YCT Civil Engineering Smart Scan
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SSC-JE (Pre & Mains) RRB-JE UPSSSC-JE UPPSC-AE :
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JE SAIL JE GAIL JE BHEL JE NTPC JE DFCCIL COAL INDIA LTD. JE
WBPSC AE TAMILNADU TRB TNPSC AE J&K PSC AE SIKKIM PSC AE OPSC
AE MPSC AE GUJARAT PSC AE PTCUL
Chief Editor
A.K. Mahajan
Compiled & Written by
Er. Maneesh Kr. Yadav (Highway Engineer Delhi)
Er. Pradeep Kr. Gupta, Er. Anees kr. Verma,
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Bal Krishna, Charan Singh, Arjun Prasad & Pankaj Kushwaha
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Index
Appendix .............................................................................................................................................................................. 17-20
Amendment (IS 456 : 2000) 2013 & 2019 .......................................................................................................... 21-30
Building Material ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------31-67
1. Building Rock and Stone ..............................................................................................................32-37
2. Bricks ............................................................................................................................................38-44
3. Lime ..............................................................................................................................................45-46
4. Cement ..........................................................................................................................................47-54
5. Timber ............................................................................................................................................55-60
6. Paint ...............................................................................................................................................61-65
7. Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Material ................................................................................................66-66
8. Glass ...............................................................................................................................................67-67
Building Construction and Maintenance Engineering ..............................................................68-107
1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................69-72
2. Masonry ........................................................................................................................................73-81
3. Lintel and Arches ...........................................................................................................................82-83
4. Stairs .............................................................................................................................................84-86
5. Scaffolding and Shoring.................................................................................................................87-90
6. Door, Window & Ventilators .........................................................................................................91-96
7. Roofs and Roof covering .............................................................................................................97-102
8. Surface Finishing .......................................................................................................................103-104
9. Construction Equipment ............................................................................................................105-107
Concrete Technology ................................................................................................................. 108-144
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................109-115
2. Property of Concrete ..................................................................................................................116-120
3. Water Cement Ratio ...................................................................................................................121-122
4. Formwork ...................................................................................................................................123-124
5. Proportioning of Concrete mixes ...............................................................................................125-128
6. Concreting Operations ...............................................................................................................129-135
7. Concreting in Adverse Conditions .............................................................................................136-136
8. Durability of Concrete ...............................................................................................................137-139
9. Repair and Maintenance of Concrete .........................................................................................140-140
10. Special Types of Concrete .......................................................................................................141-143
11. Miscellaneous...........................................................................................................................144-144
Earthquake Engineering and Disaster Management ..............................................................145-151
Surveying Engineering ...............................................................................................................152-207
Surveying I ...............................................................................................................................152-181
1. Introduction of Surveying ..........................................................................................................153-156
2. Chain Surveying.........................................................................................................................157-164
3. Compass Surveying....................................................................................................................165-170
4. Levelling ....................................................................................................................................171-177
5. Calculation of Area ....................................................................................................................178-179
6. Minor Instrument .......................................................................................................................180-180
7. Conventional sign ......................................................................................................................181-181
Surveying II ............................................................................................................................182-197
1. Plane Table Surveying ...............................................................................................................182-185
2. Contouring .................................................................................................................................186-189
2
3. Theodolite ..................................................................................................................................190-193
4. Tacheometric Surveying ............................................................................................................193-195
5. Curve ..........................................................................................................................................196-197
Advance Survey ......................................................................................................................198-207
1. Modern Field Survey System.....................................................................................................198-200
2. Photogrammetric or Areal survey ..............................................................................................201-204
3. Field Astronomy ........................................................................................................................205-207
Estimating Costing & Valuation ............................................................................................. 208-224
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................209-211
2. Unit of Measurement and Payment ............................................................................................212-214
3. Methods of Building Estimate ...................................................................................................215-216
4. Earth work in road and canal .....................................................................................................217-218
5. Analysis of Rates .......................................................................................................................219-221
6. Valuation ....................................................................................................................................222-224
Engineering Drawing..................................................................................................................225-238
Auto Cad ..................................................................................................................................... 239-243
Construction Management, Accounts & Entrepreneurship Development (CMAED) ........ 244-254
1. Construction Management, Planning and Scheduling ...............................................................245-251
2. Organization ...............................................................................................................................252-252
3. Miscellaneous.............................................................................................................................253-254
Reinforced Cement Concrete....................................................................................................255-287
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................256-258
2. Working stress method (WSM) .................................................................................................259-262
3. Doubly Reinforced Beam...........................................................................................................263-263
4. Shear and Bond Strengths ..........................................................................................................264-267
5. Reinforced Concrete Slab ..........................................................................................................268-272
6. T-Beam or Flanged Beams ........................................................................................................273-275
7. Columns and Footing .................................................................................................................276-279
8. Retaining Walls ..........................................................................................................................280-282
9. Limit State Method ....................................................................................................................283-285
10. Prestressed Concrete ................................................................................................................286-287
Applied Mechanics .................................................................................................................... 288-295
Strength of Material ................................................................................................................. 296-330
1. Simple stress and strain ..............................................................................................................297-302
2. Principal Stress and Strain .........................................................................................................303-305
3. Strain Energy..............................................................................................................................306-306
4. Theories of Failure .....................................................................................................................307-308
5. Shear Force and Bending Moment.............................................................................................309-312
6. Direct stress and bending stress .................................................................................................313-313
7. Slope and Deflection of Beam ...................................................................................................314-316
8. Bending Stress in Beams............................................................................................................317-318
9. Shear Stresses in Beams and Shear Centre ................................................................................319-320
10. Column and Strut .....................................................................................................................321-322
11. Torsion .....................................................................................................................................323-324
12. Springs .....................................................................................................................................325-326
13. Pressure vessels ........................................................................................................................327-328
14. Centre of gravity and moment of Inertia ..................................................................................328-330
Design of Steel Structure ........................................................................................................... 331-362
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................332-333
2. Structural Fasteners ....................................................................................................................334-342
3
3. Tension Member ........................................................................................................................343-345
4. Compression Member ................................................................................................................346-349
5. Beam & Gantry Girder ...............................................................................................................350-352
6. Eccentric Connections................................................................................................................353-354
7. Column Bases ............................................................................................................................355-356
8. Plate Girder ................................................................................................................................357-359
9. Plastic Analysis ..........................................................................................................................360-362
Structural Analysis .................................................................................................................... 363-384
1. Determinacy and Indeterminacy ................................................................................................364-366
2. Truss ...........................................................................................................................................367-368
3. Influence Line Diagram .............................................................................................................369-372
4. Suspension Bridge, Cables and Arches......................................................................................373-378
5. Methods of Structural Analysis..................................................................................................379-382
6. Matrix Method ...........................................................................................................................383-384
Fluid Mechanics ......................................................................................................................... 385-434
1. Properties of Fluids ....................................................................................................................386-389
2. Pressure and its Measurement ....................................................................................................390-392
3. Hydrostatic forces on surfaces ...................................................................................................393-393
4. Buoyancy and Floatation ...........................................................................................................394-395
5. Kinematics of Flow ....................................................................................................................396-400
6. Fluid Dynamics ..........................................................................................................................401-403
7. Orifices and Mouthpieces ..........................................................................................................404-405
8. Notches and Weirs .....................................................................................................................406-408
9. Viscous Flow..............................................................................................................................409-409
10. Turbulent flow..........................................................................................................................410-411
11. Flow Through Pipes .................................................................................................................412-413
12. Dimensional and Model Analysis ............................................................................................414-415
13. Boundary Layer Theory ...........................................................................................................416-419
14. Open Channel Flow .................................................................................................................420-425
15. Impact of Jets and Jet Propulsion .............................................................................................426-427
16. Turbine and Pumps ..................................................................................................................428-434
Irrigation Engineering............................................................................................................... 435-472
1. Irrigation Technique and quality of irrigation water ..................................................................436-438
2. Water requirement of crops........................................................................................................439-442
3. Canal irrigation System..............................................................................................................443-445
4. Design of Irrigation Channel......................................................................................................446-448
5. Construction and Maintenance of Canals ..................................................................................449-451
6. Diversion Headworks .................................................................................................................452-454
7. River Training Works ................................................................................................................455-458
8. Cross Drainage work..................................................................................................................458-459
9. Design and construction of gravity dam ....................................................................................460-466
10. Water Logging and Drainage ...................................................................................................467-468
11. Ground Water...........................................................................................................................469-472
Engineering Hydrology.............................................................................................................. 473-491
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................474-475
2. Precipitation ...............................................................................................................................476-481
3. Abstraction from precipitation & Stream Flow Measurement ...................................................482-485
4. Runoff and Hydrograph .............................................................................................................486-488
5. Floods and Flood Routing ..........................................................................................................489-491
4
Environmental Engineering .......................................................................................................492-538
Water Supply Engineering ..................................................................................................... 492-515
1. Water Demand ...........................................................................................................................493-496
2. Water Quality Parameter ............................................................................................................497-503
3. Treatment of Water ....................................................................................................................504-509
4. Disinfection and Softening of Water..........................................................................................510-512
5. Distribution System....................................................................................................................513-515
Sanitary Engineering .............................................................................................................. 516-538
1. Public Sanitation quantity of sewage .........................................................................................516-517
2. Sewerage Systems and sewer .....................................................................................................518-520
3. Building Drainage and plumbing ...............................................................................................521-522
4. Characteristics of Waste Water or Sewage ................................................................................523-525
5. Sewage Treatment ......................................................................................................................525-531
6. Disposal of Waste Water and Sewage .......................................................................................532-533
7. Pollution (Air and Noise) ...........................................................................................................534-538
Soil Mechanics............................................................................................................................ 539-594
1. Origin of soil ..............................................................................................................................540-540
2. Basic definition & simple test of soil .........................................................................................541-544
3. Index properties of Soil ..............................................................................................................545-550
4. Soil classification .......................................................................................................................551-553
5. Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy...........................................................................................554-555
6. Effective and Neutral Stresses ..................................................................................................556-556
7. Soil Hydraulic ............................................................................................................................557-561
8. Compaction ................................................................................................................................562-564
9. Consolidation .............................................................................................................................565-568
10. Stability of Slope......................................................................................................................569-571
11. Earth Pressure Theory ..............................................................................................................572-574
12. Stress Distribution in Soil ........................................................................................................575-577
13. Shear Strength of Soil ..............................................................................................................578-581
14. Foundation ...............................................................................................................................582-587
15. Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation ................................................................................588-592
16. Soil Exploration .......................................................................................................................593-594
Highway Engineering ................................................................................................................ 595-627
1. Highway Development and Planning.........................................................................................596-598
2. Geometric Design of Highways .................................................................................................599-608
3. Traffic Engineering ....................................................................................................................609-618
4. Highway Materials .....................................................................................................................619-622
5. Pavement Design........................................................................................................................623-627
Railway Engineering ................................................................................................................. 628-645
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................629-630
2. Rail Joints, Defect and Track Stresses .......................................................................................631-634
3. Geometric Design of Track ........................................................................................................635-637
4. Point and Crossing .....................................................................................................................638-639
5. Sleeper, Ballast, Fastening and Fixtures ....................................................................................640-642
6. Railway Signal and Station Yard ...............................................................................................643-645
Bridge, Tunnel and Airport Engineering ................................................................................ 646-656
1. Bridge Engineering ....................................................................................................................647-649
2. Tunnel Engineering ....................................................................................................................650-652
3. Airport Engineering ...................................................................................................................653-656
5
CIVIL & STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
The Examination will be conducted in two stages:
A. Paper-I (Pre) (200 marks)
B. Paper-II (Mains) (300 marks)
Total Written Test (500 marks)
Written Test :
Paper Mode of Examination Subject Number of Duration &
Questions/Max. Timing
Marks
Paper-I Computer Based (i) General Intelligence & 50/50 2 Hours
Objective Examination Reasoning
type (ii) General Awareness 50/50
(iii) General Engineering 100/100
(CIVIL & Structural)
Paper-II Computer Based General Engineering 100/300 2 Hours
Objective Examination (CIVIL & Structural)
Type
There will be negative marking equal to one-third (1/3) of the marks allotted to the question for each wrong
answer in Paper-I & Paper-II.
SSC JE Syllabus
Indicative Syllabus: The standard of the questions in Engineering subjects will be approximately of the
level of Diploma in Engineering (Civil/Mechanical) from a recognized Institute, Board or University recognized
by All India Board of Technical Education. All the questions will be set in SI units. The details of the syllabus
are given below.
Paper-I (Prelims)
General Intelligence & Reasoning: The Syllabus for General Intelligence would include questions of both
verbal and non-verbal type. The test may include questions on analogies, similarities, differences, space
visualization, problem solving, analysis, judgment, decision making, visual memory, discrimination,
observation, relationship concepts, arithmetical reasoning, verbal and figure classification, arithmetical number
series etc. The test will also include questions designed to test the candidate’s abilities to deal with abstract
ideas and symbols and their relationships, arithmetical computations and other analytical functions.
General Awareness: Questions will be aimed at testing the candidate’s general awareness of the environment
around him/her and its application to society. Questions will also be designed to test knowledge of current
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 6 YCT
events and of such matters of everyday observations and experience in their scientific aspect as may be
expected of any educated person. The test will also include questions relating to India and its neighbouring
countries especially pertaining to History, Culture, Geography, Economic Scenario, General Polity and
Scientific Research, etc. These questions will be such that they do not require a special study of any discipline.
General Engineering (Civil and Structural)
Civil Engineering : Building Materials, Estimating, Costing and Valuation, Surveying, Soil Mechanics,
Hydraulics, Irrigation Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Environmental Engineering.
Structural Engineering : Theory of Structures, Concrete Technology, RCC Design, Steel Design.
Paper-II (Mains)
Civil & Structural Engineering
Building Materials : Physical and Chemical properties, classification, standard tests, uses and
manufacture/quarrying of materials e.g. buildings stones, silicate based materials, cement (Portland), asbestos
products, timber and wood based products, laminates, bituminous materials, paints, varnishes.
Estimating, Costing and Valuation : Estimate, glossary of technical terms, analysis of rates, methods and
unit of measurement, Items of work – earthwork, Brick work (Modular & Traditional bricks), RCC work,
Shuttering, Timber work, Painting, Flooring, Plastering. Boundary wall, Brick building, Water Tank, Septic
tank, Bar bending schedule, Centre line method, Mid-section formula, Trapezoidal formula, simpson’s rule,
Cost estimate of Septic tank, flexible pavements, Tube well, isolates and combined footings, Steel Truss, Piles
and pile-caps. Valuation – Value and cost, scrap value, salvage value, assessed value, sinking fund, depreciation
and obsolescence, methods of valuation.
Surveying : Principles of surveying, measurement of distance, chain surveying, working of prismatic
compass, compass traversing, bearings, local attraction, plane table surveying, theodolite traversing, adjustment
of theodolite, Levelling, Definition of terms used in levelling, contouring, curvature and refraction corrections,
temporary and permanent adjustments of dumpy level, methods of contouring, uses of contour map, tachometric
survey, curve setting, earth work calculation, advanced surveying equipment.
Soil Mechanics : Origin of soil, phase diagram, Definitions-void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation, water
content, specific gravity of soil grains, unit weights, density index and interrelationship of different parameters,
Grain size distribution curves and their uses. Index properties of soils, Atterberg’s limits, ISI soil classification
and plasticity chart. permeability of soil, coefficient of permeability, determination of coefficient of
permeability, Unconfined and confined aquifers, effective stress, quick sand, consolidation of soils, Principles
of consolidation, degree of consolidation, pre-consolidation pressure, normally consolidated soil, e-log p curve,
computation of ultimate settlement. Shear strength of soils, direct shear test, Vane shear test, Triaxial test. Soil
compaction, Laboratory compaction test, Maximum dry density and optimum moisture content, earth pressure
theories, active and passive earth pressures, Bearing capacity of soils, plate load test, standard penetration test.
Hydraulics : Fluid properties, hydrostatics, measurements of flow, Bernoulli’s theorem and its application,
flow through pipes, flow in open channels, weirs, flumes, spillways, pumps and turbines.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 7 YCT
Irrigation Engineering : Definition, necessity, benefits, 2II effects of irrigation, types and methods of
irrigation, Hydrology – Measurement of rainfall, run off coefficient, rain gauge, losses from precipitation –
evaporation, infiltration, etc. Water requirement of crops, duty, delta and base period, Kharif and Rabi Crops,
Command area, Time factor, Crop ratio, Overlap allowance, Irrigation efficiencies. Different type of canal
irrigation, loss of water in canals. Canal lining – types and advantages. Shallow and deep wells, yield from a
well. Weir and barrage, Failure of weirs and permeable foundation, Slit and Scour, Kennedy’s theory of critical
velocity. Lacey’s theory of uniform flow. Definition of flood, causes and effects, methods of flood control,
water logging, preventive measure. Land reclamation, Characteristics of affecting fertility of soils, purposes,
methods, description of land and reclamation processes. Major irrigation projects in India.
Transportation Engineering : Highway Engineering – cross sectional elements, geometric design, types of
pavements, pavements materials – aggregates and bitumen, different tests, Design of flexible and rigid
pavements – Water Bound Macadam (WBM) and Wet Mix Macadam (WMM), Gravel Road, Bituminous
construction, Rigid pavement joint, pavement maintenance, Highway drainage, Railway Engineering –
components of permanent way – sleepers, ballast, fixtures and fastening, track geometry, points and crossings,
track junction, stations and yards. Traffic Engineering – Different traffic survey, speed- flow-density and their
interrelationships, intersections and interchanges, traffic signals, traffic operation, traffic signs and markings,
road safety.
Environmental Engineering : Quality of water, source of water supply, purification of water, distribution
of water, need of sanitation, sewerage systems, circular sewer, oval sewer, sewer appurtenances, sewage
treatments. Surface water drainage. Solid waste management – types, effects, engineered management system,
Air pollution – pollutants, causes, effects, control. Noise pollution – cause, health effects, control.
Structural Engineering
Theory of structures : Elasticity constants, types of beams – determinate and indeterminate, bending
moment and shear force diagrams of simply supported, cantilever and over hanging beams, Moment of area and
moment of inertia for rectangular & circular sections, bending moment and shear stress for tee, channel and
compound sections, chimneys, dams and retaining walls, eccentric loads, slope deflection of simply supported
and cantilever beams, critical load and columns, Torsion of circular section.
Concrete Technology : Properties, Advantages and uses of concrete, cement aggregates, importance of
water quality, water cement ratio, workability, mix design, storage, batching, mixing, placement, compaction,
finishing and curing of concrete, quality control of concrete, hot weather and cold weather concreting, repair
and maintenance of concrete structures.
RCC Design : RCC beams-flexural strength, shear strength, bond strength, design of singly reinforced and
double reinforced beams, cantilever beams. T-beams, lintels. One way and two way slabs, isolated footings.
Reinforced brick works, columns, staircases, retaining wall, water tanks (RCC design questions may be based
on both Limit State and Working Stress methods).
Steel Design : Steel design and construction of steel columns, beams roof trusses plate girders.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 8 YCT
UPPSC
Uttar Pradesh Public Service Commission
Government of UP, Prayagraj
Combined State Engineering Services
(General Recruitment/Special Recruitment)
Examination Pattern and Syllabus
The following two objective type papers will be for the Combined State Engineering Services Examination.
PAPER-I
Subject No. of Questions Marks Total Marks Time
General Hindi 25 (Each question of 75
3 marks) 375 2.30 Hours
Main Subject 100 (Each question 300
(Civil Engg.-I) of 3 marks)
PAPER-II
Subject No. of Questions Marks Total Marks Time
General Studies 25 (Each question of 75
3 marks) 375 2.30 Hours
Main Subject 100 (Each question 300
(Civil Engg.-II) of 3 marks)
Personal Examination (Interview) – 100 Marks
Total – 375 + 375 + 100 = 850 Marks
SYLLABUS
General Hindi – Hindi syllabus will be made in such a way that the candidates under standing of Hindi language
and efficient use of words can be checked. Its level will be of high school.
General Studies – The question paper of General Studies will include information focusing on current events and
their scientific aspects of such things which come in everyday experience and which can be expected from an
educated person. The question paper will also included such questions in the history, politics and geography of
India, to which candidates will be able to answer without special study.
CIVIL ENGINEERING PAPER – 1
PART – A
ENGINEERING MECHANICS, STRENGTH OF MATERIALS AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Units and Dimensions, SI units, vectors, concept of force, Concept of particle and rigid body Concurrent, Non-
Concurrent and parallel forces in a plane, moment of force and varignon`s theorem free body diagram, conditions of
equilibrium Principle of virtual work, equivalent force system.
First and second Moment of area, Mass moment of inertia, Static Friction, inclined plane and bearings, kinematics
and kinetics, kinematics in Cartesion and Polar Coordinates, motion under uniform and non-uniform acceleration,
motion under gravity, Kinetics of particle: Momentum and Energy principles, D` Alembert`s principle, Collision of
elastic bodies, rotation of rigid, bodies, simple harmonic motion.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Simple Stress and Strain, Elastic constants, axially loaded compression members, Shear force and bending moment,
theory of simple bending, bending stress, Shear Stress, Beams of uniform strength, Leaf Spring, close coiled helical
springs, Strain Energy in direct stress, bending & shear. Deflection of beams; Macaulay's method, Mohr's Moment area
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 9 YCT
method, Conjugate beam method, unit load method, Torsion of shafts, Transmission of power, Elastic stability of
columns, Euler's Rankin's and Secant formulae. Principal stresses and strains in two dimensions, Mohr's Circle, Theories
of Elastic Failure, Thin and Thick cylinder, Stresses due to internal and external pressure- Lame's equations.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Castiglianio's theorems I and II, Unit load method of consistent deformation applied to beams and pin jointed
trusses. Slope-deflection, moment distribution, Kani's method of analysis and column Analogy method applied to
indeterminate beams and rigid frames. Rolling loads and influence lines: Influence lines for reactions of beam, shear
force and bending moment at a section of beam criteria for maximum shear force and bending moment in beams
traversed by a system of moving loads, influence lines for simply supported plane pin jointed trusses, Arches : Three
hinged, two hinged and fixed arches, rib shortening and temperature effects, influence lines in arches, Matrix
methods of analysis: Force method and displacement method of analysis of indeterminate beams and rigid frames.
Plastic Analysis of beams and frames: Theory of plastic bending, plastic analysis, statical method, Mechanism
method. Unsymmetrical bending: Moment of inertia, product of inertia, position of neutral axis and principal axis,
calculation of bending stresses.
PART – B
DESIGN OF STRUCTURES : STEEL, CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES.
STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
Structural steel: Factors of safety and load factors, riveted, bolted and welded joints and its connections, Design by
working stress/limit state method of tension and compression member, beams of built up section, rivetted and
welded plate girders, gantry girders, stancheons with battens and lacings, slab and gussetted column bases, Design
of highway and railway bridges: Through and deck type plate girder, Warren girder, Pratt truss.
DESIGN OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES
Reinforced Concrete: Working Stress and Limit State Method of design-Recommendations of B.I.S. codes, design
of one way and two way slabs, stairs-case slabs, simple and continuous beams of rectangular, T and L sections,
compression members under direct load with or without eccentricity, isolated and combined footings, Cantilever and
counter-fort type retaining walls, Water tanks: Design requirements as per B.I.S. code for rectangular and circular
tanks resting on ground, Pre-stressed concrete: Methods and systems of pre-stressing, anchorages, analysis and
design of sections for flexure based on working stress, losses of pre-stress, Earth quake resistant design of building
as per BIS code. Design of brick masonry as per I. S. Codes, Design of masonry
retaining walls.
PART – C
Building Materials, Construction Technology, Planning and Management Building Materials
Physical properties of construction materials with respect to their use: stones bricks, tiles, lime, glass, cement,
mortars, Concrete, concept of mix design, Pozzolans, plasticizers, super plasticizers, Special concrete: roller
compacted concrete, mass concrete, self compacting concrete, Ferro cement, Fiber reinforced concrete, high strength
concrete, high performance concrete, Timber: properties, defects and common preservation treatments, Use and
selection of materials for various uses e.g. Low cost housing, mass housing, high rise buildings.
Constructions Technology, Planning and Management
Masonry constructions using brick, stone, construction detailing and strength characteristics paints, varnishes,
plastics, water proofing and damp proofing materials. Detailing of walls, floors, roofs, staircases, doors and
windows. Plastering, pointing, flooring, roofing and construction features. Retrofitting of buildings, Principle of
planning of building for residents and specific uses, National Building code provisions and uses. Basic principles of
detailed and approximate estimating, specifications, rate analysis, principles of valuation of real property. Machinery
for earthwork, concreting and their specific uses, factors affecting selection of construction equipments, operating
cost of equipments. Construction activity, schedules, organizations, quality assurance principles. Basic principle of
network CPM and PERT uses in construction monitoring, cost optimization and resource allocation. Basic principles of
economic analysis and methods. Project profitability: Basis principles of financial planning, simple toll fixation criterions.
PART – D
GEO TECHNICAL ENGINEERING AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Types of soils, phase relationships, consistency limits particles size distribution, classifications of soils, structure and
clay mineralogy. Capillary water, effective stress and pore water pressure, Darcy's Law, factors affecting
permeability, determination of permeability, permeability of stratified soil deposits. Seepage pressure, quick sand
condition, compressibility and consolidation, Terzaghi's theory of one dimensional consolidation, consolidation test.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 10 YCT
Compaction of soil, field control of compaction total stress and effective stress parameters, pore pressure
parameters, shear strength of soils, Mohr Coulomb failure theory, shear tests.
Earth pressure at rest, active and passive pressures, Rankin's theory Coulomb's wedge theory, Graphical method of
earth pressure on retaining wall, sheetpile walls, braced excavation, bearing capacity, Terzaghi and other important
theories, net and gross bearing pressure.
Immediate and consolidation settlement, stability of slope, total stress and effective stress methods, conventional
methods of slices, stability number.
Subsurface exploration, methods of boring, sampling, penetration tests, pressure meter tests, essential features of
foundation, types of foundation, design criteria, choice of type of foundation, stress distribution in soils,
Boussinessq's theory, Westergaard method, Newmark's chart, pressure bulb, contact, pressure, applicability of
different bearing capacity theories, evaluation of bearing capacity from filed tests, allowable bearing capacity,
settlement analysis, allowable settlement, proportioning of footing, isolated and combined footings, rafts, pile
foundation, types of piles, plies capacity, static and dynamic analysis, design of pile groups, pile load test, settlement
of piles lateral loads, foundation for bridges, Ground improvement techniques: sand drains, stone columns, grouting,
soil stabilization geotextiles and geomembrane, Machine foundation: Natural frequency, design of machine
foundations based on the recommendation of B.I.S. codes.
CIVIL ENGINEERING PAPER- II
Part – A
FLUID MECHANICS, OPEN CHANNEL FLOW, HYDRAULIC MACHINES AND
HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING
Fluid Mechanics: Fluid properties and their roles in fluid motion, fluid statics including forces acting on plane and
curved surfaces, Kinematics and Dynamics of Fluid flow:
Velocity and acceleration, stream lines, equation of continuity, irrotational and rotational flow, velocity potential
and stream functions, flownet, methods of drawing flownet, source and sink, flow separation, free and forced
vorties.
Flow control volume equation, continuity, momentum and energy equations, Navier-Strokes equation, Euler's
equation of motion and application to fluid flow problems, pipe flow, plane, curved, stationary and moving vanes
sluice gates, weirs, orifice meters and Venturi meters.
Dimensional Analysis and Similitude: Buckingham's Pi-theorem, dimensionless parameters, similitude theory,
model laws, undistorted and distorted models.
Laminar Flow: Laminar flow between parallel, stationary and moving plates, flow through pipes.
Boundary Layer: Laminar and turbulent boundary layer on a flat plate, laminar sub-layer, smooth and rough
boundaries, submerged flow, drag and lift and its applications.
Turbulent flow through pipes: Characteristics of turbulent flow, velocity distribution, pipe friction factor,
hydraulic grade line and total energy line, siphons, expansion and contractions in pipes pipe networks, water
hammer in pipes and surge tanks.
Open Channel Flow: Flow types, uniform and non uniform flows, momentum and energy correction factors,
Specific energy and specific force, critical depth, resistance equations and roughness coefficient, rapidly varied
flow, flow in transitions, Brink flow, Hydraulic jump and its applications, waves and surges, gradually varied flow,
classification of surface profiles, control section, Integration of varied flow equation and their solution.
HYDRAULIC MACHINES AND HYDROPOWER
Centrifugal pumps-Types, characteristics, Net Positive Suction-head (NPSH), specific speed, Pumps in series and
parallel.
Reciprocating pumps, Air vessels, Hydraulic ram, efficiency parameters, Rotary and positive displacement pumps,
diaphragm and jet pumps.
Hydraulic turbines: types, classification, Choice of turbines, performance parameters, controls, characteristics,
specific speed.
Principles of hydropower development: Types, layouts and component works, surge tanks, 'types and choice,
Flow duration curves and dependable flow, Storage and pondage, Pumped storage plants, Special types of hydel
plants.
Part – B
Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering
Hydrology: Hydrologic cycle, precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, infiltration, overland flow, hydrographs,
flood frequency analysis, flood routing through a reservoir, channel flow routing- Muskingam method.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 11 YCT
Ground Water flow: Specific yield, storage coefficient, coefficient of permeability, confined and unconfined
aquifers, radial flow into a well under confined and unconfined conditions, Open wells and tube wells.
Ground and surface water recourses single and multipurpose projects, storage capacity of reservoirs, reservoir
losses, reservoir sedimentation.
Water requirements of crops consumptive use, duty and delta, irrigation methods, Irrigation efficiencies.
Canals: Distribution systems for cannal irrigation, canal capacity, canal losses, alignment of main and distributory
canals, Design of cannal by kennedy's and Lacey's thoeorie, Water logging and its prevention.
Diversion head works: Compenents, Principles and design of weirs on permeable and impermeable foundations,
Khosla's theory, Bligh's creep theory Storage works.
Cross drainage works.
Types of dams, design principles of gravity and earth dams, stability analysis. Spillways: Spillway types energy
dissipation.
River training: Objectives of river training, methods of river training and bank protection.
Part – C
Transportation Engineering
Highway Engineering: Principles of Highway alignments, classification and geometric design, elements and
standards for roads.
Pavement: flexible and rigid pavements Design principles and methodology. Construction methods and materials for
stabilized soil. WBM, Bituminous works and Cement Concrete roads.
Surface and sub-surface drainage arrangements for roads, culvert structures. Pavement distresses and strengthening
by overlays.
Traffic surveys and their application in traffic planning, Typical design features for channelized, intersection, rotary
etc., signal designs, standard traffic signs and markings.
Railway Engineering: Permanent way, ballast, sleeper, chair and faslenings, points, crossings, different types of
turn outs, cross-over, setting out of points, Maintenance of track, super elevation, creep of rails ruling gradients,
track resistance tractive effort, curve resistance, Station yards and station buildings, platform sidings, turn outs,
Signals and interlocking, level crossings.
Air port Engineering: Layouts, Planning and design.
Part – D
Environmental Engineering
Water supply: Estimation of water demand, impurities in water and their significance, physical, chemical and
bacteriological parameters and their analysis, waterborne diseases, standards for potable water.
Water collection & treatment: Intake structures, principles and design of sedimentation tank, coagulation cum
flocculation units slow sand filter, rapid sand filter and pressure filter, theory & practices of chlorination, water
softening, removal of taste and salinity, Sewerage Systems, Domestic and industrial wastes, storm, sewage, separate
and combined systems, flow through sewers, design of sewers.
Waste water characterization: Solids, Dissolved oxygen (DO), BOD COD, TOC, and Nitrogen, Standards for
disposal of effluent in normal water course and on to land.
Waste water treatment: Principles and design of wastewater Treatment units--,Screening, grit chamber,
sedimentation tank activated sludge process, trickling filters, oxidation ditches, oxidation ponds, septic tank;
Treatment and disposal of sludge; recycling of waste water.
Solid waste management: Classification, Collection and disposal of solid waste in rural and urban areas, Principles
of solid waste management.
Environmental pollution: Air and water pollution and their control acts. Radioactive waste and their disposal
Environmental impact assessment of Thermal power Plants, mines and river valley projects, Sustainable
development.
Part – E
Survey and Engineering Geology
(a) Surveying: Common methods and instruments for distance and angle measurements in Civil Engineering works,
their use in plane table traverse survey, levelling, triangulation, contouring and topographical maps. Survey layouts
for culverts canal, bridge, roads, railway alignment and buildings.
Basic principles of photogrammetry and remote sensing.
Introduction to Geographical information system.
Engineering Geology
Basic concepts of Engineering geology and its applications in projects such as dams, bridges and tunnels.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 12 YCT
Trend Analysis of Exam (SSC JE/ ESE/State PSC &
Other Exam) Papers Included Through
Pie Chart and Bar Graph
West Bengal AE/JE (2022- Andhra Pradesh AE/JE (2022- Bihar AE/JE (2022-2001), 1670
2012), 1830 Chhattisgarh AE/JE (2021-
1998), 3320 2012), 1810
Assam AE/JE (2021 - Chandigarh+Punjab AE/JE
UPSC ESE (2023-1995), 2200 2015), 2280 (2021-2013), 1270
Uttar Pradesh AE/JE (2023-
2012), 4800 Delhi AE/JE (2021-2016), 2595
Gujarat AE/JE (2023-
Uttrakhand AE/JE (2021- 2014), 8495
2007), 4960
Tamil Nadu AE/JE (2022- GATE (2023-2015), 360
2012), 2025
Telangana AE/JE (2023-
2011), 1950 Haryana AE/JE (2020-
2010), 1435
SSC JE (2004-2022), 4575
H.P. AE/JE
(2022-2015), 2970
Rajasthan AE/JE (2022-
2011), 5760
Jharkhand AE/JE (2022-
Odisha AE/JE (2021- 2009), 2120
2011), 1570
Jammu Kashmir AE/JE (2022-
2006), 3250
Nagaland AE/JE (2018-
2015), 1800
Mizoram AE/JE (2021- Madhya Pradesh AE/JE (2022- Karnataka AE/JE (2021-
Kerala AE/JE (2022-
2010), 2650 Maharashtra AE/JE (2023- 2015), 1700 2011), 760
2004), 12220
2011), 7150
12220
8495
7150
5760 4960
4575 4800
2280 3250 2650 3320
2595 2970 2025 2200
1830 1810 2120 1800 1950
1670 1270 1435 1700 1570
360 760
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 13 YCT
SSC JE Civil Online Exam Topicwise Analysis Chart (2017-2022)
SSC JE 14 November 2022 (M)
SSC JE 15 November 2022 (M)
SSC JE 16 November 2022 (M)
SSC JE 15 November 2022 (E)
SSC JE 2nd March 2017 (M)
SSC JE 3rd March 2017 (M)
SSC JE 4th March 2017 (M)
SSC JE 23 March 2021 (M)
SSC JE 1st March 2017 (M)
SSC JE 2nd March 2017 (E)
SSC JE 3rd March 2017 (E)
SSC JE 4th March 2017 (E)
SSC JE 23 March 2021 (E)
SSC JE 1st March 2017 (E)
SSC JE 29 Oct. 2020 (M)
SSC JE 30 Oct. 2020 (M)
SSC JE 22 Jan. 2018 (M)
SSC JE 23 Jan. 2018 (M)
SSC JE 24 Jan. 2018 (M)
SSC JE 25 Jan. 2018 (M)
SSC JE 27 Jan. 2018 (M)
SSC JE 29 Jan. 2018 (M)
SSC JE 23 Sep. 2019 (M)
SSC JE 25 Sep. 2019 (M)
SSC JE 11 Dec. 2020 (E)
SSC JE 22 Jan. 2018 (E)
SSC JE 23 Jan. 2018 (E)
SSC JE 24 Jan. 2018 (E)
SSC JE 25 Jan. 2018 (E)
SSC JE 27 Jan. 2018 (E)
SSC JE 29 Jan. 2018 (E)
SSC JE 23 Sep. 2019 (E)
SSC JE 28 Oct. 2020 (E)
SSC JE 30 Oct. 2020 (E)
YEAR
HYDRAULICS 8 8 9 10 11 11 13 10 10 10 10 11 15 12 11 10 10 10 10 11 10 7 8 11 7 10 9 9 9 9 8 9 9 9
S.M.F.E 4 6 5 7 5 4 5 7 10 4 8 5 10 8 3 4 6 6 5 5 6 10 10 7 8 7 7 9 11 7 7 7 7 8
B.M 7 12 9 4 9 7 9 4 8 8 11 15 10 9 12 13 13 13 7 11 11 9 9 11 12 10 10 7 8 10 8 9 8 8
B.C.M.E 3 5 1 2 4 4 3 1 7 5 3 0 2 0 0 2 2 4 1 3 4 1 1 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
14
S.O.M 9 12 19 4 17 8 10 11 5 7 2 4 3 10 7 9 7 4 4 8 7 5 4 8 6 6 8 8 4 7 8 6 6 5
C.T 16 4 4 4 5 4 8 4 5 7 7 6 6 6 6
17 21 16 20 20 19 19 21 14 15 16 17 15 8 15 14 15 13 17
SURVEYING 10 10 10 9 9 10 10 10 13 9 9 9 10 10 8 8 10 9 10 7 10 8 10 11 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11
P.H.E 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 6 5 2 3 2 7 5 5 3 3 3 3 2 8 5 8 8 8 7 7 9 8 10 8 9 10 9
R.C.C 12 3 12 18 3 14 5 2 3 10 8 13 10 11 10 11 10 8 10 11 7 10 12 7 9 6 10 10 7 7 6 10 6 9
MECHANICS 0 0 2 5 5 1 3 1 6 5 2 5 0 3 12 2 1 11 10 2 6 5 3 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
C.M.A.E. 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 2 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 4 1 0
E.C.V 3 2 9 2 4 2 0 0 10 10 10 9 10 9 12 10 7 9 11 7 10 9 10 10 12 12 11 13 11 10 9 7 10 9
H.R.B 4 5 11 7 8 9 8 8 8 7 9 12 8 9 10
3 2 0 6 3 3 4 7 2 5 2 2 0 5 1 3 3 2 3
D.S.M.S 10 4 4 4 4 5 5 3 5 8 4 6 5 9 6
20 16 5 9 5 13 14 17 2 8 11 4 7 6 1 10 11 6 7
I.E 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 2 2 4 1 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 8 12 10 8 10 9 9 7 9 9 9 10 8 10
TOTAL 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
SMFE-SOIL MECHANICS AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING, BM-BUILDING MATEARIAL, BCME-BUILDING CONSTRUCTIONS AND MAINTENANCE
ENGINEERING
SOM-STRENGTHS OF MATERIAL, CT-CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY, PHE-PUBLIC HEALTH, ENGINEERING, IE-IRRIGATION ENGINEERING R.C.C.-REINFORCED
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY, CMAED-CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT, PUBLIC WORKS ACCOUNTS AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT
ECV-ESTIMATING, COSTING AND VALUATION, HRB-HIGHWAY RAILWAY AND BRIDGE ENGINEERING. DSMS- DESIGN OF STEEL AND MASONRY STRUCTURES
ESE Subject-wise Analysis
Year BMC CPM E.E. FM Hydrol T.E. Irrigati RCC SA SOM Soil Steel Survey
ogy on Mechanics
2023 16 12 10 14 1 13 12 11 6 20 14 12 9
2022 13 11 13 13 2 11 8 14 9 16 14 14 12
2021 13 13 11 13 4 13 10 15 6 14 12 13 13
2020 10 12 14 13 4 14 4 16 6 17 13 13 14
2019 13 12 11 12 6 12 8 12 8 20 12 12 12
2018 13 3 16 33 7 10 4 9 10 15 16 9 5
2017 13 4 14 17 10 10 6 9 11 22 24 6 4
2016 30 16 20 53 4 12 10 16 8 27 20 11 13
15
2015 22 13 26 21 9 16 9 19 10 39 24 17 15
2014 26 16 22 22 15 12 9 13 8 30 22 25 20
2013 22 33 22 46 10 8 6 17 16 22 16 13 9
2012 27 8 26 31 10 5 3 18 11 29 29 21 22
2011 20 13 20 34 3 13 11 30 11 15 18 27 19
2010 20 24 15 26 10 17 9 11 14 24 27 26 17
2009 15 18 18 20 10 18 12 24 15 26 27 21 16
2008 27 12 21 16 6 28 3 15 18 21 30 21 15
2007 26 13 20 30 13 20 7 22 13 23 21 23 9
2006 20 11 18 29 15 19 8 25 20 20 20 23 12
2005 18 14 27 13 5 24 6 25 15 25 37 23 8
2004 21 13 29 22 13 15 6 20 17 20 30 24 10
2003 22 19 19 30 11 19 9 22 10 26 22 21 10
(T.E.) = Transportation Engineering
GATE Subject-wise Analysis
Year E.E. FM Highway Hydrology Irrigation RCC SA SOM Soil Mechanics Steel Survey
2023 Set-1 8 5 3 3 2 4 5 4 10 2 3
2023 Set-2 10 5 5 2 1 2 4 7 10 1 3
2022 Set-1 8 5 6 2 1 3 4 4 9 1 4
2022 Set-2 9 6 7 2 2 3 4 6 10 2 2
2021 Set-1 10 5 4 4 2 4 5 7 10 2 3
2021 Set-2 9 4 4 4 2 8 2 7 9 2 4
2020 Set-1 8 6 4 1 1 5 6 6 11 2 2
2020 Set-2 8 3 7 4 3 4 7 3 9 3 4
2019 Set-1 6 5 4 3 3 4 4 5 13 5 7
2019 Set-2 8 9 9 3 4 2 6 7 15 4 4
2018 Set-1 10 9 9 5 0 9 2 7 14 3 4
2018 Set-2 10 7 9 4 1 7 1 5 15 5 4
2017 Set-1 10 8 9 3 2 5 5 6 13 2 4
2017 Set-2 11 8 7 4 2 3 1 8 13 2 6
2016 Set-1 10 7 6 2 0 6 3 6 17 4 5
16
2016 Set-2 10 7 7 3 1 5 3 7 15 4 5
2015 Set-1 6 12 10 2 1 5 4 5 12 4 6
2015 Set-2 10 9 9 2 2 7 0 6 15 4 6
2014 Set-1 10 13 10 2 0 7 8 2 12 4 5
2014 Set-2 10 10 9 3 2 3 7 9 14 2 5
2013 8 9 9 6 2 5 9 6 14 5 5
2012 10 4 10 7 2 8 0 9 15 3 3
2011 9 7 11 5 2 8 0 7 15 5 2
2010 9 7 7 1 4 5 3 9 17 4 3
2009 14 7 10 4 3 6 2 12 16 6 5
2008 14 15 20 1 6 12 6 17 25 5 9
2007 15 16 16 6 4 12 9 13 23 6 10
2006 15 17 14 6 3 11 6 21 21 6 10
2005 20 17 12 6 8 14 10 8 24 9 0
2004 21 26 15 4 3 12 9 13 26 12 0
2003 22 19 9 11 4 13 12 12 28 10 0
Appendix
Units TRIGONOMETRIC TABLE-
Measurement Units Symbol θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°
Length Meter m
sinθ 0 1 1 3 1
Mass Kilogram kg
Force Newton N 2 2 2
Time Second S cosθ 1 0
3 1 1
Electric current Ampere A
2 2 2
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd tanθ 0 1 1 3 ∞
Prefixes-
3
Greek Prefixes
Prefix symbol value cotθ ∞ 3 1 1 0
Deca da 101 3
Hecto h 102
Kilo K 103 secθ 1 2 2 2 ∞
Mega M 106 3
Giga G 109
cosecθ ∞ 2 2 2 1
Tera T 1012
Peta P 1015 3
Exa E 1018
Zetta Z 1021 Reciprocal Half-Angle
Yotta Y 1024 Identities Pythagorean Formulas
Latin Prefixes
cosecθ =
1 θ 1 − cos θ
Prefix symbol value sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 sin = ±
sin θ 2 2
Deci d 10–1
Centi c 10–2
Milli m 10–3 θ 1 + cos θ
1 sec 2 θ = 1 + tan 2 θ cos = ±
Micro µ 10–6 sec θ = 2 2
cos θ
Nano n 10–9
Pico p 10–12 θ 1 − cos θ
1 sec 2 θ = 1 + cot 2 θ
Femto f 10–15 cot θ = tan =
tan θ 2 sin θ
Atto a 10–18
Zepto z 10–21 • sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1
Yocto y 10–24
• sec θ = 1+ tan θ
2 2
Units Conversion-
Length
1m = 3.281 ft 1 ft. = 0.3048 m • cosec 2 θ = 1 + cot 2 θ
1 km = 0.622 mile 1 mile = 1.6093 km
Product to Sum Formulas-
1 cm = 0.394 inch 1 inch = 2.54 cm
= 103 micron 1 micron = 10–6 m 1
1 mm • sin x sin y = cos ( x − y ) − cos ( x + y )
Area 2
1 m2 = 10.761 ft2 1 ft2 = 0.093 m2 1
• cos x cos y = cos ( x − y ) + cos ( x + y )
1 km = 10 m = 100 Ha
2 6 2
1 mile 2
= 2.59 km2 2
= 247 acres = 251 Ha= 640 acres 1
• sin x cos y = sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x − y )
1 Ha = 104 m2 = 2.47 acres 1 acre = 4840 sq. yards 2
Volume 1
1 m3 = 35.307 ft3 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3 • cos x sin y = sin ( x + y ) − sin ( x − y )
2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 17 YCT
Sum to Product Formulas-
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x+y x−y • Sridharacharya formula- x =
• sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos 2a
2 2
x−y x+y • ( a + b )2 = a 2 + b 2 + 2ab
• sin x − sin y = 2sin cos
2 2
( a − b )2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab
x+y x−y •
• cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos = ( a + b ) − 4ab
2
2 2
x+y x−y • a 2 − b2 = ( a + b ) ( a − b )
• cos x − cos y = −2 sin sin
2 2
Angle Addition Formulas- • ( a + b )3 = a 3 + b3 + 3ab ( a + b )
• sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
• sin (x – y) = sin x cos y – cos x sin y • ( a − b )3 = a 3 − b3 − 3ab ( a − b )
• cos (x + y) = cos x cosy – sin x sin y
a 3 − b3 = ( a + b ) ( a 2 + b 2 − ab )
• cos (x – y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y •
tan x + tan y tan x − tan y = ( a − b ) ( a 2 + b 2 + ab )
tan(x + y) = tan(x − y) =
1 − tan x tan y 1 + tan x tan y Arithmetic Progression Formulas-
cot x cot y − 1 cot x cot y + 1
cot(x + y) = , cot(x − y) = • nth term of AP, Tn = a + (n − 1)d
cot y + cot x cot y + cot x
Double Angle Formulas- n
• Some of 'n' terms of AP, Sn = (2a + (n − 1)d
2 tan θ 2
sin 2θ = 2sin θ cos θ , sin 2θ =
1 + tan 2 θ n
• If Ist and last terms are known then, Sn = (a + l )
cos 2θ = cos θ − sin θ
2 2
2
1 − tan 2 θ
= 2 cos 2 θ − 1 , cos 2θ = Geometric Progression Formulas-
1 + tan 2 θ a, ar, ar2, ar3, ..............
