shear acting on the critical shear section. The load combinations from
ACI Code Section 9.2 will be used to compute the total factored dead and live loads.
The basic combination for gravity load is

The factored shear force on the critical shear section is

Compute for the critical section:

Now, is to be taken as the smallest of the following:

( )√ ( ) ( )

( )√ ( ) ( )

Therefore, the last equation governs

√ √
So
Because less than , shear reinforcement is required at
the critical shear section. Using shear studs as shear reinforcement results in

√ √
This gives

The maximum value of allowed with headed-shear studs is

√ √
3. Lay out the punching shear reinforcement. Rows of shear studs welded to bars will
be placed parallel and perpendicular to the main slab reinforcement to cause the
least disruption in the placement of the main slab steel. Using a trial and error
process:
Try eight stud rails, each with seven -diameter studs ( ) with
-diameter heads, and (typical for shear studs).
The spacing to the first set of shear studs, , is to be taken less than or equal to . Thus,
select (see figure). Before proceeding to layout the subsequent rows of shear
studs, the shear strength should be checked at the inner critical section. In Equation
, the area provided by the inner row of shear studs is

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Then, assuming only one line of shear studs are

crossed by the potential critical shear crack
nearest the column
,
This exceeds the required value of .

Try eight stud rails with the first stud located at from the column face.
Subsequent studs are at a spacing of with seven -diameter headed shear
studs per rail.
The outermost studs are at from the face of the column, and the
outer critical section is from the face of the column.
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The outer critical-shear section is a series of straight line segments passing through points
located outside the outer shear studs, as shown in the figure. The perimeter of this
peripheral line is
( √ )

4. Check the shear stresses on the outer critical section. The factored shear force on the
concrete at the outer critical section is

and

The shear stress on the outer critical section is limited to √

√ √
Because this is larger than , the design is OK.

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