= 1 − 2sin θ 2
nth term, a n = a.n n −1
2 tan θ cot 2 θ − 1 • Sum of nth terms of G.P.-
tan 2θ = , cot 2θ =
1 − tan 2 θ 2 cot θ a.(r n − 1)
(i) Sn = If r > 1
(r − 1)
2 sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x – y)
2 cos x sin y = sin (x + y) – sin (x – y) a.(1 − r n )
2 cos x cos y = cos (x + y) + cos (x – y) (ii) Sn = If r < 1
(1 − r)
2 sin x sin y = cos (x – y) – cos (x – y)
(iii) Sn = n.a If r = 1
Law of Cosines-
• a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc cos x • Sum of infinite term-
• b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos y a
• c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos z S∞ = If –1 < r < 1
1− r
Name of the solid Figure Volume Lateral/Curved Total surface area
surface area
2lh + 2bh + 2lb
2lh + 2bh or
Cuboid lbh or 2(lh + bh + lb)
2h(l + b)
4a2 + 2a2 or 6a2
Cube a3 4a2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 18 YCT
2πrh + 2πr2
Right circular or
πr2h 2πrh 2πr (h + r)
cylinder
πrl + πr2 or πr(l + r)
Right circular 1 2
πr h πrl
cone 3
4πr2
4 3
Sphere πr 4πr2
3
2πr2 + πr2 or 3πr2
2 3
Hemisphere πr 2πr2
3
Right square pyramid Parabolic Cone 1
(
V = h B1 + B2 + B1B2
3
)
Case-1 If dia. of bottom and top surface is b & d then-
πh 2
V= b + d 2 + bd
12
Case-2 If B1 & B2 is top and bottom area of frustum.
πd 2 h
1 2 V =
V= s h
3 8
1
(
V = h B1 + B2 + B1B2
3
)
Truncated Pyramid/Column Footing-
π π
Where, B1 = b 2 and B2 = d 2
4 4
Triangle-
Case-1 If 'a' and 'b' is the side of pyramid.
1
V = h(a 2 + b 2 + ab)
3 1 abc
A= bh , A = = rs
Case-2 If A1 and A2 is the area of bottom and top 2 4R
surface.
1 A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
V = h A1 + A 2 + A1A 2
3 a+b+c
Semi-perimeter, s = ,
Where, A1 = a × a = a2 2
A2 = b × b = b2 Where, a, b, c are the three sides of triangle
Frustum of Cone h = Height
R = Radius of circumscribed circle
Equilateral Triangle-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 19 YCT
3 × a2 3 π
A= = 0.433a 2 , h= ×a A=
(a.b) = 0.7854(a.b)
4 2 4
Where, a = Major axis, b = Minor axis
a = Side of triangle, h = Height of triangle a+b
Perimeter = 3.1416
Isosceles Triangle- 2
Parabola-
2 2
A = Base × Height = bh
3 3
b
A= 4a 2 − b 2
4 Parallelogram-
Where, a = Side of triangle, b = Base of triangle A = base × height = b × h
Square-
Rhombus-
1
A= d1 × d 2
2
Where, d1, d2 are the two
(i) A = a2 diagonals.
(ii) Diagonal, d = a 2 = 1.414a Quadrilateral-
(iii) A = 1.2732 × Area of inscribed circle 1
A = d(h1 + h 2 )
= 0.6366 × Area of circumscribed circle 2
(iv) Dia. of circle, circumscribed about square Where, d = Diagonal
= 1.414 × a2 A1, A2 are the offsets from
Area of Segment of Circle- the Diagonal
Trapezium-
1
A= [Sum of both parallel arms] × Height
2
Area of segment = Area of sector – Area of triangle. 1
A = (a + b).h
2
If θ is in degrees then If θ is in radians Spherical Sequent-
πr θ2 then area of sector
area of sector = 1 2
360° = rθ
Area of segment, 2
Area of segment,
πθ sin θ
= r2 − 1
360° 2 = r 2 ( θ − sin θ )
2
πh 2
Ellipse- (i) Volume (V) = (3R − h)
3
πh
= (3C2 + 4h 2 )
24
(ii) Spherical surface = 2πRh
πC2
(iii) Total surface = Spherical surface +
4
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 20 YCT
AMENDMENT NO. 5 – JULY, 2019
TO
IS 456: 2000 PLAIN AND REINFORCE CONCRETE - CODE OF PRACTICE
S. Clause Before Amendment After Amendment
No.
1 5.1 Cement–
Types of recommended cement: Note-
(a) 33 grade ordinary Portland cement (OPC) According to amendment No. 5 July 2019
conforming to IS 269 Clause No.5.1 (b) and (c) Delete.
(b) 43 grade ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
conforming to IS 8112
(c) 53 grade ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
conforming to IS 12269
(d) Rapid hardening Portland cement conforming
to IS 8041
(e) Portland slag cement conforming to IS 455
(f) Portland pozzolana cement (fly ash based)
(PPC) conforming to IS 1489 (Part-I)
(g) Portland pozzolana cement (calcined clay
based) conforming to IS 1489 (Part-II)
(h) Hydrophobic cement conforming to IS 8043
(j) Low heat portland cement conforming to IS
12600
(k) Sulphate resisting portland cement conforming
to IS 12330
2. 5.2 Mineral Admixtures Mineral Admixture - 'Mineral admixtures
listed below may be used along with ordinary
Portland cement. Uniform blending of the
mineral admixtures with the cement should be
ensured.'
3. 5.2.1 Pozzolanas - Pozzolanic materials conforming Pozzolanas - Pozzolanic materials
to relevant Indian Standards may be used with the conforming to relevant Indian Standards may
permission of the engineer-in-charge, provided be used with the permission of the engineer-
uniform blending with cement is ensured. in-charge.
4. 5.2.1.1. Fly ash (pulverized fuel ash) - Fly ash Fly ash (pulverized fuel ash) - Fly ash
conforming to Grade 1 of IS 3812 may be used as conforming to Grade 1 of IS 3812 may
part replacement of ordinary Portland cement be used as part replacement of ordinary
provided uniform blending with cement is ensured. Portland cement.
5. 5.2.1.2 Silica fume - Silica fume conforming to a standard Silica fume - Silica fume conforming to a
approved by the deciding authority may be used standard approved by the deciding authority
as part replacement of cement provided uniform may be used as part replacement of cement.
blending with the cement is ensured.
6. 5.2.1.4 Metakaoline - Metakaoline having fineness Metakaoline - Metakaolin conforming to IS
between 700 to 900 m2/kg may be used as 16354 may be used as part replacement of
pozzolanic material in concrete. ordinary Portland cement,'
7. 5.2.2 Ground granulated Blast Furnace Slag– Ground Ground granulated Blast Furnace Slag–
granulated blast furnace slag obtained by grinding Ground granulated blast furnace slag
granulated blast furnace slag conforming to IS conforming to IS 16714 may be used as part
12089 may be used as part replacement of ordinary replacement of ordinary Portland cement.
Portland cements Provided uniform blending with
cement is ensured.
Newly added amendments
8. 5.2.3 Precautions
(after Amendment No.5 July 2019)
9. 5.2.3.1 For concrete made with mineral admixtures, the setting time and rate of gain of strength may be
different from those of concrete made with ordinary Portland cement alone
(after Amendment No.5 July 2019)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 21 YCT
10. 5.2.3.2 Concrete containing mineral admixtures may exhibit and increase in plastic shrinkage cracking
because of its low bleeding characteristics. The problem may be avoided by ensuring that such
concrete is protected against drying, both during and after finishing.
(after Amendment No.5 July 2019)
11. 5.2.3.3 Some other properties of concrete such as modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, creep and
shrinkage are not likely to be significantly different. For design purposes, it will be sufficiently
accurate to adopt the same values as those used for concrete made with ordinary Portland cement
alone.
(after Amendment No.5 July 2019)
12. 5.2.3.4 Mixes that contain very fine mineral admixtures such as silica fume, can be sticky and difficult to
finish.
(after Amendment No.5 July 2019)
13. 5.2.3.5 Concrete made using blended cements such as Portland Pozzolana cement and Portland slag cement
shall also adhere to 5.2.3.1, 5.2.3.2 and 5.2.3.3.
(after Amendment No.5 July 2019)
14. 11.0
Formwork Type Formwork Minimum Type of minimum Period
Period Before Formwork Before
Striking for For concrete
Formwork concrete Made Using
(a) Vertical formwork to 16–24 h made Cement
columns, walls, RRB SSE using OPC Other than
Secundrabad-01-09-
beams OPC or
2015 (Shift-I)
Using
(b) Soffit formwork to slabs 3 days
(Props to be Mineral
refixed immediately after Admixtures
removal of formwork) Like Fly
Ash and
(c) Soffit formwork to beams 7 days
(Props to be refixed slag
immediately after i) Vertical 16–24h 16–24 h
removal of formwork) formwork
(d) Props to slabs to
columns,
(i) Spanning up to 4.5 m 7 days
UPPCL JE 02-01-
walls,
2021(Shift-I) beams
SSB HP-18-11-2018 ii) Soffit 3 days 7 days
RRB SSE formwork
Secundrabad-01-09-
2015 (Shift-II) to slabs
(ii) Spanning over 4.5 m 14 days (Props to
LMRC AE-2017 be refixed
(Shift-I) immediate
(e) Props to beams and arches ly after
(i) Spanning up to 6 m 14 days removal of
RRB SSE Online-01- formwork)
09-2015 (Shift-II)
iii) Soffit 7 days 10 days
(ii) Spanning over 6 m 21 days form work
to beams
(props to
be refixed
immediate
ly after
removal of
formwork)
iv) Props to
slabs: 7 days 10 days
1) Spanning 14 days 14 days
up to 4.5
m
2) spanning
over 4.5 m
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 22 YCT
v) Props to
beams and 14 days 14 days
arches: 21 days 21 days
1) Spanning
up to 6 m
2) Spanning
over 6 m
Note- Utmost care shall be taken to
provide props. The props shall be provided
immediately after stripping each shuttering
panel and not after stripping all the panels
of the entire slab
15. 11.3.1 In case of use of cements other than OPC or in col 3, the stripping of formwork may be done
case of use of mineral admixtures like fly ash and in accordance with the provisions of 11.3.1
slag, in lieu of the minimum period specified in col 2, provided concrete cube testing is done
to ensure that the following minimum strength
is achieved:
(a) 3 days : 45 percent of specified strength
(b) 7 days : 60 percent of specified strength
(c) 14 days : 85 percent of specified strength
16. 13.3.1 Concrete shall be compacted using mechanical Concrete shall be compacted using
vibrators complying with IS 2505, IS 2506, IS mechanical vibrators complying with IS 2505,
2514 and IS 4656. Over vibration and under IS 2506 and IS 2514.
vibration of concrete are harmful and should be
avoided. Vibration of very wet mixes should also
be avoided.
AMENDMENT NO. 4 – MAY, 2013
TO
IS 456: 2000 PLAIN AND REINFORCE CONCRETE - CODE OF PRACTICE
S. Clause Before Amendment After Amendment
No.
1. 5.3 Aggregates shall comply with the requirements of IS Aggregates shall comply with the
Aggregates 383. As far as possible preference shall be given to requirements of IS 383
natural aggregates.
2. 5.3.4 Coarse and fine aggregate shall be batched Coarse and fine aggregate shall be batched
separately. All-in-aggregate may be used only where separately.
specifically permitted by the engineer-in-charge.
3. 5.4 Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and Water, natural or treated, used for mixing
Water free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, and curing shall be clean and free from
salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis,
that may be deleterious to concrete or steel. salts, sugar, organic materials or other
substances that may be deleterious to
concrete or steel.
4. 5.4.3 Mixing or curing of concrete with sea water is not Sea water shall not be used for mixing or curing
Sea Water recommended because of presence of harmful salts of concrete because of presence of harmful salts.
in sea water. Under unavoidable circumstances sea Under unavoidable circumstances sea water
water may be used for mixing or curing in plain may be used for mixing or curing in plain
concrete with no embedded steel after having given concrete with no embedded steel after having
due consideration to possible disadvantages and given due consideration to possible
precautions including use of appropriate cement disadvantages and precautions including use of
system. appropriate cement system.
5. 5.5.5 The amount of admixture added to a mix shall
New Clause be recorded in the production record. Redosing
added of admixtures is not normally permitted. In
special circumstances, if necessary, additional
dose of admixture may be added at a project
site and mixed adequately in mixer itself to
regain the workability of concrete with the
mutual agreement between the
producer/supplier and the purchaser/user of
concrete. However the producer/supplier shall
assure the ultimate quality of concrete supplied
by him and maintain record of quantity and
time of addition.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 23 YCT
6. Table 2 –
Grades of Group Grade Specified Group Grade Specified
Concrete designation characteristic designation characteristic
compressive strength compressive
of 150 mm cube at 28 strength of 150
days in N/mm2 mm cube at 28
UPSSSC JE 16-4-2022 days in N/mm2
M 10 10 UPSSSC JE 16-4-2022
Ordinary M 15 15 M 10 10
concrete SSC JE-03-03-2017 Ordinary M 15 15
(Even.) concrete Andman&Nicobar
M 20 20 APWD JE Civil 27-
NBCC JE-2018 (Morn.) 7-2019
M 25 25 SSC JE-03-03-2017
M 30 30 (Even.)
M 35 35 M 20 20
Standard KPSC AE Civil
M 40 40 26-2-2023
Concrete
M 45 45 NBCC JE-2018
M 50 50 (Morn.)
M 55 55 M 25 25
M 60 60 Andman & Nicobar
Plan.Asst. 6-3-
M 65 65
High strength Standard 2023 (Shift-I)
M 70 70
Concrete Concrete M 30 30
M 75 75
M 35 35
M 80 80
M 40 40
KPSC AE
Note- Civil
(1) In the designation of concrete mix M refers to 26-2-2023
the mix and the number to the specified M 45 45
compressive strength of 150 mm size cube at 28 M 50 50
days, expressed in N/mm2
M 55 55
(2) For concrete of compressive strength greater
M 60 60
than M 55, design parameters given in the
standard may not be applicable and the value M 65 65
may be obtained from specialized literature and M 70 70
experimenal results. High M 75 75
strength M 80 80
Concrete
M 85 85
M 90 90
M 100 100
In this amendment, Classification of
Concrete has been changed. M60Gr. has
been shifted to Standard concrete and from
Grades M85 to M100 are added to High
strength concretes. In note to M55 is
replaced with M60.
7. 8.1 A durable concrete is one that performs A durable concrete is one that performs
General satisfactorily in the working environment during its satisfactorily in the working environment during
anticipated exposure conditions during service. The its anticipated exposure conditions during
materials and mix proportions specified and used service life. The materials and mix proportions
should be such as to maintain its integrity and, if specified and used should be such as to maintain
applicable, to protect embedded metal from its integrity and, if applicable, to protect
corrosion. embedded metal from corrosion.
8. NOTES to Cement content prescribed in this table is Cement content prescribed in this table is
Table 5 irrespective of the grades of cement and it is irrespective of grades and types of cement
Minimum inclusive of additions mentioned in 5.2. The and is inclusive of mineral admixtures
Cement additions such as fly ash or ground granulated blast mentioned in 5.2. The mineral admixtures
Content, furnace slag may be taken into account in the such as fly ash or ground granulated blast
Maximum concrete composition with respect to the cement furnace slag shall be taken into account in
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 24 YCT
Water-Cement content and water-cement ratio if the suitability is the concrete composition with respect to the
Ratio and established and as long as the maximum amounts cement content and water-cement ratio not
Minimum taken into account do not exceed the limit of exceeding the limit of fly ash and slag
Grade of pozzolona and slag specified in IS 1489(Part I) and IS 455
Concrete for respectively, beyond which these additions
Different though permitted, shall not be considered
Exposures for these purposes.
with Normal
Weight
Aggregates of
20 mm
Nominal
Maximum
Size
9. NOTES to Only 2 note items mentioned. 3. The minimum cement content, maximum
Table 5 – Note free water-cement ratio and minimum
3 added grade of concrete are individually related
to exposure.
10 8.2.5.4 b) Use of low alkali ordinary Portland cement b) Use of low alkali ordinary Portland cement
. Alkali- having total alkali content not more than 0.6 having total alkali content not more than 0.6
aggregate percent (as Na2O equivalent). percent (as Na2O equivalent).
reaction Further advantage can be obtained by use of fly ash Further advantage can be obtained by use of
(Grade 1) conforming to IS 3812 or granulated blast flyash conforming to IS 3812 (Part I) or
furnace slag conforming to IS 12089 as part ground granulated blast furnace slag
replacement of ordinary Portland cement (having conforming to IS 12089 as part replacement of
total alkali content as Na2O equivalent not more ordinary Portland cement (having total alkali
than 0.6 percent), provided fly ash content is at least content as Na2O equivalent not more than 0.6
20 percent or slag content is at least 50 percent. percent), provided fly ash content is at least
25percent or slag content is at least 50 percent.
11 8.2.6.2 At sites where alkali concentrations are high or may At sites where alkali concentrations are high
. Drainage become very high, the ground water should be or may become very high, the ground water
lowered by drainage so that it will not come into should be lowered by drainage so that it will
direct contact with the concrete. not come into direct contact with the
Additional protection may be obtained by the use of concrete.
chemically resistant stone facing or a layer of plaster Additional protection may be obtained by
of Paris covered with suitable fabric, such as jute the use of suitable impermeable barriers.
thoroughly impregnated with bituminous material.
12 9.2 As the guarantor of quality of concrete used in the As the guarantor of quality of concrete used
. Design Mix construction, the constructor shall carry out the mix in the construction, the constructor shall
Concrete design and the mix so designed (not the method of carry out the mix design and the mix so
9.2.1 design) shall be approved by the employer within designed (not the method of design) shall be
the limitations of parameters and other stipulations approved by the employer within the
laid down by this standard. limitations of parameters and other
stipulations laid down by this standard. If so
desired, the employer shall be provided with
supporting data including graphs showing
strength versus water cement ratio for range
of proportions, complete trial mix
proportioning details to substantiate the
choice of cement content, fine and coarse
aggregate content, water, mineral
admixtures, chemical admixtures etc.,
13 9.2.2 The mix shall be designed to produce the grade of The mix shall be designed to produce the
. concrete having the required workability and a grade of concrete having the required
characteristic strength not less than appropriate workability and a characteristic strength not
values given in Table 2. The target mean strength of less than appropriate values given in Table
concrete mix should be equal to the characteristic 2. Proportion/grading of aggregates shall be
strength plus 1.65 times the standard deviation. made by trial in such a way as to make
densest possible concrete. The target mean
strength of concrete mix should be equal to
the characteristic strength plus 1.65 times
the standard deviation.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 25 YCT
14 Table 8
. Assumed
Standard
Deviation
NOTES -
The above values correspond to the site control NOTES -
having proper storage of cement; weight batching 1. The above values correspond to the site
of al materials; controlled addition of water; control having proper storage of cement;
regular checking of all materials, aggregate weight batching of al materials;
gradings and moisture content; and periodical controlled addition of water; regular
cheacking of workability and strength. Where there checking of All materials, aggregate
is deviation from the above the values given in the gradings and moisture content; and
above table shall be increased by IN/mm2. periodical cheacking of workability and
strength. Where there is deviation from
the above the values given in the above
table shall be increased by 1N/mm2
2. for grade above M60, the standard
deviation shall be established by actual
trials based on assumed proportion,
before finalizing the mix.
3. In this amendment, M55 and M60 has
been added in the amended version to the
Grade of Concrete. Also note 2 is added
15 10.2 To avoid confusion and error in batching, To avoid confusion and error in batching,
Batching consideration should be given to using the smallest consideration should be given to using the
practical number of different concrete mixes on any smallest practical number of different
site or in any one plant. In batching concrete, the concrete mixes on any site or in any one
quantity of both cement and aggregate shall be plant. In batching concrete, the quantity of
determined by mass; admixture, if solid, by mass; both cement and aggregate shall be
liquid admixture may however be measured in determined by mass; admixture, if solid, by
volume or mass; water shall be weighed or mass; liquid admixture may however be
measured by volume in a calibrated tank (see also IS measured in volume or mass; water shall be
4925). Ready-mixed concrete supplied by ready- weighed or measured by volume in a
mixed concrete plant shall be preferred. For large calibrated tank (see also IS 4925).
and medium project sites the concrete shall be For large and medium project sites, the
sourced from ready mixed concrete plants or from concrete shall be sourced from Ready mixed
on site or off site batching and mixing plants (see IS concrete plants or from captive on site or off
4926). site automatic batching and mixing plants.
The concrete produced and supplied by
ready-mixed concrete plants shall be in
accordance with IS 4926. In case of
concrete from captive on site or off site
automatic batching and mixing plants,
similar quality control shall be followed.
16 10.2.1 Except where it can be shown to the satisfaction of The grading of aggregate shall be controlled
the engineer-in-charge that supply of properly by obtaining the coarse aggregate in
graded aggregate of uniform quality can be different sizes and blending them in right
maintained over a period of work, the grading of proportions, the different sizes being
aggregate should be controlled by obtaining the stocked in separate stock piles. The material
coarse aggregate in different sizes and blending should be stock-piled for several hours
them in the right proportions when required, the preferably a day before use. The grading of
different sizes being stocked in separate stock-piles. coarse and fine aggregate should be checked
The material should be stock-piled for several hours as frequently as possible, the frequency for a
preferably a day before use. The grading of coarse given job being determined by the engineer-
and fine aggregate should be checked as frequently in charge to ensure that the specified
as possible, the frequency for a given job being grading is maintained.
determined by the engineer-in charge to ensure that
the specified grading is maintained.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 26 YCT
17 10.2.2 The accuracy of the measuring equipment shall be The accuracy of measuring equipment shall
within + 2 percent of the quantity of cement being be within ±2 percent of the quantity of
measured and within + 3 percent of the quantity of cement and mineral admixtures being
aggregate, admixtures and water being measured. measured and within ±3percent of the
quantity of aggregate, chemical admixtures
and water being measured. In a batching
plant, the concrete production equipment
shall be calibrated initially at the time of
installation or reconditioning of the
equipment and subsequently at the
following intervals:
a) Mechanical/knife edge systems : At least
once every two months
b) Electrical / load cell systems : At least
once every three months
18 10.2.3 Proportion/Type and grading of aggregates shall be All ingredients of concrete shall be used by
made by trial in such a way so as to obtain densest mass except water and chemical admixtures
possible concrete. All ingredients of the concrete which may be by volume.
should be used by mass only.
19 10.2.5 It is important to maintain the water-cement ratio It is important to maintain the water-cement
constant at its correct value. To this end, ratio constant at its correct value. To this
determination of moisture contents in both fine and end, determination of moisture contents in
coarse aggregates shall be made as frequently as both fine and coarse aggregates shall be
possible, the frequency for a given job being made as frequently as possible, the
determined by the engineer-in-charge according to frequency for a given job being determined
weather conditions. The amount-of the added water by the engineer-in-charge according to
shall be adjusted to compensate for any observed weather conditions. The amount-of the
variations in the moisture contents. For the added water shall be adjusted to compensate
determination of moisture content in the aggregates, for any observed variations in the moisture
IS 2386 (Part 3) may be referred to. To allow for the contents. For the determination of moisture
variation in mass of aggregate due to variation in content in the aggregates, IS 2386 (Part 3)
their moisture content, suitable adjustments in the may be referred to. Where batching plants
masses of aggregates shall also be made. In the are used, it is recommended to determine
absence of -exact data, only in the case of nominal moisture content by moisture probes fitted
mixes, the amount of surface water may be to the batching plants. To allow for the
estimated from the values given in Table 10. variation in mass of aggregate due to
variation in their moisture content, suitable
adjustments in the masses of aggregates
shall also be made. In the absence of -exact
data, only in the case of nominal mixes, the
amount of surface water may be estimated
from the values given in Table 10.
20 10.3 Concrete shall be mixed in a mechanical mixer. The Concrete shall be mixed in mechanical
Mixing mixer should comply with IS 1791 and IS 12119. mixer (see also IS 1791 and IS 12119). It
The mixers shall be fitted with water measuring shall be ensured that stationary or central
(metering) devices. The mixing shall be continued mixers and truck mixers shall comply with
until there is a uniform distribution of the materials the performance criteria of mixing
and the mass is uniform in colour and consistency. If efficiency as per IS 4634. Mixing efficiency
there is segregation after unloading from the mixer, test shall be performed at least once in a
the concrete should be remixed. year. The mixers shall be fitted with water
measuring (metering) devices. The mixing
shall be continued until there is a uniform
distribution of the materials and the mass is
uniform in colour and consistency. If there
is segregation after unloading from the
mixer, the concrete should be remixed.
21 10.3.1 For guidance, the mixing time shall be at least 2 As a guidance, the mixing time shall be at
. min. For other types of more efficient mixers, least 2min for conventional free fall (drum)
manufacturers’ recommendations shall be followed; batch type concrete mixers. For other types
for hydrophobic cement it may be decided by the of more efficient mixers, manufacturers’
engineer-in-charge. recommendations shall be followed.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 27 YCT
22 10.3.3 Dosages of retarders, plasticisers and Dosages of retarders, plasticisers and
superplasticisers shall be restricted to 0.5, 1.0 and superplasticisers shall be restricted to 0.5,
2.0 percent respectively by weight of cementations’ 1.0 and 2.0 percent respectively by mass of
materials and unless a higher value is agreed upon cementitious materials; however, the
between the manufacturer and the constructor based dosages of polycarboxylate based
on performance test. admixtures shall not exceed 1.0percent. A
higher value of above admixtures may be
used, if agreed upon between the
manufacturer and the constructor based on
performance test relating to workability,
setting time and early age strength.
23 11.1 The formwork shall be designed and constructed so (a) Deviation from +10 to –5
General as to remain sufficiently rigid during placing and specified mm
compaction of concrete, and shall be such as to dimensions of
prevent loss of slurry from the concrete. For further cross-section of
details regarding design, detailing, etc, reference columns and
may be made to IS 14687. The tolerances on the beams
shapes, lines and dimensions shown in the drawing (b) Deviation from
shall be within the limits given below: dimensions of
a) Deviations from +12 to –6 mm footings
specified 1) Dimensions in +50 to –10
dimensions of plan mm
cross-section of 2) Eccentricity 0.02 times
columns and the width
beams of the
b) Deviation from footing in
dimensions of the
footings direction
1) Dimensions +50 to –12 mm of
in plan deviation
2)Eccentricity 0.01 times the widths of but not
the footing in the more than
direction of deviation 50 mm
but not more than 3) Thickness +50 to –10
50mm mm or
3) Thickness ± 0.05 times the ±0.05
specified thickness times the
specified
thickness,
whichever
is less
In this amendment, The tolerances on
shapes, lines and dimensions are revised.
24 13.4 Joints are a common source of weakness and, Joints are a common source of weakness
Construction therefore, it is desirable to avoid them. If this is not and, therefore, it is desirable to avoid them.
Joints and possible, their number shall be minimized. If this is not possible, their number shall be
Cold Joints Concreting shall be carried out continuously up to minimized. Concreting shall be carried out
construction joints, the position and arrangement of continuously up to construction joints, the
which shall be indicated by the designer. position and arrangement of which shall be
Construction joints should comply with IS 11817. indicated by the designer.
25 Table 11 Characteristic Compressive
Characteristic Compressive Strength
Compliance Requirement Strength Compliance Requirement
(Clases 16.1 and 16.3) (Clases 16.1 and 16.3)
Specified Mean of the Individual
Specified Mean of the Individual test
Grade (1) group of 4 test result in
Grade (1) group of 4 result in N/mm2 N/mm2
Non-
Non- (3) overlapping (3)
overlapping consecutive
consecutive test test result in
result in N/mm2 N/mm2
(2) (2)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 28 YCT
M15 ≥ fck + 0.825 × ≥ fck – 3 N/mm2 M15 ≥ fck + 0.825 × ≥ fck – 3
established established N/mm2
standard standard
deviation deviation
(rounded off to (rounded off
nearest 0.5 to nearest 0.5
N/mm2) N/mm2)
or or
fck + 3 N/mm2, fck + 3 N/mm2,
whichever is whichever is
greater greater
M20 ≥ fck + 0.825 × ≥ fck – 4 N/mm2 M20 ≥ fck + 0.825 × ≥ fck – 4
or established IES-2009 or established N/mm2
above standard above standard IES-2009
deviation deviation
(rounded off to (rounded off
nearest 0.5 to nearest 0.5
N/mm2) N/mm2)
or or
fck + 4 N/mm2, fck + 4 N/mm2,
whichever is whichever is
greater greater
Note –:
NOTE– (1). In the absence of established value of
In the absence of established value of standard standard deviation, the value given in
deviation the values given in Table 8 may be Table 8 may be assumed, and attempt
assumed, and attempt should be made to obtain should be made to abstain results of
results of 30 samples as early as possible to establish 30 samples as early as possible to
the value of standard deviation. establish the value of standard
deviation.
(2). For concrete of quantity up to 30 m3
(where the member of samples to be
taken is less than four as per the
frequency of sampling given in 15.2.2 )
the mean of test results of all such
samples shall be fck + 4N/mm2
minimum.
26 24.4.1 In some cases the support moments calculated from In some cases the support moments
Restrained Table 26 for adjacent panels may differ calculated from Table 26 for adjacent panels
Slab with significantly. The following procedure may be may differ significantly. The following
Unequal adopted to adjust them. procedure may be adopted to adjust them.
Conditions at a) Calculate the sum of moments at midspan and a) Calculate the sum of the midspan
Adjacent supports (neglecting signs). moments and the average of the support
Panels moments (neglecting signs) for each
panel.
27 26.2.1 Only 2 Note items mentioned. 3) For plain cement concrete of M15grade
Development with nominal reinforcement, the design
Length of bond stress may be taken as 1.0 N/mm2.
Bars -
NOTES –
Note 3 added
28 26.2.1.1 For deformed bars conforming to IS 1786 these For deformed bars conforming to IS 1786
Design bond values shall be increased by 60 percent. For bars in these values shall be increased by 60
stress in limit compression, the values of bond stress for bars in percent. For bars in compression, the values
state method tension shall be increased-by 25 percent. of bond stress for bars in tension shall be
for plain bars increased-by 25 percent. For fusion bonded
in tension epoxy coated deformed bars, design bond
shall be as stress values shall be taken as 80 percent of
below: the values given in the above table.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 29 YCT
29 35.3.2 The surface width of the cracks should not, in The surface width of the cracks should not,
Cracking – general, exceed 0.3 mm in members where cracking in general, exceed 0.3 mm in members
3rd para is not harmful and does not have any serious adverse where cracking is not harmful and does not
effects upon the preservation of reinforcing steel nor have any serious adverse effects upon the
upon the durability of the structures. In members preservation of reinforcing steel nor upon
where cracking in the tensile zone is harmful either the durability of the structures. In members
because they are exposed to the effects of the where cracking in the tensile zone is
weather or continuously exposed to moisture or in harmful either because they are exposed to
contact soil or ground water, an upper limit of 0.2 the effects of the weather or continuously
mm is suggested for the maximum width of cracks. exposed to moisture or in contact soil or
For particularly aggressive environment, such as the ground water, an upper limit of 0.2 mm is
‘severe’ category in Table 3, the assessed surface suggested for the maximum width of cracks.
width of cracks should not in general, exceed 0.1 For particularly aggressive environment,
mm. such as ‘very severe’ and ‘extreme’
categories given in Table 3, the assessed
surface width of cracks should not in
general, exceed 0.1 mm.
30 40.5.2 If shear reinforcement is required, the total area of If shear reinforcement is required, the total
Shear this is given by: area of this is given by:
Reinforcemen As = avb(Ԏv-2dԎc/aV)/0.87fy ≥0.4 avb/0.87fy ΣASV = avb(Ԏv-2dԎc/aV)/0.87fy ≥0.4
t for Sections avb/0.87fy
Close to
supports
31 B-2.1.1 Direct For M50, Tensile stress – 5.2 For M50 and above, Tensile stress – 5.2
Tension For M55, Tensile stress – 5.6
32 Table 21 Permissible stresses in concrete Permissible stresses in concrete
Grade of Permissible stress in Permissible Grade Permissible Permissible
concrete compression (N/mm2)Stress In of stress in Stress In
(Average) for concrete compression (Average) for
plain Bars in (N/mm2) plain Bars in
Tension Tension
Bending Direct σcb τbd Bending Direct τbd
σcbc σcbc σcb
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
M 10 3.0 2.5 M 10 3.0 2.5
M 15 5.0 4.0 0.6 M 15 5.0 4.0 0.6
M 20 7.0 5.0 0.8 M 20 7.0 5.0 0.8
M 25 8.5 6.0 0.9 M 25 8.5 6.0 0.9
M 30 10.0 8.0 1.0 M 30 10.0 8.0 1.0
M 35 11.5 9.0 1.1 M 35 11.5 9.0 1.1
M 40 13.0 10.0 1.2 M 40 13.0 10.0 1.2
M 45 14.5 11.0 1.3 M 45 14.5 11.0 1.3
M 50 16.0 12.0 1.4 M 50 16.0 12.0 1.4
Note– M 55 18.0 13.5 1.5
(1). The values of permissible shear stress in M 60 20.0 15.0 1.6
concrete are given in Table 23. In this amendment, The change to the
(2). The bond stress given in col 4 Shall be table is
increased by 25 percent for bars in (a) Substituting the entries against M55
compression. (b) Insertion of a new row for M60
33 ANNEX E E-l : In the absence of more exact analysis, the E-l : In the absence of more exact analysis,
(Clause 25.2) effective length of columns in framed structures the effective length of columns in framed
EFFECTIVE may be obtained from the ratio of effective length to structures may be obtained from the ratio of
LENGTH OF unsupported length lef/l given in Fig. 26 when effective length to unsupported length lef/l
COLUMNS relative displacement of the ends of the column is given in Fig. 26 when relative displacement
prevented and in Fig. 26 when relative lateral of the ends of the column is prevented and
displacement of the -ends is not prevented. In the in Fig. 27 when relative lateral displacement
latter case, it is recommended that the effective of the -ends is not prevented. In the latter
length ratio Ief /l may not be taken to be less than case, it is recommended that the effective
1.2. length ratio Ief /l may not be taken to be less
than 1.2.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 30 YCT
1. Building Rock and Stone ......................................................................................................... 32
2. Bricks ....................................................................................................................................... 38
3. Lime ......................................................................................................................................... 45
4. Cement ..................................................................................................................................... 47
5. Timber....................................................................................................................................... 55
6. Paint .......................................................................................................................................... 61
7. Ferrous and Non-Ferrous Material ........................................................................................... 66
8. Glass.......................................................................................................................................... 67
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 31 YCT
01.
BUILDING ROCK & STONE
Introduction- 4. Luster-
Petrology deals with the study of origin and GES 2019
characteristics of rock. It is the shining of the surface of mineral under
Rate of increase of temperature below the earth reflection of light. It is classified as glassy, greasy,
surface is 150-300 C/km or 10C for every 32 meter. pearly, dull, resinous, silky and metallic.
The molten mass present at deep depth from the 5. Texture- It indicate the coarseness/arrangement of
earth surface is known as magma. It is the part of the grains of mineral.
upper mantle. When magma comes above the earth ❑ CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS-
surface then it is known as lava.
The major composition of magma is - Feldspar,
Quartz, mica.
Rock Forming Minerals-
UPMRC AM 2023, SSC JE 2018,UPMRC JE 2015
Calcite, Dolomite, Feldspar, Quartz, Mica, Gypsum,
Amphibole, olivine.
Gypsum and Dolomite are rock and minerals both.
Properties of Mineral-
1. Cleavage-
It is the measure of the capability of minerals to split
along certain planes parallel to the crystal faces.
Types of cleavage seen in minerals are basal,
prismatic, cubic, octahedral.
2. Hardness-
Hardness is the resistance of a smooth surface
against abrasion or scratching. It is measure on
Moh's scale.
Minerals Hardness on Description
Moh's scale
Talc 1 Scratched by the finger
Gypsum 2 nail
Calcite 3 Scratched by knife
Fluorite 4
Apatite 5
Feldspar/ 6 Scarcely scratched by
Orthoclase knife
Quartz 7
Topaz 8 Not scratched by
Corundum/ 9 knife
Sapphire
Diamond 10
3. Streak-
UPPSC AE 2020
It is the color of mineral in the powder form.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 32 YCT
Geological Classification- properties and new types of rock formed. These new
CHB JE 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022, MHWRD JE 2022,
types of rock are called metamorphic rock. The
UPPCL JE 2022, SSC JE 2022, NWDA JE 2021
resultant mass may have a foliated structure.
Igneous/Primary/Unstratified/Eruptive rock- Parent Metamorphic
Rock form
SSC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2019
These rocks are formed by the cooling of molten Granite, Syenite Gneiss
magma forced up through crack in the earth crust. Dolerite, Basalt, Laterite Schist
These rocks have crystalline structure and hard, Dolomite, Lime stone, Marl Marble
durable, massive and stronger than other rocks. UKPSC JE 2022 PAPER-II
Ex. Basalt, Trap, Syenite, Diorite etc. Mudstone, Shale Slate
Igneous rocks are following two types– Sand stone Quartzite
1. Extrusive/Volcanic/Effusive Rock- Gabbro Serpentine
These rocks are formed when the molten magma is
Bituminous coal Graphite
cooling and freezing above or at the earth's surface.
These rocks have extremely fine grained crystalline Lignite coal Anthracite
structure. i). The texture of igneous rock is depends upon
Ex. Basalt, Trap, Andesite, Dolomite, Dacite, the rate of cooling of magma.
Rhyolite, Pumice, Tuff, Scoria etc. ii). Texture of igneous rock and sedimentary rock
2. Intrusive Rock- is crystalline and granular respectively.
GPSC AE 2018 Chemical Classification-
Due to cooling of magma at a deep/considerable DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
depth from earth's surface. DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, PSTCL AE 2021
These are following two types– Types of rock Example
(i) Plutonic Rock- Siliceous Rock- Granite, Syenite, Basalt,
UPRVUNL JE 2022, DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022 Major constituent is silica Trap, Sand stone,
Mizoram PSC 2021, UPMRC JE 2018 (SiO2). It is very hard and Quartzite, Gneiss etc.
These rocks are formed when the molten magma durable.
freezing at the deep depth from the earth surface. Calcareous Rock- Gypsum, Lime stone,
These rocks have coarse grained crystalline Major constituent is lime. Dolomite, Marble etc.
structure.
Ex. Granite, Syenite, Gabbro, Pegmatite, Diorite. Argillaceous Rock- Shale, Slate, Laterite,
(ii) Hypabyssal Rock- Major constituent is clay Kaolin etc.
GPSC AE 2021, DSSSB JE 2019 (Al2O3). It is hard and
These rocks are formed when molten magma is brittle in nature.
solidifies at the shallow depth from the earth surface. Physical/Petrological Classification-
These rocks have fine grained crystalline structure. 1. Stratified Rock-
Ex. Dolerite, Diorite JSSC JE 2022, RSMSSB JE 2022, NWDA JE 2021
SSC JE 2020, DSSSB JE 2019
Sedimentary/Aqueous/Stratified Rock-
These rocks show distinct layers along which the
MHWRD JE 2022, SSC JE 2022
rocks can be split.
UKPSC AE 2022, GPSC AE 2021, NWDA JE 2021
Ex. All sedimentary rock like sand stone, lime stone
BSPHCL JE 2019, DDA JE 2018, SSC JE 2018
marble, shale, slate etc.
These rock are formed by the accumulation or
2. Un-stratified Rock-
regular deposition of mineral or organic particles at
Do not show any stratification and can't be easily
earth surface followed by cementation these rocks
split into thin layers.
have granular structure.
Ex. All igneous rocks like granite, syenite, basalt,
Ex. Sand stone, Lime stone, Gypsum, Laterite, trap etc.
shale, Kankar etc.
3. Foliated Rock-
Metamorphic Rock- MHWRD JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2019
ESE 2022, MHWRD JE 2022, MHADA JE 2022 These rock can be split up only in a definite
JSSC JE 2022 DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, RSMSSB JE 2021 direction. Most of the metamorphic rocks have
Due to high pressure and temperature igneous and foliated structure, except quartzite, serpentine and
sedimentary rocks have changed their physical marble.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 33 YCT
On the basis of minerals available- Basalt Marine work, Rubble masonry.
Types of rock Example Kankar Manufacture of Hydraulic lime.
Monomineralic Rock- Gypsum, Marble, Gneiss Rough stone masonry work,
These rocks are formed Quartzite etc. (metamorphic) stone pitching and road metal.
by only one types of Sand stone In the form of flag stone, for
mineral. paving, tile stone for roofing,
Polymineralic Rock- Granite, Gneiss, Basalt, natural stone for ornamental
These rocks are formed Lime stone, Sand stone, work and grit for heavy
by two or more than two Trap, Basalt, Shale, Slate engineering work.
types of minerals. etc. Stiffness of Rock-
Descriptive Modulus of
Key Points Elasticity (kg/cm2)
■ When heated to 205 ºC, pure gypsum loses its Very Stiff Rock 8 × 105 − 16 × 105
luster and its specific gravity is increased
from_____to_____due to the loss of water of Stiff Rock 4 × 105 − 8 × 105
crystallization– 2.3 ; 2.95 Medium Stiff Rock 2 × 105 − 4 × 105
■ 24 – Hours water absorption of granite should not Less Stiff Rock 1 × 105 − 2 × 105
be greater than– 1%
■ If stone quarrying is done by the blasting method Yielding Rock 0.5 × 105 − 1× 105
with a length of line of least resistance of 2 m, the High Yielding Rock 0.25 × 105 − 0.5 × 105
rough estimate of gun powder required is– 500 g
■ The metamorphe stone that has porous and spngy Quarrying of stone-
structure, can be easily quarried in blocks contains Quarry-
high percentage of iorn–oxide and available in The place at which stone is obtained is known as
different colours– Laterite quarry.
■ The number of minerals arranged in the Moh's Quarrying-
scale of hardness is– 10 UPSSC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022
■ The aggregates in an example of crystalline The process under which stone is obtained from rock
surface texture– Gabbro is known as quarrying.
■ Specific gravity for most of the building stones lies Quarry Sap-
between– 2.5 to 3.0 The moisture present in newly quarried stone is
called quarry sap.
On the basis of Percentage of silica
❖ Tools used in Quarrying of stone-
available in rock-
1. Acidic Rock- Name of Tools Use
Silica is greater than 70%- 80%. Priming Needle To make space for fuse
Ex. Granite, Syenite, Rhyolite, Andesite etc. Jumper To make hole
2. Basic Rock- Dipper For making deep hole
Silica is less than 60%. Scraping spoon For cleaning hole
Ex. Basalt, Gabbro, Dolomite, Dolerite etc. Tamping Rod For tamping of explosive
Use of Various Types of stone- length = 600mm, dia. = 16mm
UKPSC AE 2021, SSC JE 2019
Hammer To penetrate the wedge in rock
Stone Use hole
Granite Railway ballast, roofing, Wedge For split the rock slab
abutment pier sea walls, and Crow bar To removed the wedge
light house.
It is costly so not used in ❖ Methods of Quarrying-
UPSSSC JE 2021, PSTCL AE 2021, KPSC AE 2018
general work.
Marble Ornamental work, monuments, Method Suitability Example
flooring. Wed ging Costly, soft and Sand stone,
stratified rock. Lime stone,
Lime Stone Manufacture of cement.
Laterite, Marble
Slate Flooring, Roofing for ordinary and Slate etc.
slab, damp proofing. Heating Those rock whose Granite, gneiss
Quartzite Retaining wall, rubble masonry thermal expansion is etc.
It has best weather resistance. very low.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 34 YCT
Digging To get stone at a Serpentine, Dressing of Stone-
small scale. Gypsum, NBCC JE 2017
Aterite. The action which is done on the rough surface of
Channeling Obtaining stone in the - stone to obtain a definite and regular shape are
form of block. called dressing.
Blasting To obtain stone at a - Dressing of stone is done immediately after
large scale. quarrying and before seasoning to achieve less
Blasting- weight for transportation.
Boring→Cleaning→Charging→Tamping→Firing ❑ TYPES OF STONES FINISHING-
Quantity of explosive (N)- (i) Boasted finishing-
PGCIL DT 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
JSSC JE 2022, PGCIL DT 2018, UPRVUNL JE 2016
N = [L.L.R.(in m)]2 × 1.5 (in gm) It is the making non-continuous parallel marks on
[L.L.R.(in m)]2 [L.L.R.(in cm )]2 the surface of stone.
N= kg N = kg It is done by a tools called boaster.
0.008 61
Where, L.L.R.=Length of line of least resistance (ii) Furrowed finishing-
It has beautiful appearance in which sides are sunk
❖ Explosive material used in blasting-
APSC JE 2018, SSC JE 2017, HPPSC AE 2016
up to 20 mm width and the middle portion is
projected by 15 mm.
Name of Chemical composition
Explosive (iii) Polished finish-
Blasting Gelatin Nitroglycerin (93%) + Gun- It is provided for marbles, granite which are mostly
Cotton (7%) used for floor tiles.
Use- In deep well, under- (iv) Reticulated finish-
ground work, in wet MPPGCL JE 2023
Condition A margin of 20 mm wide is marked on the sides of
Gun-Cotton Cotton with the solution of surface and irregular sinking type finish is made in
(most powerful) (HNO3 + H2SO4) the middle area.
Use- Where demolitions are (v) Tooled finish-
required. It is a classic finish which consists parallel
Dynamite Nitroglycerine (75%) + Fine continuous marks.
sand (25%)
(vi) Scrabbling finish-
Use- Both under water and
surface blasting The resultant rough surface finish achieved after
removing irregular projections on the stone surface
Blasting power Potassium nitrate (75%) +
by the scrabbling hammer.
/Gun powder Charcoal Powder (15%) +
Sulphur (10%) (vii) Vermiculated finish-
Use- In quarrying large block Sinking in this type of finish is more curved and like
Rock-a-Rock Potassium chlorate, 79% + worm eaten appearance.
Nitrobenzol, 21% Seasoning of stone-
Use-Best for under water and UPMRC JE 2020
damp situation blasting. The process under which quarry sap are remove
Cordite It is gelatinized combination from the stone are called seasoning.
of Nitroglycerine and
Nitrocellulose Time required for perfect seasoning of stone is-
Use- Under water 6 to 12 month.
Lithofracteur Nitroglycerine (33%) + ❖ Type of stone crusher and its equipment-
Nitrate of baryta (16%) + Crusher type Equipment
Sulphur (26%) + Kieselguhr
(22%) charcoal (3%) Primary Jaw crusher, Impact and
Use- In tunnels Gyratory crusher and Hammer
Detonator- mill Crusher.
It is used to trigger an explosive device. Secondary Roll crusher, Cone crusher,
• Length = 25 mm Hammer mill
• Diameter = 6 mm Tertiary Ball mill, Roll mill & Rod-mill
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 35 YCT
Test of Stone- Durability Test-
Specific Gravity Test- Durability is the ability of a material to resist
changes in its properties.
Aim– To find out the unit weight of stone.
For determining durability of stone the
Specific gravity of stone are following two types- crystallization (weathering resistance) test is
(a) Apparent Specific Gravity (IS : 1124 - 1974) prescribed by Bureau of Indian Standards.
Weight of stone/volume of stone The durability (Soundness) test is performed to find
= out the capacity of stone to resist disintegration and
Unit weight of water at 40 C decomposition.
(b) True Specific Gravity (IS : 1122 - 1974) Acid test to check weather resistance.
Brard's test for frost resistance.
Weight of stone particle/volume of stone particle
= Crushing Strength Test [IS : 1121 (Part-I)]
Unit weight of water at 40 C PGCIL DT 2023
Aim- To find out crushing strength of stone.
True specific gravity > Apparent specific gravity
Apparatus-Compression Testing Machine (CTM).
In case of stone, apparent specific gravity is most Size of Specimen-
frequently used which value is 2.4 to 2.8. (i) Cube (50 mm side)
Specific gravity of various types of stone- (ii) Cylinder (dia.- 50 mm, height- 50 mm)
DDA JE 2023, MP Vyapam Sub. Engg. 2022
Rate of loading- 140 kg/cm2/min
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, DSSSB JE 2019, SJVN JE 2018
SJVNL JE 2021
Name of Stone Specific Gravity For good building stone compressive strength
Sand Stone 2.65 - 2.95 ≮100N/mm2 or 1000 kg/cm2
Marble 2.7 - 2.85 PPSC JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
RIICO Draughtsman 2021
Granite 2.65 - 2.79
❖ Compressive Strength of Various Types of Stone-
Basalt 2.6 - 3.0 TNPSC AE 2019
Slate 2.72 - 2.89 Stone Compressive Strength (in M.Pa)
Laterite 2.0 - 2.2 Trap 350 - 380
Lime Stone 2.0 - 2.75 Gneiss 200 - 370
Gneiss 2.5 - 2.7 Basalt 150 - 180
Quartz 2.65 Slate 75 - 200
Water Absorption Test (IS : 1124 - 1974) Dolerite 90 - 150
Aim - To find out pore (air voids) in stone mass. Syenite 90 - 150
Granite 75 - 120
W2 − W1
w= ×100 Sandstone 64
W1
Lime stone 54
W1 = Weight of oven dry stone Key Points
W2 = Weight of stone after immersing in ■ The textures of a rock, the arrangement of minerals
is in the form of parallel layers– Foliated
water for 24 hours. ■ The rock exhibits less crushing strength when
w % of various types of stone >/ 5% and for compared to other mentioned type of rocks–
hydraulic structure >/ 0.5% Laterite
UPPCL JE 2018, GPSC AE Class-2 2021 ■ The correct unit of measurement for an item of
Stone is rejected if w % is > 10%. work 'Quarrying of stone or boulders' is–
Cubic metre
❖ Water absorption of various types of stone (after
24 hours)-
Transverse Strength Test [IS : 1121 (Part-II)]-
NHPC JE 2022, TSPSC AEE 2018 Aim-To find out the transverse strength of stone.
Size of specimen - Beam ( 200 × 50 × 50 mm)
Types of Stone Water absorption
(% not greater Effective length of specimen - 150 mm
than 3WL
Transverse strength R = N/mm2
Sand stone, Shale, Lime 10 2bd 3
stone Where,
Trap 6 W = Central breaking load in N
Quartzite 3 L = Length of span in mm
Granite, Gneiss, Slate 1 b = Average width of test piece in mm
d = Average depth in mm
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 36 YCT
Tensile Strength Test [IS : 1121 (Part III)] Important Point-
ISRO 2019, GES 2017
• Cylinder [dia. = 50 mm, H = 100 mm] Hard Steel ball are used in Brinell hardness test.
• Diameter to height ratio = 1 : 2 Corundum is a Amery type of stone.
Ammonia dynamite are used for tunneling in soft rock.
Shingle is a water bound pebbles.
Chronological order of Hydraulic conductivity
Vesicular basalt > Fractured metamorphic rock >
Lime stone > Sand stone.
Black marble is obtained from Jaipur.
2W Hydrolysis is a type of chemical weathering under
Tensile Strength S = which granite is convert into clay.
πDL
❖ Stone used in various work-
Where,
UPPSC AE 2013
W = Applied load in N
Hard stone Used in Rubble masonry
D = Diameter of specimen in mm
L = Length of specimen in mm • Cross cut saw is
used for cutting
Shear strength test [IS : 1121 (Part-IV)]-
This test is performed by Johnson shear tool or Heavy weight stone Used in Dam, retaining
wall and harbor
Dutton punching shear device.
Light weight stone In Arch masonry
Glance overview of stone test and
The load which is acting on the surface of stone,
purpose- must be normal to the natural bed of stone.
JSSC JE 2022, SJVNL JE 2021, GPSC JE 2020
Type of Test Determine for Marble and slate have low electric conductivity.
Abrasion Test Hardness and wearing Compacted sand stone has good fire resistance.
(By Dory Testing resistance Natural bed of stone is radial in arch and
Machine) perpendicular in wall masonry.
Attrition Test Hardness, Toughness and
(By Deval Testing rate of wearing resistance
Machine)
Crushing Strength Test Compressive strength
(By C.T.M)
(IS : 1121-1974)
Soluble minerals/ Muddy
matter.
Smith's Test
It is only qualitative
test.
Crystallization Test Durability
(IS : 1126-1974) JSSC JE 2022
Hardness Test Hardness
(Mohs Scale)
Impact Test Toughness
(By Page Impact Machine)
Water Absorption Test % Voids Colour of sedimentary rock is usually determined by Iron.
(IS 1124-1974) (≯5% for good stone) Biotite (rock forming mineral) are also known as
black mica.
❖ Bearing capacity of various types of stone-
Iron slag is used for manufacturing of garlic stone.
Stone Max. Bearing Baryta solution [Barium Hydroxide {Ba(OH)2}] is
Capacity (tone/m2) used on stone surface as preservative material.
Lime Stone 400 Calcium hydroxide is used to protect stones from
Schist and Shale 300 sulphate attack in Industries.
Clay Shale 100 Spalling hammer is used for rough dressing of stone.
Compacted sand stone 45 Broken bricks or stone chips are also called spall.
Granite 30 - 35 Composition of sand stone Quartz, Lime and Silica.
Loose gravel 25 Composition of granite Quartz, Feldspar, Mica.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 37 YCT
02.
BRICKS
Function of Various Ingredients of Brick-
CHB JE 2023, ESE Pre. 2023, DDA JE 2023, MHADA JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022 (Paper-II), CGPSC AE 2022
Ingredients Properties Excess
Imparts strength and durability
Silica Prevents shrinkage, cracking and Brittle and weak on burning and
(main ingredient) warping disintegrate the corner of brick
(50-60%) Retain its uniform shape and make (Due to loss of cohesion)
sharp edge of brick
Increase shrinkage and warping of bricks
Introduce binding property and impart
Alumina during drying and burning.
plasticity
(20-30%) Cracks developed on surface and corner
deformed
Used as flux and reduces the
Lime shrinkage on drying (Reduce melting
(mixed in powder form) point) Brick over burnt and looses its shape
(10%) Causes silica in clay to melt on
burning and thus help to bind it
Used as flux
Iron Oxide
Provide red colour, strength and Provide dark blue or blackish colour
(< 7%)
hardness
Impart yellow colour & prevent
shrinkage,
Magnesia
In burning, it causes the clay to soften Decay of brick and give yellowish colour
(<1%)
at slower rate than does time and
reduces warping.
Note- ↓
Liquid limit of brick earth, 25 - 38%. 4. Drying
Plasticity index Ip, 7 - 13% i. Natural drying ii. Artificial drying
Harmful substance in brick earth- ↓
i. Lime stone or lumps 5. Burning
ii. Gravel, Kankar i. Pazawah or clamp ii. Intermittent kiln
iii. Alkalies iii. Semi continuous kiln iv. Continuous kiln
iv. Organic matter (Vegetables, roots) Unsoiling-
v. Sulphur The process of removing 20-30 cm thick the top
Note- layer of the earth which contain stone, kankar roots
As per the Bureau of Indian Standards, burnt clay and organic substance is termed as unsoiling.
bricks are classified in 11 classes based on their Digging-
minimum average compressive strength. The process of excavation of soil mass after
Vane diagram for manufacturing of unsoiling is called digging. The digging operation
brick- should be done before rain season.
DSSSB AE 2021 Weathering-
1. Site Selection SSC JE 2017
↓ Under this operation the excavated soil is left in
2. Preparation of brick earth exposed weather for some periods due to which it
↓ could achieved a good plasticity.
(i) Unsoiling → (ii) Digging→ (iii) Weathering→ Blending-
MH WRD JE 2022, SJVNL 2021, SSC JE 2020
(iv) Blending→ (v)Tempering→ Kneading or Pugging
The Process of mixing ingredient which is not
↓ present in sufficient quantity in brick earth and to
3. Moulding obtain uniform mixture is called blending.
The process of blending should be done at the time
i. Hand moulding, ii. Machine moulding of weathering.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 38 YCT
Tempering- Size of various types of bricks-
Under this process required quantity of water is CHB JE 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
added in soil mass and the whole mass is kneaded as MH WRD JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, PPSC JE 2022
Pressed under the feet of men or cattle and obtain a DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, UPPCL JE 2020, SSC JE 2020
KPSC JE 2016
homogeneous mass having uniform character.
Kneading or Pugging- Brick Nominal
Usual size
PGCIL DT 2023, ISRO 2018, SSC JE 2017 Classification size
Pugmill is used to preparation of brick earth it is "
called pugging or kneading.
Conventional/ " " 9"× 4 1 × 3"
2
For manufacturing good brick tempering is done in
Traditional/ 9"× 4 3 × 2 3
user size 8 4 or
pugmill. This operation is called pugging. (23×11.4×7.6)cm
The process of mixing water, clay and other Standard/ Modular/
ingredients to make bricks is called kneading. (19×9×9) cm (20×10×10)cm
Normal size
Weight of modular brick is ≃ 3kg.
Frog-
UPPCL JE 2016, UKPSC AE 2022, SSC JE 2022, DDA JE 2023
It is the depression on the top face of the brick made
by stock board.
Frog of brick is kept on the top while constructing a
wall so that mortar is filled properly in it.
Binding and shear strength of walls are increased
due to frog.
Object of frog is forming a key between two course
of brick wall.
Moulding- JKSSB JE 2022
The process of giving a required shape and size to
brick earth in the form of brick is called moulding. It
is two types-
(i) Hand moulding (ii) Machine moulding
Steel mould Wooden mould
Made of steel sheet It is generally made of Stock board- It is use for making frog on the
Shisham surface of brick.
Sharp surface and corner Compared to steel mould
are achieved is less
Per day brick moulding Its moulding capacity is
capacity is less more
Note-
Steel moulded bricks are good compared to wooden
moulded bricks.
Steel moulded brick are used in facing work.
Internal dimension of mould is 10% more than
completely burned brick. It is the approximately Strike-
same as nominal size of brick. It is use for removing excess soil from the surface of
mould. These are two type-
Key Points
(i) Wire strike, (ii) Wooden strike
■ The bricks which are extensively used for basic
refractories in furnaces are– Magnesite bricks
■ According to IS : 1077-1992, non–modular size of
the bricks is– 230×110×70 mm
■ Body bricks are well burnt bricks occupying
central portion of the kiln.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 39 YCT
Pallet board– BPSC AE 2018 ❖ Strength of hand molded brick-
It is used to carry the moulded brick for drying. Strength Value (in kN/m2)
Crushing strength 60000
Shear strength 6000
Tensile strength 2000
MH WRD JE 2022
Burning of bricks
Steps used for burning of bricks-
Loading
↓
Pre-heating
Note- DFCCIL 2021 ↓
Frog 10 cm × 4 cm × 1 or 2 cm Burning
Stock Board 21 cm × 10 cm × 6 cm ↓
(To make frog)
Cooling
Pallet Board 30 cm × 12 cm × 1 cm
(To dry the brick) ↓
Unloading
Key Points
■ Second class bricks are recommended for–
Hidden masonry work
■ The general specification of first class building
mentioned below is associated to : "Shall be of
first class burnt brick work in lime or cement
mortar (1 : 6)"– Superstrucutres
■ The types of special mortars are used for setting
refractory bricks in the furnace linings where the
temperature is too high for ordinary mortars–
Fire–shielding mortars
Drying-
The main purpose of drying is to remove the
moisture to control the shrinkage and save fuel and
time during burning.
Green brick contain about 7 to 30% moisture
depending upon the method of manufacture.
Drying of brick is done by following two types
1. Natural drying-
Brick should be dried in shaded area, not in sun
light.
Number of brick course 7 to 8 ( in hollow)
Time required for dry = 3 to 7 day (depend on the
climate) Time required for burning of brick in the kiln is
2. Artificial drying- about 24 hours and only 12 days are required for
This method are use in rainy season or more brick cooling of brick.
are required in less interval. In this method kiln are Stage of burning zone- KPSC JE 2016
used for drying brick. Dehydration (400 - 6500C)
Strength of Sun dried brick, 15 - 25 (kg/cm2) ↓
average 21 kg/cm2 Oxidation (650 - 9000C)
Moisture content should be available in sun dry ↓
brick 3% - 4%. Vitrification (900 - 12000C)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 40 YCT
(iv) Fourth class or jhama brick- GPSC AE 2021
• Due to over burned its shape and size are changed.
2
• Compressive strength = 300 – 350 kg/cm
• Water absorption = 8 – 10%
Colour - Dark blue
Use : Soling coat of road and foundation.
Note-
According to IS code : bricks having compressive
strength < 35 kg/cm2 should not be used.
2. On the basis of grade (IS : 1071 - 1971)-
NBCC JE 2017, DFCCIL JE 2016
Grade of brick Min. Compressive strength
(kg/cm2)
Grade AA 140
Grade A 105
Grade B 70
Grade C 35
3. On the basis of compressive strength-
UP Awash Vikash Parishad 2022
Class Average Compressive Strength
Continuous kiln not less than (kg/cm2)
❑ CLASSIFICATION OF BRICK- 35 350
40 300
1. On the basis of physical and mechanical
25 250
Properties
20 200
(i) First Class Brick-
17.5 175
GPSC AE 2020-21 & 23 , MHADA JE 2022
PPSC JE 2022, GES 2019, DFCCIL 2018
15 150
• Minimum compressive strength 105 kg/cm 2 12.5 125
10 100
• Water absorption after immersed in water for 24
7.5 75
hours 20% 5 50
• Weight – 2.75 – 3 kg 3.5 35
Colour- Uniform deep red or cherry red ❑ SPECIAL TYPES OF BRICKS-
Hardness- MPPGCL JE 2023, GPSC AE 2022
No impression should be left on the brick when a DSSSB JE 2019, NBCC JE 2018
scratch is made by a finger nail. 1. Refractory brick/Fire resistance brick-
It should be free from efflorescence. These brick are capable to resist very high
The surface should be smooth and rectangular with temperature up to 15000C without melting or
softening. RPSC ACF & FRD 2021
parallel, sharp and straight edges and square corner.
Lime quantity kept less so that brick burnt at high
A metallic sound should come when two bricks are
temperature of 1700 - 18000C.
struck against each other.
The minimum average compressive strength- 32.5
When a horizontal brick is kept on a vertical brick MPa.
and fall at a 1.5m height the horizontal brick should Water absorption- 4 - 10%
not be break. Colour- Whitish yellow or light brown.
(ii) Second Class Brick- Use- Furnace lining, hollow tiles etc.
MHADA JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2019, RPSC 2016 Refractory bricks are following three types-
2
• Minimum compressive strength 75 kg/cm UPPCL JE 2022, CGPSC AE 2021
• Water absorption 22% A. Acid refractory brick-
• Colour - Light red Ingredient: 95 - 97% silica + 1 - 2% lime
• The impression is left when scratched by finger nail. Use: Where acidic slag are formed.
• Dull sound formed if two bricks are strucked. B. Basic refractory brick-
These are use where basic slag are made. These are
(iii) Third class brick-
two types-
• It is also known as under burned brick.
2 a. Magnesia refractory brick-
• Minimum compressive strength 35 kg/cm RSMSSB JE 2022
• Water absorption < 25% Ingredient- 70% magnesium oxide (MgO) + 30%
• Colour - Yellowish silica and alumina
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 41 YCT
b. Dolomite refractory brick- ❑ TEST OF BRICK-
In these brick is carbonate of calcium and 1. Dimension Test (IS : 1077)-
magnesium [CaMg(CO3)2] are used as raw material RSMSSB JE 2016, UPSSSC JE 2015
Use : In shaft and rotary kilns, which are use for
production of lime and cement.
C. Neutral refractory brick-
Ingredient of these brick are bauxite, silica and iron
oxide. It is use where acidic or basic slag are made.
2. Hollow brick (IS : 3952)- SSC JE 2017
Maximum hollow 50% of total plan area.
It is use for making sound proof and heat resistance
wall.
3. Perforated Brick [IS : 2222]- ❖ For modular size brick-
For 20 brick Dimension Tolerance
(cm) (mm)
Length 380 ± 80
Width 180 ± 40
Total hollow area 30 - 40% of total plan area. Height-
Use- Covering wall sound proof and heat insulating (i) 9 cm 180 ± 40
wall construction. (ii) 4 cm 80 ± 20
Compressive strength </ 7N / mm 2 2. Warpage Test [IS : 3495 (Part-IV)]-
Water absorption >/ 15% Warpage of brick is measured with half of a flat steel
Efflorescence >/ 10% or glass surface and measuring ruler graduated in
Warpage >/ 3 % 0.5mm division or wedge of steel 60×15×15 mm.
4. Over-burnt brick-
In over burnt brick a soft molten mass is produced
and the brick loose their shape.
5. Under burnt brick-
NHPC JE 2022
When bricks are not burnt to cause complete
vitrification, the clay is not softened because of
insufficient heat and the pores are not closed. These
brick have higher degree of water absorption and 3. Efflorescence Test [IS : 3495 (Part III)]-
APSC JE 2020, DSSSB JE 2019, ESE 2016
less compressive strength.
Aim- To find the alkali matter of soluble salts
❖ Sample required for various brick test- present in brick.
I.S. Code No. of Efflorescence is characterized by the white patches
Bricks Test
Sample on the surface of the brick.
Compressive strength 3495-Part I 6 Depth of water in container = 25 mm
test
Percent area covered Efflorescence
Water absorption test 3495-Part II 5
by white Patches
Efflorescence test 3495-Part III –
0% Nil
Warpage test 3495-Part IV 10
Dimension test 1077 20 0% – 10% Slight
10% – 50% Moderate
Key Points >50% [But white patches
■ ...........are caused in bricks by entrapped air the does not change in powder Heavy/severe
void of clay– Lamination form]
■ ............ is comparatively finer and possesses better >50% [White patches Serious
adhesive and cohesive properties– Clay changes into powder form]
■ Refractory bricks are specially manufactured to– The efflorescence to be not more than moderate (10
withstand high temperature – 50%) for class 12.5 and not more than slight (<
■ The most important purpose of frog in a brick is 10%) for higher class.
to– Brick should be rejected if white powder available
Form keyed joint between bricks and mortar on the brick surface is > 50% of total area.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 42 YCT
4. Compressive Strength Test [IS : 3495(Part-I)]- 6. Blister-
This test is performed by compression testing Broken blister are generally caused on the surface of
machine sewer pipes and drain tile due to air imprisoned
Rate of loading = 140 kg/cm2/minute during their molding.
Proportion of mortar to fill the frogs- 1:3 7. Lamination-
5. Water Absorption Test [IS : 3495(Part-II)]- It is the thin lamina produces on the brick faces.
Aim- To find out the existence of pores in brick. Cause-Entrapped air in clay voids.
W2 − W1 8. Bloating-
w= × 100
W1
Where,
w = Water absorption (in percent)
W1 = Weight of oven dry (105 ± 50 C) brick
W2 = Weight of brick after immersion it in water
for 24 hours.
If w < 7% Then brick is high resistance to damage
by freezing.
Field test of brick earth- This defect observed as spongy swollen mass over
1. Consistency test the surface of burnt brick. It is caused due to the
2. Moulding test
presence of excess carbonaceous matter and sulphur
3. Deformation and shrinkage test
in brick clay.
4. Strength test
9. Checks or Cracks-
5. Testing, nature of soil ground
This defect may be because of lumps of lime or
❑ DEFECT OF BRICKS excess of water.
1. Under burnt- 10. Black core-
Caused due to insufficient heat and are not able to If bituminous matter or carbon is present in brick
carry the desire load.
earth and they are not completely removed by
2. Over burnt-
oxidation, the brick result in black core. Prime cause
It occurs due to extremely high heat and not suitable
of brick black core is improper burning.
for construction work.
3. Lime bursting problem- 11. Spots-
A common defect of bricks/tiles which is caused by Due to presence of iron sulphide in brick earth, the
the hydration of quick lime particles. dark spots remains on the brick surface.
By mixing common salt in black cotton soils, lime Unsuitable for exposed masonry work.
bursting can be prevented, 0.5% Sodium chloride is 12. Brick spalling-
sufficient. It is the irregular portion of the brick away or fall off
Put all the bricks in water just after they removed from the surface.
from the kiln, this process is called docking. Cause-Heating of water inside brick.
4. Efflorescence- CIL MT 2020 IS : 3102 → Classification of burnt clay solid brick.
Presence of drying grey or white powder patches on Heavy duty burnt clay brick (IS : 2180)-
the brick surface is known as efflorescence. MP Vyapam 2022, ESE 2017
This defect is caused because of alkalis present in These are similar to burnt clay brick and of the same
bricks. size but with high compressive strength.
Burnt clay paving brick (IS : 3585)-
These are used in drive ways and for land scaping
parks and garden.
Compressive Strength </ 40 N / mm 2
Water absorption >/ 5%
Soling brick [IS : 5779]-
These are used for soling of roads.
5. Chuffs- Compressive strength </ 5 N / mm 2
DSSSB JE 2019, MPSE 2018, SSC JE 2017
The deformation of the shape of bricks caused by the Water absorption >/ 20%
rain water falling on hot brick is known as chuffs. Efflorescence >/ 10%
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 43 YCT
TILES It is used for manufacturing sanitary wares
The clay product which thickness is less than 40mm containers and crucibles, reactor chambers and
is known as tiles. electric insulators.
Burning of tiles is same as brick burning but some Glazing-
times tiles or clay products are burnt in two times- Glazing is a process of providing a glassy or
Ist is at 600 - 7000C is called biscuting and IInd is at impervious layer on the surface of clay product or
900 -11000C, after dipping the tiles/clay product in ceramics.
the solution of desired colour.
The glazing layer is fused to a ceramics body by
❑ SPECIAL TYPES OF CLAY PRODUCT- burning at a high temperature.
Stoneware- Thickness of glazing is 0.1 to 0.2 mm.
UPPCL JE 2016; 2022, UKPSC AE 2022, SSC JE 2022
It is made from refractory clay mixed with crushed Classification of glazing-
pottery, stone and sand, burnt at high temperature MPSE 2018
and cooled slowly. Stoneware consists of about 75% (i) Transparent Glazing-
silica and 25% alumina. Iron oxide is added to give Clay product is coated with NaCl solution and
colour burned at high temperature (10000C - 12000C)
Ex.–Domestic sewer pipe, wash basin, water closet, (ii) Opaque Glazing-
drains pipe and fittings.
This is also known as enameling.
Earthenware-
GPSC AE Class-2 2021 Borax, kaolin, chalk and colouring matter are
These are made by burning ordinary clay at low grinding and mixing water and make solution which
temperature and cooling slowly. Glazed earthenware is called slip.
becomes resistant to weathering action. The clay product is dipped in slip and burnt in kiln.
Ex.- Faience Due to high temperature surface is change into
Majolica- impervious layer.
It is Italian earthenware coated with opaque white (iii) Lead Glazing-
enamel, ornamented with metallic colour. Clay product is immersed in the mix of Lead and Tin
Manufactured from low heat clays to which up to oxides. The particles of Lead and Tin adhere the
20% calcium carbonate added in the form of chalk.
surface of clay products. This method of glazing is
Use- Doorways, window casing and facing tiles.
used for items of interior clay which cannot with
Fire Clay-
These are pure hydrated silicates of alumina and stand high temperature required for salt glazing.
contain a large proportion of silica (55-75%), Key Point
alumina (20-35%), Iron oxide (2-5%) with about 1% Unit weight of broken brick – 14.2 kN/m3
of lime, magnesia and alkalis. Stone chips or Broken brick are also known as-
It is capable of resisting very high temperatures up to Spall
17000C, without melting or softening and resist Specific gravity of machine moulded brick– 2
spalling. UPPCL JE 2022 Specific gravity of hand moulded brick– 1.6 - 1.7
Use- For manufacturing fire bricks used in furnace The No. of Compartment in Hoffman's Kiln is-
lining, hollow tiles and crucibles. 8 to 24.
Terracotta-
UKPSC AE 2022 (Paper-II)
The edge formed by the intersection of plane
Clay is mixed with powdered glasses, pottery and surfaces of brick are called- Arrises
sand ground to fine powder and pugged several The brick made from Olivine rock to which
times till it gets uniform and soft for moulding. magnesia added in the manufacturing process are
Terracotta is refractory clay product and is used in called– Forsterite brick
ornamental parts of building. Density of brick in g/cm2 – 1.8 to 2.5
The clay used should have sufficient iron oxide and The water absorption of heavy duty burnt clay
alkaline matters. bricks having compressive strength greater than 40
It is cheap and impervious. N/mm2 is– 10%
Muffle furnace are use for burning of terracotta The formation of dull patches occurs on the
product.
finished and polished surface is called– Bloom
Porcelain- UPSSC JE 2022 GES 2017
Testing of vitrified and ceramic tiles is done
A high grade ceramic ware having white colour, zero
water absorption and glazed surface. according to- IS : 15622 - 2006
Porcelain is fine earthenware which is white, thin Classification and characteristics of ceramic tiles-
and semi-transparent. IS:13712-1993
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 44 YCT
03.
LIME
Introduction Carbonate hardening-
Lime is a binding material found in the form of lime In this process slaked lime reacts with CO2 and set
stone. It is not found in free state in the atmosphere. & hard. Ca(OH) 2 + CO 2 → CaCO3 + H 2 O + Heat
Lime is obtained from the calcinations of lime stone. Key Points
❖ Sources of Lime- ■ Lime mortar for structural purpose is generally
DSSSB JE 2022 made with– Hydraulic lime
Type of Stone Type of lime ■ Lime is obtained by burning limestone at a
Lime Stone (CaCO3) Pure Lime temperature of about– 800ºC
Kankar Hydraulic Lime ■ The unit of measurement and payment for supply
Dolomite (MgCO3) Magnesia Lime of lime unslaked– Quintal or cubic metre
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) Sweet Lime ■ The product that is formed after the heating of
Shell, Chalk Pure Lime gypsum at 393 K and evaporation of 75% of water
❖ Lime and its chemical formula- content from it– Plaster of Paris
Name of Lime Chemical Formula Various types of lime-
Lime Stone Calcium Carbonate 1. Pure lime/Fat lime/White lime/Rich lime-
[CaCO3] ESE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022, UPRVUNL JE 2022,
Lime, Quick lime, Lump Calcium oxide ESE 2020, PGCIL DT 2018, GES 2017
lime, White lime, Rich [CaO] It slakes rapidly and its volume increase by 2-2.5
lime, Pure lime times than its original volume.
Slaked lime, Fat lime Calcium Hydroxide These lime contain 95 to 97% calcium carbonate
[Ca(OH)2] (CaCO3) and quantity of impurity does not increase
Plaster of Paris (P.O.P.) Calcium Sulphate more than 2 to 3%.
[CaSO4.1/2 H2O] It is manufactured by burning of marble, white
Gypsum Calcium Sulphate chalk, sea shell and coral.
[CaSO4.2H2O] Use-Plastering and white washing.
Calcination- 2. Lump lime-
UPPCL JE 2022, RSMSSB 2020, SSE 2020, PSPCC 2020 It is obtain in the form of lump after calcination.
The process under which lime stone is burned at 3. Quick lime/Caustic lime-
8000C to 9000C to removed CO2 & moisture is called It is obtained immediate after calcination is called
calcination. Quick lime.
4. Slaked lime-
CaCO3 + 42.52 kcal 800−9000 C CaO
→ + CO 2 ↑ The lime whose hydration is completed is called
Lime stone Calcination
Quick Lime
slaked lime.
Slaking of Lime- 5. Magnesia lime-
ESE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022 It is manufacture by calcination of dolomite. It
In this process quick lime reacted with water and contain 20 to 35% magnesia.
formed Ca(OH)2. Colour - Reddish
Volume increases 2 to 2.5 times of its initial volume. Types of lime on the basis of Impurities-
CaO HO Ca (OH) 2 1. Pure lime- Impurities < 5%
+ 2 slaking
→ + Heat
Lime Water Slaked lime 2. Impure lime- Impurities >5%
Slaking is an exothermic reaction. Impure lime is following two types-
Type of lime Slaking time (i) Lean lime or Poor lime/Impure lime-
UPRVUNL JE 2022
Lump lime, Quick lime, It consists 80% CaO, less than 5% MgO and clay
Rich lime, Pure lime, Fat 2 to 3 hrs. impurities more than 7% in the form of silica,
lime, White lime alumina and iron oxide.
Hydraulic lime, Poor lime, 12 to 48 hrs. Setting and hardening process is very slow.
Lean lime It's expansion is less than that of fat lime.
Hardening or setting of lime- (ii) Hydraulic Lime- JSSC JE 2020, SSC JE 2017
It depend on the types of lime and its hardening It is capable to setting under water and in damp
condition. It is three types– situation.
i). Carbonate Hardening MHADA JE 2022
ii). Hydrate hardening Impurity range- 5 to 30%.
iii). Hydrosilicate hardening setting time under water- 7 to 30 days.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 45 YCT
❖ Hydraulic lime is classified into further three To judge the workability of lime sample 1:3 lime
categories- sand mortar is prepared and thrown on the brick wall
BPSC AE 2022 by trowel, if it sticks well, its workability is good.
Feebly Moderate Eminently 6. Impurity Test-
Item A known weight of lime is mixed with water and
Hydraulic Hydraulic Hydraulic
description
lime lime Lime make solution.
% Impurities 05 to 10% 11 to 20% 21 to 30% % Weight of residue Types of lime
Slacking Few 1 or 2 1 day or < 10 % Good quality lime
action minutes hours more
10% - 20% Fat lime
3 week or 1 week or 1 days or
Setting action > 20% Poor lime
more more more
Hydraulicity Feebly Moderate Eminently 7. Setting time Test-
For Use in very Initial and final setting time of lime is determinate
Used for with the help of Vicat's apparatus.
superior damp places
ordinary
Use
masonry
type of It is the same way as that for cement test.
masonry 8. Soundness Test [IS : 6932 (Part-IX)]-
work
work Aim-To find out the quantity of free lime,
❖ Classification of Lime as per BIS : 712-1984- unsoundness and disintegration property of lime.
DSSSB 2019 & 2022, DSSSB JE (Tier-I 2022) This test is conduct with the help of Le-chatelier apparatus.
DSSSB JE (TIER-I) 2022
Class of Example Use
lime
Class A Eminently Hydraulic lime Hydraulic structure
Class B Semi Hydraulic lime Masonry and in lime
concrete
Class C Pure lime/Fat lime Plaster work
Class D Magnesium White washing and
lime/Dolomite lime finishing
Class E Kankar lime Masonry mortar
Class F Siliceous dolomite lime -
Test of lime-
1. Visual Inspection Test-
Class of lime Colour
Class A Dirty white External diameter of cylinder of Le-chatelier
Class B Light dirty white apparatus = 30 mm
Class C White The expansion of indicator should not be more than
10mm.
Lumps of lime indicates quick lime or unburnt lime.
2. HCl Test/Acid Test- 9. Compressive Strength Test [IS : 6932 (Part -II)]-
This test is perform to find out impurities and 12 cube of 50mm sides are prepared from standard
amount of calcium carbonate. lime sand mortar ( 1:3)
A teaspoon of powdered lime is taken in the test tube 6 Cube are tested after 14 day's and remaining 6
and 10 ml of 50% dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) is cube are tested after 28 day's with the help of
added to it, and heat for few minute. compression testing machine.
If bubble is formed during heating it indicate Rate of loading- 150 N/min
calcinations of lime is not done perfectly. Note-
Class of lime Description Carbide lime is a by-Product of manufacturing of
Class A Good gel is formed above the layer acetylene.
of inert material. Barium plaster is used as final coat for surface of X-
Class B A thick gel formed Ray room.
Potash- lime glass is also known as Bohemian glass.
Class C Absence of gel
3. Ball Test- ˜ Unit weight of lime-
Type of lime Unit weight (kg/m3)
Balls (40 mm size) of stiff lime paste are made and left Unslaked lime 1050
for 6 hours. After six hours, the balls are immersed in a Slaked lime 640
water basin. If expansion and disintegration of balls is Hardened lime 800
observed, the lime is of type C. Little expansion and
Lime putty is the plastic paste of lime and water.
numerous crack indicate it to be class B lime. Class A
lime will have no adverse effect. Class of lime Modulus of rupture
(kg/cm2)
4. Fineness Test [IS : 6932 (Part-IV)]-
This test is perform with the help of sieve.
Class A (Hydraulic lime) ≥ 10.5
5. Workability Test [IS : 6932 (Part-VIII)]- Class B ≥7
ESE Pre. 2023 (Semi hydraulic lime)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 46 YCT
04.
CEMENT
Introduction- High lime content generally increases the setting
MH WRD JE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022 time and strength.
It is adhesive and cohesive material which are It react with other ingredient and participate the
obtained by burning and grinding of calcareous and formation of Bogue compounds.
argillaceous material at very high temperature and The presence of excess un-burnt or free lime is
grinding the clinker. harmful since it results in delayed hydration causing
Cement is commonly used as binding material. expansion (unsoundness) and deterioration of mortar
Range of cement particle size- 75-150µ. and concrete.
General ingredients of cement- Deficiency of lime in cement reduces it strength and
(i) Calcareous rocks - 65%. causes it to set quickly.
(ii) Argillaceous rocks- 35%. Silica (SiO2)- ESE 2014
Chemical Composition of Cement- It is responsible for strength.
ESE Pre. 2023, PGCIL DT 2023, MH WRD JE 2022
PPSC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, SJUNL JE 2021 High silica content prolongs the setting time.
GPSC AE 2021, WBCS 2019, ISRO 2017, MPSE AE 2017 Responsible to make C3S and C2S compound.
Oxide/Composition Function Alumina [Al2O3]-
/Average CGPSC AE 2022, RSMSSB JE 2021
composition It is responsible for quick setting.
Lime (CaO) Strength & soundness control, In excess quantity causes lower the strength.
60-65% ≈ 63% deficiency reduce strength Iron Oxide [Fe2O3]-
Silica (SiO2) Due to excess reduces strength It is responsible for colour.
17-25% ≈ 20% and slow setting It act as flux.
Alumina (Al2O3) Responsible for quick setting if Magnesia (MgO)-
3-8% » 6% in excess then lowers strength It is responsible for colour and hardness.
Iron oxide(Fe2O3) Used as flux If present in excess quantity it causes unsoundness
0.5-6% ≈ 3% Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)-
DDA JE 2023
Magnesia (MgO) Imparts colour & hardness
If SO3 is present in larger quantities it increases the
0.5- 4% ≈ 1%
setting time and causes of unsoundness.
Gypsum Used as retarder
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4 . 2H2O)-
2-5% ≈ 4%
It is added in the form of gypsum during grinding of
Sulphur (SO3) Impart soundness
clinker to increase the setting time of cement.
1-3% ≈ 1% It acts as a retarder.
Alkalies Used as flux & Alkalis-
0.2-1% ≈ < 1% Imparts efflorescence RPSC ACF & FRD 2021
The quantity of Sulphur trioxide (SO3) in OPC It causes Efflorescence.
cement should not be more than 3%. Alkalis accelerate setting of cement paste.
Function of Ingredients of Cement- Composition of Cement Clinker-
Lime [CaO]- CHB SDE 2023, JSSC JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
CHB Jr. Draftsman 2023, SSC JE 2022 JKSSB JE 2021, RSMSSB JE 2021, GPSC AM 2020
RPSC ACF & FRD 2021, SSC JE 2017 It is also known as Bogue compound and formed
It is major ingredient of cement and act as binder. during clinkering Process.
NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022, NHPC JE 2022
Name of Compound Percentage Other Heat of Function
Name Hydration
Tri-calcium, Silicate 25 - 50% ≃ 40% Alite 500 J/g 7 Days hardness and
[C3S] strength
Di-calcium Silicate [C2S] 25 - 40% ≃ 32% Belite 260 J/g Ultimate strength
Tri-calcium Aluminate 5 - 11% ≃ 10.5% Celite 865 J/g Flash set
[C3A]
Tetra-calcium Alumino 8 - 14% ≃ 9% Felite 420 J/g Poorest cementing
Ferrite [C4AF] value
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 47 YCT
Note- • Increase the total heat of hydration.
C3 A • Increase 28 day's strength.
L Responsible for initial setting time (mainly C3A) • Decrease the ultimate strength.
C 4 AF
• Decrease the capability to resist the chemical and
C3S Sulphur attack.
Responsible for strength (mainly C3S) If fineness of cement is increases then-
C 2S
Tri-calcium silicate (3CaO.SiO2)- • Strength of cement is increases.
RSMSSM JE 2022, KPSC AE 2021, TNPSC 2021 • Rate of hydration increases.
It help (render) the clinker easier to grind, increases • Rate of heat of hydration increases.
resistance to freezing and thawing and develops an • No effect on total heat of hydration.
early hardness and strength. • No effect on setting time.
If C3S content raising to beyond the specified limit
• Rate of gain of strength increases.
increase the heat of hydration and solubility of
cement in water. • Value of shrinkage/contraction increases.
Di-calcium Silicate (2CaO.SiO2)- % Value of C3A is increases then-
CHB JE 2023, UKPSC AE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022 • Initial setting time is decrease.
GPSC AE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022, ESE 2021
WBPSC AE 2021 • Rate of hydration is increase.
It hydrates and harden slowly and take long time to • The value of total heat of hydration is increase.
imparts strength. • There is no effect on strength.
It imparts resistance to chemical attack. If % value of C2S is increases and C3S is
It is responsible for ultimate strength. decreases then- DDA JE 2023
Tri-calcium Aluminate [3CaO.Al2O3]-
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, UKPSC JE 2022, SJVN 2019
• Increase the ultimate strength.
C3A is responsible for higher heat of hydration, • The value of 28 day's strength is decreases.
initial setting, low resistance to sulphate attacks, heat • Increase the capacity to resist chemical attack.
of hydration, and lowers the ultimate strength. • Value of total heat of hydration is decreases.
Tetra-calcium Alumino Ferrite • This type of cement is prefer in the construction of
[4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3]- hydraulic structure.
As increase the C4AF content the strength reduces
slightly. Hydration of cement-
C3A is start the hydration but C4AF has highest rate If water is added to cement a chemical reaction
of hydration. between water and cement starts so that, heat
Dormant Period or induction period- produces, this is called heat of hydration and the
When water is poured into cement, then cement process of reaction with water is called hydration of
particle starts reaction with water. This reaction cement.
proceeds slowly for 2 to 5 hours and is called Water requirement for hydration of cement-
dormant period. RSMSSB JE 2022, SJVNL JE 2021
GPSC AE 2021, PSTCL AE 2021
Order of rate of hydration-
Bound water - 23% of cement weight
C 4 AF > C3 A > C3S > C 2S
Gel water- 15% of cement weight
Order of rate of heat of So minimum water required for complete hydration
hydration/hardening- is 38% of cement weight.
RSMSSB JE 2022, UPJN AE 2016 Chemical reaction of cement with water is an
C3 A > C3S > C 4 AF > C 2S exothermic process.
Order of strength- UJVNL AE 2016 Manufacture of cement-
C3S > C 2S > C3 A > C 4 AF 1. Mixing 2. Burning 3. Grinding
Reaction with water-
C3 A > C 4 AF > C3S > C 2S
The above sequence is valid when all compound are
taken in equal quantity.
If quantity of C3S is increase and C2S is
decrease then- OPSC 2018
• Increase the rate of hardening.
• Increase the rate of heat of hydration.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 48 YCT
❖ Tools used in Production of Cement- Temperature Thrust your hand into the cement
JSSC JE 2022, JPSC AE 2021 test bag. It must give you a cool
Name of Use Feeling. If hydration reaction
Tools takes place inside the bag, it will
Gyratory To crushed the lime stone and clay in become warm.
Crushers the range of 20 to 50 mm size. Rubbing test When cement is rubbed between
Wash mill For wet grinding of raw materials. fingers, there should be smooth
The grinded material which is feeling.
produced by wash mill is called slurry Smell test A thin paste of cement with water
and it has 40% moisture content. should feel sticky between the
Silo/storage For the storage of cement. fingers.
tank If the cement contains too
Rotary kiln It is used for burning of slurry. much-pounded clay and silt as an
Length It has following three chambers- adulterant, the paste will give and
90 - 120 m (i) Drying Zone earthy smell.
Diameter Temp. 2500C to 5000C Strength test Cement block given below should
1-2m In this chamber moisture of slurry not fail while loading (340N) is
is evaporate. applied in that manner.
(ii) Calcinations Zone–
Temp. 7000C to 12000C.
The calcinations of lime is
complete in this chamber.
(iii) Clinker Zone-
Temp. 15000C to 17000C.
Clinker (size- 5 to 10mm) is Lab test/physical test-
formed in this chamber. 1. Fineness Test [IS : 4031 (Part-I)]-
Bogue compound are formed in ESE Pre. 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, GPSC AE 2021-22
this chamber. RPSC ACF & FRD 2021, Mizoram PSC 2021
Rotary It is used for cooling of clinker. This is used to check proper grinding which has
cooler Here clinker cools slowly. direct impact on rate of hydration, rate of gain of
The strength and quality of strength and evolution of heat.
cement is depend upon the rate of There are three methods for testing fineness.
cooling of clinker. (a) Sieve Method-
Ball mill It is used for coarse grinding of clinker.
Tube mill It is used for fine grinding of clinker.
Gypsum is added in cement during the grinding of
cement.
The production cost of cement in dry process is
more than that of wet process.
The dry process is adopted when the raw material
are quite hard. This process is slow and production
cost is high.
Quality of cement is good in wet process while poor • In this method particle size of cement is measured
in dry process. • Size of sieve- 90 micron (Sieve No. 9)
TEST OF CEMENT • Sieving time- 15 minutes
Field Test- APPSC AEE 2012 • Weight of cement sample - 100 gm
Colour test The colour of OPC should be Result-
greenish grey. The residue should not exceed the limits specified
Lump Test The Presence of lumps in cement below (after sieving).
indicates that it has absorbed Types of cement Percentage of
moisture. Cement should be free Residue by weight
from presence of any lumps. Ordinary Portland Cement 10
Float test Take a handful of cement and (OPC)
throw it in a bucket filled with Rapid Hardening Cement 5
water cement particle should sink (RHC)
in water it should not float over Portland Puzzolana Cement 5
(PPC)
the water surface.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 49 YCT
(b) Air Permeability Method or Nurse & Blains 2. Normal/Standard Consistency Test [IS:5513-
Method- 1976, IS : 4031 (Part-4 1988)]-
MH WRD JE 2022, PSTCL AE 2021 JSSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, CGPSC AE 2022
Fineness is represented in terms of specific surface MBCC JE 2022, SSC JE 2018
area (cm2/gm) The standard consistency of the cement paste is
This test is based on relationship between flow of air defined as percentage of water added in 300 g
through cement bed and surface area of cement weight of cement which will permit a vicat plunger
particles forming the bed. to penetrate in cement paste to a depth of 33 to 35
NHPC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2022 mm from the top of the mould or rest from bottom 5
to 7 mm.
JSSC JE 2022, UPRVUNL JE 2022
• Weight of cement 300 gm
Blains air permeability apparatus sample
In this method surface area of the cement is • Size of mould Diameter - 80 mm,
measured. Height - 40 mm
❖ Minimum specific surface area of cement- • Size of plunger Diameter -10 mm,
MHADA JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 Height - 50 mm
RSMSSB JE 2022, DFCCIL JM 2021 • Depth of 33 to 35 mm from the top
Types of cement Specific Surface area penetration 5 to 7 mm from the bottom.
cm2/gm The value of normal consistency is depends upon the
Ordinary Portland 2250 compound composition and fineness of cement.
Cement (OPC) The water requirement for various test of cement
High Alumina Cement 2250 depend on the normal consistency of the cement, so
(HAC) this test is perform before than other test of cement.
Portland Puzzolana 3000 Normal consistency of OPC is - 26 to 33%
Cement (PPC) 3. Initial and Final Setting Time [IS : 4031
Low Heat Cement 3200 (Part-5), IS : 5513-1976]-
(LHC) SSC JE 2020-22, JSSC JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
Rapid Hardening 3250 MPSC AE 2018, KPSC JE 2017
Cement (RHC) This test is perform into two parts-
Hydrophobic Cement 3500 (a) Initial Setting Time (IST) Test-
This test is perform by vicat apparatus with the help
(H.C.)
of needle.
Super Sulphate Cement 4000
I.S.T. is the time elapsed between the moment that
(SSC)
the water is added to the cement, to the time that
(c) Sedimentation Method or Wagner Turbidity paste starts losing its plasticity.
Meter Method-
• Quantity of water 0.85 P
In this method surface area one gram of cement is
measure. Reading are expressed in square cm per
• Weight of Cement 400 gm
gram.
sample
Factors affecting the fineness of Cement-
PPSC JE 2022 • Weight of movable 300 gm
• Chemical Composition. rod
• Degree of Calcinations. • Diameter of needle 1 mm
• High Iron and silica content in clinker. • Penetration of 33 to 35 mm
needle (from top of the mould)
• Time of grinding.
• Character of the pulverizing machine.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 50 YCT
(b) Final setting Time (FST) Test-
This test is done by vicat apparatus with the help of
needle with collar.
F.S.T. is the time elapsed between the moment that
the water is added to the cement and the time when
cement paste losses its plasticity completely and has
attain sufficient firmness to resist certain defined
pressure at this time the mark of needle is left on the
surface of sample but the mark of the collar is not
formed.
• Weight of cement sample - 400 gm
• Quantity of water - 0.85 P
4. Soundness Test [IS : 4031 (Part-III)]-
CIL MT 2020, GPSC AE 2018
Note-
Soundness means the ability to resist volume
expansion. If gypsum content will be more than 3% then it will
be cause of unsoundness.
This test is conducted to detect change in volume
after setting. 1 - 2% SO3 makes cement soundness.
This test is done with the help of Le - chatelier 5. Compressive Strength Test- [IS : 4031 (Part-
apparatus and Autoclave test. VII)]
UPCL AE 2021, KPSC AE 2021, UPJN JE 2016
(i) Le - chatelier's Method (IS : 4031 Part 3-1988)-
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, MH WRD JE 2022, OPSC AE 2021 Aim-To determine the compressive strength of
• Unsoundness of cement is due to free lime only. cement.
Test apparatus- Compression testing machine or
• Weight of cement sample = 100 gm.
universal testing machine.
• Quantity of water = 0.78 P.
• Result is given in 'mm'.
• Temperature - 27 ± 20C, humidity 65 ± 5%.
No. of cube sample- 6 with cement mortar 1:3
˜ Expansion of Le-chatelier indicator- (Cement : Ennore sand)
GPSC AE 2021, SJVN JE 2021, WBPSC 2020 RIICO Asst. Site Eng. 2021
Max. expansion Type of cement Size of cube 70.6 mm × 70.6 mm × 70.6 mm
10 mm OPC, PPC, RHC and LHC Surface Area 5000 mm2
5 mm Quick Setting cement, High Water required P
Alumina cement and Super + 3.5 % weight of
4
sulphate cement
cement and sand
(ii) Autoclave Test (IS : 4031 - Part 3-1988)-
DDA JE 2023, CGPSC AE 2022
Rate of loading 35 N/mm2/min or 350
It is used to determine soundness of cement due to kg/cm2/min.
both free lime and free magnesia. Strengths-
Internal mould dimension = 25 × 25 × 250 mm. At 3 days - 50% (strength of 28 days)
% expansion of the mould for OPC should not At 7 days - 2/3 (strength of 28 days)
exceed 0.8%. At 28 days - 33 N/mm2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 51 YCT
❖ Average Compressive Strength of Cement in
N/mm2 -
MPPGCL JE 2023, ESE Pre. 2023, GSTHCL AE 2020
Types of Compressive Strength After in
cement day's (N/mm2)
1 3 7 28
O.P.C.
33 grade –– 16 22 33
43 grade –– 23 23 43
53 grade –– 27 37 53
L.H.C. –– 10 16 35
R.H.C. 16 27.5 –– ––
H.A.C. 30 35 –– ––
6. Tensile Strength Test- CGPSC AE 2020
Aim- To determine the tensile strength of cement.
Test apparatus- Tensile testing machine.
Specific gravity of cement - 3.15
The tensile strength of cement may be determined by
If fineness of cement is increase then its specific
briquette test method or by split tensile strength test.
gravity will be decreased.
Water required-
P Weight of Cement
Specific gravity =
+ 2.5 % weight of cement and sand. Displaced volume of liquid in ml.
5
• Rate of loading - 0.7 N/mm2/minute 8. Heat of Hydration test-
This test is perform with the help of calorimeter.
• Area of throat - 645 mm2
The heat of hydration of Low Heat cement-
After 7 days 65 cal./gm.
After 28 days 75 cal./gm.
Chemical composition test-
Cementation index value is lie between 1.02 to 0.66
CaO − 0.7 SO3
CI =
2.8 SiO 2 +1.2 Al2 O3 + 0.65 Fe 2 O3
Lime Saturation Factor (LSF)- MPSE 2017
It is the ratio of CaO to the other three main oxide
(SiO 2 , Al 2 O3 , Fe 2 O3 )
Standard briquette CaO
Tensile strength of OPC should not be less than– LSF =
i). 2 N/mm2 after 3 days 2.8 SiO 2 +1.2 Al 2 O3 + 0.65 Fe 2 O3
ii). 2.5 N/mm2 after 7 days Types of OPC LSF
Required consistency for various cement test at 33 Grade 0.66 - 1.02
(27 ± 2°C)- 43 Grade 0.66 - 1.02
UKPSC JE 2022 (Paper-I), GPSC AE 2022
53 Grade 0.8 - 1.02
JSSC JE 2022, HPPSC AE 2021
Initial & final setting time test 0.85P Specification for Ordinary Portland Cement as
Soundness test 0.78P per IS : 269-1976-
Compressive strength test • As per IS 8112 : 2013, loss of ignition for OPC-33
P
After 3 days - 16 N/mm2 + 3.5 % and OPC-43 5%. GPSC AM 2020
After 7 days - 22 N/mm2 4 • As per IS 12269 : 2013, loss of ignition for OPC-53
Tensile strength test P 4%. KPSC AE 2018
After 3 days - 2 N/mm2 + 2.5 % • Quantity of magnesia 6% .
After 7 days - 2.5 N/mm2 5
• Cement should not contain more than 1.5%
7. Specific Gravity Test (IS 2720- Part III)-
DDA JE 2023, UKPSC JE 2022 Paper-I, UPPCL AE 2021
insoluble residue when dissolved in dilute HCl.
Specific gravity of cement can be determined by • The value of soundness should not be more than,
using Le– Chatelier flask with reference to petrol, 10mm in Le-chatelier apparatus test and 0.8% in
diesel or kerosene. Autoclave test.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 52 YCT
SETTING TIME & USE OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CEMENT
Type of Cement Ingredient Setting Time Use
Initial Final
Rapid C3S↑, C2S↓, CaCl2 30 min. 10 Hrs. Bridge, road maintenance or repairing
Hardening 2% work
cement Note-
(IS: 8041) • Form work removed quickly.
• Also known as CaCl2 cement.
• More curing required.
• Frost resistance capacity is more.
High Alumina 40% Bauxite, 30-180 min 600 min. Precast structure, refractory bricks, or
Cement 15% iron oxide, where chemical attacks are more and it is
(IS:6452) 40% lime not places where temperature exceeds
C3A, 35-55% 18oC.
Note-
• Heat of hydration is more.
• Strength of HAC > RHC
Quick Setting C3A↑ 5 Min. 30 Min. Foundation basement, under water
Cement Gypsum↓ structure,
Low Heat C3A decrease 60 Min. 600 Min. Mass concrete work such as dam, bridge
Cement C2S and C4AF and raft foundation
(IS: 12600) increase
Portland Add Pozzolana 30 Min. 600 Min. Running water structure foundation,
Pozzolana 10 – 25% in OPC by basement
Cement mass
(IS:1489 P -I)
Super Sulphate C3A < 3.5% 30 Min. 600 Min. RCC pipes, where sulphate attack is more
Portland Blast furnace slag hydraulic structure
Cement (IS:6909) </ 70%
Sulphate C3A & C4AF↓, 30 Min. 600 Min. Sea water works, lining of canals and
Resisting Add Slag, sewers
Cement (IS:12330) C3S & C2S↑
Portland Slag OPC clinkers 35% 30 Min. 600 Min. Mass concreting OPC,
Cement Slag 65% Where sulphate attack possibility is more
(IS:455–1989) Note-
• Sulpho-Aluminates is the expansion
agent.
White Cement/ Fe 2 O3 ≃ 0 MgO ≃ 0 –– –– Plaster, ceiling Ornamental works Terrazzo
Coloured Liquid fuel are used flooring
Cement (IS:8042) • Colouring pigment
in coloured cement =
5-10%
Hydrophobic Boric Acid, Ollic –– –– Water tight structure in basement or where
Cement Acid, Steric Acid dampness is more
(IS:8043)
Masonry OPC Clinker 90 Min. 24 Hrs. Masonry Work
Cement (IS:3466)Dolomite and
Conglomerate
Grade- 33 30 Min. 600 Min. ––
(IS : 269 - 1989)
Ordinary Grade- 43 30 Min. 600 Min. ––
Portland cement (IS : 8112 - 1989)
Grade - 53 30 Min. 600 Min. ––
(IS : 12269 - 1987)
DDA JE 2023, MH WRD JE 2022, SSC JE 2022, MH ADA JE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022, UPRVUNL JE 2022, GPSC AE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 53 YCT
❖ According to IS : 10262-1982 Compressive Water required for per bag cement is-
strength for various grade of OPC- 28 kg or 22.5 Liters.
Grade Compressive strength in MPa IS : 1661 is stand for-
A 31.9 - 36.8 Specification about cement plastering.
Blast furnace slag cement (BFSC) is suitable for-
B 36.8 - 41.7 marine work. WBPSC JE 2018
C 41.7 - 46.6 IRST 40 cement-
D 46.6 - 51.5 DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022
E 51.5 - 56.4 It is a special type of cement used to manufacture
F 56.4 - 61.3 sleeper in Indian Railway.
Diatomaceous clay has a pozzolanic properties.
❖ Reduction in compressive strength of cement due
to aging for various grade of OPC– ❖ Various Types of Cement and its classification-
Time after Reduction ASTM Type Classification
3 Month 20% Type- I Ordinary Portland Cement
6 Month 30% Type- II Moderate Sulphate Resistance
Cement (Modified Cement)
12 Month 40%
Type- III Rapid Hardening Cement
24 Month 50%
Type- IV Low Heat Cement
Note- Type- V Sulphate Resisting Cement
C.S.H (Calcium silicate hydrate) gel which is also Type- IP Portland Pozzolana Cement
known as tobermoraite are formed after hydration of
Type- IS Portland Slag Cement
cement. UPRVUNL JE 2022
Pressure on the bottom surface of cement bag are MORTAR
known as- ware house pack. It is used to describe the paste obtained by addition
❖ The effect of adding Pozzolana in OPC- of water in the mixture of binding material like
JSSC JE 2022, PPSC JE 2022, MHADA 2022 cement or lime and aggregates like sand.
GPSC AE 2018, OPSC AEE 2015 Classification of mortar
• Shrinkage ↑ Cement Mortar– Prepared from portland cement,
sand and water.
• Initial Strength ↓
Lime Mortar– Mixture of air hardening lime, sand
• Heat of hydration ↓ and water.
↑ Mud Mortar– Prepared from clay nodules, it is used
• Workability
in temporary construction work.
• Curing period ↑ Gauged Mortar– Cement lime mortar.
• Capacity of sulphate attack resistance ↑ Types of construction Type of mortar
Pointing work Cement mortar 1 : 1
• No effect on overall strength.
Damp proof course (DPC) Cement mortar 1 : 2
❖ Colouring pigment used to obtained colour in Concrete pavement Cement mortar 1 : 2
cement-
Masonry in super structure Cement mortar 1 : 3
Colouring pigment Colour Masonry in foundation Cement mortar 1 : 6
Cobalt oxide Blue Plastering Cement mortar 1 : 4
Chromium oxide Green
Grinding Mill for Preparation of Mortar
Titanium oxide White
Manganese oxide Brown
Iron oxide Red, Black
Composition of Blast Furnace Slag-
45% CaO and 35% Silica
❖ Maximum Quantity of water required per bag of
Cement for various grade of Concrete-
Grade of Concrete Water (in Litres)
M-5 60
M - 7.5 45
M - 10 34
M - 15 32
M - 20 30
M - 25 28
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 54 YCT
05.
TIMBER
Classification of Tree-
SJVN JE 2021, KPSC AE 2021, RSMSSB JE 2020
Macro Structure of Exogenous Tree-
CHB Jr. Draftsman 2023, JSSC JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022
SSC JE 2022, SJVN JE 2021, GPSC AE 2021
The innermost part or core of
Medulla (Pith)
the stem of a tree
Conifers Tree- Heart wood Death portion of the tree
These trees having pointed needle like leaves. Most Outer layers of a log of wood,
Conifer tree are evergreen tree but not all of them. Sap wood storing up starch and
(Ex.– Larch tree (larix Laricina) or Tamarack) conducting sap.
☞ Exogenous trees are used in structural purpose. Cambium To growth wood cells
Difference between hard wood and soft wood- Protect the wood against
Bark
Item Soft wood Hard wood mechanical damage
Annual Distinct Indistinct Transverse septa The vascular tissue which
Ring (Medullary rays) encloses the pith
Colour Light Dark A cellular tissue and woody
Fire Poor More Annual rings fiber arranged in distinct
Resistance
concentric circle
Weight Light Heavy
Structure Resinous and Non-Resinous and Lumber-
split easily close grained It is a log pieces of timber sawn into pieces of
Medullary Indistinct Distinct desired shape.
Rays Classification of timber (is : 399)
Strength Strong for direct Equally strong for
1. On the basis of its Position-
pull and weak in tension, compression
shear and shear a. Standing timber
b. Dead or Rough timber
Timber- c. Converted timber or lumber
A wood which is used for engineering purpose is
2. On the Basis of Grading (IS : 6534)-
called timber.
Commercial grading- SSC JE 2022
Structure of timber- Grade of Adopted in based on
Timber
A Kerala, Mysore Dimension and
appearance.
B Andhra Ultimate use of the
Pradesh logs.
C Madhya Qualitative
Pradesh evaluation of
defects.
D Bombay Evaluation of unit of
defect and fixing the
permissible number
of standard volume
of area.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 55 YCT
3. On the Basis of Modulus of Elasticity (E)- • Moisture content recommended for doors is 12-20%
JPSC AE 2021 and for windows is 10-16%.
2
Group E (kN/mm ) in bending Method of Seasoning and its property-
A > 12.5 MP Vyapam JE 2022, ESE 2021, LMRC AM 2018
B 9.8 – 12.5 Method Property
C 5.6 – 9.8 (A). Natural or Air It take long time but best
4. Availability- Seasoning- quality of seasoned wood are
Grades Quantity in m3 per year (6 month to 1 Year) obtain.
X ≥ 1415 • Easy and most economical
Y 355 - 1415 method.
Z < 355 • Reduce moisture up to 12-15%
5. Durability- (B). Artificial Seasoning
NHPC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 1. Water Seasoning It is quick process but elastic
Durability Avg. life in months (2 - 4 weeks) property and strength are
High ≥ 120 reduced.
Moderate 60 - 120 2. Boiling This process is very quick but
Low < 60 (3 - 4 Hour) expensive
3. Kiln Seasoning Most effective and
6. Seasoning characteristics-
( 3 - 5 days) economical method.
Class A High refractory • K.D- Kiln dried • Little loss in strength of timber
Class B Moderately refractory • A.D - Air dried < 10%
Class C Non-refractory • Used for rapid seasoning on
large scale.
Seasoning of timber (IS : 1141)-
• Kiln seasoning causes case
MPPGCL JE 2023, MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, NHPC JE 2022
hardening.
SSC JE 2022, PPSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2021, KPSC AE 2021
• It is more expensive and
The Process of removing moisture from timber is
skilled labors required.
called seasoning. 4. Charring or • It is used for lower part of
Purpose of Seasoning- Scorching wood pole which is below the
1. Reduce the weight of timber. ground level.
2. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after placement in 5. Mc. Neil's Process • It is best but most expensive
structure. (15 - 60 days) method.
3. Increase strength, durability and workability. 6. Electric Seasoning • Timber loss their strength and
4. Make it suitable for painting. may split.
5. Reduce its tendency to split and decay. • It is costly method
According to IS: 289 the recommended Sawing Method of Timber-
CHB JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2015
maximum moisture content for standard Method Property
elements as post, beam and rafters- Best method of sawing and most
UKPSC AE 2022, UJVNL AE 2021 Ordinary commonly used.
Zone Relative Maximum Sawing • Easiest and economical method.
Humidity moisture content • Wastage of timber is very less.
I). Dry < 40 % 12% Disadvantage-
II).Moderate dry 40 – 50 % 14% • Strong possibility of twisting and
III) Moist 50 – 67% 17% warping
• Suitable for timber whose annual rings
IV). Moderate > 67% 20%
Tangential are clearly visible.
moist Sawing • Sawing is done tangentially to the
Note- annual rings.
• Generally available moisture content in timber after • It is economical due to very less
seasoning is- 10 – 12% wastage.
UKPSC JE AE 2022 Paper-II Disadvantage
• This timber has low strength due to less
• Timber is an isotropic material.
annual ring and medulary rays.
• According to IS code, weight of the timber is to be • Possibility of warping and twisting also
reckoned at a moisture content of 12%. occurs.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 56 YCT
• Each log is sawed at a radial angle into Heart Cracks is wide at center and diminish
Quarter four quarters. Shake outside.
Sawing • This method is popular for Oak and • It is due to shrinkage of heart wood
Maple. when tree is over matured.
• It is defined as wood where the annular Cup shake It is caused due to rupture of tissue in
growth rings intersect the face of the circular direction.
board at 60o to 90o angle. • Cup shake appears as curved split
Radial • Sawing of timber is done perpendicular which partly or wholly separates
Sawing to the annual ring and parallel to annual rings from each other.
medullary rays. Ring shake When cup shake cover the entire ring
• Durable and strong timber pieces are Radial Occurred when timber is exposed to
obtained. shake sun for seasoning after being felled
• Shrinkage and twisting are least. down.
• Wastage of timber is more. Knot These are the base of branches which
• Time and labor is more. are broken or cut-off from the trees.
• Useful for best class of timber. Rind galls Abnormal growth or curved swellings
on the body of tree.
Foxiness It is a sign of decay appearing in the
form of yellow or red tinge.
Cause-Over maturity lack of
ventilation.
Burl is the growth of tree in which the
grain has grown in a regular projection
Burl or the timber body.
• It formed when the tree receives shock
or injury in its young age.
Callus It is the soft tissue or skin which cover
the wound of a tree.
Druxiness White spots are formed on the top
surface of wood.
Twisted It is caused by wind turning the trunk
fiber of young tree in one direction.
• Reaction wood is the wood with
Decreasing order of Strength of timber according twisted fiber.
to sawing – Upsets It is due to the crushing of fibers
Radial > Ordinary > Quarter > Tangential running transversely during the growth
of the tree due to strong winds and
Falling of tree- RSMSSB JE 2016
unskilled felling consequently resulting
The tree should be cut when movement of sap is at in discontinuity of fibers.
rest. It is due to injury or impact.
Rupture
The best time is mid summer or mid-winter.
Profitable age of tree 50–100 year
DEFECT IN TIMBER
Defect Due to Natural Forces or
Abnormal Growth-
CHB SDE 2023, NHPC JE 2022, UPRVUNL JE 2022, ESE 2022
RPSC Lect. 2021, PSTCL AE 2021, MPSC AE 2020
Checks Longitudinal cracks which is normal to the
annual ring.
Shakes Longitudinal separation between the
DDA JE 2023 annual ring.
• If appearance is required then this
defects make the wood undesirable.
Star shake It is a type of shake in which cracks is
DSSSB JE wide at outside and narrow at inside.
(Tier-I) 2022
• Occurred due to temperature variation.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 57 YCT
Defect Due to Seasoning- RSMSSB JE 2021
(i) Warp-
Due to unequal shrinkage the curved deformation
formed along the length of board.
(ii) Bow-
Key Points
This is a curve along the face of board caused by the
■ According to IS : 303-1989, the thickness of
wood on one face shrinking more than face.
plywood boards ( in mm units) in a 3 plyboard is–
3,4,5,6
■ In drying process of a timber, at the fiber
saturation point– Cell walls have full saturation
■ Along the grains, tensile strength of timber is .... (iii) Cup-
the corresponding compressive strength– This is the hollowing of the board throughout its
More than length on its bark side face.
Types of knot-
(i) Based on size-
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022
Knot Size(mm) Classification
< 12 Pin Knot
12 – 20 Small Knot
20 – 40 Medium Knot
> 40 Large Knot (iv) Twist-
(ii) Based on quality- In this defect the end of timber is rotate in opposite
a. Sound knot direction.
b. Decayed knot
c. Encased knot
d. Tight knot
Defect Due to Conversion of Timber-
SSC JE 2019
Defect Description
Chip Mark A mark or sign placed by planer on
finished surface of timber. Defect Due to Fungi or Disease of
Wane It is the original rounded surface on Timber-
the manufactured part of timber. DDA JE 2023, JKPSC AE 2021, TNPSC 2021
Torn Grain It is the small depression on the AE 2021, SSC JE 2019
PGCIL DT 2023 finished surface (along the fiber of Its treatment is possible.
timber) due to falling of tool. (i) Dry Rot-
Diagonal It is formed because of improper It is caused by the action of various fungi attack.
Grain timber sawing indicate by diagonal Cause-
mark on the straight-grained • Imperfect seasoning and ventilation.
surface of the timber. • Fungies converted the fibers into powdered form and
timber losses its strength.
• The best remedy is to cut away the affected part and
point the remaining part.
(ii) White Rot-
White rot occurs when the fungus digests the lignin
and cellulose therefore stripping out the darker
colour with it.
(iii) Brown Rot-
It is caused by the monolinia fructicola and
monolinia laxa fungi.
(iv) Wet Rot-
In this defect the tissue of timber is decomposed due
to alternate wet and dry condition.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 58 YCT
Well seasoned timber is used with preservative and It is applied at 500C and pressure of 0.7 - 1.0 N/mm2.
paints to avoid wet rot. 5. Solignum Treatment- This treatment well suitable
(v) Blue Stain- for preserving timber from white ants.
This type of defect is caused by some kind of fungi, 6 AsCu Treatment- ESE 2015, KPSC AE 2015
which make the timber bluish. It is developed at forest research institute Dehradun.
(vi) Sap stain- 7. Worms and Insects treatment-
When the moisture content in the timber is more 8. Dipping- In this method timber is dipped directly
than 25% some types of fungi attack the sapwood in the preservative solution. The solution penetrates
and make it discolored. the timber better than the case of brushing or
spraying.
9. Fire resistance of timber-
UPPCL AE 2021, UPCL AE 2021
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021, MPSE 2020
(i) Able's Process- It is used to make wood Fire
resistance.
Chloride, Borex, Boric Acid, Sodium arsenate and
Ammonium sulphate is used in Able's Process of
Preservation of timber.
UPPCL JE 2022, RSMSSB JE 2022
(ii) Bethel Process- It is used when max. absorption of
the preservative is desired.
(iii) Boucherie Process- It is used to treatment of green
wood.
Empty cell process- NBCC JE 2022
It is also known as pressure process. It is aimed at a
maximum penetration of the preservative with a
minimum net retention.
The Lawry process and Rueping process are
commonly used.
Defect Due to Insects- Diffusion process-
(i) Beetles- It is the method of treatment of timber (poles and
These are small insects which cause rapid decay of planks) and other plant material like in green
timber by converting them into fine powder. condition.
(ii) Marine borers- Properties of a good timber- ESE 2023
These are found in marine waters. They can make Properties Value
holes as high as 25 mm diameter and 60 mm length. Density 540 kg/m3
(iii) Termites- Specific gravity 1.54
Termites are also known as white ants, make tunnels Moisture content 10-12%
inside timber in different directions. Shrinkage 0.1- 0.3% Along fibers
Key Points Swelling 0.1- 0.8% Along length
■ Seasoning of timber for use in construction is done Sound 2-17 time more than air
essentially to– Increase strength and durability Conductivity
■ Star shake, a type of defect in timber arises due to– Strength of timber at 12% moisture content-
Severe frost and fierce heat of sun Strength Value (N/mm2)
Shear strength 6.5 - 14.5
❑ PRESERVATION OF TIMER (IS: 401)- Bending strength 10.2 - 18.2
It is done with the helps of various types of
Compressive strength 30 - 77.5
preservative to increase life, durability of timber.
Tensile strength 80 - 190
1. Tarring- UPPSC Lect. 2021
Use of various type of timber-
Process of heating the coal tar to make it in workable
condition is called tarring. Type of timber Use
2. Charring- It is a old method of preservation of Guava Scientific instrument
timber. This method is not suitable for exterior wood Babool Agricultural instrument
works. Mulberry Sports Goods
3. Oil Paint- It is suitable for well seasoned wood and Jack fruit Musical instrument
generally applied 2-3 coats. Benteak Boat
4. Creosote Oil- ESE 2021 Teak Plywood and furniture
It is derived from wood or coal tar and best Sal, Deodar Railway Sleepers, Timber
antiseptic material. bridge
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 59 YCT
Note- Plywood is a material manufacture from thin layer or
Maximum quantity present in timber is carbon. 'Plies' of wood veneer that are glued together with
Strength of timber is maximum parallel to its grains. adjacent layer having their wood grain rotate upto
Market form of timber- 900 to one another.
Form of Thickness Width Plywood are glued under pressure of 130 - 140 MPa
timber (in mm) (in mm) and from an odd number of layers (≥ 3 layers) of
Batten >/ 50 >/ 50 veneers. Each layers are perpendicular to each other.
Plank < 50 > 50 Advantage of Plywood-
Deal 50 - 100 200 - 250 KPSC AE 2018, UPRVUNL JE 2016
Board < 50 > 200 • Strength of plywood is equal in all direction.
Scantling > 50 but > 50 but • Impact load resistance capacity is more.
< 200 < 200
• It is made of odd layers of ply.
Key Points
■ Laminated timbers composed of two or more • Tendency to shrink, swell and twisting is reduced.
layers of dimensional lumber glued together with • It can be curved into desired shape.
the grain of all layers laid parallel are known as– Parts of plywood and its other name-
Glulam Outer most veneer sheet - Faces
■ According to IS 14315 : 1995, the maximum Interior ply (grain parallel to face) - Core/Centre
thickness of commercial veneers produced from
Interior ply (grain perpendicular to face) - Cross
wood is– 6 mm
■ The defects occurs when a small depression is band.
formed on the finished surface of timber by falling Fiber boards-
of a tool– Torn grain It is a type of engineered wood product that is made
■ Timber can be made reasonably fire resistant by– out of wood fibers.
Soaking it in ammonium sulphate Types of fiber board-
Veneers (IS : 14315) RPSC Lect. 2022
JSSC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
1. Particle board/Low density fiber board (LDF)
GES 2019, IRCON AE 2017
2. Medium density fiber board(MDF) (<400 kg/m3)
3. High density fiber board (HDF)
Note:- Hard fiber board can be used as wall slab,
door board, floor, furniture and other decorations.
Hard board -
Hard board is a tough smooth panel made with wood
fibers compressed under high pressure and heat.
Key Points
It is the thin strip of timber which thickness is about ■ A narrow strip of wood which is nailed over the
0.4 mm to 0.6 mm. It should not be exceed 1 mm in joints of boards is known as– Batten
any case. ■_______ are manufactured by using lignocellulose
It is also known as Ply and made by good quality materials, which are agglomerated, formed and
timber like Teak, Sal, Deodar etc. pressed together by the use of an organic binder
Walnut is most suitable wood for this purpose. together in the presence of heat, pressure or
Plywood- moisture– Particle boards
DDA JE 2023, ESE Pre. 2023, UPPCL JE 2022 JSSC JE 2022
RIICO Draftsman 2021, RSMSSB JE 2021, NPSC 2018 ■ The number of zones in India for classifying
allowable moisture content for building timber as
per the Indian Standard are– Four
■ First class timber has an average life of–
More than 10 years
■ The core of a lamin board is made up of softwood
strips of wood, with widths in the range of– 5–7
mm
■ An organic solvent preservative in the process of
preservation of timber, is used–
Copper naphthenate
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 60 YCT
06.
PAINT
Ingredients of oil paint- 3. Pigment- RSMSSB JE 2022, GPSC AE 2018
1. Base- It is used to hide the surface imperfection and to
NHPC JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022, UPRVUNL JE 2022, impart the desired colour and appearance.
SSC JE 2022, RPSC Lect. 2021 Paper-II NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022
OPSC AEE 2019 It protect the paint film by reflecting the destructive
It is a metallic oxide which is the principal ultra violet light.
constituent/ingredient of paint.
Pigment Colour
It provide opaque layer and possesses binding
properties and prevent the shrinkage and cracks in Indigo, Prussian blue Blue
the film on drying. Iron Oxide Red
Example- Amber Yellow
Base Description Lamp Black, Ivory Black Black
White lead It is dense, permanent and
Burnt Amber Brown
[2PbCO3.Pb(OH)2] water proof. It is not suitable
for iron surfaces. It is most Chromium Oxide, Copper Sulphate Green
suitable for wood surfaces. Zink Oxide White
Red lead [Pb3O4] It is most suitable for 4. Solvent or Thinner-
painting iron surfaces and DDA JE 2023, DDA JE 2023, NPCIL KAIGA 2022
for providing a priming coat UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
to wood surface. It is used to thin and increase the spread capacity of
It is used as a drier also. the paint.
Zink white [ZnO] It is smooth and transparent. It make the paint of workable consistency and
It is not discolored when evaporate during drying of the film, so it is known as
exposed to sulphur vapours. volatile substance of the paint.
Iron oxide [Fe2O3] It is used for priming coat of Ex. Turpentine oil, Naphtha, Spirit, Petroleum
iron surfaces. Alcohol, Benzene etc.
Aluminium powder It is used for a priming coat 5. Driers- UPPSC Lect. 2021
[Al] to new wood work. It is also known as plasticizers.
Lithophone [BaSO4 It is mixture of zinc It is used for accelerate the drying process of the
+ ZnS] sulphide and barytes. paint.
It is used for interior works. The percentage quantity of drier in paint is limited to
Titanium white It is used for receiving the 8%. Excess of it affects the elasticity of paint and
[TiO2] coat of an enamel. leading to flaking failure.
Antimony white It is same as titanium white Ex.- Litharge (PbO), Red lead (Pb3O4), Lead acetate,
2. Vehicle Career/Binder- Cobalt, Manganese dioxide, Zinc and Lead
RSMSSB JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 chromate.
GPSC AE 2017, KPSC AE 2015
6. Inert Filler or Adulterants/Extender-
It provides liquidity and forms the body of the paint.
GPSC DEE 2022
It is also known as binder.
It increase the volume & durability and reduce the
Vehicle is an oil in which the base is mixed.
overall cost of paint.
It holds the constituents of paint in suspension and
It reduce cracking of paint on drying.
helps spread it over the surface to be painted.
It imparts durability, toughness smoothness and Ex. Barium sulphate, Calcium carbonate,
water proofness to the paint film and resistance to Magnesium silicate.
weathering and glazing to the painted surface. Note-
Ex. Linseed oil, Nut oil, Tung oil, Poppy oil etc. The best adulterant is Barium sulphate.
Note- The covering power of paint is also known as
Boiled linseed oil is used for exterior surface only. spreading capacity.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 61 YCT
Pigment Volume Concentration (P.V.C.)- Defects of paint-
JSSC JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, CGPSC 2017
1. Blistering and Peeling-
Volume of pigment in paint JSSC JE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2021
P.V.C. =
Volume of (Pigment + non volatile KPSC AE 2021, GPSC AE 2018
vehicle constituents) paint
It is swelling of the paint film and can be defined as
localized loss of adhesion between one or more
Volume of pigment in paint
= coating or between primer and parent surface.
Total volume of non - volatile constituents of the paint
Swelling is because of oil/grease or moisture on the
Fillers improve the paint properties and mainly surface.
reduce the cost. When swelling is due to oil or grease on the surface
Glass of particular paint coating is determined by the then it is known as blistering.
PVC of paint. If swelling is caused by moisture then it is called
Type of Paint P.V.C. Range (%) peeling.
Flat paint 50 - 75 Cure- These defects can be eliminated by using
porous paint (Emulsion paint).
Semi-gloss paint 35 - 45
☞ Blistering and peeling are defects in which swelling
Gloss paint 25 - 35
of the pain film occurs.
Metal primers 25 - 40 2. Cracking- It is caused due to
Exterior house paint 28 - 36 • Excess quantity of drier in Paint.
Wood primers 35 - 40 • Paint applied on glossy surface.
PVCN– Pigment Volume Concentration Number. • Painting on improperly seasoned wood.
PVCN Remark Pre-mature application of top coat before the
•
25 – 40 Prime coat on metal Previous coat has completely dried.
28 – 40 For exterior surface of house 3. Flaking- UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
35 – 40 For paint on timber surface Detachment of paint film from the surface is called
flaking.
50 – 75 For faint paints
Cause- Poor bond between surface and paint film.
The PVCN value is essential in determining the
Cure- Surface should be cleaned and rubbed with
amount of a particular pigment that can be added to abrasive paper before applying paint.
the polymer of the coating.
4. Checking-
The point at which there is just sufficient polymer to Checking is similar to alligatoring but hair cracks are
wet the pigment particles is known as critical limited to a small area, unlike alligatoring cracks.
pigment value concentration (CPVC). Cause -
Water Paints- • Paint is applied during very cold weather or due to
Water is added in the form of thinner. the application of paint prior to drying of undercoat.
White wash, colour wash and distemper are the • Checking is a mild form of cracking. If hair cracks
water paint. produced enclose small area it is known as crazing.
Distemper- If cracking area is large the defect is called
(White chalk + Water) crocodiling.
TNPSC AE 2015 5. Chalking- MPSE 2018
Distempering is suitable for interior wall surface. Formation of powder due to insufficient oil in
primer, is called chalking.
Key Points
Cure- Using sufficient oil in primer.
■ Water is used as thinner in type of paint–
6. Bloom- UPSSSC JE 2021, PGCIL DT 2023
Plastic paint
It is the dull patches formed on the finished, surface
■ The maximum surface drying time (min) for class
due to defect in the quality of paint or poor
a type plastic emulsion paint as per the Indian ventilation.
standards is– 45
7. Mildew-
■ According to IS : 79 – 1975, the Acid value of It is a form of fungus which grows in warm, moist
Type – 1, linseed stand oil for paints is– 6 and dark places.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 62 YCT
It grows rapidly and develops the grey colour 13. Fading-
patches on the painted surface. It is the gradual loss of colour or discoloration of the
Cure- paint surface due to atmospheric agencies like
• Zinc oxide and phenol mercury oleate are very sunlight, moisture and thermal difference.
useful to check its growth. 14. Flashing-
It is characterized by the appearance of certain
• Keeping dry surface and clean before applying paint.
glossy patches on the painted surface.
8. Grinning- DSSSB JE 2022, GPSC AE 2018
Cause-
The background and its defects can be seen clearly.
• This defect is occur due to poor workmanship, use
This defect is occurred due to-
of cheap paint and weathering actions.
• When required thickness of the paint is not provided
15. Saponification-
• Low opacity of paint and uses of strong color in Formation of soap patches on the painted surface is
lower coats. known as saponification and it is due to chemical
• Insufficient volume of the paint. action of alkalies.
9. Washing or running or sagging of paint- 16. Alligatoring- Assam PSE AE 2020
When paint runs downward direction after One layer of paint film sliding over the another
application on the surface is called sagging. layer, when a hard paint is applied over a soft one or
Causes of Sagging- vice versa is called alligatoring.
• Excess quantity of drier in paint.
• Thicker layer of paint.
• When paint is applied over smooth and glossy
surface.
• Less viscosity of paint. Blistering Flaking
Note-
Sagging - Thick paint film run downward.
Running- Thin paint film run downward.
Curtaining- Long distance of sagging.
10. Wrinkling or Crawling- Grinning Mildew
This defect is occurs when the top coat dries before
the bottom layers. or
Paint film shrinks due to drying in course of time.
Causes - • Paint film is quite thick.
• Excess quantity of oil in paint. Running Saponification
11. Loss of Gloss-
Due to application of old paint or excess quantity of
drier it loss the shining.
12. Popping-
It is the formation of Pin holes in the surface of a
Chalking Blooming
coating as it dries.
Causes -
• Imbalance of the solvent.
• Due to use of fast evaporating thinner.
• Paint are applied in humid atmospheric
Wrinkling Flashing
condition.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 63 YCT
Various Types of Paint-
MP Vyapam JE 2022, RPSC ACF 2021, RHCO AE 2017, KPSC JE 2017, ESIC 2016
Types of Paint Base Vehicle Use
Aluminium paint Aluminium powder Sprit or Oil varnish Painting in poles, tower, metal roofs,
storage tank etc.
Asbestos paint [most Asbestos mineral –– Stopping leakage in sloppy roofs
fire proof paint] painting of gutters etc.
• It is fire resistance paints.
Bituminous paint Natural asphalt or Sprit or naphtha or It provide highly protective surface.
residual bitumen petrol of ethyl acetate
Plastic paint Plastic powder Water Interiors of auditorium, showrooms
and offices.
Cellulose paint/Duco Methyl or ethyl Varnish or petroleum Painting car, ships, aero planes and
paint [costly] cellulose other costly things.
Cement paint White cement Water Used on exterior or interior surface of
[IS:5410] the building.
• It is used on Radiator of vehicle.
Enamel paint White lead or zinc Varnish It is acid resistance, alkalis and water
white proof.
• Used on both internal and external
surface.
Luminous paint Calcium Sulphide Varnish Metal surface and sign board.
Distemper paint or Chalk powder Water It is used on interior surface not
Water paint exposed to weather.
• 0.6 Litre water are required for 1
kg distemper.
• It is also called Snow-cem.
Bronze paint Aluminium powder Nitrocellulose or It has highest reflective properties.
or Copper powder lacquer
Solignum Paint- Knotting-
It is used on wooden surface and protect it from dry Knot is excrete resin which causes defect such as
& wet Rot. cracking, Peeling and brown discoloration.
Silicate Paint-
Knotting is the process of covering the knot by using
It is not affected by UV light and heat.
any of the following method.
☞ Traditional stone finish can be achieved by using.
i) Ordinary knotting or size knotting.
Texture paint.
Texture paints are used over the plastered surface. ii) Lime knotting
Pigment volume concentration increases by adding iii) Patent Knotting.
extenders/fillers in paint. Stopping-
Stucco paint- The process of rubbing and clean the wooden
It is suitable for stone and brick wall. surface is called stopping.
Lime Putty-
Crossing-
UKPSC AE 2022 (Paper-II)
It is made by chalk powder and raw linseed oil. After painting the surface in one direction, the brush
SEQUENCE OF PAINTING ON NEW WOOD is worked in the perpendicular direction to eliminate
WORK- brush mark is known as crossing.
Surface Preparation → Knotting → Priming Coat Old layer of paint are removed with the help of blow
→ Stopping lamp or caustic soda.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 64 YCT
Varnish- 2. Solvent-
NPCIL KAIGA JE 2022, SJVNL JE 2021 It is used as vehicle. There is each solvent used only
GPSC AE 2018, RPSC AE 2018
in conjunction with some specific resin.
Varnish is the solution of resins like amber, copal,
shellac, gum, lac etc. in solvent like oil, turpentine, Example- Boiled linseed oil, Turpentine,
alcohol etc. Methylated sprit.
Varnish is very costly. Note-
It form transparent layer on the surface and provide
protected and gloss to the surface and identify the ☞ Wood naphtha is used for raw copal and other cheap
wood grains. varieties of resin.
Ingredients of Varnish- ☞ Naphtha is used for cheap varnish.
1. Resinous material
2. Solvent ☞ Turpentine oil is obtained from Pinus tree.
3. Drier ☞ French polish is used for hard substance to hide the
1. Resinous material-
grain defects. SSC JE 2019
It is main component of varnish and works as base.
It is two types- Spar Varnish-
1. Natural resin 2. Artificial resin It gives sticky effect in warm weather and not used
It is fossil of tree. It is made in Laboratory. indoors.
Ex-Copal, Amber, Ex.- Phenolic resin It is used in ships.
Lac, Shellac, Gum Polish is dries quickly.
dammar etc.
Color of casein glue is white and obtained from
It is insoluble in water but soluble in oil.
milk. It is used at room temperature in Plywood
Copal is a hand and lustrous resin obtained
from ground where pine tree existed in past. industry.
JSSC JE 2022, RSMSSB JE 2022, RRB JE 2019
Type of Varnish Resin or Base Solvent Remark
• It is most durable.
Copal, Amber • Suitable for both
Oil varnish Boiled linseed oil
(Hard resin) Interior & exterior
work
Spirit varnish • It dries very quickly
Ex.- French polish, Lac, Shellac but not durable.
Methylated spirit
lacquer and Shellac (soft resin) • Easily affected by
varnish weathering action.
• Dry quickly but not so
Gum dammar, Mastic Turpentine oil, durable.
Turpentine varnish
Raw Copal Naphtha • It is cheaper than oil
varnishes.
• With a thinner such as
turpentine or
Asphalt varnish
Melted hard asphalt Linseed oil petroleum sprit.
• It is used over shop
fabricated steel work.
• Either ammonia or
borax or soda or
Shellac potash is added.
Water varnish Hot water
• It is used for
varnishing map and
pictures.
Flat varnish or Wax Wax, metallic soap or finely • For highlighting grain
Turpentine Oil
varnish divided silica. over wooden surface.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 65 YCT
07.
FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS MATERIAL
Wrought Iron-
Assam PSC AE 2020, GPSC AE 2019
It is the purest form of iron and produced by
removing the impurities of cast iron.
The total impurities are limited to 0.5% with the
Iron Ore Quantity maximum percentage of carbon as 0.15%
Magnetite 72% It is manufactured in Reverberatory or Puddling
[Fe3O4] furnace by Astor's process.
It is ductile, malleable, tough and moderately elastic
Hematite [Fe2O3] 70%
Use-
Limonite [2Fe3O3.3H2O] 60% Rivet, chain, gate and roof covering etc.
Iron Pyrite [FeS3] 47% Note-
Siderite [FeCO3] 40% Geo–composites are generally synthetic polymeric
Metals are obtained from ore by removing the materials & consist of either woven or nonwoven
impurities and that process is called Slagging. fabrics. They are generally used for separation,
Production process of iron- drainage, filtration & reinforcement.
Steel-
It is mainly alloy of iron and carbon.
Manufacturing method of steel-
1. Bessemer process
(widely used for manufacturing of steel)
2. Cementation process
3. Open Hearth process/Siemens' martin process
4. L.D. process
(modification of Bessemer process)
5. Duplex process
(combination of acid Bessemer process and basic
open hearth process)
Pig Iron-
6. Crucible process
Pig iron is manufacture in blast furnace or electric 7. Electric smelting process.
reduction furnace. (costly but no ash or smoke is produced)
It is classified as following type- Carbon content shows the purity, less carbon content
1. Bessemer pig shows poor steel while higher carbon content shows
2. Foundry pig/grey pig pure form of steel/iron.
3. Forge pig/White pig If carbon content are increase in steel then-
4. Mottled pig i). Yield strength of steel is increase
❖ Composition of pig iron- ii). Ductility of steel is reduces.
iii). Brittleness of steel is increase.
Carbon 3% - 4% Heat treatment process and related steel
Silicon 0.5% - 2.0% property-
Manganese 0.5% – 2% Process Steel property
Sulphur 0.02% – 0.1% Tempering Toughness
Phosphorus 0.03% – 1% Annealing Malleability, ductility softness
Use- Normalizing Grain refinement
Pig Iron is use as raw material for the production of Hardening Brittleness
cast iron and wrought iron. Various non-ferrous alloy and its application-
Columns, base plate, door brackets etc. Alloy-metal Application
Cast iron- BPSC AE 2018, Mizoram PSC 2016 Zinc Corrosion resistance
It contain 2% – 4% carbon. Copper Electric conductivity
It is hard and brittle. Lead Sanitary fittings
Duralumin Structural shapes
It is strong in compression (600MPa) but weak in
Ores of aluminium- Bauxite, Cryolite, Corundum,
tension. Kaolin etc.
Cupola furnace is used for manufacture of cast iron. Note-
Use- Annealing- It is the term used for heating and slow
Water pipe, sewers, manhole covers, sanitary fittings, cooling of metal glass or any other material which
rail chairs, carriage wheels and machine parts. has developed strain due to rapid cooling.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 66 YCT
08.
GLASS
Introduction- UPPCL JE 2022, ESE 2018 Key Points
Glass is an amorphous substance having ■ The types of glass is most suitable for making
homogeneous texture and mixture of metallic laboratory equipment and cooking utensils–
silicates. Borosilicate glass
❖ Constituent of glass their function- ■ Percentage content of silica in window glass, is–
ESE Pre. 2023 70 to 75
Constituent Function
Commercial Forms of glass-
Silica/Sand It is the major constituent of glass.
Lime It makes the glass fluid and suitable for Type of Glass Remark
blowing, drawing, rolling, pressing or Pyrex glass It is fire resistance and use
spinning. for making laboratory
Soda Impart durability and toughness. Acts apparatus and insulator.
as an accelerator for the fusion of
glass. Optical Glass • It contain phosphorus, lead
Potash It renders glass infusible and makes silicate and cerium oxide.
fire resistance. • It is absorb UV ray and use
Lead oxide Imparts colour, brightness and shine. for making lenses.
❖ Classification of Glass Based on Composition- Opal glass or It is used where high thermal
GPSC AE 2019
milk glass shock resistance & chemical
Glass Composition
Common glass Silicate of Na, Ca and Fe durability is desired.
Soda lime glass Silica, lime and soda Ground glass Used for bedroom, toilets and
Lead glass or Silica, lead and potash for making black board.
flint glass
Obscured glass It is used in doors and
Boro-silicate Silica borax, lime and feldspar
glass or Patterned window of bedroom and
❖ Various manufacturing Process of Glass- glass bathroom.
UPSSSC JE 2021, SSCJE 2019, DMRC AM 2017 Bullet Proof or It produced by placing vinyl
Process Used for Laminated glass plastic and glass in several
Blowing Glass bottle and Jar alternate layers and pressing
Drawing Tube, Rod, window glass them with outer layer of glass
Rolling Glass sheet
• Used in banks, Jewelry
Pressing Open pot
stores and display window.
Casting Lens, mirror
Spinning Heat, sound and electric Sheet glass It is used for glazing door,
insulator glass. window and partition.
Colouring Pigment- made by blowing, available
It is mixed to impart colour in the glass. with in 2 - 6 mm thickness.
Colour Pigment Plate Glass It is used for all engineering
Blue Cobalt oxide, cupric oxide purpose and is superior than
Red Selenium oxide, Iron sheet glass.
White Antimony oxide, tin
Yellow Lead with antimony Forming and Shaping-
Molten glass can be fabricated to desired shape by
Ruby Red Gold chloride one of the following method-
Green Chromium oxide 1. Blowing, 2. Flat drawing
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 67 YCT
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 69
2. Masonry .............................................................................................................................. 73
3. Lintel and Arches ................................................................................................................. 82
4. Stairs ................................................................................................................................... 84
5. Scaffolding and Shoring ...................................................................................................... 87
6. Door, Window & Ventilators............................................................................................... 91
7. Roofs and Roof covering ..................................................................................................... 97
8. Surface Finishing ............................................................................................................... 103
9. Construction Equipment .................................................................................................... 105
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 68 YCT
01.
INTRODUCTION
National Building Code- Parts of building -
NBC is a document that provides guidelines for
construction, maintenance and fire safety of the
structure.
NBC was first published in 1970.
Minimum life period of building is taken 50 years.
Most economical shape of building is square shape.
It is most earthquake resistance shape.
IGBC - Indian Green Building Council.
❖ Classification of Building in Civil Engineering-
Group Building Use
Classification
A Residential Sleeping, Living with or
Building without cooking or dining
(Treats as light
construction)
B Educational Education purpose.
Building
C Institutional Medical or other treatment or
Building care of persons suffering from
physical or mental illness.
Ex.- Nursing home,
orphanage, jail, sanatoria,
hospitals.
D Assembly Building where groups of
Building people gather.
Ex.-Temple, assembly halls,
theatre
E Business Used for keeping records of
Building business transactions, town 1. Sub Structure-
halls, court house etc. It is the parts of building, constructed below the
F Mercantile Used as housing shops, stores, ground level (G.L.)
Building showrooms to display and 2. Super Structure-
sales. Parts of building constructed above the G.L.
G Industrial Assembling or processing all 3. Plinth-
Building types of material is to be UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022
carried out. The wall height surrounding the building between
H Storage building Storage purpose or sheltering ground level and the ground floor level.
of goods, vehicles, grains. 4. Plinth Beam-
RCC concrete beam constructed between the wall
J Hazardous For storage, handling and
and its foundation. During foundation settlement it
building manufacturing of explosive
prevent cracks.
(Notational materials.
Plinth beam distributes the load of the walls over the
colour→ Black) foundation evenly.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 69 YCT
5. Damp Proof Course- Building Line -
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023, MH WRD JE 2022 It is the line up to which the plinth of a building
MH WRD JE 2022, MHADA 2022
UPPCL JE 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021 UJVUNL AE 2021
adjoining a street or an extension of a street or on a
DPC is a barrier of impervious material built into future street may lawfully extended.
wall or pier to prevent moisture from moving to Control Line-
building foundation. In Public building such as cinema halls, factories,
It is mainly laid on plinth beam at plinth level or business centers etc which attract large number of
vehicles, should be set back with a further distance
floor level.
apart from building line. The line upto which such
Thickness - 2.5 - 4 cm with cement concrete 1: 1.5 : building are constructed is known as control line.
3 and cement mortar 1 : 2 The distance of control line is taken as 1.5 times of
DPC provided over full width of plinth wall but not building line which is invariably measured from the
provided at the sill of door and verandah opening. center of roadways.
❖ Distance of building line and control line-
6. Corbel - Types of In open and Ribbon Actual limit in
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021, ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2019 road agricultural development along Urban area
Kerala PSC AE 2015 country approach
The term corbel refers to an architectural member Building Control Building Control Building Control
Line Line Line Line Line Line
that projects out (1/3 part) from a wall and acts as a
NH 30 36 18 30 30 45
type of bracket to carry weight. Corbels are made of & S.H.
stone, timber or metal P. Corbel provide support for M.D.R. 24 45 9 15 15 24
joist, roof truss, weather shed. O.D.R 15 24 6 9 9 15
Village 12 18 6 9 9 15
road
All value in meter.
As Per N.B.C. Min. Distance of Various
Building Components from Electric line-
Vertical Horizontal
Type of Electric Line
distance distance
1. Low and medium voltage 2.5 m 1.2 m
lines and service line.
2. High voltage line and 3.7 m 1.2 m
7. Wall plate - including 11 kV
Horizontal timber member placed along the top of a 3. High voltage line 11000V - 3.7 m 2.0 m
wall to support the ends of joists, rafters, etc, and 33 kV
distribute the load is called wall plate. 4. Extra high voltage line > 33 3.7 m 2.0 m
8. Cornice - kV
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2019 Note-
A horizontal projecting ornamental moulded course A course of stones placed immediately below the
placed in the wall at the junction of wall and ceiling cornice along the external face of the wall
9. Coping - to improve appearance is called freeze.
PPSC JE 2022, DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021 Building Service -
Top of the parapet wall finished with a special It includes services like water supply, drainage,
course to protect in from rain water is called coping. sanitation, lighting, electricity etc.
10. Drip Course - Service Road -
To facilitate the drainage of water from the coping, a A road provided at the rear or side of a plot for
groove is cut on the under side, called drip course. service purpose.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 70 YCT
Set-Back Line- ❖ As per NBC Minimum Dimension of Various
A line usually parallel to the plot boundaries and Building parts-
laid down in each case by the local municipal bodies Room Detail Min. Width Height (m) Min.
beyond which nothing can be constructed towards (m) Area(m)2
plot boundary. Bed Room 2.4 3.0-3.6 8.6
Importance of setback- Drawing Room 3.0 3.3-3.6 16.0
For natural ventilation to provide service line and Dining Room 2.4 3.3-3.6 9.50
rain water disposal. Drawing and 3.0 3.3-3.6 20.0
To provide light, air and fire safety to building. dining room
(combined)
Dressing Room 2.0 3.3-3.6 7.5
Guest Room 2.75 3.3-3.6 9.50
Study Room 2.40 3.3-3.6 9.50
Kitchen & Store 1.80 2.75 3.30
Kitchen 1.80 2.75 5.0
Store 1.80 2.20 3.0
Prayer Room 2.0 2.75 6.5
Bath Room 1.20 2.4 1.80
Frontage - Water Closet 0.90 2.20 1.10
Width of the site abutting the access road. Bath and water 1.20 2.20 2.80
PRINCIPAL OF BUILDING PLANNING - closet
Garage 2.50 2.40 12.50
• Aspect • Prospect • Privacy • Circulation
Verandah 2.5-3.0 3-3.6 -
• Roominess • Grouping • Elegance • Sanitation
• Flexibility • Economy • Practical consideration. Portico 3.0 3.6 18.0
Courtyard 4.5 - -
Aspect -
Servant Room 2.4 2.75 10.0
Placement of different rooms of house in according
with our activities at different hours of day. Basement 2.75 2.4 9.5
Room Orientation in Residential Building - Key Points
■ Structural member in building construction is two
Type of room Aspect
types–
Bed room, Drawing room S, S-E Compressive member and Tensile member
Dining room South, S-E ■ In context of the specifications of a first–class
Kitchen E/N-E building, Chaukhats shall be used–
Study room N Seasoned teak wood
■ Main object of building planning is/are–
Verandah W or S-W
Health, Convenience & Beauty
Prospect - ■ If the soil is dry, DPC for ground floor consists of
View from outside of a house. the layer of– Coarse sand
Roominess - Classification of walls -
It means getting maximum advantage from the 1. Load bearing walls -
minimum dimensions or space of the room. The wall which is constructed to support
Rectangular room has more roominess than square superimposed load and their own loads.
room. Such a wall is made in first class brick and rich
Grouping - mortar.
Grouping is the arrangement of various rooms Ex. Solid wall with piers (pilasters), Veneered wall,
Cavity wall, Solid wall.
regarding their function. It minimize the length of
2. Non-load bearing walls or Drop walls-
circulation and improves the comfort.
It takes only self load i.e. partition wall. It serves as
Elegance - screen for privacy.
It is grand appearance of a building attained mainly It can be removed without affecting the building
owing to the elevation which is turn depends on the structure.
plan. Generally thickness is 100-125 mm
Amalgamation - Ex. Partition wall, Panel wall, Curtain wall, Free
It is combining two or more place as a single plot. standing wall, Dwarf wall
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 71 YCT
3. Retaining walls - SOUND AND THERMAL INSULATION
A structure provided to the down side of the road to Building Acoustic -
protect freshly cut/fill or old surface of a natural hill. It is the science of controlling noise in building.
It is used for support artificial cutting. Sound is measured in the unit of "Decibels" (dB)
4. Curtain walls-
It is constructed with glass, aluminium or with a
steel frame.
5. Cavity walls-
GPSC GES 2021, GPSC AE 2019, TNPSC AE 2012
Cavity wall is a double wall consisting of two
separated walls called 'skins' or 'leaves' of masonry
separated by an air space and joined together by Reverberation -
metal ties at a suitable intervals. Reverberation is multiple, random, blended
repetitions of a sound
Reverberation is dependent only on the volume of a
space and the acoustically absorptive quality of the
room finishes
Reverberation Time -
Time between the sound energy to decay by 60 dB
after the sound surface has stopped.
Selection of the correct time of reverberation is
known as optimum time of reverberation.
The inner and outer skins should not be less than 10
cm each half brick.
The size of cavity wall varies from 4 to 10 cm.
Advantage of cavity wall -
• Better thermal insulation Classification of Sound Absorbents -
1. Porous absorbents (Mostly used in seminar halls)
• Economically cheaper than solid walls.
Ex. Wood Wool, Glass wool, Slag wool, perforated
• Good sound insulators. fiberboard, foamed plastic etc.
• Prevents transmission of dampness. 2. Resonant absorbents.
Wall tie - 3. Cavity Resonators.
Metallic or terra-cotta ties used to bond the walls 4. Composite type of absorbents.
together to obtain structural stability is known as Sound Absorbent material -
wall ties. 1. Acoustic plaster
Horizontal space - 90 cm 2. Acoustic Tile
Vertical space - 30 - 45 cm 3. Acoustic Board
Ex. Straw board, pulp board, compressed fiber
6. Dwarf walls-
board, perforated plywood, wood wool board etc.
It's wall, less than a storey in height wall supporting
Noise -
ground floor joist.
A sound that is not good to heard is called noise
It's height is generally less than 1.5 m Any unwanted or disturbing sound that affects the
7. Partition walls- health and well being of humans and other
HARYANA PSC AE 2020 organisms is called noise pollution.
It is a thin wall constructed to divide an enclosed Thermal Insulation -
space. Thermal insulation is the process of insulating
8. Internal and external wall material from transferring heat between the
Concrete Joist construction:- Concrete Joist materials which are in thermal contact.
construction of a monolithic combination of Heat Insulation Materials -
regularly spaced joists and a thin slab of concrete Slag- Wool, Aluminum foil, Rock-wool, foam glass,
cast in place to from an integral unit with the wood-wools, cork, board, Asbestos cement board,
supporting beams, columns, or walls. Light concrete block etc.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 72 YCT
02.
MASONRY
Masonry classification based upon
material used-
1. Stone masonry.
2. Brick masonry.
3. Composite masonry.
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
4. Reinforced Brick masonry.
5. Hollow concrete block masonry. 6. Bed Joint
6. Load bearing wall tile masonry. Haryana PSC AE 2018
STONE MASONRY
Joint in Stone Masonry-
1. Butt joint- Placing two stone side by side.
2. Joggle Joint- To prevent sliding along the side joint. 7. Plug Joint-
Stones are joined by filling the holes with cement or
lead.
3. Cramped Joint-
• Holes are made in adjacent stones are cramp and is
fitted in it.
• Crampe is made up to non- corrosive metal
8. Saddle Joint-
Used to divert the water moving on weathered
surface away from the joint.
4. Rebated or Lapped Joint-
It is for stone laid on slopes to prevent the
movement of one stone over the another.
This joint is provided in arches, gables, copings etc.
9. Dowell Joint -
5. Bed joint or Table Joint- This joint also ensures stability of the stones against
GPSC GES 2021 the displacement.
Used in sea wall to prevent the lateral movement of Dowels are 22 mm thick and 100 mm to 150 mm
stones. long.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 73 YCT
Joint thickness 13 mm.
Note point-
Natural bedding plane in stone masonry are placed
in position of normal (900) to the direction of load.
Stone used in a good masonry should be hard, tough,
well seasoned, compact grained and uniform texture.
Strength of mortar in a masonry wall should be
equal to the masonry unit.
Mortar are tested for crushing strength.
Facing and backing of the wall should be well bound
by through stone. 2. Dry Rubble masonry-
Vertical joint should be staggered. GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
Stone should be well wetted before use. It is cheaper than ordinary rubble masonry
constructed without mortar.
Masonry should not be subjected to tensile stress.
More manpower required in construction.
Key Points Useful for non-load bearing walls like compound
■ If the facing and backing of a wall are constructed retaining wall, boundary wall.
with different classes of masonry or of different
It is also used in pitching the earthen dam and the
materials, then it is known as–
canal slope.
Composite masonry
■ The edges formed by the intersection of plane
surfaces of brick are called– Arrises
■ The nominal thickness of an expansion joint in
brick wall must be more than– 20 mm
■ The reflection or appearance on the surface of
plaster of the pattern of joints or similar patterns in
the background, is called– Grinning
Mortar used in stone masonry-
(a) Above plinth level- Lime or cement mortar.
(b) Up to plinth level- In case of water logged site,
Hydraulic lime or cement mortar with surkhi used.
Classification of stone masonry- 3. Squared Rubble Masonry
Rubble masonry- • Stone having a straight bed and sides are used
MHADA JE 2022 in this type of masonry.
Stone masonry in which either undressed or rough • The stone are usually squared and brought to
dressed stone are used with a suitable mortar having hammer dress or straight- cut finish
wider joint. • They are arranged in faces with different
Joints are not in uniform thickness. irregular patterns.
The masonry has wide joints since stones of • Stones with different heights and straight edges
irregular size are used. are used for uncoursed square rubble masonry.
1. Random rubble masonry- a. Uncoursed Squared Rubble masonry-
HPPSC Lect. 2021, HPPSC Poly. Lect. 2016
Stones having straight bed and sides are arranged in
Stones used in the work are hammer or chisel
an irregular pattern to give a good and avoid the
dressed. It is the roughest and the cheapest form of
formation of long continuous joint. Stones used
stonewalling. Since stones are not of uniform shape
directly obtained from the quarry.
and size.
b. Coursed Squared Rubble Masonry-
Height of stone should be > breadth or length of tail.
This is generally used in residential building, public
More skill is required to make the masonry
building, pier and abutments for ordinary bridge.
structurally stable.
Masonry appearance is good. Joint thickness 10 mm.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 74 YCT
4. Flint Rubble Masonry- The height of stone varies from 25 to 30cm.
When sufficiently suitable large stones are not 1. Ashlar Fine Masonry-
available then smaller stones such as flints or All stones have same size and stones are fine tooled
cobbles of varying width and thickness from 7.5 cm on all bed and side joints and the face are rendered
to 15cm and lengths from 15cm to 30cm are used for perfectly.
masonry purpose.
• These are hand stones obtained from irregularly For any stone H 30 cm
shaped nodules of silica. Height of stone Breadth and L > (2-3)H
Bed and side joint > 3mm.
thickness
2. Ashlars Rough Tooled Masonry-
Expose faces of stone has rough and uneven but
corners and sides are perfect dressed.
Joint thickness 6 mm.
5. Polygonal Rubble Masonry-
Hammer- finished stone of different shape and size
are used in the facing to form different irregular
polygonal shapes.
• Stones are bedded in position to show face joints
running irregularly in all directions.
3. Ashlars Chamfered Masonry-
DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021
Dressing and surface are same as above but edged
around the exposed faces of stone is chamfered at
450.
4. Ashlars Block-in- Course Masonry-
This type of masonry is used in heavy structures
such as retaining walls, abutments, and piers of
bridges which carry heavy loads.
• The depths of the courses may vary from 15cm to
25 cm.
Ashlar Masonry-
GPSC AE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021
A stone masonry in which finely dressed stones with
extremely fine bed and end joints are laid in cement
or lime mortar is termed as ashlar masonry.
Its have architectural importance that provide
5. Ashlars Rock or Quarry- faced Masonry-
smooth appearance.
This is used for heavy structures arches, architectural The exposed face at the stone are not dressed to give
building, high piers, bridge abutment etc. and original appearance of the natural rock surface.
This types of masonry is much costly as it requires • The thickness at the course generally vary
dressing of stones. between 15cm to 25 cm.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 75 YCT
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 76 YCT
BRICK MASONRY
Important terminology used in masonry-
1. Face and facing-
UPPCL JE 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
Outer or exposed front face of the wall is called face
and material used on face is called facing.
2. Back and Backing-
Internal or back surface of the wall is back and
material used is called backing.
3. Hearting or Filling-
It is the internal portion between face and back.
4. Spall- 2. Header-
DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021, GPSC AE 2017
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
Small pieces or chips of stone. The brick or stone laid with its length perpendicular
to the face of wall or brick laid in such a way that its
It is used in filling the interstices in stone masonry.
breadth and thickness (9 cm × 9 cm) is visible is
5. Frieze- known as header.
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022
In stone masonry sometimes header is as through
Course of stone masonry provided just below the stone.
cornice. In a header course brickwork entirely composed of
Provided to increase the appearance of wall. header.
6. Template or bed block- 3. Stretcher-
A stone or concrete block used under a girder or CHB Junior Draftsman 2023, GWSSB AAE 2015
beam to spread the concentrated load from the roof It is the full brick which is laid with its length
over a large area of bearing surface. (19cm×9cm) parallel to the face of the wall.
7. Intending- Brickwork entirely composed of stretcher in
Process of leaving recesses in masonry into which stretcher course.
future work can be bonded. 4. Course-
8. Perpend- It is a horizontal layer of brick or stone.
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021 Note-Header and stretcher is used to break the
An imaginary lines containing vertical joints in continuity of vertical joints in masonry.
masonry. It is represented by 'A'. 5. Quoin-
9. Joint- DSSSB JE 2022, BPSC AE 2018
It is junction of two or more bricks/stones. It is the exterior angle or corner of the wall.
Cornice Brick -
Several shapes and size of brick when combined to
a. Horizontal or bed joints- form cornice are known as cornice bricks.
Thickend horizontal layer of mortar just below the
course.
b. Cross joint/Vertical joint or Head joint-
Mortar joint in masonry normal to the face of the
wall.
Technical terms in masonry–
1. Bed -Horizontal mortar joints on which masonry
units are laid is known as bed.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 77 YCT
Various forms and shapes of bricks-
Coping Bricks-
DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021, MH PSC 2019
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018
It is used to topmost course of parapet and its shape
are made like that rain water drained out from the
top of parapet.
Throat- throw the rain water from the face of wall.
Bat-
Portion of a brick cut across the width or a brick cut
by some fraction of its length. Cant, Splay or plinth brick-
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, TNPSC (CESS) 2021
These are used in door and window jambs and also
Chandigarh SDE 2021, TNPSC AE 2012
in plinth.
Bat is used in flemish bond. There is splay may be on the header or stretcher.
Closer-
Position of bricks obtained by cutting it along
length.
King Closer-
A brick which is cut to remove half the header and
half the stretcher or the triangular pieces between
the center of one end and the center of one side.
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Hollow or Cavity Brick (IS : 2222-1979)-
DSSSB JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
Maharashtra PSC 2017
When two walls meet at an angle king closer is used. Solid volume of brick 1/2 of total volume.
Queen Closer- Advantage-
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, OPSC AEE 2019 Provide insulation against heat and sound.
RPSC AE 2018, GPSC AE 2018
Generally its weight is one third of ordinary bricks.
It is a brick cut into two parts longitudinally then Sufficiently strong for all purpose except in case of
one part is known as Queen closer. concentrated load.
To get a proper bond it is placed next to the first Useful for non-load bearing walls.
header in alternate course. Perforated Brick-
Note-King closer and Queen closer are related to Its consists 35-45% cylindrical holes on their thick
brick masonry. surface.
Bevelled Closer-
It is the portion of a brick in which the whole length
of the brick is bevelled for maintaining half width at
one end and full width at the other.
Bull-Nosed bricks-
RPSC AE 2018, HESCOM AE 2017, UJVNL AE 2016
Used to round off sharp corners.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 78 YCT
Not useful for hydraulic structure. 2. As for as the use of brick bat should be avoided
It should be free from cracks and free lime. except under a special circumstances.
The dimensions are 19×9×9cm and 29×9×9cm. 3. Length of the brick should be twice its width plus
The shapes of brick may be circular, square, one joint.
rectangular or any other shape in cross-section 4. It is preferable to provide header course on both the
Use-use in the panel of light weight structure and sides of the wall at every six course.
multi- storeyed frame structure 5. The vertical joint in the alternate course should be
Channel or Gutter brick- along the same perpend.
These are glazed brick and used for laying drains. 6. Hearting should be carried out with headers only.
Brick are moulded to the shape of gutter are channel. Types of bond-
Most Commonly used bond Other types of bond
1. Stretcher bond 1. Facing bond
2. Header bond 2. Dutch bond
3. English bond 3. Raking bond
4. Flemish bond 4. Zig-Zag bond
5. Garden wall bond
Cownose Brick -
Both the corners of bricks are moulded with rounded 6. Brick on edge bond
corners. 7. English cross bond
• It is also know as double bullnose brick. MH WRD JE 2022
Use- At angular curved corners. 1. Stretcher Bond-
TNPSC AE 2022, RIICO Asst. Site Engineer 2021
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB)
All the bricks are laid as stretcher horizontally on
the faces of wall.
Key Points It is possible only for half brick walls or 10 cm thick
■ Term used to describe the plastering technique wall.
wherein small of gravel or pebbles are mixed into
SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021
plaster to create a textured finish is called–
Pebbledash Ex.- Partition wall.
■ The type of pointing, a groove is formed at the It is also known as running bond.
centre of the height by a pointer is called– Overlap is obtained by commencing each alternate
Keyed pointing course with a half brick bat.
■ As per IS 1905, the slenderness ratio of masonry 2. Header Bond-
walls, using Portland cement in mortar, is limited Chandigarh SDE 2021, GPSC GES 2021
to– 27
■ The types of mortars are intended or architectural
or ornamental parts, and application of decorative
layers on walls and panels is– Gypsum mortars
BOND-
The art applying to the overlapping of the brick in a
wall in each alternate course to bind up the whole
wall together is known as bond. In this types of bond bricks are laid as only header
Rules for Bonding- on the face of wall.
1. The amount of overlap should be minimum 1/4 brick It is mostly used for footing in foundation.
along the length of the wall and 1/2 brick across the Header bond is usually used for one brick wall (20
thickness of the wall. cm) or in well lining, well foundation.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 79 YCT
Not used for load bearing walls because of it not Facing of the wall consist flemish bond while
contain enough strength in delivering pressure along backing consist English bond in each course.
the length of wall. (b) Double Flemish Bond-
3. English Bond- UPPCL JE 2022, RSMSSB JE 2020
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, MHADA JE 2022 GPSC AE 2019
TNPSC AE 2022, WBPSC AE 2021, Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
There is same appearance in each course can be seen
in the front and back face of the wall.
This bond consists alternate course of headers and Flemish bond is used on both faces.
stretcher. It is the strongest bond and required more This bond have better appearance than English bond.
facing bricks than other bond. Header and stretchers are laid in each course
This is most common and popular bond that is used alternately.
for wall thickness ≥ 20 cm. This bond have maximum used of half bat, quarter
A queen closer must be provided after the quoin bat and 3/4 brick bat in wall thickness.
header. Quoin closers are laid next to quoin headers in each
Header course should never start with queen closer. alternate course.
Continuous vertical joints should not be allowed. Other types of bond-
Joint in a header course should be thinner than those 1. Facing Bond-
in stretcher course. TNPSC (CESS) 2021, Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
Stretcher should have minimum lap of 1/4th their Useful where facing and backing are desired to be
length over the headers in stretcher course. constructed with bricks of different thickness.
It is costly and stronger than Flemish bond and used 2. Dutch bond-
in all government works. GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021, SJVNL ET 2019
4. Flemish Bond-
DSSSB JE 2022, UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
It is the modified form of English bond.
Dutch bond consists of alternate courses of header
Flemish Bond
and stretchers.
Each course has alternate header and stretchers.
Every stretcher course starts with three quarter (3/4
Every alternate course starts with a header at the brick) bricks and in every alternate stretcher course
corner. in the header is place after the three quarter bricks.
(a) Single Flemish Bond- In every alternate course, a header is placed next to
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
Rajasthan Nagar Nigam AE 2016
the three quarter brick bat provided at the quoin.
3. Raking Bond-
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
It is the combination of English and flemish bond.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 80 YCT
The bond in which bricks are laid at an inclination to This bond is not strong as English bond but it is
the direction of the wall. more elegant and attractive.
Longitudinal stability of wall is more in case of Types of garden wall bond-
raking bond and hence if such types of bond is (a) English garden wall bond
provided in thick wall of English bond, the (b) Flemish garden wall bond or scotch bond
longitudinal stability of English bond get increased. (c) Monk garden wall bond
It is also used for laying brick on the floor. (a) English garden wall bond-
Two types of Racking bond-
(a) Diagonal bond- In such type of racking bond, the
bricks are laid at an inclination of 450 in such a way
that the extreme end corners of diagonal course
remains in contact with external line of stretchers.
Suitable for 2 to 4 brick thickness.
It is usually introduced at every fifth or seventh
course along the height of the wall. A queen closer is provided in each header course
next to quoin header to be necessary lap.
Header course is provided only after 3 - 5 stretcher
course.
(b) Flemish Garden wall bond or scotch bond-
RPSC POLY. TECH. LECT. 2011
(b) Herring-bone bond-
Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
It is best suitable for very thick wall not less than 4
brick thick (40 cm).
Brick are laid at 450 in two direction from the centre
of the wall thickness.
Can be used for brick flooring, brick paving and the Each course is made up of one header after 3-5
ornamental finish the frontage of the wall. stretchers in series throughout the length of the
course.
3/4 brick bat is placed just next to the quoin header
in each alternate course so as to provide necessary
lap.
4. Zig- Zag Bond-
A header is laid over the middle of each central
stretcher.
(c) Garden wall monk bond-
Each course is made with one header two regular
stretcher.
This is one type of raking bond, where the Raking
or inclined courses are provided in zig- zag bond.
This is generally used in ornamental works or in
brick flooring
5. Garden Wall Bond-
UPSC JWM 2017 A queen header is followed by 3/4th brick bat is
Specially used for garden wall, boundary wall and provided in each alternate courses and hence the
compound wall. It is suitable for 2m height and one header rests over joint between two successive
brick thick wall. stretchers.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 81 YCT
03.
LINTEL AND ARCHES
Lintel- Springing Line An imaginary line joining two
UPPCL JE 2022, TNPSC AE 2022, OPSC AEE 2019 springing points.
A short beam that supports the brickwork over the Voussoirs It is the wedge shaped unit of
opening of door, window and passage is known as stone forming the arch.
lintel. Spandrill The curved triangular space
If the masonry height above the lintel, h > 1.25 times enclose by the extrados and
the effective span, the load is under U.D.L. over the horizontal line from the crown of
lintel. the arch and a perpendicular line
Arch- from the springing of the outer
DSSSB JE 2022, GPSC Assistant Prof. 2016 curve.
Mechanical arrangement of wedge - shaped blocks Abutment or pier An abutment is a structural
of stone or brick mutually supporting each other and component found at the both
supported at the end by piers or abutments is termed ends of arch, Dam, Bridge to
as arch. resist the lateral and vertical
An arches resist the external load by thrust, radial loading of those structure and
shear and bending moment. transfer the load to foundation.
Haunch It is the portion of the arch
situated centrally between the
key and skew back.
Crown The highest point of an arch.
Key stone Uppermost wedge shaped block
or central voussiors
Arch Ring Circular course forming an arch
Impost The projecting course at the
upper part of a pier or an
abutment to stress the springing
line.
Arcade - It is a series of arch in succession.
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018, RPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2011
❖ Important Terminology-
Span Clear horizontal distance
between the supports.
Effective span C/C horizontal distance between
the supports.
Failure of an arch-
Rise of an arch Vertical distance between 1. Crushing of the masonry
springing line and highest point
2. Sliding of voussoirs
on the intrados.
3. Rotation of some joint about an edge.
Depth/height of Perpendicular distance between 4. Uneven settlement of an abutment.
arch intrados and extrados.
Some important arches-
Extrados Upper curved surface of the arch
Flat arch-
Intrados Inner curved surface of the arch DSSB JE 2022, MHADA JE 2022
Skew (back) Surface of the abutment on Its apparent shapes is flat and usually the skewback
which the rest first voussoir of form an angle of 60º with the horizontal
arch placed or on which the arch •Flat arches are used for very light loads and for
rest. spans up to 1.5 m only.
Springer First voussoir at springing level Segmental Arch-
on either side of the arch. PPSC Building Inspector 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 82 YCT
It is the basic types of arch used for building in
which centre of arch lie below the springing line.
Thrust is transferred in inclined direction to the
abutment.
Venetian Arch-
Segmental Arch
Semi-Circular Arch-
Thrust transferred to the abutment is perfectly
vertical direction since skewback is horizontal.
Center line lie exactly over the springing line.
It is a pointed arch.
More depth at crown compared to springing line.
Center point of an arch is situated at springing line.
It has 4 center located at springing line.
Florentine Arch-
Intrados is in semi-circle form and rest all as
venetian arch.
It have 3 centers located at springing line.
Relieving Arch-
Horse shoe-Arch-
Provided over a wooden lintel to provide greater
Horse shoe arch is in the shape of horse shoe.
strength and to carrying the load of the wall above it.
In this case decayed wooden lintel can be replaced
without any effect on stability of structure.
It is preferred for architectural provision.
Center of the arch lie above springing line.
Pointed Arch/Gothic Arch/ Lancet arch:-
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022
Semi elliptical Arch-
RPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2011
In this type of arch two arcs of circles are met at the It has 3 or 5 centers.
apex that formed a triangle. Note- Ogee arch stucks from more than 4 centers.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 83 YCT
04.
STAIRS
Introduction - Baluster-
A stair is may be defined as a series of steps suitably UPPSC AE 2022
arranged between two or more floors of a building to These are the short wooden, metal or masonry
bridge a large vertical distance. vertical member which support the hand rail.
or Balustrade-
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018
A part of building enclosed with series of steps,
It is the combination of hand rail, newel post and
balustrade, hand rail, landings is called stair case. balusters.
Terminology related to stair-
Stringers-
TNPSC (CESS) 2021, Sikkim PSC AE 2017, 2018
It is a sloping wooden member employed to
provides support for the steps.
Thickness - 32 - 50 mm, Depth - 25 -38 cm.
Soffit-
DSSSB JE 2022
Inner surface of the stair is known as soffit.
Run-
Total length of stair in horizontal plane including
landing.
Hand Rail-
Moulded block of wood or metal provided to afford
assistance and safeguard to person during going on
stairs.
Railing height - 75 cm from nosing line.
Steps- Handrail supports the balustrade and run parallel to
A portion of stairway comprising the tread and riser the slope of stair.
which permit the ascent or descent from one floor to Flight-
another. U.K. Combined AE 2012
Stair consists a set of steps. Continuous series of steps in one direction without
Tread- It is the horizontal portion of the step on any plateform separated by horizontal plateform or
which foot is placed to ascent or descent. binders.
TNPSC (CESS) 2021, MESCOM AE 2017 Nosing-
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
Riser- WBPSC Poly Lect. 2019
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, SJVNL ET 2019
It is the outer front projecting edge of the tread.
Vertical portion of step to providing support the Usually it is rounded in shape that provide good
steps which connects the tread is called riser. architectural effect to the tread.
Horizontal distance between the two consecutive Line of nosing joint the ends of nosing of all treads
risers is known as Going, go or Run. in a flight.
PPSC Building Inspector 2022, NHPC JE 2022 Scotia-
DSSSB AE 2022
Rise-
Molding provided under nosing to beautified the
Vertical distance between the upper surface of the
elevation of steps.
successive treads is called rise.
Scotia block is wooden triangular block used below
Pitch or slope- the nosing to given it additional strength.
The angle at which line of nosing of the stairs makes Fliers-
with the horizontal. A straight step having a parallel and equal width of
Pitch of stair- 400 and 250 tread or it is a rectangular steps of uniform shape
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022, SJVNL ET 2019, GPSC AE 2017 and size.
Newel Post- Winder-
UPSSSC Mandi Parisad Draughtsman 2022 RPSC AE 2018, GPSC R&B AE 2016
It is a wooden or metallic post supporting the hand Kerala PSC AE 2015, Karnataka PSC AE 2015
rail and is usually provided at the top and bottom of Triangular or wedge shaped steps, that is used to
a flight. changing the direction.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 84 YCT
Landing- • Size of step 25 cm × 16 cm
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022 • Without nosing min. 25 cm
It is a horizontal platform provided between two width of tread
flights. • For public buildings 27 cm × 15 cm to
If, L = 2B → Half space landing size of step 30 cm × 13 cm
Where, • Width of tread for cinema hall 25-30 cm
L = Length of rectangular landing 12 m2
• Area of stair case
B = Width of stair
Tread and Rise Calculation-
Head room or head way-
The clear vertical distance between the tread of step Ceiling height of Room
Riser height =
or nosing line and the ceiling of the stair case or No. of risers
soffit of the flight. Number of tread
Head room should not be less than 2.05 m.
Length available − Landing width
Spandrill- =
A triangular framing under the outside string of an Tread depth
open string stair.
No. of Tread
= No. of Riser - 1 (in case of straight staircase)
No. of tread
= No. of Riser - 2 (in case of one landing and two
flight)
Key Points
■ The minimum width of tread without nosing shall
be ______ for residential buildings– 250 mm
■ A staircase that has two flights is called–
Requirement of a good stair- Dog legged staircase
Number of steps in a flight- ■ The platform at the end of a series of steps of
staircase is known as– Landing
• Maximum - 12
• Minimum - 3 Classification of stairs-
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021 1. Straight Flight Stair-
Provided where place is long and narrow and
Width of stair- possibility of any other form of stair may not be
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, OPSC AEE 2019 practically possible.
• For public building - 1.5 - 1.8 m In case of steep ascending straight flight can be
• For residential building - 90 cm broken with intermediate landing.
Width of landing width of stair.
Minimum head room 2.10 m
Fixing the tread and Rise-
Tread + Rise 40 - 45 cm
Tread + 2 × Rise 60 cm
Tread × Rise 375 - 450
Tread + 2 × Rise 55 - 65 cm
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021, ESE 2021
ODISHA PSC 2021, OPSC AEE 2019
Standard size of- 2. Dog-legged stair-
UJVNL AE 2012
NHPC JE 2022, MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
1. Rise - 15 cm West Bengal PSC AE 2021
2. Tread - 30 cm It is a common type of stair case in which two
❖ For residential building- consecutive right angle (2×900 or 1800) changes at
UPPSC State Eng. AE 2007 mid landing slab level.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 85 YCT
It is also known as half turn or U-turn stair.
No space is provided between two flights.
Useful, where width of staircase hall = 2 × width of
landing.
6. Circular stair-
All steps radiate from a central point of a semicircle
in the form of winders.
It is commonly provided at the entrance of a
building for a good architectural appearance.
3. Open-well stair-
It consist two or more straight flight having space 7. Spiral stairs-
between forward and backward flight. These stair consist of same sized winders provided
Generally space between two flight should be 10 at a constant deflecting angle to offer a continuous
cm. change in direction along within elevation.
Steps are radiate around a central newel post and
occupy the least space.
The stair can be constructed with minimum possible
space about (1.5m ×1.5m) but not comfortable for
use especially for older people.
The head room between the first step and the step
coming over it should at least be 2.0m.
In case of too small space available and limited
users, cast iron or R.C.C spiral stair constructed.
4. Geometric stair/continuous stair
It is similar to open well stair but only common
difference is curved flight between the forward and
backward flight.
In this stair stringer and the hand rail is continuous
without newel post at the landing.
8. Escalators-
A power-driven inclined continuous stair way used
for raising or lowering passengers known as
Escalators.
It is suitable where movement of large number of
people at a controlled rate in a minimum available
space is involved.
5. Bifurcated stair- Use of various stairs-
This is provided in a modern building. This types of Residential building Dog-legged, straight flight
stair have wider bottom flight and divided into two Public building Open -well, bifurcated
narrow flight at the landing at right angle in two To give better Geometrical stair.
opposite direction. appearance
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 86 YCT
05.
SCAFFOLDING AND SHORING
Scaffolding - 6. Boards -
DSSSB JE 2022 It is temporary working platform made of steel or
UPPCL JE 2022, RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021 wooden boards to kept material and for standing
A scaffolding is a temporary structure to support workmen.
original structure as well as workmen, material etc. It is supported over putlog.
It is a platform to carry the construction work. 7. Volt -
Important members used in scaffolding- Used to bind the all parts of the scaffold to withstand
load and make a framed structure.
Key Points
■ A formwork requires a maximum stripping time of
14 days– Props to slabs spanning over 4.5 m
■ A suspended scaffolding is used for–
Pointing and painting
■ According to IS : 10440(1983), the formwork for
the RB and RBC floor or roof shall NOT be
removed before _____ after laying– 14
■ Longitudinal horizontal members parallel to the
wall used in scaffolding is called as– Stringers
■ The classification of timber of commercial grading
is based on dimensions and general appearance in–
Grade A
Types of scaffolding-
Brick layer or single scaffolding or putlog
1.
scaffolding.
2. Mason or double Scaffolding.
3. Needle or cantilever scaffolding.
4. Suspended scaffolding.
5. Steel or tubular scaffolding.
6. Patented scaffolding.
1. Standards - 7. Trestle scaffolding
Vertical tube held suitable distance from the wall 1. Single/Brick layer or putlog scaffold -
that transfer the load to the ground.
This cheap and common types of scaffolding widely
2. Ledgers -
used for brick masonry.
Horizontal member parallel to the wall connected
between standards.
It decide the height of working platform.
3. Putlog -
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022
They are at right angles to the wall.
These are horizontal member parallel to wall which
is placed one end on wall holes and other is
connected on standards or kept over ledger.
4. Transom or Bearer -
It is used to Supports standards and placed at right
angle to the ledgers.
Bay width may defined by transom.
5. Diagonal Braces -
To increase the strength of basic structure to carry
more loads.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 87 YCT
One end of scaffold is supported on wall while other
is on standards so it is called single scaffold.
C/C distance b/w standards - 2.4 - 3.0 m and from
wall - 1.2m.
Vertically C/C distance b/w ledgers- 1.2 - 1.5m
C/C distance b/w putlog - 1.20-1.5m
2. Mason or Double Scaffold -
DSSSB JE 2022
If there is difficult to leave whole in stone wall to
support the putlog mason's or double scaffolding is
provided. In its two frame of standards, ledgers and
braces used. One is placed near the wall and other is
1.5 m apart the first.
Two rows of standards are provided in this system.
It is totally free from masonry wall. 4. Suspended scaffolding-
It is generally used for stone masonry UPSSSC Mandi Parisad Draughtsman (Civil) 2022
It is also called as independent scaffolding There is no use of standards, bracing etc.
These scaffolding are suspended using ropes or
chain from a strong overhead structures.
It is free from touch of ground.
Used for painting and repairing work.
5. Steel or Tubular scaffolding-
UPSSSC JE 2022
Mason's Scaffolding
3. Needle or cantilever scaffold-
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022
It is widely used where a building is on the side of a
busy street where the construction of ordinary
scaffolding obstruct the traffic on road.
It is highly best effective when maintenance or
construction is needed at a great height.
It is also known as single frame scaffolding. Steel tube dia - 40-60mm
Cantilever scaffoldings are used when the ground Advantage-
does not having the capacity of support standings. • Higher durability and strength.
When the ground near the wall is to be free from • Rapid erection and dismantling.
traffic then cantilever scaffolding are used. • Higher fire resistance and salvage value.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 88 YCT
6. Patented Scaffolding- Gantry with Traveller or crane girder-
These are made of steel and equipped with special It is hand operated or electrically operated overhead
couplings and frames. In this type of scaffolding cranes used for industrial buildings as factories,
working platform is arranged on brackets which can
works to lift heavy material, equipment etc. to take
be adjustable to our required level.
from one location to other within buildings.
Slip form-
Slip form is a special type of frame work without
support from ground. It is used to construction of tall
structure that is moves up upward direction
continuously.
Useful for the construction of bridge, tower,
chimney, silos and shaft lining.
Most economical for storey height > 7 storey.
7. Trestle Scaffolding -
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021
Working platform is supported on movable tripods.
It is generally used for work inside room for
painting, repairs etc. up to a height of 5m.
Scaffold Trestle
Gantry-
Gantry girder is designed to resist lateral
longitudinal and vertical load. Shoring-
DSSSB JE 2022, GWSSB AAE 2015
Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure
to support an unsafe structure.
It is used in case of wall crackes, bulge out of wall,
openings are to be newly made, timbering of the
trench etc.
Used to change the room dimension.
Types of shoring-
1. Inclined or Raking Shore-
UPSSSC Mandi Parisad Draughtsman (Civil) 2022
This is a system of giving temporary support to an
unsafe wall. In this method, inclined members
known as rakers used to give lateral supports to wall.
Inclination of rakers 450 - 750.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 89 YCT
Angle between top shore and platform- 87 to 89
C/C distance b/w rakers along the wall length 3-4.6
m.
Inclined rakers are suitable for 5 m height of wall.
Purpose-
2. Flying Shoring or Horizontal Shoring- • Opening in the wall to be made.
DSSSB JE 2022, BPSC AE 2018 • To rebuilt the defective lower part of the wall.
Flying shores is a system of providing temporary • To replace or deepen the existing foundation which
have either becomes unsafe or required
supports to the partition wall of the two building. strengthening for carrying heavier loads.
Centre line of flying shore and strut and those of the A buttress in a wall is intended to provide lateral
wall should meet at floor level of the two buildings. support to wall.
Strut inclination - 450
Underpinning-
Underpinning is the process applied to the building
Single flying shore is suitable for 8-10 m distance. or new work underneath an existing structure
without disturbing its stability.
Underpinning is necessary when defective
foundation of wall is to be replaced new foundation
or when the the existing foundation of a wall is
required to be strengthened to enable it to carry
more loads.
It is done for short length of 1.2 m to 1.8m.
Underpinning is a method for repair and
strengthening of building foundations.
3. Dead or vertical shoring-
BPSC AE Pre 2018, Rajasthan AE Nagar Nigam 2016
Vertical section
Vertical shore is used to render vertical support to Underpinning Methods
floors, wall and roofs etc. CHB Junior Draftsman 2023, DSSSB JE 2022
Shooting is the art of dressing of edges of timber
Dead shore erected to increase the size of opening in
pieces so as to make them straight and square with
an existing wall. the face.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 90 YCT
06.
DOOR, WINDOW & VENTILATORS
DOOR • Door frame - 8 × 10cm - 10 × 12cm
MHADA 2022 • Window frame - 8 × 8cm - 8 × 10cm
An openable barrier or as a framework of wood,
steel, aluminium or combination of these material • Ventilator frame - 8 × 8 cm
secured in a wall opening for the purpose of Various Parts of Door-
providing access to the users is known as door.
Common name of all door, window and such units
are called joinery.
Door is mainly composed of two parts
(i) Frame
(ii) Shutter or leaf
Designation of Door-
Width of door × Door type × Height of door
x.DS.y Single shutter door with width of 'x'
module and height equal to 'y' module.
Where,
Width of door = x module or x×100 mm
D - Door
S - Single shutter
x.DT.y Height of door= y module or y × 100 mm
T = Double shutter
Size of Doors-
Types of building Size of door (m)
1. Residential building
Horn-
External door 1 × 2 - 1.1 × 2 MHWRD JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
Internal door 0.9 × 2 - 1 × 2
Horizontal projection of the head and sill of a frame
Bathroom & W.C. door 0.7 × 2 - 0.8 × 2
to facilitate the fixing of the frame in the wall
2. Public building as Hospital, 1.2 × 2, 1.2 × 2.1 opening.
School, Library. or 1.2 × 2.25
Projection length beyond post – 10 - 15 cm.
3. Door for garage 2.25 × 2.25
Rebate-
Door should be away 20 cm from the corner. GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021, GPSC GES 2021
As far as possible door should be located near the It is the cut or depression in door frame to fitting the
corner of room because of proper space utilization
and privacy. shutter.
Rebate size in chaukhat - 12 - 20 mm
Components of door-
Depth of rebate = Thickness of shutter
1. Frame or Chaukhat-
A wooden structure made with two vertical member Rebate is cut on both side of post, if double door is
known as post and one top horizontal member required.
known as head is called door frame or chaukhat. Transom-
GPSC GES 2021, TNPSC AE 2012
Transom is defined as the horizontal member of a
frame that is employed to horizontally sub-divided a
window opening.
Mullion-
PPSC Building Inspector 2022
DSSSB JE 2022
Vertical intermediate member of the frame which
divide the door/window vertically is known as
mullion.
Post-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, RPSC AE 2018
These are vertical rectangular compression member
of frame that support the shutter of door.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 91 YCT
Hold Fast- Key Points
GPSC AE 2018 ■ Bond beams are provided at–
It is mild steel flats bent-up in Z-shape to fix or hold The top of the openings as lintels
the frame into wall. of doors or windows
Length of hold fast - 20 cm ■ Generally the thickness of rails and styles adopted
Cross-section - 30 mm × 6 mm in door frame is– 3 to 4 cm
Note - ■ The joints is recommended by Indian Standard for
Min. Number of holdfast required on each side. frames of wooden doors and windows–
1. For door frame - 3 Dovetail joint
• If horn is available - 2 Types of door-
2. For window frame - 2 1. Ledged Door-
Sill- It is the simplest form of the door and used where
UPSSSC Mandi Parisad Draughtsman (Civil) 2022 strength and appearance are not important.
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 It is formed with vertical boards known as battens
It is the Bottommost horizontal parts or door of which are combined with horizontal supports known
window. Mostly sill is not provided for door. It as ledges.
should be kept 70-90 cm above floor level. Battens-
Reveal- Width - 100 - 150 mm
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Thickness - 20 - 30 mm
The external jamb of door/window opening at right
angle to the wall face is known as reveal. Ledges -
Dimension - 5 cm Width - 100 - 200 mm
Thickness - 30 mm
Jamb-
This is the vertical wall face of an opening which
supports the frame.
Its dimension is taken - 20 cm
2. Shutter or Leaf-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
Door shutter is an assembly of style, panel and rail.
It is the openable part of the door.
Max. thickness is taken 50 mm.
Style-
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, GPSC AE (NWR) 2021
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018
Vertical outside member of shutters without any
joint is known as style.
Style width generally kept 8-10 cm.
Style which are hang on one side is called hanging
or hinged style.
Top Rail-
Top most horizontal member of shutter (width 8-10 2. Ledged and Braced Door-
cm)
Lock Rail-
It is middle horizontal member of shutter in which
lock is fixed (width, 20 cm)
It is fixed at the height of 75-85 cm above floor
level.
Bottom Rail-
Lowermost horizontal member of a door shutter
with width of 15-20 cm called bottom rail.
Middle or Frieze Rail-
An extra frame used between top rail and lock rails
is known as middle or frieze rail.
Panel-
Area of shutter enclosed between the adjacent rails
is called panel. Ledged and Braced Door
Sash bar/Glazing bar- It is same as ledged door except that the diagonal
It is a strip of wood or metal separating and holding members known as braces are provided.
glass panels in a window. Width of braced - 10 - 15 cm
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 92 YCT
3. Framed Ledged and Braced door- (i) Hollow Core Flush Door
It is similar to above two doors only different except Hollow Core Flush Door Shutter
that the braced are introduced. (ii) Cellular Core Flush Door
Braced should be inclined upward from the hanging The inner space of door consists of equally space battens
side. of width 25 mm each others space is called void space
It can be used for external side because of this is which does not exceed 40% of the area of door.
more durable and stronger.
4. Panelled Door-
This door consist of timber framework with styles
and rails which are grooved on the inside to receive
one or more panels.
This types of door provided in all types buildings.
Bottom and lock rails are of bigger size than the top
and frieze rails. Bottom rails are wider than that of
all.
Maximum area of a single panel 0.5m2
(iii) Solid core flush door-
Core strip of timber and battens (25 mm) are glued under
high pressure.
For single panel door- Plywood thickness 12 mm.
For double panel door- Plywood thickness 10 mm.
5. Flush Door-
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021
A flush door has completely smooth surfaces and is
made by sandwiching plywood or blockboard over a
light timber frame. Its surface is smooth on both
side. This is classified into three types-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 93 YCT
6. Revolving Door- 9. Swing Door-
UKPSC AE 2022, Rajasthan AE (Nagar Nigam) 2016 PTCUL AE 2016
Karnataka PSC AE 2015 Shutters attached to frame by double action spring
which helps the shutter to move inward as well as
outward.
10. Collapsible Steel Door-
DSSSB JE 2022
This is useful where light and ventilation required
even when opening is closed and the situation where
width of opening is large and provision of hinged
shutters becomes difficult for want of space. It is
made of iron.
Elevation
It consists mullion at its centre to which four
radiating shutters are attached. It provides entrance
on one side and exit on other simultaneously
keeping the opening automatically closed when not
in use.
• Revolving door are only provided in public building
like museum, banks, libraries etc.
7. Louvered Door-
DSSSB JE 2022, GPHC AE 2018
It permits natural ventilation when closed. It also
provide privacy in the room.
• Used for workshops, sheds, warehouse etc.
11. Rolling Shutter-
UKPSC AE 2022, UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022
This door consists frame, drum and a shutter of thin
steel plate inter locked together. A horizontal shaft is
provided in the drum which helps to open or close
the shutter.
• Use for warehouse, garages, shops etc.
8. Sliding Door-
PTCUL AE 2016
This door is provided with top and bottom guide
rails or runners within which the shutters slides to
the sides.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 94 YCT
12. Wire Gauged Door-
WINDOW
Window is defined as an opening in the wall for the
purpose of providing daylight, vision and
ventilation.
Area required for window-
(a) For residential building
1
(i) Total area with frame = × A room Floor
8
1
(ii) Total area of door and window = + A room Floor
4
1
(iii) Area of ventilators = + A room Floor
25
1
(iv) Area of window in W.C. and bathroom = + A Floor
10
(b) Hospital, school- 20% × Aroom Floor
Area of glass panel in window - 8% × Aroom Floor for
adequate natural light.
Wire gauged doors permits natural ventilation and Classification of window-
restrict the entry of flies, mosquitoes, insects etc. A. Window on the basis of fitted in walls-
It is used in hotels, restaurants etc. 1. Casement Window- It is like as simple doors in
13. Fire Resistant door- which shutters open like doors.
14. Folding Door-
PTCUL AE 2016
2. Pivoted or Revolving Window-
HPPSC Lect. 2021, Punjab SDO 2021
Shutter rotates about a pivot fixed to window frame.
Window frame have not any rebate. Shutter may
rotate horizontally or vertically.
15. Glazed Door-
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB)
UPPSC State Eng. AE 2007
Used in interior wall opening or in hospital, colleges
etc.
• Used to inter natural lighting but not air.
❖ Use of Doors-
1. Revolving door Public building and AC
building 3. Bay or Projected Window-
2. Sliding door Bank, office garrage, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, GPSC AE 2021
workshop and AC building. TNPSC (CESS) 2021, Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
3. Glazed and Residential and public
planelled door building.
4. Rolling steel shutter Garrage, Godowns, shops.
5. Swinging door Residential building.
6. Louvered door Used in toilets of public and
residential building.
7. Collapsible door Workshop, sheds, warehouse.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 95 YCT
Types of window which are projected outward from 4. Fan Light -
the wall of a room is known as bay window. Fanlight is fitted between the head of the door frame
Its provide an increase area of opening in three and transom. It provides cross ventilation in the
direction and admitting more light and ventilation. room while the door is closed.
4. Clerestory window- It is also known as transom window.
Provide near the main roof of a room and opens
above the adjoining verandah.
B. Window Provided on Roof-
1. Dormer window-
Assam PSC AE 2020, OPSC AEE 2019
5. Louvered Window-
Rajasthan VP ITI 2018, RPSC AE 2018 This types of window is provided for the purpose of
Dormer window is provided on the sloping sides of ventilation and proper outside vision but not permit
roof. This types of window is provided to achieve inside vision.
proper lighting and ventilation to the enclose space
below the roof.
Dormer window projects vertically beyond the plane
of the pitched roof.
2. Gable Window-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu) 2021
The window provided on the gable end of a pitched
roof is known as gable window.
6. Lantern Window- This types of window is
provided on flat roof on a room. It is a glass
structure that sits on top of a flat roof. They are
usually pyramid shaped to encourage light to come
through from all angles.
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
3. Sky Light-
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
This types of window is provided on the sloping side
of pitched roof being parallel to the sloping. VENTILATOR
TNPSC AE 2022
It is a narrow window of small height provided
along the top of structures wall or near the roof of
the room to provide ventilation in room and throw
off heat gases out side the room.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 96 YCT
07.
ROOFS AND ROOF COVERING
Introduction- Pitch of roof truss is the ratio of its vertical rise to its
Roof is defined as the upper most part of the horizontal span.
building which is being provided as structural Technical term related to pitched/slopy
covering to protect building from weather, rain, roof
snow, humidity, wind, sun etc. 1. Span- Clear distance between the support of truss.
Classification of roofs- MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
1. Flat or terrace roof 1 1
Economical spacing of roof truss = to of span.
2. Dome or curved roofs 3 5
3. Slopy or pitched roof. 2. Rise- Vertical distance between the wall plate and
1. Flat Roof- top of the ridge.
UPSSSC Mandi Parisad Draughtsman 2022, UKPSC AE 2013 3. Slope or Pitch-
A roof laid at an angle of less than 100 with Inclination of the rafter/sides of roof to the
horizontal is called flat roof. This roof can be horizontal line.
conveniently used as terrace for various purpose like
play, sleep etc. tan θ = Rise / Half Span
It is best suitable for a small span. 4. Eaves-
Its initial cost is much more than slopy roof. MHADA JE 2022
It is suitable for high temperature, low rain fall and Bottom edge of the pitched roof surface which is
provides better resistance against earthquake shocks. projected beyond the wall.
Types of flat roof- 5. Ridge-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
1. Battened roof
2. Flag stone roof It is the top most apex line of slopy roof where both
slopes meet each other. Ridge is parallel to length of
3. Jack- Arch roof
roof.
4. Reinforced brick slab roof
6. Ridge board, Ridge piece or Ridge Beam-
5. Reinforced concrete slab roof
These are horizontal beam that supports the ends of
6. R.C.C. T-Beam roof
the rafters at the ridge and transfer the roof load to
2. Dome-
the gable ends or post.
Dome types of roof is constructed for monumental
7. Valley-
building and long span building because of its
It is a acute or internal angle or a gutter formed by
thickness is very less for that span. It is costly and
the intersection of two sloping roof planes.
difficult to construct.
External angle between the intersection of two roof
surface is less than 1800.
8. Hip-
GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022
A ridge or line of intersection of sloping roof surface
having an exterior angle greater than 1800.
3. Slopy or Pitched Roof-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu) 2021
A roof that slopes downward in two parts at an angle
from a ridge. Pitched roof is laid at any angle of
more than 100. Pitched roof is used in area of heavy
rainfall, snowfall and in coastal region.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 97 YCT
9. Gable- 17. Boarding-
A triangular shaped end portion of a pitched roof is It is similar to battens and nailed to common rafter
called gable end. for laying roofing material above it.
10. Verge- 18. Wall plate-
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023, Gujarat PSC AE 2021 Wall plates are provided at the top of wall or
Edge of roofing materials like sheets, tiles etc. supports. These are generally made of wood and are
running between the eaves and ridge and projecting used to fix the common rafter.
beyond the gable end of the pitched roof is termed as 19. Post plate-
verge. It is similar to wall plate and only different that it is
11. Barge Board- run continuous parallel to the face of the wall over
A timber board used to hold the common rafter the post.
forming verge. It runes underneath the slopes of a 20. Template or bed block-
projecting gable roof. It is a masonry block made of stone or concrete (1 :
It is also known as exposed board, false rafter, rake 2 : 4) placed under the truss end of tie beam to
fascia. spread the load from the roof over a larger area of
12. Eaves Board or Facia Board- bearing.
Eaves board is wooden plank with cross section 21. Pitch-
25×15 mm attached with lower end of common JKPSC AE 2021, OPSC AEE 2019
rafter and parallel to length of roof connecting with The inclination of sides a roof to the horizontal
eaves. plane is known as the pitch and it can be expressed
Facia board carry the gutters and support the bottom either in terms of degree or as a ratio of rise to span.
row of roof tiles. Bent - Roof truss along with its supporting columns.
These gutters collect water running over roof and Types of slopy roofs-
drained out through down pipe. 1. Lean to roof-
13. Purlin- DSSSB JE 2022, Karnataka PSC AE 2015
GPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2016
A horizontal member of wood or steel parallel to
ridge and above the principal rafter to support the
common rafter is known as purlin. Purlins are the
flexural member.
It is spanning between two adjacent roof trusses.
14. Rafter-
Rafters are those timber timber or steel inclined
members normal to the ridge that supports covering
material of a sloping roof.
(a) Principal Rafter-
DDA JE (Civil) 2023
The diagonal member of the roof truss supporting This is the simplest form of the slopy roof in which
the purlins known as principal rafter. slopes is provided on a single side.
(b) Common Rafter- It is suitable for max. 2.4 m span.
It is diagonal member supported over the purlins Other name is pent roof, Aisle roof and verandah
over which roof covering material are secured . roof.
Useful for covering verandah, sheds, etc.
(c) Jack Rafter-
These are the rafters shorter in length which extends 2. Coupled roof-
DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021
from hip or valley to eaves.
(d) Valley Rafter-
Provided at the slope to support the valley gutters.
15. Cleat-
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021, Kerala PSC AE 2015, UPPSC AE 2013
Small section of wood or steel which is fixed on the
truss to support the purlins against sliding.
16. Battens-
Battens are small scantlings which are laid over
common rafter and used to provide the fixing point
for roofing materials such as laying tiles.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 98 YCT
It is an advance type of lean to roof in which A roof truss with a central post (king post) joining
inclined rafters meet at ridge and both lower end is the ridge point to the tie beam is called king post
supported on the wall at same level and roofing is roof truss. King post supports the ridge and holds
provided leaning upwards toward each other. both the principal rafter together at the ridge.
This is suitable for span of 3.6 m. It provides support to the main tie and prevents it
3. Couple close roof- from sagging.
To prevents the bend of principal rafter from the
middle a strut is provided.
Span adopted ≤5 m
Use - Garage, porch, sheds etc.
6. Queen Post Truss-
DSSSB JE 2022, GSSSB AAE 2021
It is same as couple roof except it have tie beam
supported on the wall with rafters. Tie beam
prevents overturning of the walls and common rafter
Queen post truss has two vertical tension member
to spread outwards.
called queen post. It is placed at one third distance
Suitable for max. span of 4.20 m from support. In this truss a horizontal beam
4. Collar Beam roof- (straining beam) connects the upper ends of queen
GPSC AE 2018 post and maintain them in position. Straining beam
receive the thrust from the head of the principal
rafter.
Head of queen post is made wider to receive the two
member.
It is suitable for the span of 8 - 12 m.
7. North Light Roof Truss -
GPHC AE 2018, UPRVUNL AE 2015
These are modified form of couple close roof in
which a collar beam is provided above the tie beam
towards ridge to prevent the sag of tie beam because It is one of the oldest and economical method of
of long span. covering large area. It is provided to achieve
Tie/collar beam is provided near the middle of the maximum day light.
rafters to prevent bend tendency. Use- workshop and industrial construction where
Useful for span 4 - 5.0m. manufacturing activities take place on a large scale.
5. King Post Roof Truss- Span- 20 - 30 m.
UPSSSC Mandi Parisad Draughtsman (Civil) 2022 8. Mansard Roof-
OPSC AEE 2019, ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2019 MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
It is defined as the roof with slopes in all four
direction, but each slope has a break. This truss has
two pitches.
Mansard roof has two slopes on every side.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 99 YCT
9. Hip Roof - 13. Butterfly Roof-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, GPSC GES 2021 Its shape is like the wings of butterfly. It consists of
two plates that dip down in the middle and slops
upward at each end and the dip serves as a gutter.
A roof whose all sides are slopes towards wall in all
four direction without break is called hip roof.
10. Gable Roof -
Butterfly
VARIOUS STEEL ROOF TRUSS-
This is a common type of pitched roof in which 1. Bow String or Belfast roof Truss-
slope is provided in only two direction from ridge to
supporting wall without any break.
End face of this roof formed a vertical triangle.
11. Gambrel Roof-
A chord is set out from upper end sloping downward
Gambrel roof has two slopes on each sides, the
then the next chord starts from where previous chord
upper being less steep than the lower and there is a
break in each slope. ends but its slope upward. Throughout the entire
It is most commonly used in barns or warehouses span it is repeated.
because of it provides additional head room in the Span - 20 - 30m.
attic. 2. Gambrel Roof Truss -
12. Shed Roof-
Shed roof have a single slope. They are suitable for
industrial sheds, residences terraces etc.
Gambrel Roof Truss
In this truss, two planes are inclined downward
direction from the ridge.
Suitable span > 30 m.
3. Truncated Roof Truss - It is similar to mansard
roof truss except the top of the truss is finished as a
flat surface and gentle side slope.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 100 YCT
8. Double Fink Truss-
It is a modified form of a fink roof truss. Strut
members are connected as in double W-shape in this
truss.
Central post is eliminated in this truss.
9. Raised Chord Truss-
4. Lattice Roof Truss-
Top chord consists of timber section and it is in
curved form. Its structure resembles a bow.
5. Howe Roof Truss-
Bottom tension member is raised and the open is
formed in this member.
10. Scissors Truss-
It make M-shape in which a vertical post is also
installed at its centre. It is useful for 6 - 30 m span.
6. Double Howe Truss-
This truss have inclined bottom chord members.
Bottom chord slope upward and meet exactly below
the ridge and this point is joint by a vertical post.
In this types of truss an extra pair of vertical and
diagonal members are provided on the side of truss. 11. Pratt Roof Truss-
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
7. Fink Truss-
It is economical and widely used vertical member of
These truss have a central post connected to the
ridge and tie bar and on either side of this post struts this truss resist tension while the diagonal member
are connected as a double V-shape. resist compression.
Useful Span- 5 - 10 m. • Span-6 to 10 m
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 101 YCT
12. Mansard Roof Truss-
It is a two storey truss with the combination of the
king post truss and queen post truss (lower portion)
(i) Upper pitch of king post truss is 30 - 400
(ii) Lower pitch of queen post truss, 60 - 700
This types of truss provides economy in space and
cost.
GI Roofing Sheet
1
Side lap - 1 to 2 corrugation.
2
Slope of sheet is not flatter than 1 in 4.
Sheet should be fixed to eaves by flat iron wind ties
(25×6 mm).
Sheet thickness - 0.55-1.6 mm or 16-24 gauge.
Amount of rivet in a steel roof truss-5% × weight of Sheet width - 0.90 m (8 - 10 corrugation)
the truss. Sheet length - 1.8, 2.2, 2.5, 2.8, 3.0 and 3.2 m.
Roof covering materials- Asbestos Cement Sheet (A.C. sheets)-
These sheets are made of Portland cement and 15%
1. Thatch
asbestos fibers. This is fire resisting sheets.
2. Tile Width - 1.05 m,
3. Slates (Size 60 × 25 cm to 35 × 12 cm) Length - 1.5 m, 1.75, 2.0, 2.25, 2.5,
4. G.I. Sheets 2.75 and 3.0m
5. Asbestos - cement sheet Thickness - 6 - 7 mm
6. Fiber Glass sheet This types of sheet are classified as given below.
1. Everest big six corrugated A.C. sheet.
Thatch - 2. Everest standard corrugated A.C. sheet.
These are cheapest roof covering material used in 3. Everest Trafford A.C. sheets.
village but these are combustible. It is made of
bundles of reeds or straw. Minimum thickness of
thatch should be 15 cm.
Tiles -
Tiles is the oldest roofing material that is still now a
days is using for residential building and country
houses.
Tiles classification -
1. Plane or flat tile
2. Curved or pan-tiles
3. Pot tiles or half round country tiles
4. Spanish tiles
5. Italian or Allahabad tiles
6. Inter-locking tiles
Galvanized Iron Corrugated Sheets (G.I.
Sheet)-
Side overlapping - 15 cm
Karnataka PSC AE 2017, CGPSC AE 2017
1
G.I. sheets are made of iron sheets which are For Big six and talford sheets, overlapping is and
2
galvanized with zinc to protect them from rusting.
1 corrugation respectively.
This is corrugated because of it provide additional
• Plain area increased by 20% for colour wash.
strength for that thickness. • For semi-corrugated asbestos sheet- 10%↑
End lap ≮ 15 cm. • For corrugated steel sheet- 14%↑
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 102 YCT
08.
SURFACE FINISHING
Plastering (IS 2402-1963) - a. Wooden float
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 b. Steel float
Plastering is the process of covering rough and Size - 30 × 10 cm
uneven surfaces with a plastic material or mortar to Wooden float is used to finishing the plaster.
obtain an even, smooth and durable surface is called Wooden float is also known as skimming float.
plaster. 3. Floating Rule-
External plastering is also known as "Rendering". Floating rule is used to check the level of the
Cement, lime and mud are used as binding material. plastered surface between the successive layers.
Sand controls, strength, adhesive property, porosity 4. Plumb bob-
and shrinkage etc. of plasters. This tools is used in forming the layer of plaster
Generally the plastering is done with two coat perfectly in the same vertical plane.
(thickness > 15 mm) and its total thickness is taken 5. Straight Edge-
12 mm, 15 mm and 20 mm. It is used to check the straightness of plastered
Plaster thickness for CC and RCC surfaces as beam, surface.
lintel, slab are taken 6 mm. 6. Paddle Mixture-
Types of plastering - Used for quick and convenient mixing of plaster.
1. Cement Plastering Term related to surface finishing-
2. Lime Plastering 1. Background- It is the brick or stone masonry
3. Mud Plastering surface to which the first coat of plaster is applied.
4. Stucco Plastering 2. Dobbing -
5. Barium Plaster The process of filling the hollow spaces of the
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023
background before applying the plaster.
Steps of cement plastering- 3. Hacking -
(i) Rendering Coat- It is the first coat of plaster (12 When the background surface is make rough to act
mm). as key for plastering is called hacking.
(ii) Under/Floating Coats- It is the second coat of 4. Blistering/Blowing -
plaster done under the finishing coat (6 - 9 mm) It is the phenomenon of swelling out of the small
This coat provides smooth, uniform and sound patches of the finished plaster surface. It occurred
surface for the final coat. due to lack of adhesion of plaster.
(iii) Finishing/Final Setting Coat-These are final coat 5. Crazing -
of plastering (2-3mm). Extremely fine cracks over the plastered surface.
Stucco plastering- 6. Peeling -
UKPSC AE 2013, U.K. Combined AE 2012
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2007
Removal of plaster from the background.
Stucco is the name that is given to the decorative
7. Grinning -
types of plaster that's gives good finish. It can be use RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, UPSC AE (PWD) 2021
both interior as well as exterior surfaces. It is done A pattern of joints or similar breaks in the continuity
in three coats (total 25 mm) of the surface is called grinning.
First Coat - Scratch coat Gauging -
Second Coat - Finer/Brown coat Process of mixing various constituents of plaster is
Third Coat- White/Finishing coat called gauging.
Tools used for plastering- Flaking -
Scaling away of plaster patches due to the absence
1. Trowel - or failure of the adhesion with the previous coat.
KARNATAKA GESCOM AE 2011
Bull mark-
A trowel is a small steel hand tools used for various A small rectangular or hexagonal mark used to
work like digging, applying, mixing, smoothing or ensure thickness of plastering is uniform.
moving the materials. 8. Skirting-
2. Float- Special treatment provided on plastered wall at the
Float is used for spreading the mortar on the surface bottom most part of the interior wall up to 15 cm
of the wall. height from the floor level.
Float is two types. It is lower border of flooring with tiles or mortar.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 103 YCT
9. Dado-
It is same as skirting only difference is height that is
up to 1.5m from floor level.
Generally it is done in bathroom and W.C.
10. Stopping -
Process of filling up of all nail holes, cracks with
putty.
11. Screed-
Horizontal and vertical levelled strip placed on a
wall surface as a guide for the even application of
plaster.
creeds are used to check the thickness of plaster.
12. Screeding -
Operation of removing humps and hollows of
uniform surface.
Key Points
■ A flooring is suitable for use in churches, theatres,
public libraries and other places where noiseless
floor covering is desired– Cork flooring 1. Flush pointing- It is formed by removing the excess
■ The adhesives is resistant to moisture is known as– mortar from the joint. This is the simplest type of
Albumin glue pointing and widely used in brick and stone masonry
■ The composition of Terrazo flooring consists of– face. It does not give good appearance but it is more
Chips, cement durable.
■ The floor is consists of a finishing coat of small
pieces of broken tiles of China glazed or of marble 2. Struck pointing- This is modification flush pointing
arranged in different patterns set in lime–surkhi or in which the face of the pointing is kept inclined
cement mortar is called– Mosaic Flooring with its upper edge pressed inside the face of
■ The floor is used in dancing halls and in masonry by 10 mm.
auditoriums are called– Timber Flooring This pointing drains water easily.
■ The addition of a small portion of granite polishing Kerala PSC AE 2015
waste in the design mix results in– 3. V-grooved pointing- It is formed by forming V-
improved packing density
grove in the wall joint.
Pointing- 4. Beaded pointing-
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022, UKPSC AE 2022
RMSSB JEN (Degree) 2021, Karnataka PSC AE 2015 Formed by steel or iron rod with a concave edge. It
Pointing is the finishing of mortar joint in brick or is damages easily compared to other methods.
stone masonry construction. 5. Recessed pointing-
Pointing is the implementry of the joints to a depth In this method during placing of mortar in joint (5
of 10-20 mm while mortar is still soft and filling it mm or more from the edge) face of the pointing is
with better quality of mortar in desired shape. kept vertical by a tools. Recessed pointing gives
Mortar for pointing- very good appearance.
1. Cement mortar (1:2 - 1:3) cement : Sand 6. Tuck pointing-
2. Lime mortar, 1 : 2 (Fat lime : Sand/Surkhi)
When the pressed mortar is in green state top and
TYPES OF POINTING- bottom edge of the joint are cut parallel (in rectangle
form 5 mm × 3 mm) so as to have uniformly raised
band outside about 3 - 6 mm.
If projection is done in mortar it is called bastard or
half tuck pointing.
7. Keyed or grooved or rubbed pointing-
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023
It is the modification of flush pointing in which
grooves is formed at its mid height by a pointing
tools.
8. Weathered pointing-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
UKPSC AE 2022, UKPSC AE 2013
In this type of pointing the projection in the form of
a vee-shapp is formed with outside projection.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 104 YCT
09.
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
Construction Equipment and Their Use- heavy weight machines,
materials and goods.
S.N. Equipment Use Maharastra PSC 2021, TSPSC AEE 2017, UPRVUNL AE 2015
1. Excavators Digging, Material handling, 15. Truck mixer for A mobile unit for hauling
drilling. R.M.C. and mixing concrete in
2. Bulldozers Land clearing, Earth moving, transit drum.
GPSC AE 2018 Rough grading.
16. Scrapper It can scrap the ground
3. Motor Graders Creating flat surfaces, road, TNPSC AE 2018 and load it simultaneously
building etc. 17. Clam shells It is designed to excavate
ESE 2021, RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021 GPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2016 material in a vertical
Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017, Gujarat PSC AE 2017 direction
4. Telehandlers Moving and lifting materials 18. Tractor Used to pull or push the
5. Compactors Creating a level grade, Assam PSC AE 2020 load
compacting crushed rock. 1. Excavators/Poclain-
6. Asphalt mixing Used to create hot mix.
plant (Asphalt).
7. Road Roller It is compactor- type-
Machine. engineering vehicle used to
Assam PSC AE 2020 compact soil, gravel,
concrete or asphalt in
construction of roads and
foundations.
8. Dragline It is enormous mobile
excavating machines used in
open cut mining or surface 2. Bulldozer
mining.
GPSC AE (GMB) 2021, HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021
TNPSC AE 2018 , Gujarat PSC AE 2017
9. Power Shovel Used to excavate all types
of earth and load it into
truck.
TNPSC AE 2018, Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017, ESE 2012
10. Derrick Crane Moving material
horizontally and vertically.
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022 , TNPSC AE 2018
Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017, ESE 2007
11. Dump Truck To transport material as
gravel, soil and sand 3. Motor Grader-
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB), TNPSC AE 2018
Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017, ESE 1997
12. Backhoe/Pullshovel Land clearing, land
/Back shovel scraping, excavating.
Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017
13. Loader It is a heavy equipment
machine used in
construction to move or
load materials.
14. Tower Crane Used in construction of
tall building for moving
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 105 YCT
4. Tele handler 8. Drag Line-
5. Compactors- 9. Power Shovel-
6. Asphalt Mixing Plant-
Power Shovel
10. Derrick Crane-
7. Road Roller Machine-
Derrick Crane
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 106 YCT
11. Dump Truck- 15. Transit mixer for R.M.C. -
16. Scrapper-
12. Back hoe-
17. Clam shells-
13. Loader
18. Tractor-
14. Tower Crane -
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 107 YCT
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 109
2. Property of Concrete............................................................................................................ 116
3. Water Cement Ratio ............................................................................................................ 121
4. Formwork ............................................................................................................................ 123
5. Proportioning of Concrete mixes......................................................................................... 125
6. Concreting Operations ......................................................................................................... 129
7. Concreting in Adverse Conditions ...................................................................................... 136
8. Durability of Concrete ......................................................................................................... 137
9. Repair and Maintenance of Concrete .................................................................................. 140
10. Special Types of Concrete ................................................................................................. 141
11. Miscellaneous .................................................................................................................... 144
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 108 YCT
01.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete - Fine Aggregate -
Concrete technology deals with study of concrete SSC JE 2021-22
properties and its practical applications. Aggregate in which more than 90% particle is passes
CGPSC AE 2022 through 4.75 mm IS sieve is called as fine aggregate.
It is a composite material consisting mainly binding Ex - Sand.
material (cement/lime/bitumen/mud), water and Standard Sand (IS : 650 : 1991)-
aggregate (fine and coarse).
Standard sand using now a days in India is obtained
Ingredients of Concrete - from Ennore (Madras).
(i) Aggregate It should be free from organic matter.
(ii) Water It is the fine particle of quartz (silica content 99%).
(iii) Binding material (Cement, Lime, Mud) It should be 100% pass through 2 mm IS sieve and
(iv) Admixtures (if required)
100% retained on 90µ IS sieve.
AGGREGATE 1. Classification of Sand According to IS : 650-
APDCL JM 2017, DFCCIL JE 2016 DDA JE 2023, SSC JE 2022, UPPCL 2022, JKSSB JE 2022
It is an important chemically inert constituent of
Zone Size of Agg. Type of Sand Use
concrete which give hardened body with the help of
binding material. Zone-I 4.75 - 2 Coarse sand Concrete
It is used to increase the volume and reduce the cost Zone-II 2-0.425 Medium sand work
of concrete. Zone-III 0.425-0.075 Fine sand Masonry
It increase the strength and reduces shrinkage of work
concrete. Zone-IV < 0.075 Very fine sand Plastering
Quantity of silt and clay in fine aggregate should ≯
4-6%.
2. According to IS: 1498-1970-
Sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand
Size 4.75 - 2 2 - 0.425 0.425 - 0.075
(in mm)
3. According to MIT-
Sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand
Size 2 - 0.6 0.6 - 0.2 0.2 - 0.06
(in mm)
Water cement ratio for fine sand is kept less
compared to coarse sand to make concrete.
Function of sand in concrete-
UKPSCA AE 2022, Mizoram PSC AE 2020
1. Increase the volume of concrete.
2. Reduce the shrinkage.
3. Reduce the consumption of cement.
4. Improve the strength of concrete.
5. Reduce the voids of concrete.
Bulking of sand IS: 2386 - 3
SSC JE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022, GPSC AE 2021
OPSC AEE 2021, ISRO 2019, BPSC AE 2019
When dry sand comes into contact with moisture, a
thin film is formed around the particles, which
causes them to get apart from each other. This is
results in increasing the volume of sand. This
incensement of volume is called bulking of sand.
SSC JE 2022
Surface tension is the basic cause of bulking of sand.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 109 YCT
3. Normal weight Ex. Crushed lime stone,
(2300 - 2600 kg/m3) sand, gravel
Use- Normal concrete work
4. Heavy weight Ex. Magnetite, baryte, Iron
(2800 - 2900 kg/m3) shots.
Use- Making high density
concrete for shielding against
nuclear radiation.
Key Points
■ As per IS standards, the height to diameter ratio of
a cylindrical concrete specimen shall be–
2.0 to find its compressive strength
The maximum bulking of sand is 20 - 40% at 4 to
■ Lime concrete in foundation should be laid in
6% water content. At 12% water content regain its
horizontal layer, not exceeding–
original volume.
150 mm thick when consolidated
Moisture content less than 5% should be preferred ■ Fat concrete is one which contains large
for construction purpose proportion of– Mortar
Bulking of Sand is inversely proportional to the ■ During the coarse aggregates crushing test, the size
fineness modulus. of aggregate is considered for testing purposes
Note- Size of particle ↑, Fineness modulus ↑, during segregation in IS sieves is–
Bulking ↓. Passing 12.5mm and retained on 10mm
Effect of sugar in cement concrete- Aggregate classification, based on shape
PGCIL DT 2023 SSC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022, GSPHCL AE 2020
Quantity of Effect 1. Rounded aggregate-
Sugar (by wt) If minimum air voids (32 - 33%) so provides more
0.05% No effect workability.
0.15% Retard the setting time It has minimum surface area for a given volume so
0.20% Accelerator minimum quantity of cement paste are required for
better workability.
0.25% Set more rapidly but loose strength Bond strength and interlocking property between the
Note- Sugar is considered as retarder. particles are very poor. So lower strength type of
Coarse Aggregate- concrete is formed.
MPPGCL JE 2023, CHB Jr. Draftsman 2023 It is not suitable for concrete.
Aggregate in which 90% part is retained on 4.75 mm 2. Partially Rounded Aggregate-
IS sieve is called coarse aggregate. MPPGCL JE 2023
The most common size of aggregate used in Air voids - 35 - 38%
construction is 20 mm, while 40 mm is more It is not used for making concrete. It's interlocking
common in mass concreting. property is better than rounded aggregate.
For RCC- 12 - 20 mm 3. Angular Aggregate-
SSC JE 2022, CGPSC AE 2019-20, DSSSB JE 2019
All-in Aggregate- Air voids is maximum (38 - 45%) so its workability
This type of aggregate contains proportion of all size. is minimum.
Generally it contain 30 to 40% fine aggregate and 60 It has better interlocking property between the
to 70% coarse aggregate. particle, so higher strength type of concrete is
It provide, strength and reduce shrinkage. formed.
It increase the bulk density of concrete. 4. Cubical Aggregate-
Coarse aggregate is taken as main matrix form but GPSC AM 2020, KPSC JE 2017
fine aggregate is taken as filler matrix in concrete. It is an aggregate whose particles length, width and
Aggregate classification based on weight- thickness are approximately equal.
OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018 It has minimum voids so less quantity of cement
Type Aggregate Example and use paste is required for better workability.
The strength of concrete which is made by cubical
1. Ultra light weight Ex. Pumice, scoria, aggregate is more than that of other aggregate.
(250 - 1450 kg/m3) vermiculite, ceramic 5. Flaky Aggregate-
Use- For its insulating GPSC AE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
properties TNPSC 2021, PPSC SDE 2021, GSPHCL AE 2020
2. Light weight Ex. Expanded clay, shale, An aggregate is said to be flaky, when its least
< 1000 kg/m3 slate, crushed brick 3
dimension is less than or 0.6 times of its mean
Use- Heat insulation layer 5
below the roof and floor dimension.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 110 YCT
❑ TEST OF AGGREGATE [IS : 2386 (Part-IV)]-
DDA JE 2023, CHB SDE 2023, SSC JE 2022
1. Crushing strength test-
Aim- To find the compressive strength of the
Apparatus- Thickness gauge.
DDA JE 2023
aggregate
6. Elongated Aggregate - Apparatus- Compression Testing Machine.
An aggregate whose length is greater than 9/5 or 1.8
times of its mean dimension is called elongated
aggregate.
Size of sieve used - 12.5 mm, 10 mm, 2.36 mm
Apparatus- Length gauge. Rate of loading - 4 tonne per minute for 10 minutes.
Note- Wt. of agg. passing through 2.36 mm IS sieve
The maximum percentage of elongated or flaky C.V. = × 100
Weight of sample
aggregate in concrete should ≯ 15 - 20%.
❖ Crushing value-
Flakiness and elongated test of aggregate are not UPPCL AE 2019
performed if aggregate size < 6.3 mm. Type of roads/pavement Crushing
Order of strength- value (%)
Cubical > Crushed > Rounded > Flaky 1. Flexible pavement-
Aggregate Example Wearing surface or bituminous surface 30
Rounded River gravel Bituminous macadam/W.B.M. 40
Angular Crushed rock Soling 50
Flaky Laminated rock 2. Rigid pavement-
Partially rounded/ Pit sand and gravel Wearing surface or surface course 30
Irregular Other than wearing course 45
❖ Surface Characteristics of Agg., As per IS : 383 ; 2. Impact test [IS : 2386 (part - 4) - 1963]-
1970- DDA JE 2023, HPSC Lect. 2022, SSC JE 2022
MHADA 2022, JSSC JE 2022 UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, RPSC Lect. 2021
Surface Texture Example Aim- To find the toughness of aggregate
Glassy Black flint. Apparatus- Page Impact Machine.
• Test specimen taken passing through 12.5 mm sieve
Granular Sand stone
and retained on 10 mm sieve.
Crystalline Fine basalt, lime stone, dolomite • Mould is filled in 3 layers tamping 25 times each
granite, gabbro, syenite, layer.
dolerite. • Hammer (13.5-14 kg) freely dropped from a height
Smooth Slate, marble, rhyolite. of 380 ± 5 mm for 15 blows.
Porous and honey Scoria, pumice. • Now crushed agg. sieved with 2.36 mm sieve and
combed calculate impact value.
Classification of aggregate on the basis of
available moisture content-
1. Bone-dry Aggregate -
This types of aggregate is completely dry which has
not any types of moisture on the surface or in voids.
It is obtain by drying aggregate in oven at 105 ± 5oC
for 24 hours.
2. Saturated surface dry aggregate (SSD)-
GPSC AE 2019
It is an aggregate in which the surface of the
aggregate are dry but the all pores filled by moisture
or saturated with water.
3. Moist or wet aggregate- Wt. of agg. passing through 2.36 mm sieve
All pores completely filled with water with a film on Impact value(I.V.) = × 100
Weight of Sample
the surface.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 111 YCT
❖ Aggregate Impact Value – F.M. represents average size of particles of total
Purpose Max. Impact Value aggregate.
WBM Sub base course 50
CC base course or building 45
concrete
Wearing surface like runway
30
and road surface
3. Abrasion test (IS : 2386 : Part-IV)-
MH WRD JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, DMRC AM 2017
Aim- To determine the hardness/abrasion resistance
of aggregate.
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find The grade of aggregate is determine with the help of
the percentage wear due to relative rubbing action fineness modulus.
between aggregate and steel balls as abrasive action. Hole size of sieve- (1mm ×1mm ) Square
Rotation speed and - 30-33 RPM, 500-1000
number revolution. Size of sieve- 150 micron to 80 mm
Abrasive charge - Steel or cast iron balls with ∑ Cummulative Percentage
Fineness modulus (F.M.) =
48φ (mm) and weight 390- 100
445 gm. DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2023, WBPSC AE 2020-21
Number of balls - 6 to 12 Types of Aggregate Fineness Modulus
Cylinder dia. - 70 cm Fine sand 2.2 - 2.6
Cylinder length - 50 cm Medium Sand 2.6 - 2.9
Coarse Sand 2.9 - 3.2
Fine Aggregate 2 - 3.5
All- in Aggregate 3.5 - 6
Coarse Aggregate 6 - 8.5
Percentage value of fine aggregate in All-in
aggregate-
RSMSSB JE 2020, ISRO 2020
A−C
P= ×100
C−B
Note–-If we have to find percentage of fine agg. then
A−C
P= × 100
A−B
Size of sieve used - 12.5 mm, 10 mm, 1.7 mm Where,
Wt. of agg. passing through 1.7 mm sieve P = Proportion of fine agg. to coarse agg.
Abrasion value = × 100
Weight of Sample A = Fineness modulus of coarse aggregate
Abrasion value - DDA JE 2023 B = Fineness modulus of fine aggregate
C = Fineness modulus of All-in aggregate
Types of pavement Max. abrasion
value (%) 6. Soundness test (IS : 2386 Part-V)-
UPPCL JE 2022, CILMT 2020, Sikkim PSC AE 2018
W.B.M. base course or for ordinary 50 Aim- To find out the durability or weather
work or B.B.M. resistance of aggregate.
W.B.M surface course 40 Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) or magnesium sulphate
C.C surface course, bituminous surface 35 (MgSO4) solution are used for this test.
dressing Percentage of weight loss indicates the soundness of
Wearing surface like, runway, road 30 aggregate.
4. Water absorption test- For pavement aggregate, loss of weight
Aim– To determine the pore voids in aggregate. (i) < 12% for sodium sulphate
5. Fineness modulus- (ii) < 18% for magnesium sulphate
KPSC AE 2020, ISRO 2019, BPSC AE 2018 7. Specific gravity test-
Fineness modulus is obtained by adding the cumulative It is the unit weight of aggregate with respect to unit
% by mass retained on each of a specified series of weight of water at 4oC temperature.
sieve and dividing the sum by 100. Note-Apparent specific gravity > Bulk Specific gravity.
Note- 8. Shape test of aggregate-
Higher F.M. shows coarser aggregate. Aim- To determine, angularity number, flaky index
F.M. ∝ average size of particles. and elongation index.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 112 YCT
Presence of calcium chloride (CaCl2) in water the
rate of setting and hardening is increase but it should
not be exceed 1.5% of weight of cement.
The concentration of HCl, H2SO4 and other
inorganic acids in water should not be exceed 1%.
The quantity of NaOH should not be exceed 0.5% to
the weight of cement.
If the amount of oil in water exceeds 2 % to the
weight of cement, then the strength of concrete
decreases by 20%.
Zinc chloride retards the set of concrete and the 3
Angularity Number- days strength test can not be performed.
DSSSB JE 2019-22 Types of concrete-
It is a number, which is used to determine the shape 1. According of binding material-
of aggregate. (a) Mud Concrete-
Rounded aggregate particle has less angularity Clay is used as a binding material.
number (zero) and vice versa. 1
It varies from 0 - 11. Clay: brick ballast- 1 : 2 .
2
W ×100 It is used in third class building foundation and
Angularity Number = 67 −
w×G temporary construction work.
Where, W = Weight of aggregate filled in cylinder (b) Lime Concrete-
w = Weight of water filled in cylinder Lime is used as binding material.
G = Specific gravity of aggregate Lime : Surkhi : Brick Ballast - 16 : 32 : 100 or 18 :
9. Flakiness index and elongation test- 36 : 100
NHPC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021 It is used as base course in wall foundation and floor.
Wt. of agg. passing through slot of thickness gauge (c) Cement Concrete-
F.I. = × 100 Cement is used as binding material.
Total weight of sample
Cement concrete are made in different grade on the
Wt. of agg. retained on the gauge basis of requirement.
E.I. = × 100
Total weight of sample Types of Concrete Grade
For general work F.I. 35% Lean Concrete M - 5 to M - 7.5
For wearing course FI 15% (Runway and road) Ordinary Concrete M -10 to M - 20
WATER Standard Concrete M - 25 to M -60
Water is participate in chemical reaction and help to High strength Concrete M - 65 to M -100
provide the strength. 2. According to Design-
Permissible limit of impurities in concrete Types of concrete Density (kg/m3)
water as per IS : 456 - 2000 (IS : 3025)- Plain or ordinary concrete 2400
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022 Light weight concrete < 1920
GATE 2020, UPPCL JE 2020, DSSSB JE 2019
Heavy Weight concrete 3000 - 4000
Material Permissible limit Reinforced concrete 2500
Organic material 200 mg/l Air entrained concrete -
Inorganic material 3000 mg/l Pre-cast concrete -
Sulphate 400 mg/l Pre-stressed concrete -
Chlorides (i) For RCC Work 500 mg/l
(ii) For PCC work 2000 mg/l Key Points
Suspended solid 2000 mg/l ■ The setting time of concrete is found in laboratory
pH value 6-8 by– Penetrometer test
■ Name the method of concrete used on works that
Note-
is used for concrete of M 15 and M 7.5 is–
Effect of impurities in water on properties of
concrete - As nominal mix concrete for given strength
The pH value of water shall be not less than 6. ■ Name an example of aggregate with crystalline
The Sodium carbonate may cause the quick setting surface texture– Trachyte
and bicarbonate may either accelerate or retard the ■ Grading of concrete is based on _____ day
setting time. strength– 28
The strength of concrete decreases due to the ■ The type of aggregate which surface
presence of salt in sea water. If sea water is to be texture/characteristic carried by Pumice and trass
used, the concentration of salt in it should not be is– Honeycombed and porous aggregate
exceed 3.5%. ■ Seashore gravels are types of–Rounded aggregate
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 113 YCT
Plums Concrete- Impart high workability by reducing friction
It is a mixture of wet concrete and a plum (size > 300 mm). between concrete particles and reducing the amount
Quantity of plums 20% to the volume of concrete. of water to be added.
Distance between plums and outer surface of These are the modified versions of plasticizers that
allow the reduction of water content up to 30% unlike
concrete 150 mm.
plasticizers which allow the reduction up to 15% only.
Maximum size of aggregate- Ex.-Acrylic polymer, modified lignosulphonates,
1 sulphonated melamine formaldehydes (SMF).
(i) Maximum size of minimum dimension of
4 (iii) Accelerators -
concrete member. MH WRD JE 2022, Mizoram PSC AE 2020
(ii) Maximum size Manipur PSC AE 2013, GPSC AM 2020, GSPHCL AE 2020
This is added in concrete to increase the rate of early
• C/C distance between main bar – 5 mm
strength of the concrete. It increase the rate of
• Clear cover whichever is less
hydration. It is used where temperature is low and
Generally 10-20 mm aggregate are used in R.C.C. work. for reducing the initial setting time.
An aggregate, with size more than 75 mm is known The most commonly used accelerator is - CaCl2
as cyclopean aggregate. but it is harmful for Pre-stressed concrete and
ADMIXTURE (IS : 9103) R.C.C. work.
NHPC JE 2022, KPSC AE 2020, OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018 Ex.-Sodium Thiocyanates, Soluble carbonates,
It is used in concrete to modify the property of Triethenolamine, NaCl, Al2Cl3, Sodium Sulphate
concrete. (Na2SO4) Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3), Sodium
It is used before batching or during the mixing. Hydroxide (NaOH).
Note-
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022
CaCl2 add up to 2% acts as accelerators.
CaCl2 ≤ 2% act as retarders.
CaCl2 and NaOH, allow concreting in very cold
weather (–230C).
Aluminium chloride is also a accelerators and it is
used to prevent leakage due to pressure
Function of accelerators-
Note- 1. To reduce the curing time
Mineral admixture are finely divided siliceous 2. Early removal of formwork
materials which are added to concrete in large 3. Quicker early strength
amount range of 20 - 70% by mass of the total 4. Reduce bleeding
cementitious material. 5. Improved initial protection against freezing.
Dosage of retarders, plasticizers and super 6. Concreting in cold places.
plasticizers shall be restricted to 0.5, 0.1 and 2.0% In present situation the commonly used accelerator
respectively by weight of cementitious material. are-
Chemical Admixture - (a) Soluble Carbonate
(i) Plasticizer (water reducer)- (b) Silicate Fluorosilicates
DDA JE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022 (c) Triethenolamine
JSSC JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022 (iv) Retarders -
WBPSC AE 2020, GPSC AE 2019, TNPSC AE 2018 DDA JE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
Plasticizer increase the workability and strength of SSC JE 2022, JPSC AE 2021, GES 2019, DSSSB JE 2019
concrete at the same water content. Retarders slow down the rate of hydration of cement
Allow water reduction for a given workability. in concrete or slow the rate of setting of concrete.
Normal does of plasticizer varies between 0.1 to Retarder is mainly used to make ready mix concrete
0.4% that allow the reduction in water content by 10 (R.M.C.) and where temperature is high. It decreases
to 15%. the rate of gain of strength.
Ex.-Ligno Sulphonic acid, polyglycol ester, The retarders help in overcoming the accelerating
hydroxylated carboxylic Calcium, Sodium and effect of the temperature over the setting of the
Ammonium acid. concrete in hot weather condition.
(ii) Super Plasticizer (Extra water reducer) - Its normal dose varies between 0.5 to 0.1% .
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, OPSC AEE 2021, UPCL AE 2021 Ex.-Gypsum, Sugars, Starches, Cellulose products,
It is the improve form of plasticizer used in making salts of acids, NH4Cl, ferric chloride (FeCl3).
high strength concrete. Sugar quantity is limited up to 0.2%
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 114 YCT
(v) Air Entertainers - Enhance the property of fresh and hardened
DDA JE 2023, MH WRD JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022 concrete.
JSSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2021, SJVN JE 2021 Reduces segregation and bleeding.
Air entraining agents introduce in the form of Suitable for mass concreting and prevents thermally
million air bubbles (dia. < 0.05 mm) of non- induced cracking.
coalescing air bubbles and distributed uniformly in Specific gravity of silica fume is 2.20-2.30.
concrete. SiO2% in silica fume- 85 - 97%
Effect of air entraining agents on properties of
concrete- Key Points
TNPSC AE 2019 ■ As per IRC 110 – 2005, the water absorption limit
1. Reduce the strength of concrete of aggregates (except slag) tested as per IS 2386
2. Increase the workability & durability. (Part 3), used in surface dressing finishing course
3. Increase the resistance against to freezing and is– 1%
thawing. ■ Longitudinal and transverse joints in concrete are
4. Decrease permeability. provided to prevent–
5. Reduce the bleeding, segregation and laitance. Prograssive cracking of concrete
■ Tremie method of concreting is used–Underwater
6. Reduce unit weight.
7. Quantity ≯ 0.005 - 1% by the weight of cement. Fly Ash-
8. Air- entraining concrete can be pumped easily. SSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021, DDA JE 2018
Ex.- Resins, water soluble soap, steric acid, It is a heterogeneous byproduct material, which is
Sulphonic acid. finely divided residue obtained from the combustion
Vinsol resin and durex are the most important of powdered coal and transported by the flue gases
market product used in world. and collected by electrostatic precipitator.
(vi) Corrosion inhibiting admixture- The specific gravity of fly ash varies between 1.90
When RCC structure is exposed to saline water, to 2.96.
industrial fumes, chlorides etc. main causes of Its particle size ranges in between 10 to 100 micron.
corrosion in steel. Effect of Fly ash in concrete -
It is used to prevent or slow down the process of (i) Improve workability.
corrosion. (ii) Decrease water demand.
Ex.-Sodium benzoate, NaNO3, NaNO2. (iii) Reduce heat of hydration.
Pozzolanic material- (iv) Increase ultimate strength.
SSC JE 2018, ESE 2017, UPPCL JE 2015 (v) Reduce permeability.
It is mainly siliceous and aluminous material. (vi) Improve durability.
It contain 80% clay and 20% Lime, magnesia & iron Metakaoline-
oxide. Metakaolin material show very little pozzolanic
It produce less heat during hydration. action and these are not highly reactive.
Effect of Pozzolana in Concrete- Specific gravity of highly reactive metakaoline is
(i) Reduce heat of hydration. 2.5.
(ii) Increase workability. Rice Husk Ash -
(iii) Reduce segregation and bleeding. These are contains high percentage of silica (90%)
(iv) Increase the resistance of sulphate and salt attack. which can be used as an admixture in concrete. Rice
(v) Reduce the strength gaining rate. husk ashes increase the high strength and high
Silica Fumes- permeability of the concrete.
RPSC Lect. 2021, GPSC GES 2021, KPSC AE 2017 Various use of admixture for fresh and
A very fine non-crystalline silica produced in hardened concrete-
electric arc furnaces as a byproduct of the Fresh Concrete Hardened Concrete
production of elemental silicon or alloy containing
• Increase workability. • Improve freeze/Thawing
silicon also known as condensed silica fume or
micro silica. • Decrease water resistance.
content. • Improve impact and
Micro-silica is more reactive than fly ash or any
other natural pozzolana. It work as a pore filler of • Reduce segregation. abrasion resistance
cement paste. It is available in wet or dry forms. • Improve pumpability, • Inhibit corrosion.
Silica fume added during concrete production at the placeability and • Reduce shrinkage and
concrete plant. finishability. cracking.
As the amount of microsilica is increased in the • Retard or accelerate • Produce colored and
concrete then its water demand also increases, setting time. cellular concrete.
special curing method is adopted known as shut or • Reduce slump loss • Reduce permeability.
mat curing for concrete containing microsilica. rate.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 115 YCT
02.
PROPERTY OF CONCRETE
hence it required more water as compared to coarser
aggregate.
3. Admixture- Cementing material added in the
concrete before or at the time of mixing to modify
its properties is known as admixture.
Use of admixture -
(i) Increase workability without increasing water content.
(ii) Reduce segregation and bleeding.
(iii) To retard setting and hardening of concrete.
WORKABILITY
(iv) To make water proof, acid proof and basic proof.
UKPSC AE 2022, GPSC AM 2020
Mizoram PSC 2015 4. Temperature- Temperature↑, workability ↓
The ability of concrete to handle, transport and High temperature increase slump loss
placing between the formwork with minor 5. Shape of aggregate -
segregation is called the workability of concrete. Angular, rough, flaky and elongated aggregate
Water cement ratio has much affect the workability. reduce workability.
Workability ∝ W/C ratio. Rounded and smooth aggregate increase workability
and has low strength.
Types of Workability - Decreasing order of workability, Rounded aggregate
(a) Unworkable concrete- → Angular aggregate → flaky or elongated
• This concrete have very little amount of water. aggregate → Cubical aggregate.
• Hand mixing of this concrete is not easy. 6. Grading of aggregate-
• It is also known as harsh concrete. When coarse and fine aggregate ratio is increase
then workability increases.
• High segregation is possible.
Workability ∝ Grading of aggregate
•W/C ratio < 0.40 7. Time period -
(b) Medium workable concrete -
1 1
• Used in most of construction work. Workability ∝ or
Time Time of transit
• W/C ratio is varies between 0.40 - 0.55.
(c) High workable concrete- 8. Air entraining agents-
It increases the workability of fresh concrete.
• These concrete are easy to mix, transport and
placed. Workability test of concrete-
1. Slump Test (IS: 1199-1959)-
• Useful in mass concreting.
MH WRD JE 2022, MHADA 2022, RPSC ACF 2021
• Higher possibilities of bleeding. ISRO 2020, NBCC JE 2018
• W/C ratio > 0.55 Simplest and commonly used method to measure
Factors Affecting Workability- consistency (plasticity of concrete mix). Slump
JKSSB JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
value is the vertical distance or settlement of
MHADA 2022, OPSC AEE 2021, ESE 2021 concrete measured in mm from the top of cone.
GSPHCL AE 2020, TNPSC AE 2019 Slump test is done in field or lab both.
1. Water content or W/C ratio- Water increase Concrete are filled in slump cone in 3 equal layer
workability but decrease strength. (ASTM) by height and every layer is tamped 25
1 times with the help of tamping rod (16 mm).
While strength of conc. ∝ or ∝ C/W ratio Frustum having top diameter 10 cm, bottom
W/C ratio
dimension around 20 cm. height of 30 cm.
2. Size of Aggregate- Smaller size aggregate has more MPPGCL JE 2023, DDA JE 2023, NHPC JE 2022,
surface area as compared to larger size of aggregate JSSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 116 YCT
❖ Slump value for various workability of conc. as
per IS:456-
SSC JE 2018
Degree of workability Slump value
Extremely low 0
Very low 0-25
Low 25-50
Medium 50-100
High 100-150
Very high >150
Number of sample required for testing of
Types of Slump- concrete.-
GPSC AAE 2021 UPPCL AE 2021
Conc. quantity No. of Sample
1 m3 – 5 m3 1 sample
6 m3 – 15 m3 2 sample
16 m3 – 30 m3 3 sample
31 m3 – 50 m3 4 sample
Note-
> 50 m3 4+1 for each 50m3 work
☞ Slump test is suitable only for the concrete of high
☞ 1 Sample = 6 cube
and medium workability. 2. Compaction Factor test (IS : 1199 - 1959)-
☞ Maximum aggregate size ≯ 38 mm for slump test. PGCIL DT 2023, CHB JE 2023, DDA JE 2023, UPPSC AE 2022
HPPSC AE 2021, JKPSC AE 2021, KPSC AE 2018
❖ Slump value for various types of work- It measure the workability of concrete in terms of
DDA JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022, MP Vyapam JE 2022 internal energy required to compact the concrete fully.
SSC JE 2022, HPPSC AE 2021, RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021 This method is suitable for less workable and harsh
OPSC AEE 2019, SSC JE 2018 concrete and more accurate than slump test.
S.N. Types of work Slump in mm This test is most suitable for road pavement.
1. Road work concrete 20 - 30 It is more precise and sensitive than slump test.
2. Ordinary RCC work for beam and slab 50 - 100 Wt. of partially compacted Conc.
Compaction Factor =
Wt. of fully compacted conc.
3. Column, retaining wall and thin 75 - 150
vertical section Degree of workability Very low Low Medium High
4. Vibrated concrete 12 - 25 Compacting factor 0.78 0.85 0.92 0.95
5. Mass concrete 25 - 50
6. Canal Lining 70 - 80
Key Points
■ As per IS 383:1970, the percentage of fine
aggregates (FA) passing through 2.36 mm shall be
in the range of– 75-100 for Zone II FA
■ The ratio of the volume of coarse aggregate per
unit volume of the total aggregate for water to
cementitious material of 0.50 is mentioned for– Note -
4 zones of sand in IS 10262:2019 ☞ Compacting factor test is performed when size of
■ As per IS 383:1970 the percentage of fine aggregate ≯ 40 mm.
aggregates (FA) passing through 4.75 mm shall be ☞ Concrete which have very low workability < 50 mm,
in the range of _____ for Zone IFA– 90-100 this test is not suitable.
■ Soundness of aggregate test is important when– 3. Vee-Bee Consistometer test (IS: 1199-1959)-
KPSC AE 2021, JKSSB JE 2021
Concrete is exposed to action of frost Nagaland PSC AE 2018
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 117 YCT
This test is carried out the relative effort Concrete are filled in frustum in two equal layer and
measurement to change the mass of the concrete every layer is tamped 25 times with the tamping rod.
from a definite shape to the other (conical shape to
Diameter of spreading concrete − 25
cylindrical). Measurement of the effort is done in Flow value% = × 100
terms of time in second. 25
MH WRD JE 2022, HPPSC Lect. 2022 Flow test value should be between 0 - 150%.
It can not be used when the concrete is placed in thin
section.
Minimum depth of concrete - 200 mm
Minimum distance between center of ball and
nearest edge of the concrete - 230 mm.
This is a laboratory test, which gives an indication of
the duality of concrete w.r.t. consistency
cohesiveness and the proneness to segregation.
Note- In flow test nominal size of coarse aggregate
does not exceed 38 mm.
5. Kelly Ball Test-
UPPCL JE 2022, Maharashtra PSC 2017
It is also known as ball penetration test.
Kelly ball test performed faster and provide accurate
results with great precision than the slump test. It
required large amount of concrete compared with
slump test.
Concrete are filled in conical mould in four equal
layer and every layer is tamped 25 times with
tamping rod.
Vee - Bee consistometer test indirectly determine
the workability of concrete.
Most suitable for dry concrete having very low
workability.
This test is not suitable if slump value is > 50 mm.
❖ Degree of workability in terms of Vee Bee
second-
Time in second Consistency Degree of workability
Permissible error in workability test-
<1 Fluid Very very high
1-3 Semi fluid Very high workable Slump test ± 5 mm
3-7 Plastic High Compacting factor test ± 0.01 mm
7 - 10 Dry medium Vee - bee time ± 0.5 sec.
10 - 20 Very dry Low Key Points
20 - 40 Moist Very Low ■ A desirable property of concrete, that is expected
4. Flow test (IS: 1199 - 1959)- to provide good compressive strength–
KPSC AE 2020
Lower permeability
This is lab test and suitable for very high workable
concrete. ■ The standard size of specimen for testing the
Max. size of aggregate less than 38 mm. modulus of rupture as per IS Code is–
15 × 15 × 70 cm
■ The property is possessed by Joint filler –
Compressibility, Elasticity, Durability
■ In a concrete mix, if maximum size of coarse
aggregate is increased, the proportion of fine to
coarse aggregate will be– Decreased
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 118 YCT
VALUES OF WORKABILITY FOR DIFFERENT PLACING CONDITIONS
Degree of Consistency Slump Compacting Vee-Bee Uses
workability (mm) factor degree
(second)
Extremely Moist Earth - 0.65-0.7 > 20 Precast paving Slabs
Low
Very Low Very Dry See 7.1.1 0.75-0.8 10-20 Blinding concrete shallow sections,
pavements using pavers, Road
(Power Vibrator)
Low Dry 25-75 0.8-0.85 5-10 Mass concreting, lightly reinforced
sections in slabs, beam, walls,
columns, Floor, Hand Placed
Pavements canal lining strip
footing
Medium Plastic 50-100 0.85-0.92 2-5 Heavily reinforced sections in
Slabs, beams, walls, columns
Medium Plastic 75-100 0.85-0.92 2-5 Slipform work, Pumped concrete
High Semi fluid 100-150 0.92-above - Trench fill, in Situ Piling
Very High Fluid See 7.1.2 - - Tremie Concrete
SEGREGATION (iv) Careful handling, transporting, placing and
JSSC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022, GSPHCL AE 2020 compacting.
Nagaland PSC 2018, RPSC AE 2018, SSC JE 2017 BLEEDING
Property of concrete in which the coarse DDA JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022
ingredients are separated from the concrete mix MP Vyapam JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
PSTCL AE 2021, SSC JE 2018
while placing is called as segregation.
Process of rise of water along with cement particles
It is the rough finishing property of concrete and to the surface of freshly laid concrete or separation
caused improper proportioning, less compaction, of water
low water content deficiency of sand and pouring Water cement paste comes over the surface due to
of concrete from higher height. excessive quantity of water in mix and excess
Segregation will be more if mix is very lean and compaction.
aggregates are large size with rough texture. Bleeding cause formation of pores on the surface
Ultimate effects of segregation is reduce the and makes the concrete weak.
Formation of cement paste is known as laitance.
strength of the hardened concrete.
Bleeding can be control by-
Honey combing phenomenon occurs due to
1. Using air entraining agent
segregation.
2. Increasing quantity of fine aggregate
Segregation may be of three types- 3. Adding more finely grained cement
1. Coarse aggregate separating out or setting down 4. Lesser w/c ratio and proper mix design
from the rest of the matrix. 5. Use of pozzolanic material
2. The paste or matrix separating away from coarse 6. Rich mixes are less susceptible to bleeding than
aggregate. lean mix.
3. Water separating out from the rest of the material PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
being a material of lowest specific gravity. 1. Durability-
Minimization of Segregation- Durability is the property of concrete by virtue of
ESE 2019
which it is capable to resist weathering action,
chemical attack, abrasion or any other process, of
(i) Maximum height of placing of concrete should be 1.0 m.
deterioration.
(ii) Adding air entraining admixture during mixing Wearing resistance of concrete is improve at lower
(iii) Restricting water quantity W/C ratio and slump value.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 119 YCT
Factors affecting durability- It is a time dependent factor that increase with time.
(i) Use of unsound cement and less durable aggregate. Rich concrete have less creep while lean concrete
(ii) Shape and size of the member. more. It is also known as plastic flow or plastic yield.
(iii) Entry of harmful gases and salt through pores and voids. Rate of creep decreases with time.
(iv) Freezing and thawing of water sucked through the Creep increases when-
cracks of concrete. • Aggregate content is low.
(v) Cover provided to the embedded steel (life can be • Cement content is high.
enhanced by providing extra cover to steel). • Water cement ratio is high.
Durability ∝ cement aggregate ratio. • Air entrainment is high.
2. Imperviousness - • Temperature is high.
It is defined as the resistance of the concrete to the
• Relative humidity is low.
flow of water through the pores.
Creep coefficient value based on age of concrete-
During concreting if there is excess water then
SSC JE 2020, CGPSC 2018, GPSC AE 2017
evaporation of surface water will leave a large
Age of concrete Creep coefficient
number of continuous pores making the concrete
> 7 days 2.2
relatively permeable.
This will result in the reduction of durability of > 28 days 1.6
concrete. > 1 year 1.1
If denseness of concrete is good then (iv) Thermal Expansion-
impermeability of concrete is good. GPSC AE 2021, CGPSC 2018, UPSSSC JE 2016
3. Dimensional stability- Concrete and steel have nearly equal thermal expansion
It should have high volume stability or minimum (1.2 ×10–5) so bonding between them is good.
dimensional stability. Thermal expansion in concrete is cause of
Fresh concrete shrinks on drying and the hardened compression stress.
concrete expands on wetting, so contraction joints 4. Strength-
should be provided to avoid formation of cracks. External force resisting capacity of concrete is
Dimensional stability of concrete depends upon called as strength of concrete. Strength of concrete
following factors- is increased by better compaction.
(i) Elasticity- Various types of strength of concrete-
Elasticity (E) is affected by the amount, type and CHB JE 2023, HPPSC Lect. 2022, MP Vyapam JE 2022
UPPCL AE 2022, JPSC AE 2015
grading of aggregate.
(ii) Shrinkage- • Rich mix, low w/c ratio, better curing
Compressive improves compressive strength.
Shrinkage phenomenon occurs during chemical
reaction between water and cement due to volume
strength • It find out by universal testing
machine (U.T.M.)
change of the member. Shrinkage in concrete cause
tension crack. 1 1
• It is 8-12% or − of
Factors responsible for shrinkage- Tensile strength 10 15
compressive strength.
• Higher water content and w/c ratio
• fcr = 0.70 f ck
• Higher cement content.
Flexural strength
• Shrinkage can be reduced by proper mix design, • Modulus of rupture can be increased
curing and less cement content. by using angular agg.
(iii) Creep- Shear strength • 12-13% of compressive strength.
MP Vyapam JE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022
ESE 2019, GES 2017 • Resistance offered by concrete
Tendency of concrete by which it deformed Bond strength against slipping of bar is called bond
continuously due to external load is known as creep. strength.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 120 YCT
03.
WATER CEMENT RATIO
Introduction- 0.35 - 0.45 ≈ 0.40 W/C ratio required to complete
SSC JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022, WBPSC AE 2021 hydration of cement. JKSSB JE 2021
Mizoram PSC 2021, GSPHCL AE 2020 ❖ W/C ratio for various grade of concrete-
ESE 2019, TNPSC AE 2018
SSC JE 2022
It is defined as the ratio of water to the cement by
Concrete Grade W/C Ratio
weight in a concrete mix. In the absences of
weighing machine it can be taken by volume. M-7.5 0.40
M-10 0.45
Weight of water
W/C ratio = M-15 0.50
Weight of cement
M-20 0.55
1 M-25 0.50
Concrete strength ∝
W / C ratio
M-30 0.45
Generally W/C ratio taken between 0.40 - 0.60. M-35 0.45
Abram's W/C Ratio Law- M-40 0.40
MPPGCL JE 2023, PGCIL DT 2023, JSSC JE 2022
Important point related to W/C ratio law -
This law states that "the strength of workable
(i) Plasticity of concrete is in limit of workability
concrete is only depend upon water cement ratio".
(ii) Concrete ingredients are unsound and
Abram's law state that strength of fully compacted
meritorious.
concrete not affected by shape of aggregate, grading,
(iii) Compaction an curing of concrete has done in
surface texture and workability etc.
standard condition.
W/C ratio most indicator of (Concrete) strength.
Lower W/C ratio is the higher the final concrete
Relationship between water cement ratio
strength. and strength of concrete-
Water-Cement ratio needs to be about 0.25 to
complete the hydration reaction.
984
1. After 7 days curing, P7 = kg / cm 2
7x
984
2. After 28 days curing, P28 = kg / cm 2
4x
1
i.e. P ∝ Where, x = W/C ratio
x
Abram's law depend on time.
It should be noted that W/C ratio 0.50 from the
points of strength view and 0.45 for the point of
workability.
23% water required for its complete chemical
reaction. It is known as bond water.
15% water by weight is entrapped in the voids. It is
known as gel water.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 121 YCT
CRRI graphs are used to obtain a relationship Key Points
between water cement ratio and strength of concrete. ■ Using a desirable water–cement ratio effective,
These graphs are very useful for obtaining W/C ratio economical, and appropriate–
for a trial mix of concrete. Strength of concrete structures can be achieved
X-axis represents - W/C ratio ■ With Lower water–cement ratio, durability of
Y-axis represents - Crushing strength concrete– Increases
CRRI has assumed the based of 7 days compressive ■ For complete hydration of 100 lbs of cement the
strength of cement. required water–cement ratio is– 0.4
❖ Strength gain of concrete with age - According to Power's formula -
UPPSC AE 2022, JKSSB JE 2021, Odisha AE 2021 SSC JE 2020
GPSC AM 2020, RSMSSB JE 2020, SSC JE 2017
Theoretical compressive strength = 240x 3
Age % increase
1 Days 16% Where, x = Gel space ratio
It is not time dependent.
3 Days 40%
7 Days 65%
Aggregate cement Ratio-
WBPSC AE 2021, Odisha PSC 2021, Mizoram PSC 2015
14 Day 90%
It is the ratio of weight of aggregate to the weight of
28 Days 99% cement.
3 Month 110% Aggregate imparts strength to concrete while cement
6 Month 115% acts as an adhesive which binds all the ingredients,
1 Year 120% so increase in aggregate cement ratio refers to the
more amount of aggregate which indicates that it
Note-
will add more strength.
Strength of 15 cm cube is taken 90% of cube size 10
For a constant W/C ratio,
cm.
1
Strength of 10 cm cube is more than 15 cm cube. Aggregate cement ratio ∝
Cube strength is more than cylinder (15 cm dia & 30 Workability
cm height) strength. For a satisfactory workable concrete, the cement
Concrete cylinder strength 0.80 of cube strength. content is enough to provide adhesion and maintain
Gel/space Ratio for complete hydration - workability in the mix so, as increase aggregate
JSSC JE 2022, PGCIL DT 2021, ESE 2020, MPSE 2017 cement ratio, strength of concrete will increase.
Gel/Space ratio, According to Feret's Law
2
Volume of gel 0.657 C c
X= = Strength of Concrete, S = k
Space available 0.319 C + Wo c+e+a
c, e & a = Volume of cement, water and air
Gel/space ratio for partial hydration -
respectively. k = constant
Gel/Space ratio,
❖ Quantity of Water required per 50 kg bag of cement.
Volume of gel 0.657C α
X= = Grade of Concrete Required water/bag cement
Space available 0.319C α + Wo
M 25 28 Litres
Where,
M 20 30 Litres
C = Weigh of cement in gm.
M 15 32 Litres
Wo = Volume of mixing water in ml.
M 10 34 Litres
α = Fraction of cement that has hydrated.
M 7.5 45 Litres
• A higher gel space ratio reduce the porosity and
M5 60 Litres
therefore increase the strength of concrete.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 122 YCT
04.
FORMWORK
Introduction-
MH WRD JE 2022
Fresh concrete is in plastic state it required a
temporary structure to withstand its load and
maintain in the desired shape of concrete structure
until it becomes sufficiently strong. This temporary
supports is known as formwork or forms shuttering.
Cost of framework is 20-25% of the cost of structure
in building work.
Parts of formwork-
1. Shuttering-
UPSSSC JE 2021-22
It is a vertical temporary structure used as a mould
for a structure in which fresh concrete is poured only
Centering
to hardened subsequently. 3. Staging -
Ex. Vertical plyboard used in column, slab side and It is a temporary structure which is used to support
in beam. formwork (Either it may be used for centering or
Formwork for columns, footing and retaining walls shuttering).
are known as shuttering. Staging is done by using props, jacks, wooden
ballies.
Vertical formwork is known as shuttering. Staging transfer the load over the centering or
shuttering on the ground.
Staging
Shuttering
2. Centering -
Centering is done during construction to support the
formwork for horizontal surfaces including flour
beams and slabs. It provide shape of horizontal Requirements of a good formwork-
surface. 1. It should be enough strong to withstand all types of
dead and live load.
It is done to support beams, slab bottom arches
2. Deflections should be minimum.
vaults shell shaped structures etc. 3. Smooth surface and afford easy stripping.
Formwork for slab and floor beam is known as 4. Formwork should be light, water proof and rest on
centering. the firm base.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 123 YCT
5. Joints should be tight/stiff so that lateral deformation Advantage-
and leakage is minimum. It is easy to form any shape size and height.
6. Swelling and shrinkage should be minimum. • Economical for small projects.
7. Cheap and re-usable material. • Light weighted compared to steel or aluminium shuttering.
Material used for the formwork- • Useful for special geometrical shape concrete members.
1. Wood 2. Steel formwork-
2. Steel Steel formwork is more popular due to its strength,
3. Combination of wood and steel durability and repetitive reuse for a long period. It
4. Battens and plywood provides a smooth surface finish to concrete.
Form Lining- When shuttering of timber planks is It can be used for circular or curved structure like
used then surface of concrete components is marks tanks, column, sewers, tunnels and retaining walls.
or knots of timber emerge which are not good to see. ❖ Comparison between timber & steel formwork-
Therefore in order to obtain flat and clean surface in Timber Formwork Steel Formwork
higher quality construction, lining is applied on the • Its initial cost is less. • High initial cost.
inner part of shuttering. • Strength is low • strength is very high.
Lining is made of hard wall papers, metal sheets,
• Stripping/Removing • Stripping/Removing time
(22-24 gauge) Plywood or plastic sheet. time is very high. is very low.
Components of a formwork- • Mostly soft wood is • Steel plate size for slab -
1. Sheeting - It is the battens of timber thickness of 25 used 0.5 × 0.5 m2.
mm - 40 mm that is in the direct contact of concrete. • Bridle joint are used. • Coupling is used to joint
2. Stud - The vertical components at appropriate • Age is less and not used the members.
intervals behind the sheeting that is used to keep it in many times. • Age is very high and
its position and to prevent deflects to outward is • Scrap value negligible used it many times.
known as studs. • Lining is required for • Scrap value is high.
3. Wale - The components puts in the transverse internal surface • Lining is not required at
direction of the studs to keep its in their own • There is possibility of any surface.
position is called wale. struck of formwork. • There is no possibility for
4. Tie - To maintain the uniform thickness of the • Surface quality of shrunk.
concrete components and to keep the sheeting, studs concrete is not better so • It ensures a better quality
and wells in their fixed position a steel rod is it requires further of the concrete surface
provided across them is called tie. treatment. and do not requires
5. Clamp- Metal clamps are used to fasten the tie. further treatment.
6. Props- Props are used to support the formwork at 3. Plywood Formwork-
the desired height and transfer the concrete load at • It is strong, flexible and easy to handle.
the ground. • Its life is too short compared to other material.
7. Raking shore- It is a inclined member which Stripping time/strike off-
provide lateral support to the unsafe structure. Formwork shall not be struck until the concrete
reaches a strength at least twice the stress to which
the concrete may be subjected at the time striking.
Stripping time of different type of
member according to IS : 456 : 2000-
JSSC JE 2022, MH ADA JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
JKSSB JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
Member Stripping time
Vertical formwork of column, beam 16 - 24 Hours
and wall
Soffit of slabs (prop left under) 3 days
Soffit of beam (prop left under) 7 days
Removal of props for slab-
(i) Spanning up to 4.5 m 7 days
Types of formwork- (ii) Spanning over 4.5 m 14 days
1. Timber formwork- Removal of props for beam-
It is the most common and oldest type of formwork (i) Spanning upto 6 m 14 days
among all others. Timber shuttering is low cost and (ii) Spanning over 6 m 21 days
easily workable. Note -
• It can be cut and joined in any shape and size. Above value is valid for OPC.
• Timber shuttering requires light weight, well In case of RHC, above value is decrease 40% but in
seasoned, easily workable, free form termite attacks. any condition it should not be less than 24 hours.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 124 YCT
05.
PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE MIXES
Concrete Mix Design (IS : 10262 - 2009)- ❖ Grade of Concrete -
SSC JE 2019, KPSC JE 2016 HPPSC AE 2021, JKSSB JE 2022
Mix. design is the science of determining the UPPSC AE 2019, SSC JE 2018, DFCCIL JE 2018
relative proportions of the ingredients of concrete to Group Grade of Grade of Characteristi
achieve the desired properties in the most conc. IS : conc. IS : c comp.
economical way. 456-2000 456 : 2000 strength of
This method of concrete mix proportioning is (Modified in 150 mm cube
applicable only for ordinary and standard concrete may 2013) at 28 days in
grades. N/mm2
The air content in concrete is considered as nill.
Ordinary M- 10 M-10 10
Proportioning is carried out to achieve specified
characteristic compressive strength at specified age, concrete M-15 M-15 15
workability of fresh concrete and durability M-20 M-20 20
requirements. Standard M-25 M-25 25
Object- concrete M-30 M-30 30
1. To achieve the minimum strength and durability. M-35 M-35 35
2. To achieve the stipulated minimum strength and M- 40 M-40 40
durability. M-45 M-45 45
3. To keep the minimum cost of concrete production. M-50 M-50 50
4. To achieve the designed/desired workability in the M- 55 M-55 55
plastic stage. M-60 60
5. To achieve the desired minimum strength in the
hardened state. High M-60 M- 60 60
6. To produce economical concrete. strength M-65 M-65 65
concrete M-70 M-70 70
Factors affecting the concrete mix-
Mizoram PSC AE 2020, ESE 2021 M-75 M-75 75
1. Compressive strength M-80 M-80 80
M-85 85
2. Workability
M-90 90
3. Durability
M-95 95
4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate M-100 100
5. Max. water cement ratio
Characteristic strength-
6. Quality control BPSC AE 2022
7. Type of cement and grade of concrete As per IS : 456 : 2000 and IS : 1343-1980 the
❖ Surface water w.r.t to the water present in the characteristic strength is defined as the value below
aggregate - which not more than 5% of result are expected to
Aggregate Amount of water fail.
deducted in litre/cum The characteristic load/ strength is the maximum
load act on a structure that has a 95% probability of
Very wet sand 120
not being exceeded during the life of structures.
Moderately wet 80
Target mean strength of concrete -
Moist sand 40 JSSC JE 2022, MPPGCL JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022,
Moist gravel 20-40 DSSSB JE 2022, SSC JE 2019
Note - f m = f ck + 1.65σ
For lean concrete - No. of grade = 2 (M-5 & M-7.5) fck = Characteristic strength
In the designation of concrete mix M refers to the σ = Standard deviation
mix and the number refers to the specified ❖ Standard deviation of concrete-
compressive strength of 150 mm size of cube at 28 DDA JE 2023, ISRO Tech Asst. 2022, SSC JE 2022,
days in N/mm2 RSMSSB JE 2021-22, PGCIL DT 2018, MPSE 2018
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 125 YCT
Concrete grade Standard deviation (σ) Note-
N/mm2 Compressive strength of 15 cm cube
M-10 = 90% of 10 cm cube.
3.5 = 125% of cylinder
M-15
HPPSC AE 2021
M-20 Compressive strength of cylinder
4.0
M-25 (dia. 15 cm, height, 30 cm)
M-30 = 80% of 15 cm cube
M-35 Tensile strength = 10% of compressive strength
M-40 Bending strength = 15% of compressive strength
M-45 5.0 Shear strength = 20% of compressive strength
M-50 Min. grade of concrete-
M-55 For, ordinary concrete M-10
M-60 For RCC work-
Test for concrete- As per IS 456 : 2000 M -20
1. Preliminary Test- TNPSC AE 2022, SSC JE 2018
As per IS 456 : 1978 M -15
It is defined as the test conducted in a laboratory on For PCC work M -15
the trial mix of concrete produced in the laboratory (ii) Ordinary Concrete-
for designing a concrete mix. When the concrete is produced by taking standard
It is done before actual concreting at the site to arbitrary proportions of concrete ingredients, it is
verify the strength of concrete and determining the known as nominal mix concrete.
adjustment required in the mix. if needed.
Concrete mix proportioning-
Preliminary test is repeated if the difference of
compressive strength of three test specimen, exceeds JSSC JE 2022
15 kg/cm2. It is classified into two classes.
2. Work Test- 1. Design mix concrete
This test is performed on samples of concrete 2. Nominal mix concrete
actually being used at the construction site. These Comparison between Nominal mix and
test can be performed at the construction site or in Design mix Concretes-
the laboratory. ESE 2022
Types of concrete- Property Nominal mix Design mix
(i) Controlled concrete Concrete concrete
(ii) Ordinary concrete Mixing Site level mixing Designed from
(i) Controlled Concrete- DFCCIL JE 2016 ready mix
Type of concrete in which preliminary tests are concrete plant.
performed for designing the mix and it is also used Tests No lab test conducted Based on
for all the seven types grade of cement is known as laboratory trial
controlled concrete. and error
Strength of concrete etc is checked by preliminary experiment
test before actual use. method.
Note- Attributes Does not consider & Need to check
of check specific every property of
It is used for grade of concrete ≥ M-10 grade of ingredients properties of ingredients.
concrete. individual ingredients, Cement - Cement
Quantity of cement and aggregate should be taken in such as specific gravity grade,
terms of weight while water is in volume. of cement, silt content consistency,
❖ Compressive strength of controlled concrete- of sand & weight initial setting
CG Vyapam JE 2022 properties etc. time, final setting
Concrete grade Strength in N/mm2 time, specific
gravity etc.
Preliminary Test Works test Sand &
M-10 13.5 - 15.8 10 Aggregate-
M-15 18.5 - 20.8 15 Density, bulking
M-20 24 - 26.6 20 of sand, specific
M-25 29 - 31.6 25 gravity, grading
of aggregate,
M-30 35 - 38.3 30 fineness modulus,
M-35 40 - 43.3 35 water absorption,
M-40 45 - 48.3 40 unit weight etc.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 126 YCT
Time Easy to make,it does Difficult, take 2. Minimum voids method-
not take more time more than 30 days Dense concrete is obtained by this method because
time (IS code sand completely fill the voids of coarse aggregate
20262) and quantity of cement fill the voids of sand.
Basis Based on passed More scientific In this method quantity of sand is kept 10% more
experience & have no than the nominal than the voids in coarse aggregate and cement
scientific approach. mix. quantity is kept 15% more than voids in the sand.
Methods of proportioning of concrete mix- It does not give satisfactory result.
• Arbitrary volumetric method 3. Maximum density method-
• Minimum voids method It is the modified form of minimum voids method
• Maximum density method given by Fuller and Thomson. According to Fuller's
1/ 2
• Fineness modulus method d
P = 100
• W/C ratio method D
• Trial mix method Where,
• Grading curve method (Road note no. 4) D = Maximum aggregate size
• Department of environmental (DOE) design method P = Percentage of material (by weight) finer
9. Indian road congress (IRC) 44 method than diameter "d"
10. Indian standard recommended method IS : 10262 : d = Maximum size of fine aggregate.
2009. This method is not so popular since grading cannot
1. Arbitrary Volumetric Method- be accurately achieved in field and there is no
This method is adopted only for work of small control over the strength.
magnitude or of moderate importance and also used The proportion which gives heaviest weight is then
for ordinary concrete. By this method concrete adopted in this method.
mixes are arbitrarily chosen by volume and quantity 4. Fineness Modulus method-
of water required for mixing is determined DSSSB JE 2022
according to the desired workability. Fineness modulus is a numerical value that's
W/C × P = 0.3P + 0.1Y + 0.01Z represent average size of whole aggregate's particle.
Where, A−C
F.M. = × 100
P = Quantity of cement by weight. A−B
Y = Quantity of fine aggregate by weight. Where,
Z = Quantity of coarse aggregate by weight. A = F.M. of coarse aggregate
❖ Concrete mix for various work- B = F.M. of fine aggregate
CHB Jr. Draftsman 2023, JSSC JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022 C = F.M. of combined aggregate
TNPSC AE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2021
5. Grading curve method-
SJVNL JE 2021, GPSC AE 2021, ISRO 2020
This method of designing concrete mix properties is
Types of work Mix ratio Permissible mainly based on the extensive laboratory and field
grade experiments carried out by the road research
RCC water Tank post tensioning member- M-30 laboratory, U.K.
Pre stressed concrete- M-40 A series of standard grading curve have been
Column, Arch, heavy beam. 1:1:2 M-25 established to given grading limits for all in
aggregates graded down from 20 mm and 40 mm.
Water tank, cantilever wall 1 M-20
1:1 :3 Procedure of mix design by grading curve method is
pre cast member, Bridge, 2 also called road no. 4.
medium loaded column.
Most of concrete roads and air field pavement were
Beam, Slab, Column, Lintel, 1 : 2 : 4 M-15 designed by this method.
Silos, Storage tank, Road,
Department of Environment (DOE) Method-
Floor, Culvert etc.
This method was first published in 1975 and then
Mass concreting, coping 1 : 3 : 6 M-10 revised in 1988.
pedestal. This method is applicable to concrete for most
Mass concreting, Dam, 1 : 4 : 8 to M-7.5 to purpose including roads.
Foundation, base of floor and 1 : 5 : 10 M-5 This method can be used for concrete containing fly
road etc. ash. It is also called Pulverized Fly Ash, PFA.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 127 YCT
Procedure involved in DOE method- Exposure Nominal Concrete cover in mm
i. Find the target mean strength not less than
Target mean strength = specified characteristic Mild 20
strength + standard deviation × risk factor Moderate 30
ii. Calculate the water cement ratio Severe 45
iii. Determine the water content for the required Very Severe 50
workability.
Extreme 75
iv. Determination of cement content.
v. Determination of total aggregate content. Max. Water Content Per Cum of Conc.
vi. Determination of fine aggregate. For Nominal Max. Size of Aggregate-
vii. Proportion of fine and coarse aggregate. Nominal Max. Max. Water
6. Water cement ratio method- Size of Agg.(mm) Content (Kg)
As per IS : 456 : 2000, max water cement ratio and 10 208
min. quantity of cement for various condition of 20 186
concrete structure is as given below.
40 165
Nominal cover to reinforcement for Note- Quantity of water = 30% by weight of cement
various exposure condition- or 5% by weight of aggregate
DDA JE 2023
Exposure condition for various environment effect-
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, DFCCIL Executive 2018, PGCIL DT 2018, DDA JE 2018
Environment Exposure Conditions
Mild Concrete surfaces protected against weather or aggressive conditions, except those situated in
coastal areas.
Moderate Concrete surfaces sheltered from severe rain or freezing whilst wet. Concrete exposed to
condensation and rain. Concrete continuously under water. Concrete in contact or buried
under non-aggressive solid/ground water.
Severe Concrete surfaces exposed to severe rain, alternate wetting, and drying or occasional freezing
whilst wet or severe aggressive reaction. Concrete Completely immersed in Sea water.
Concrete exposed to coastal environment.
Very Severe Concrete surfaces exposed to sea water spray, corrosive fumes, or severe freezing, thawing
conditions whilst wet. Concrete in contact or buried under aggressive sub soil/ground water.
Extreme Surface of members in tidal zone, members is direct contact to liquid/solid aggressive
chemicals.
Maximum W/C ratio and minimum cement content for various exposure condition of
concrete structure-
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022, SSC JE 2020, GES 2017, GPSC AE 2017, SSC JE 2017
Sl. Exposure Plain Concrete Reinforced Concrete
No.
Minimum Maximum Free Minimum Minimum Maximum Minimum
cement contents W/C ratio Grade of cement content Free W/C ratio Grade of
3
(kg/m ) concrete kg/m3 concrete
1. Mild 220 0.60 - 300 0.55 M 20
2. Moderate 240 0.60 M 15 300 0.50 M 25
3. Severe 250 0.50 M 20 320 0.45 M 30
4. Very 260 0.45 M 20 340 0.45 M 35
Severe
5. Extreme 280 0.40 M 25 360 0.40 M 40
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 128 YCT
06.
CONCRETING OPERATIONS
Various stages for the production of Storage of cement in warehouse-
concrete- Building roof, walls and floor should be water proof.
SSC JE 2022, DDA JE 2018 There should be minimum opening and windows.
Surrounding area should be free from waterlogged.
Godown floor should be height of min. 45 cm from
ground level.
A wooden platform of height 150-200 mm is
prepared above the floor to avoid direct contact b/w
floors and cement bags.
Stack height should not be more than 15 bags (2.7
m) of cement for more than 15 bags. Causes'
pressure and damage the cement bag.
Stack should be 30 cm away from the external wall.
Each stack should be connected closely to avoid the
air circulation.
Passage width of 90 cm to 12 cm is provided
between the stacks.
Date of placing for each stack should be noted to
know their storage period.
First in first out rule should be adopted. The oldest
cement bags should be taken out firstly.
If the stacks of cement bag are to be stored for a
longer duration then it should be enclosed in a
polythene sheet.
Design of warehouse-
SSC JE 2018
(i) Floor area covered by one bag cement = 0.30 m2
(ii)Height of cement bag = 0.18 m, Volume = 0.054 m3
(iii)
Stack height not exceed 2.70 m.
(iv)30 cm space should be left all around the stack from
exterior wall.
(v) Shed height- 3.6m – 4.0 m.
STORING
Storing of cement-
DDA JE 2018, GES 2017, PSPCL JE 2017
Cement should be stored in dry and air tight place
because it absorb moisture from the atmosphere very
quickly and hardened like stone which cannot be
used for construction purpose. Cement should be
stored for minimum period because its strength
reduces due to storage period.
Cement supplied in 50 kg bags or 200 kg steel
drums.
❖ Reduction of strength due to storing of cement- ☞ Pressure compaction of the cement bag on lower
GPSC AE 2017 layers is known as "ware house pack" of cement.
Month after storage Reduced strength Storage of aggregate-
Fresh stage 0% All aggregate should be stored near the construction
site from which transportation expenditure can be
3 20%
avoided.
6 30% Aggregate should be clean otherwise there will not
12 40% be proper bond with cement and strength will be
24 50% reduced.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 129 YCT
Precaution in storing-
(i) Different classes of aggregate should be kept well
apart from each other wall divider will help to
prevent different aggregate getting mixed in with
each other.
(ii) Aggregate should be stored in the form of trapezoid
lot.
(iii) Conical heap of aggregate should be avoided.
(iv) Maximum height of the pile/lot should be restricted
to 1.5m. 2. Weight batching -
(v) Stacks the fine aggregate in such a place where loss JSSC JE 2022, ESE 2016
due to effect of wind is minimum. This method of batching is more accurate and all
ingredients are measured in terms of kg.
Mix. proportion are based on 50 kg bag of cement.
This methods are used for a large and all important
concreting works.
Volume batching is adopted in India for all
construction work.
Measurement accuracy-
MH WRD JE 2022 CGPSC Civil officer 2014
(i) For cement - ± 2%
(i) For aggregate and water - ± 3%
Weighing machines-
(i) Spring Balance
Useful for small project and its capacity is 100-200 kg.
(ii) Platform weighing machine-
BATCHING (iii) Wheel Barrow scale
UPSSSC JE 2022, NWDA JE 2021, KPSC JE 2017
It is normally used for transporting concrete at
Process of measuring the required quantities of all
ground level.
the ingredients of concrete in order to obtain the
(iv) Trolley type weighing batcher-
uniform proportion and grading of aggregate is
It is a movable from one place to another that is
called batching.
mounted over a trolley.
Accurate measurement of ingredients gives more
strength and workability. These are used in large construction work.
Batching plant-
Methods of batching -
ESE 2022
Concrete batching plant is a machine in which
1. Volume batching - ingredients of concrete are mixed and blended
RPSC Lect. 2021 homogenously to obtain concrete of desired strength
Volume batching is not good for the proportioning and quality.
the material because of volume of moist sand in a A. Classification of concrete batching plants based
loose condition weights much less than the same on mixers-
volume of dry compacted sand. 1. Transit mix plant/dry concrete batching plant-
In this method of batching a wooden or steel gauge ESE 2022, GSPHCL AE 2020
box is used whose volume is equal to one bag of It is used manual or digital scale to weight the
cement i.e. 35 litres. There is not easy to measure ingredients.
the granular materials in terms of volume in volume All weighted ingredients are poured in a transit
batching method. mixture that is transported to the site.
In the method of volume batching cement is always All ingredients in this method are mix during
measured by weight and aggregates in volume. transportation to the site. Water is added on site or
During filling for mass the material should be filled during transportation depending the location of plant
loosely and no any compaction is done and after and site.
filling the top surface of gauge box is leveled. 2. Central mix plant/wet concrete batching plant -
In terms of easiness volume batching is done for Ingredients are mixed in a mixture located at a central
small projects. location in the plant and then concrete is poured into
Accuracy of volume batching is not good over the agitator truck, which transports it to the site.
weight batching. B. Based on location of the plant -
Size of gauge box (35 Litre) 1. Stationary concrete batching plant -
1. 27 cm × 27 cm × 48 cm These are located at a certain distance from the site.
2. 30 cm × 30 cm × 39 cm Concrete is transported using trucks.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 130 YCT
These plants are high efficiency and produce good Batch Mixers-
quality of concrete. ESE 2014
It is used for commercial project having large It is widely used machine for concrete batch by
duration and large demand of concrete. batch and time to time.
2. Mobile concrete batching plant - All the materials are mixes for some time and finally
This types of plants have less efficiency and discharges until required amount of concrete mix is
capacity than stationary plant. obtained.
Mixing- A. Drum type mixers-
The process in which different ingredient of the In this case concrete ingredients are mixed in a drum
concrete are mixed in a specified proportion for the which is actually in double conical frustum shape.
production of homogenous concrete. (a) Non-Tilting type mixers-
CONCRETE MIXING METHOD JSSC JE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022
1. Hand mixing- This types of mixers are not allowed to tilt and the
JSSC JE 2022, GPSC AM 2020, SSC JE 2018 drum rotates about its horizontal axis.
This method of mixing is done by manual labors. It The concrete which is being mixed in the drum falls
is adopted for small and less importance projects. into the inclined chute and get discharge out
Hand mixing is done on the high raised platform of ingredients are charged from one end and prepared
brick or cement concrete. concrete is delivered from the other end.
10% more cement is required than machine mixing When a non-tilting mixers are used there is a
for the same strength of concrete. possibility of vulnerable to segregation.
Normally the mixing time is taken ≯ 3 minutes. Used for small projects.
Rapid discharge of concrete is not possible.
Suitable for small materials < 75 mm.
2. Machine mixing-
For machine mixing various ingredients are mixed
with the help of machine. It is highly effective and
rapid method for fulfilling the demands of short
mixing time optimum consistency and homogeneous (b) Tilting type mixers-
NWDA JE 2021
quality of concrete.
It is conical in nature and revolves around an
Machine mixing of concrete is most suitable in the
inclined axis. It can be tilted into different position
large projects where large masses of concrete are
needed because it ensures the consistent for discharging and mixing.
homogeneity of the concrete. It is rapid discharge process and used for large
Firstly materials are mixed in machine in dry state projects.
for 1.5 to 2 minutes and then gradually add the
correct quantity of water while the machine is in
motion.
It is economical in comparison to hand mixing since
10% cement is saved by machine mixing.
W/C ratio can be kept less to obtain high strength
concrete in machine mixing.
Low workable concrete which contains large size
aggregates > 75 mm also mixed in it.
Mixing efficiency of tilting mixer is depends upon.
(i) Angle and shape of drum
(ii) Angle and size blade
Disadvantage of this mixer is sticking of concrete to
the bottom of drum.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 131 YCT
(c). Reversing type mixer - Capacity - 70 to 80 liters.
It is similar to non tilting type mixer but in this case Where mixing plants cannot be installed and the area
reversal of rotation takes place for different action. is very congested and most suitable for concreting in
These are suitable for dry concrete mixer. water.
B. Pan type mixers- 3. Pump and pipe line-
UPPSC AE 2022, UJVNL AE 2021, GPSC AM 2020,
Very large quantity can be transported.
Pan type concrete mixers consists a circular pan in
Concrete consistency should be medium and do not
which concrete is mixed.
segregate.
Concrete mix is collected after mixing through
central hole provided in the pan. For transportation distance upto 400 m this method
Pan type mixers are more efficient among the all is suitable.
types of batch mixers. • Vertical distance, upto 80 m.
Concrete does not stick to the pan of this mixers. • Pipe dia - 10-20 cm.
• Slump value- 40-100 mm.
• Compacting factor 0.90 to 0.95.
4. Belt conveyors-
It is suitable for conveying concrete horizontal or
higher/lower level and for the large project like
gravity dam.
Slump value ≯ 50 mm.
It is also very suitable for transporting roller
compacted concrete.
5. Crane, Bucket and Rope way-
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022
Crane and bucket is use for work above the ground
level.
Rope way and bucket used for concrete work in a
valley, construction of pier in river and for the dam.
Continuous concrete mixers- 6. Transit mixer-
Loading, mixing and discharging of mix is MH WRD JE 2022
continuously done until work does not complete. Used for transporting the concrete over long
This methods is used for very large projects such as distance particularly in RMC plant.
dam, bridges, tall buildings etc.
7. Skip and hoist method-
TRANSPORTATION OF CONCRETE MH WRD JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
In this process concrete mix is transport from the This method is used to transport concrete vertically
place of mixing to final position of deposition. up for high rise structure construction.
Various methods of concrete transporting is here 8. Truck mixers and dumpers-
discuss below- It is most suitable and better method for long
1. Mortar Pan- distance.
There is difficulty to access the site and for a very Dump trucks are not suitable for an ordinary
small project. concrete because of segregation phenomenon occurs
It is a tedious and costly method. due to jerk during transportation.
2. Wheel Barrows hand cart- Air entrained concrete is more preferable for
transportation by dump truck.
Air bubbles are generated in air entrained concrete
that's prevent segregation of concrete.
Agitators should be used in case of ordinary
concrete and if long distance is involve which
prevents segregation and stiffening and it also helps
the mixing process at a slow speed.
9. By Chute-
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
It is usually used for concreting in deep location.
This method is extensively used in the field and also
Used for moderate distance. best for basement concreting.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 132 YCT
PLACING OF CONCRETE (ii) Ramming-
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, Mizoram PSC AE 2020, SSC JE 2017 It is used to compact plain concrete.
The process in which the concrete is deposited at a (iii) Tamping-
desired/particular place is known as placing of Top surface is tamped by a wooden cross beam (10
concrete. cm × 10 cm) to expel out voids and to make the
Free fall height of concrete during placing should be surface plain.
limited to 1 m. Both compaction and leveling are achieved
Precaution during placing of concrete- simultaneously.
The laitance should be removed before placing new This method is useful for roof slab, floor slab and
concrete. road pavement.
Placing of concrete should starts widthwise and in 2. Machine compaction-
the wall concrete work should be proceed towards Machine vibration is the most effective way of
middle, starting from ends. compacting concrete.
Concrete should be placed in an uniform layer, Stiff mixes with low water cement ratio concrete are
thickness should be 15-30 cm for RCC but for mass used in this method. It gives high strength and
concrete it should be not more than 30-45 cm. dimension stability.
Alignment of reinforcement and formwork should Vibration are more suitable than hand compaction to
not be allowed for disturbed after placing concrete. produce better quality concrete.
Concrete should be laid continuously to prevent the Lower cement content (<15%) are required
irregular and unsightly lines. compared to hand compaction.
COMPACTION OF CONCRETE Finishing are completed quickly.
SSC JE 2017 Classification of vibrators-
It is defined as the process which eliminates (i) Internal/needle/poker vibrators-
entrapped air from freshly placed concrete and This is also called immersion vibrator and most
achieve the maximum density of concrete. commonly used for compaction of concrete.
Purpose of compaction- This vibration is immersed into a concrete mass
1. To achieve high density. which are to be compacted.
2. To improve strength and durability.
3. To remove entrapped air bubbles in concrete.
4. To eliminate honey comb and other defects.
Methods for concrete compaction
1. Hand 2. Machine 3. By Spinning 4. By Pressure
Compaction Compaction and Jolting
(i) Rodding (i) Internal vibrator (needle vibrator) or pokers
(ii) Ramming (ii) Form vibrator (external vibrator)
(iii) Tamping (iii) Table vibrator
(iv) Plateform vibrator
(v) Surface vibrator (screed vibrator) Vibration Frequency- 3500 - 5000 cycle/minute
(vi) Vibratory Roller Needle dia and length- 20-75 mm, and 25-90 cm.
1. Hand Compaction- Spacing of needle penetration point
RSMSSB JE 2021, Mizoram PSC AE 2018
600 mm
This method is adopted in case of unimportant = min of
concrete work of small magnitude and places where 10, times to the dia of needle
reinforcement is more and does not permit use of Use- Column, Beams, mass concrete and for all
vibrating equipment. general work.
Concrete should be more workable i.e. W/C ratio (ii) Form or External Vibrators-
should be more for hand compaction. MH ADA JE 2022
There should not be more compaction of concrete Form vibrators are used for concreting columns, thin
because of coarse aggregate settled on the bottom wall and the costing of pre-cast structure. Vibrators
and segregation phenomenon take place. are clamped on the external wall surface of the
Slump value more than 120 mm. formwork.
(i) Rodding- Form vibrator is most suitable for the compaction of
MH WRD JE 2022 thin and congested sections of concrete arches and
Compaction for concrete placed in beam and column tunnel lining where the internal vibrator is
are done with the help of steel rod of 2 m long and practically not feasible.
16 mm dia. It produce a good finish to concrete work.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 133 YCT
Vibration is given to concrete work is indirectly Finishing operations-
way. The last process of concreting operation adopted so
Efficiency- that the concrete surface are obtained as a uniform
External vibrators < Internal vibrators and true concrete surface is known as finishing
(iii) Table Vibrator- operation.
In this case vibrator is clamped to the table or table
is mounted on springs which transfer the vibration to
the table. Stiff and harsh mixes are used in this
method.
1. Screeding-
UPPCL JE 2022
It is the levelling operation of removing/striking
excess concrete humps and hollows of uniform
concrete surface is called screeding.
It is done with the help of straight edge.
There are two types of screed-
(i) Roller type
(ii) Vibrator type
Use-
Mostly in the laboratories and making small but
precise prefabricated RCC member.
(iv) Platform Vibrator-
It is just like as table vibrator but its size is larger.
Use-
Railway sleeper, electric poles, prefabricated roofing
elements.
(v) Surface screed vibrators-
DDA JE 2023, SSC JE 2020, GPSC AE 2017
These are useful for the compaction of flat and thin 2. Floating-
concrete surfaces (< 15 cm) such as floor slab, roof SSC JE 2018
slab, road surface. The process of removing irregularities from the
For vacuum dewatering technique or slip-form surface of concrete left after screeding is known as
paving technique, a double beam screed vibrator are floating.
often used. Floating is done with the help of wooden float.
Wooden float is 1.5m long and 20 cm wide.
Finishing is achieved by moving the wooden float in
the forward and backward direction.
(vi) Vibratory Roller- 3. Trowelling -
It is used to compaction of very dry and lean It is the final operation of finishing. It is done to
concrete (Roller compacted concrete). create smooth, hard and dense surfaces. Trowelling
Use- is done when water has evaporated from concrete
Dam and pavement surface.
Note- Exterior concrete should not be trowelled because it
☞ Over vibration shall not be done at one place for a can lead to a loss of entrained air, caused by
too long time because it may cause of excessive overworking the surface.
laitance to the surface. Trowel length is 25-50 cm and width is 8-12 cm.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 134 YCT
❖ Loss of strength due to air voids in% In this method water is filled in a small pond to cure
the concrete surface.
Air voids Loss of strength
Use- curing of pavement, slabs
1% 5%
(iii) Spraying/Fogging -
5% 30% Vertical surface such as retaining walls, concrete
10% 50% column and plastered surface are cured by spraying
DFCCIL JE 2021 water.
CURING OPERATION (iv) Wet covering -
DDA JE 2023, MPPGCL JE 2023, SJVNL JE 2022 In some cases wet covering such as wet gunny bags,
JSSC JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2021 hessian cloths, jute matting, straw etc. are warped to
Curing is the process to keep the surface of concrete vertical surface for keeping the concrete wet.
in moist state for a certain period of time and kept 3. Membrane curing -
within a reasonable temperature range. DSSSB JE 2019
The result of this process is increased strength and It is also known as dry method of concrete curing.
decreased permeability. Curing of concrete for long Freshly concrete surface are covered by the solid
period ensures better volume stability, strength and and liquid membrane upto 7 days in order to
water resistance. prevents the evaporation of water form concrete
surface.
Objects of curing- Membranes are the type of sealing compound.
SSC JE 2022
Some important membranes are given below -
(i) To increase impermeability and durability of
1. Plastic film 2. Water proof papers
concrete. 3. Wax emulsion 4. Bituminous paper etc.
(ii) To achieve the required strength. Use- Used in arid zone where there is scarcity of
(iii) To reduce shrinkage and prevent the loss of water by water to be executed by ponding or spraying
evaporation. method.
(iv) It increase wearing resistance and the weather 5. Steam Curing -
resistance to the concrete surface. DDA JE 2023, Nagaland PSC AE 2018, SSCJE 2018
Methods of curing- This method of curing is adopted for prefabricated
PGCIL DT 2018
or pre-cast concrete structure to develop the strength
1. Shading of concrete work of concrete very rapidly. Maximum temperature is
limited to 75°C.
2. Water curing
W/C ratio is limited to 0.3-0.7.
3. By ponding
Steam curing is not used for high alumina cement
5. Steam curing concrete.
6. Covering concrete surface with hessian or gunny It reduces shear strength of concrete.
bags. It increased resistance against sulphate action,
1. Shading of concrete work - freezing and thawing.
Main object of shading concrete is to prevent the 6. Curing of concrete surface with hessian or gunny
evaporation of water from the concrete surface. bags-
It is used in dry weather condition to prevent the These method are used for vertical and sloppy
direct contact of the sun's rays with the surface of surface.
concrete in cold weather condition. Curing period and temperature-
MP Vyapam 2022, JPSC AE 2019, TSGEMCO 2015,
It prevents the freezing of concrete. Shading is done
Strength of concrete is depend on curing period and
with the help of big canvas which is stretched at the
temperature both. According to B.I.S. temperature is
construction site.
recommended for curing is 27 ±2°C and humidity is
2. Water curing- 90%.
These are the best method of curing because it
❖ Strength of ordinary Portland cement with
satisfied all the requirement of curing as promotion
different period of curing -
of hydration, elimination of shrinkage and
absorption of the heat of hydration. Curing period Strength in%
Water curing may be done in the following methods- 1 days 16
(i) Immersion- 3 days 40
Concrete members are immersed into water. 7 days 67
Ex.- Precast concrete members. 28 days 100
(ii) Stagnating/Ponding- 3 month 122
It is the best method for curing of concrete for flat 6 month 146
surfaces. 1 year 155
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 135 YCT
07.
CONCRETING IN ADVERSE CONDITIONS
Cold weather concreting- Precaution while concreting in hot weather -
MPPGCL JE 2023, SSC JE 2022, DDA JE 2018 1. Aggregate temperature can be maintained by
Cold weather method of concreting is used when the watering or keeping them covered.
temperature is low or below the freezing point. 2. For hot weather concreting moist the formwork
As per Indian standard temperature for cold weather before concreting to reduce water absorption from
concreting should be less than 50C. concrete mix.
Problem of slow reaction of concrete is to be faced 3. Low heat cement should be prefer for hot weather
when concreting in cold weather. concreting.
Most suitable temperature for concreting is 100C to 4. Retarding admixture should be used to reduced the
270C. setting of fresh mix for hot weather concreting.
Effects of Cold Weather in Concreting- 5. Complete the concreting operation like transporting,
DDA JE 2023, PGCIL DT 2021, NWDA JE 2019 placing and finishing of concrete as fast as is
1. Delay in setting and hardening- possible.
Hydration time depends upon temperature. Since the 6. When the day temperature is very high then it is
temperature in cold weather is very low and so there better to do concreting in the evening time.
occurs the delayed in setting and hardening of Underwater concreting-
cement. The underwater concreting techniques designed
2. Freezing of concrete at early stage - mostly to prevent cement washout.
Freezing of water prevents the hydration of cement Underwater concreting needs not be compacted as
and makes the concrete to expand. concrete gets automatically compacted by the
Expansion causes disruption of concrete due to hydrostatic pressure of water.
which there occurs the loss of strength and quality in
concrete. Concreting in water-
3. Freezing and thawing - If the water depth is shallow then there should be
Freezing and thawing exert fatigue in the concrete. used coffer dam around the construction site.
For underwater concreting 10% extra cement should
Precaution while concreting in cold weather- be used to fulfill the losses of cement solution in
1. After placing and compacting, the temperature water. There are several methods to carry out
should be kept at 20C until it becomes hardened. underwater concreting such as -
2. Hot, water (600C) and aggregates (150C) should be UPPSC AE 2022, HSSC JE 2018
mixed before adding cement content in the mix. 1. Tremie method.
3. Calcium chloride (Accelerating admixture≯ 1.5%) 2. By grouting (Generally adopted for plugging the
can be used to increase the internal temperature and well foundation).
rate of hardening of concrete. 3. Pumping technique.
4. Formwork should be cleaned and free of snow or ice 4. Hydro valve method.
and also damaged concrete due to frost action should 5. Pneumatic value method.
be eliminated. 6. By skips method.
5. Concrete surface should be covered to maintain 7. Bagged concrete method.
constant temperature and to protect the concrete 8. Toggle bags method.
from frost. Tremie method-
6. Curing and formwork stripping time should be kept UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, GES 2019
for longer period. A tremie pipe is a pipe having diameter of 20-30 cm.
7. Frozen aggregate should not be used for concreting. Capable of easy coupling for increase or decrease of
8. Low pressure wet steam provides the best means of length.
both heating the enclosures and for moist curing to To avoid intermixing water and concrete in the pipe
the concrete. a wooden plug or thick polythene sheet or other
Hot weather concreting - material is used to seal the end of pipe.
MPPGCL JE 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022 At all the stage tremie pipe remains inside the
Concrete placed at an atmospheric temperature greater concrete, so that no water inters into the pipe from
than 400C is termed as hot weather concreting.
the bottom.
Effects of hot weather on concrete -
Reduction in strength and relative humidity. W/C ratio for tremie method ≤ 0.30
Rapid rate of hydration of cement and evaporation M-20 grade of concrete should be used.
of mixing water. Sulphate resisting and high alumina cement should
Less finishing time and greater plastic shrinkage. be prefer.
Evaporation of curing water and water absorption Precast unit of plain concrete should be used in sea
from the formwork. water.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 136 YCT
08.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Introduction- • Compaction of concrete work to be well conducted.
TNPSC AE 2019 • Proper cover in concrete will protect steel from
Durability of concrete is defined as ability to resist corrosion.
weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion or any • Concrete is made with well graded aggregate that
other process of deterioration. are strong.
Durable concrete retain its original form, quality and Permeability -
serviceability when exposed to environment. It is defined as the degree to which the concrete
Factors affecting durability of concrete permits gases, liquids or ionic species to move
(IS:456 - 2000)- through its pore structure.
GPSC AE 2021, DDA JE 2018, SSC JE 2017 It is considered an important factor for durability.
(i) Type and quantity of constituent of material Higher permeability is usually caused by higher
(ii) Cement content and w/c ratio of concrete porosity.
(iii) Workability specially in compaction and curing Proper curing, sufficient cement, proper compaction
and suitable concrete cover provide allowable
(iv) Cover to embedded steel
permeable concrete.
(v) Shape and size of the member
Permeability of cement-
(vi) Curing and compaction BPSC AE 2022, ESE 2019
(vii) Permeability of concrete Gel pores do not contribute to the permeability of
Durability of concrete is influenced by internal, cement paste, but the extent and size of capillary
external and environmental factors. cavities is one of the main factors contributing to the
Internal factors- W/C ratio, type of binder. permeability of paste.
External factors- Curing, early age, temperature Capillary cavities resulting at low W/C ratio, will
get filled up within a few days by the hydration
history of concrete.
process of cement.
Environmental factors- Permeability of concrete-
a. Physical factors- Abrasion, erosion, cavitation, Concrete with a given W/C and degree of maturity
freezing and thawing, salt crystallization. should give a lower coefficient of permeability.
b. Chemical factors- Chloride, Sulphate, alkali- Larger size of aggregate, increase the permeability
aggregate reaction, acidic water etc. considerably.
☞ Volume change of concrete results in cracks and this Increase of permeability is due to the development
cracks are responsible for disintegration of concrete. of micro-cracks in the weak transition zone at early
age.
Impact of W/C ratio on Durability-
High pressure steam curing of concrete using
MP Vyapam 2022
pozzolana has been reported to decrease the
Higher W/C ratio → permeability ↑ → volume permeability due to formation of coarser C-S-H gel,
change → cracks developed → Disintegration → lower drying shrinkage and accelerated conversion
Failure of concrete. of Ca(OH)2 into cementing product.
Higher W/C ratio is the cause of higher permeability Air-entrainment upto 6% can make the concrete
so to reduce disintegration of concrete, W/C ratio more impervious.
should be lowest to produce dense and impermeable Pozzolanic materials are used in optimum proportion
concrete. to reduced the permeability of concrete.
To Make Durable Concrete - Cracks in concrete-
DDA JE 2018 Cracks in concrete developed due to use of unsound
• Cement paste structure is dense and of low materials, bad workmanship, use of high W/C ratio,
permeability. bad jointing techniques, freezing and thawing,
thermal effects, heat of hydration, shrinkage
• Curing of concrete done well. stresses, alkali aggregate reaction and sulphate
• Proper designing of concrete mix. action etc.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 137 YCT
Settlement cracks - 4. Plastic shrinkage-
If there is any obstruction to uniform settlement due PGCIL DT 2020, 21 & 18
to reinforcement or large size of aggregate, then it Plastic shrinkage occurred soon after the concrete is
creates some voids or cracks. Such types of cracks is poured in the formwork while concrete is in plastic
called settlement crack. stage.
This phenomenon generally occurred in a deep beam It also occurred prior to final set and caused by
at the change of sections such as in tapered column bleeding.
or T-beam. 5. Carbonation shrinkage -
To avoids these cracks concrete should be placed in It occurred when the calcium hydroxide in the
a layer form and compacted properly and building hardened concrete reacts with carbon dioxide.
up a large quantity of concrete over the beam.
Note -
Shrinkage -
Drying shrinkage takes place over a long period if
CG Vyapam JE 2022, SSC JE 2017, RPSC AE 2016
concrete is subjected to lower relative humidity.
Shrinkage of concrete is one of the important factors
contributing to lack of durability of concrete. Thermal Diffusivity-
GPSC AAE 2021, TNPSC AE 2019, MPSE 2017
Due to shrinkage minor cracks, micro cracks or
cracks of large magnitude are developed on the It represent the rate at which temperature changes
concrete surface. within the concrete mass.
There is two main factors governing the shrinkage Conductivity (k)
are temperature and w/c ratio. Diffusivity =
C.ρ
Rate of shrinkage decreases with time.
Shrinkage occurred in the absence of load. Where,
Shrinkage of concrete ∝ w/c ratio and cement C = Specific heat
content. ρ = Concrete density
Types of shrinkage- For concrete, diffusivity = 0.002 to 0.006 m2/h
1. Drying shrinkage- CONCRETE JOINTS
MP Vyapam 2022, MPSC AE 2020
Reduction in volume of concrete due to loss of water
from hardened concrete is called drying shrinkage it
is influenced by permeability and w/c ratio of
concrete.
OR
The shrinkage that take place after the concrete has
1. Construction Joints-
set and hardened is called drying shrinkage.
UPPCL JE 2022, SSC JE 2018
Drying shrinkage take place over a long period if
Construction joints are the temporary joints left
concrete is subjected to lower relative humidity. In
between subsequent concreting operation.
practical terms, at a constant W/C ratio, drying
shrinkage is directly proportional to cement. construction joints are provided at surface where
two successive placement of concrete occurs or we
This shrinkage causes an increase in tensile stress
can say it is made for joining new and old concrete.
which may lead to cracking, internal warping and
external deflection before the concrete is subjected These joints placed at the end of day's work or when
to any types of loading. the concrete placement is stopped for a longer time.
2. Thermal shrinkage- Location of construction joints should be
It is also known as thermal contraction. Concrete predetermined.
can be subjected to volume change with decrease in For the column it will be a few cm (10-15 cm)
temperature. below the junction of a beam.
Coefficient of thermal expansion depends upon mix There will be spacing of 18 m apart in the case of
proportion. huge structure.
3. Chemical or Autogenous shrinkage - This joint should not be provided at the corners
It is the decrease volume of cement paste which because it becomes difficult to tie the corners.
occurs due to chemical bonding of water in the Construction joint should be situated that place
process of cement hydration. where-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 138 YCT
(i) It is supported by another members. As per IS : 3414 : 1968 recommend spacing of
(ii) Bending movement shear force is small. expansion joint-
RSMSSB JE 2021
There is two types of construction joints-
(a) Butt type Structural Element Spacing (in m)
(b) Tongue and groove joint Wall 30
Parapets, Chajjas, balconies 6 to 12
Thin unprotected slab 15
Frame 30 m
☞ According to IS:3414-1968, RCC protected ordinary
roof slabs by layers of mud phuska or other
insulating media in unframed construction 20 to 30
m spacing is provided for expansion joint.
(ii) Contraction Joints-
2. Functional joint- SSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, DDA JE 2018, UPSSSC JE 2016
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022 Cracks developed due to stresses caused by moisture
This types of joint is provided to secure the concrete related concrete shrinkage, thermal contraction,
structure against expansion, twist, contraction etc. temperature warping.
These are two types- It is oriented transversely i.e. perpendicular to the
direction of traffic flow or longitudinally i.e. parallel
(i) Expansion Joint-
to the direction of traffic flow.
NBCC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, RIICO Asst. Engg. 2021
ISRO Scientist 2019, CIL MT 2017, KPSC JE 2016
According to IRC 15 : 1981, the maximum spacing
of contraction joints is given in following table.
Due to volumetric change there is occur expansion
DSSSB JE 2022, DSSSB AE 2021
in concrete structure.
Categories of Slab Maximum spacing of
These joints are provided to allow for the expansion
slabs thickness contraction joint (m)
of concrete due to rise in temperature above the
(cm)
temperature during construction. It is the movement
type joint in concrete. Unreinforced 10 4.5
slabs
Open gap between joint varies between 2 - 2.5 cm. 15 4.5
If structure length is more than 45 m, one or more 20 4.5
expansion joints are provided.
Reinforced 10 7.5
Expansion joints are provided where occurs the slabs
change in thickness and also at the junction of wall. 15 13.0
A dowel bars are used at suitable interval to transfer 20 14.0
load from one slab to the adjacent slab. 3. Isolation Joint -
These joints are provided where the concrete floor
meets the permanent structural elements such a wall
column, foundation, blocks, machine foundation etc.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 139 YCT
09.
REPAIR & MAINTENANCE OF CONCRETE
Repair and Maintenance steps of (b) Concrete Replacement method-
Concrete- Concrete replacement method is mostly used for
1. Determine the cause of damage larger size and depth patches. It is also suitable for-
2. Evaluate the extent of damage (i) When cracks/holes completely extended upto full
3. Evaluate the need to repair depth of concrete section.
4. Select repair method and material (ii) In plain concrete these hole should be > 900 cm2 and
5. Prepare the existing concrete for repair depth ≥ 10 cm.
6. Apply repair method (iii) In RCC, hole > 450 cm2 and depth extended more
7. Curing the repair surface properly than the reinforcement cover.
Cause of deterioration of concrete structure- (iv) Old damage concrete whose repair thickness > 15
cm.
1. Defective formwork and casting
(c) Mortar Replacement Method-
2. Appearance of cracks
This method of repair is adopted to fill for shallow
3. Corrosion of reinforcement depth but larger size of patches. It is also adopted to
repair the weathering part of concrete faces and
surface.
Pre-packed concrete method-
CHB JE (Building) 2023, CHB JE (Building) 2023
This method of repair is adopted in a situation where
there is a problem in pouring concrete at the place of
repair by normal method pre-packed method is
adopted in large construction work such as, long
term repairs or dam, tunnel, water structure etc.
In pre-packed method the damaged concrete is
removed by chipping.
Preparation of surface- Guniting
It is an important steps for concrete repair to TNPSC 2021, MPSE 2020
developed proper bond with the new concrete. First Guniting is the process of repairing concrete work
of all a layer of defective concrete (50 - 75 mm which has been damaged due to inferior work or
depth) removed from surface. other reasons. It is also used for providing an
impervious layer.
Corner of patch should be cut as straight and in right
angle (900) form. Cement gun is used for this process under a pressure
A dry cement should be sprayed over the it's wet of 10 - 30 N/cm2.
surfaces before filling new concrete in the patch. It Repair work completed in a short time in any
provides good bond between old and new concrete. condition by this process.
Filling up patches- Guniting is the mixture of cement and sand with
Cement mortar or concrete with fine ballast should proportion of 1 : 3.
be used for patch work generally patch work Guniting is extensively used to retaliate concrete
classified into two groups- bridge, dam, spillways, buildings etc.
1. Patch repair for new concrete- Distance of spraying should be about 0.6 - 1.5 m and
(a) Dry pack method- angle is perpendicular from treatment surface.
This method is suitable for a new concrete work. It
is used to repair the concrete surface which contains
depth of cracks/holes greater than or equal to the
least surface dimension of the repair area.
The holes generally found on concrete surfaces are,
cone, bolt holes, she bolt holes, holes left by the removal
of form ties and narrow slots cut for repair cracks.
Dry pack mortar is not suitable for shallow cracks,
completely extended holes and space behind
reinforcement.
Mortar ready in form of dry pack is filled slots/holes
in thin layers (25 to 40 mm)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 140 YCT
10.
SPECIAL TYPES OF CONCRETE
Various special types of concrete- Properties of light weight concrete-
1. Light weight concrete Tensile strength • 15 - 20% of compressive
2. Heavy weight concrete strength
3. Plum concrete Thermal Insulation • More isolative to normal
4. Fiber reinforced concrete concrete.
5. Pre-stressed concrete Fire Resistance • It has very good fire
6. Polymer concrete Reparability Durability resistance. It can be easily
7. Precast concrete broken, cut, and repaired
8. Controlled concrete less durable.
9. Self healing/Bacterial concrete 2. Heavy weight concrete/High density concrete-
NBCC JE 2022, Haryana PSC AE 2020, SSC JE 2018
10. Fly ash concrete
Its specific gravity is more than 3.5.
11. Silica fume concrete
Aggregate used-
12. Roller compact concrete
Magnetite, Hematite, Baryte.
13. Self compacted concrete
Artificial aggregate-
14. Aerated or cellular concrete
Steel shots, Iron punching
15. No fines concrete
Use- Radiation Shielding
16. Green concrete
Note:- Granite is used to obtained very high strength
17. Ferro-Cement
concrete in very fine grained form.
1. Light Weight Concrete (L.W.C.) -
3. Plum Concrete-
UPRVUNL JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
SJVNL JE 2021, HSSC JE 2018
Plum concrete is made for mass concrete using a
This concrete have less weight and less density large aggregate of a maximum size of 300 mm.
compare to other concrete. Plum concrete is also called cyclopean concrete.
4. Fiber Reinforced concrete (F.R.C.)-
UPRVUNL JE 2022, UPPSC AE 2020-22
EX. Cellular/ porous concrete, foam concrete, Gas
A special types of concrete whose tensile strength is
concrete, Aerated and no- fines concrete.
improved by providing some additional fibers that is
L.W.C. can be prepared by three method.
steel fibers, glass fibers, asbestos fibers,
(i) By using light weight aggregate. polypropylene, nylon etc.
(ii) By entraining gas or air bubbles (Aerated concrete).
Length of Fiber
(iii) By omitting fine aggregate (No-fines concrete). Aspect Ratio =
Diameter
Aggregates used for light weight concrete -
Generally Aspect ratio = 30 - 150
Natural light weight Artificial light weight
Increase in flexural, impact and fatigue strength of
aggregate aggregate
concrete.
Pumice Artificial cinders Use-
Scoria Expanded shale Highways, upper surface of runways, floors of
Volcanic Cinders Sintered fly ash industrial buildings, bridge deck, canal and tunnel
(Pulverized Fuel Ash) lining, gutter cover etc.
Sawdust Foamed slag Its tensile strength is doubled and kinetic and shock
resistance is more.
Rice husk Coke breeze
If size of coarse aggregate exceeds, 10 mm the
Diatomite Bloated clay
strength of concrete decreases.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 141 YCT
5. Pre-stressed concrete- Pre-cast concrete unit generally used for that
SSC JE 2017, ISRO 2015 member which is limited in size and whose handling
These types of concrete made with a high tensile and transporting is not possible easily.
strength steel wires (Tendons) insert into concrete Various mixes are prepared and tested in the
and pulling them through a jack arrangement to laboratory before using.
produce tension. 9. Self Healing/Bacterial or Bio-Concrete-
Use - CG Vyapam JE 2022, PGCIL DT 2020, DSSSB JE 2019
Long spans, Arches, Tanks, Poles, Railway sleepers, Self healing concrete is described as a material that
Beams etc. is capable of repairing itself when cracked. It is
prepared in two way.
It requires high grade concrete.
1. Bacteria and calcium are added into concrete
Types of pre-stressing-
directly during concrete mixing. When it com in
(i) Pre-Tensioning
contact with water then it is able to constantly
Cables are tied by pulling at both ends then precipitate calcite that heals the crack.
concreting is done. 2. By encapsulation in light weigh concrete.
Min. grade- M-40 Bacteria and calcium introduced in concrete that
Min. concrete cover - 20mm helps to repair the cracks by producing calcium
(ii) Post-Tensioning- carbonate crystals that's block the micro cracks and
DFCCIL 2018 pores in the concrete.
High strength steels tendons are positioned in ducts Self healing agent -
before concreting. Once concrete has gained Bacteria concrete as auto crack healing capacity.
strength, tension is then applied, pulling the tendons Bacillus subtitles, B. Pasteurili and B. Spharicus etc.
and anchoring them against the outer edge of the It is also known as flowing concrete.
concrete before service load are applied. Use of bacteria improve the stiffness and
Min. grade- M-30 compressive strength of concrete.
Min. concrete cover - 30mm 10. Fly Ash Concrete -
6. Polymer Concrete- JKSSB JE 2022, DDA JE 2018
KPWD AE 2021, ESE 2020, KPSC JE 2016 Fly ash is used in concrete to increase workability
Polymer concrete is made by adding a polymer or and reduce cement content.
monomer binder at the place of cement. Upto 35% fly ash is used in cement as per IS : 456 -
Polymer or monomer reduce its porosity and 2000.
increase strength. Thermoplastic polymers are used Note-
in polymer concrete. HVFAC - High volume fly Ash concrete.
It is used mostly when concrete is to be • Quantity of Fly ash > 50%.
impermeable. 11. Silica Fume Concrete -
Types of Polymer concrete- It is prepared by mixing concrete components with
(i) Polymer Impregnated concrete (PIC) silica fume. Silica fume is the by-product of silica.
(ii) Polymer cement concrete (PCC) 12. Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) -
(iii) Polymer Concrete (PC) DDA JE 2018
(iv) Partially impregnated and surface coated RCC concrete is a lean, no slump and almost dry
concrete which is compacted by vibratory roller. It is
polymer concrete.
generally used in dam, locks, heavy duty parting
Note-
runways construction.
The impregnation of monomer and subsequent It reduces cement consumption and minimize or
polymerization is the latest technique to reduce the eliminated formwork cost.
inherent porosity of concrete to improve, bond, oil
13. Self Compacted Concrete -
resistance, strength and other properties of concrete. HPSC Lect. 2022, UPPSC AE 2022
7. Precast concrete- DSSSB AE 2021, DSSSB JE 2019
Various components of concrete are cast in factory These Concrete flow under its own weight and fill
before being used in the structure, this types of space of formwork without need of mechanical
concrete is called pre-cast concrete. vibration. It is not required any external vibrations
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 142 YCT
Its other name is flowing concrete. 16. Green (Fresh) concrete-
Use - The concrete which is eco-friendly to the
Where concrete compaction is not easy by environment. It is made by adding waste materials
mechanical vibration machine. as a partial or complete replacement for cement or
A concrete can be classified as self compacting coarse or fine aggregate.
concrete if it has- Waste material- slag, saw dust, waste glass
(i) Filling ability recycled concrete, burnt clay etc.
(ii) Passing ability • Blast furnace slag, iron oxide, and fly ash are
(iii) Segregation resistance common ingredient of green concrete.
SCC is placed by the method of pumping. Chromium oxide is used to make green concrete.
It have better workability, pumpability and flow Uses-
ability.
Road construction, building construction, bridges,
14. Aerated or Cellular Concrete- dames, retaining walls, columns etc.
DDA JE 2023, ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, NBCC JE 2022
UPPSC AE 2022, GPSC AE 2018 & 2020, SSC JE 2019 Advantage of green concrete-
It is also known as foamed concrete. It is made by Low cost as compared to the conventional concrete.
using air or gas into slurry. Its heat of hydration is lower than traditional
Aerated concrete can be manufactured by following concrete.
ways- Reduction in shrinkage and creep.
(i) By the formation of gas. It is in easier handling, finishing and better
(ii) By mixing performed stable foam with the slurry. consistency.
(iii) Using finely powdered metal (Aluminum powder, It is thermal and acid resistance.
powdered zinc) with slurry (0.2% by the weight of 17. Ferro-Cement-
cement). ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, UPPSC AE 2020, KPSC JE 2017
It is known by various trade name such as, siporex It is a composite material prepared by using closely
Celecrete, Vayuthan. spaced one or multiple layers of wire mesh (18-19
Use- gauge) and small diameter bar, which is entirely
Divider wall, insulating lining, and pre-cast building covered by cement mortar with the ratio of 1:3
section, extreme cold climate. Thickness of ferro- cement may be 100mm
15. No Fines Concrete- It is developed by an Italian architect P.L. Nervi in
SSC JE 2020
1940.
It is a form of lightweight porous concrete that does
Methods of Ferro-Cementing–
not use fine aggregate (sand), only coarse aggregate,
There are following three method.
cement (OPC) and water are mixed to make it.
No fines concrete pavements has increased skid (i). Armature System
resistance and high permeability. (ii). Closed Mould System
Aggregate particles < 12 mm are not used but single (iii). Integrated Mould System
size aggregate passing 20 mm sieve and not more Quantity of Steel required in Ferro cementing – 300
than 10% weight passing through 10 mm sieve used. - 500 kg/m3
W/C ratio - 0.38 - 0.52 Properties of Ferro-cementing–It has following
Density- 1600-1900 kg/m3 Properties–
Compressive strength - 1.4 - 14 N/mm2 (i) Good crack fatigue and impact resistance
Advantage and use of no-fines concrete- (ii) High flexural strength
1. Low cost due to low cement content. (iii) More impermeable
2. Lower density, thermal conductivity and drying (iv) Lower cost of construction
shrinkage.
(v) No requirement of formwork
3. No segregation and capillary movement of water.
(vi) If has less shrinkage and light weight.
4. Better insulating property.
Note:- Soluble glass is used for preparing acid
5. Suitable for use in low - volume traffic areas.
resistance cement.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 143 YCT
11.
MISCELLANEOUS
General Conditions Pulse velocity (km/h)
Excellent > 5.0
Good 4.0 - 5.0
Questionable 3.0 - 4.0
Poor 2.0 - 3.0
Very poor <2
Radioactive method -
Thickness of the concrete is measured by this
method.
Non-destructive Test - Penetration/Windsor probe test-
ESE 2021, OPSC AEE 2021, Nagaland PSC 2018
It is used to measure the surface hardness and hence
NDT of concrete is the test performed to obtain
the strength of the surface and near surface layer.
various properties of hardened concrete of existing
Note-
structure without damaging or dismantling.
Core test-
This method of test also helps us to investigate crack
It is adopted to check the compressive strength of
depth, micro-cracks, extent of corrosion etc. concrete In situ condition. Density, water absorption
This test provide simple, immediate results and also can be measured by this test. This test may
actual strength & properties of concrete structure. become partially destructive for beams or columns.
Rebound Hammer method- Maturity of concrete-
CHB SDE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
DDA JE 2023, DSSSB AE 2021
Punjab SDO 2021, UPPCL AE 2021
It is a method to determine the strength of concrete
It is measure the surface hardness of concrete. An
to find maturity of concrete.
empirical correlation has been established between
strength and rebound number. Strength of concrete is also depend on the
temperature during hydration.
It is non destructive test and also known as Schmidt
hammer test. Concrete maturity = Σ (Time × Temperature)
Objective- To determine uniformity and Hydration can take place at minimum of –11ºC,
below this water crystals do not react with cement.
compressive strength.
• Datum temperature = –11ºC
• Day temperature = T ºC
• Curing temperature = T– ( – 11 ) = (T + 11)ºC
Maturity of concrete after 28 days in hrs
= 28 × 24 × (T + 11)ºC
Note:- curing age and age of concrete are used to
compute maturity of concrete.
Frost resistance-
The property that a water saturated material can
Ultrasonic pulse velocity method- withstand several freezing and thawing cycles
Odisha PSC 2021, OPSC Poly. Lec. 2018 without decreases of mechanical strength or visible
It is used to study the effects of freeze - thaw action, signs of failure is known as the frost resistance.
sulphate attack, strength of concrete, crack depth, It depends on density of material and its degree of
determination of setting characteristics, dynamic saturation.
modulus of elasticity etc.
Poisson's ratio for concrete-
It is also used to get an idea about the quality of MP Vyapam JE 2022, GPSC AE 2020, ESE 2019
fresh concrete. It is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain in
It is a function of E . a material subjected to loading.
ρ
Its values is varies-
It measure time of travel of the ultrasonic pulse,
Types of concrete Poisson's ratio
which is indicate the quality of concrete.
High strength concrete 0.1
Relation between quality of concrete and pulse
velocity- Weak mix concrete 0.2
Manipur PSC AE 2013 Average value for concrete 0.15
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 144 YCT
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 145 YCT
01. .
EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
Introduction - (iii) Surface contraction
Earthquake is the disturbance that happens at some (iv) Elastic Rebound theory
depth below the ground level which causes shaking Types of earthquake-
of the earth surface that causes seismic wave. 1. Collapse earthquake-
Earthquake is movement of tectonic plates of earth Collapse earthquakes occurs in underground mines.
crust or volcanic action. These vibrations happens in Main cause of this earthquakes is the pressure
all the directions and totally uncertain the location, generated within the rocks. These earthquakes are
time, duration, magnitude and frequency of created by controlled explosion.
earthquake are totally unknown.
2. Volcanic earthquake-
EARTH LAYER CLASSIFICATION- These earthquakes happen before of after the
eruption of volcano. It is caused when magma
leaving the volcano is filled by rocks being pushed
to the surface.
3. Tectonic Earthquakes-
UPPCL JE 2019
The most common form of earthquake, is caused by
the movement of loose fragmented places of land on
the earth's crust known as tectonic plates.
4. Induced Earthquakes-
Induced quakes are caused by human activity, like
the construction of tunnels, the filling, of reservoirs.
5. Explosion earthquakes-
(i) Crust- These earthquakes result from explosion of chemical
The crust is the outermost fragile solid part of the and nuclear explosions.
earth. Seismic terminology-
Major constituent- Silica and Aluminum - SiAl 1. Seismology-
• Conrad discontinuity boundary separate the upper Seismology is the scientific discipline that is
and lower part of the crust. concerned with the study of earthquakes and of the
(ii) Mantle - propagation of seismic waves within the earth.
The portion just below the crust is called the mantle.
2. Tectonic Plates-
It is in a solid state. GPSC AE 2018
Major constituent- Silicon and magnesium - SiMa Tectonic plates are gigantic pieces of the earth crust
Lithosphere- Crust and the uppermost part of the and upper most mantle. They are made up of oceanic
mantle are called lithosphere. crust and continental crust. Earthquakes occur
Asthenosphere- It is upper portion of the mantle around mid-ocean ridges and the large faults which
• Mohorovicic discontinuity separates the crust from mark the edges of the plates.
mantle.
3. Sub-duction Zone -
(iii) Core/ Biosphere-
A subduction zone is an area where an oceanic or
It is the innermost layer made of heavy materials.
tectonic plates is being forced down or one plate
This layer produces earth's magnetic field.
sink into the mantle by plate tectonic force.
Major constituent- Nickel and iron- NiFe
Tsunami occurs due to earthquake generate
• Gutenberg discontinuity is the mantle and core
subduction one.
boundary
• Lehman discontinuity is the boundary between
the outer and inner core.
DMRC AM 2020
Parts of core-
i. Inner core- It is in solid state.
ii. Outer core- It is in liquid state
Main causes of earthquake-
(i) Tectonic plate movements
(ii) Volcanic Eruptions
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 146 YCT
Hypocentre or Focus or Rupture Point- Earthquake wave or Seismic wave-
The point within the earth where an earthquake Seismic waves are formed due to earthquake,
rupture starts. explosion, or a volcano that imparts low-frequency
5. Epicenter- acoustic energy waves that travel through the earth's
The nearest point directly above the focus on the layers.
surface of earth is called epicenter. Types of seismic waves-
• There is first feel of ground shaking. This shaking is
cause of most earthquake damage because it is so
close to the focus.
dt 1
• D= − VP, VS = velocity of P and S waves.
1/ Vs Vp
Body Waves-
(i) P-waves or longitudinal waves-
UPPCL JE 2020, UPSSSC JE 2016
6. Focal depth- P-waves, also known as primary waves or pressure
Distance between focus and epicenter is called focal waves, travel at the greatest velocity through the
depth. Less focal depth is the cause of more earth.
damaging the earthquake. Its range is 50 to 700 km.
7. Focal /Hypocentral distance- The straight distance
between focus and place of intersect or observer is
called focal distance.
8. Epicentral distance-
Distance between point of intersect and epicenter is
called epicentral distance.
9. Seismograph-
An instrument is used to analyze the earthquake
waves is called seismograph. P waves are the fastest seismic waves and can move
10. Isoseismals lines- through solid, liquid or gas medium.
An isosesimal line is a contour or line on a map It is the first wave that arrived at the surface.
bounding the points of equal intensity for a These waves travel parallel/linear to the direction of
particular earthquake. propagation
11. Isoseismal map- (ii) S-waves or shear waves-
An isoseismal map is used to show line of equally UPPCL JE 2020, MP Vyapam SE 2016
felt seismic intensity measured on the modified S-waves or secondary waves are the second waves
Mercalli scale. This map helps to identify arrive during the earthquake.
earthquake epicenters. S-waves travel only in solids medium.
Plate tectonic theory- S- wave is also known as shear waves.
Plate tectonics is the theory that earth's outer shell is Vibration direction of S-wave is perpendicular/
divided in to large slabs of solid rock, called 'Plate', transverse to the direction of wave propagation.
that glide over earth's mantle.
Geologist Alfred Wagner rendered the plate tectonic
theory in 1915.
Surface Waves-
Surface waves travels through the surface of the
earth. They travel slower than body wave.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 147 YCT
(i) Love waves- (L- waves)→ Tsunami or harbor wave-
UKPSC AE 2013 Tsunami is a series of large waves of extremely long
L- waves are horizontally polarized shear waves (SH period caused by a violent, impulse under Sea
waves), existing only in the presence of semi– disturbance or activity near the coast or in the ocean.
infinite medium overlain by an upper layer of finite • The waves become extremely dangerous and
thickness. damaging when they reach the shore.
• They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh Tsunami Velocity-
waves and have the largest amplitude. UPSSSC JE 2015
It is most disastrous wave. λ
V = gh for deep water, h >
It reaches the epicenter at last. 2
(ii) Rayleigh waves-
Rayleigh wave are formed when the particle motion is gλ λ
V= for shallow water, h <
a combination of both longitudinal and transverse 2π 20
vibration giving rise to an elliptical retrograde motion Where,
in the vertical plane along the direction of travel. g - Gravitational acceleration
Type of waves P-waves S-wave L-wave h - depth of water
Average velocity 8 kmps 4 kmps 1.5 - 3 kmps λ- wave length
Note- Tsunami velocity vary from 35km/hr to 950 km/hr
Velocity order of waves- P > S > L > R Land Slide-
Shadow zone- Landslide can cause seismic disturbances.
A seismic shadow zone is an area of the earth's Earthquake and land slides are frightening and
destructive natural disasters.
surface where P-wave or earthquake wave can not
travel due to internal structure of earth during the Land slides occur when gravitational and other types
of shear stresses within a slope exceed the shear
earthquake.
strength of the materials that from the slope.
Liquefaction-
HPCL 2021
It is a state primarily in saturated cohesionless soil in
which the effective shear strength is reduced to
negligible value for all engineering purpose, when
the pore pressure approaches the total confining
pressure during earthquake shaking.
in the condition soil behave like a fluid mass
Faults-
A fracture along which the blocks of crust on either
Load path- side have moved relative to one another parallel to
The direction in which each consecutive load will the fracture plane.
pass through connected members. Earthquake load Dip-Slip fault-
is a dynamic load. • Dip-Slip fault are inclined fracture where the block
have mostly shifted vertically. OR
Dip slip is the inclined split with vertical movement
(upward or downward)
Types of earthquake fault -
There is three types of earthquake faults occur.
1. Strike slip fault-
Bothe blocks slide horizontally across one another.
OR
The fault which moves horizontally is known as
strike slip fault.
2. Normal faults-
A dip-slip fault in which the upper block moves
downward relative to the lower block.
3. Reverse/ Thrust fault -
Reverse faults are caused by compression forces as
tectonic plates collide together forcing one plate to
rise above one another.
the upper block moves upward relative to the lower
blocks.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 148 YCT
2. Based on focal depth-
Types of earthquake Focal depth, km
i. Shallow < 70
ii. Intermediate 70 - 300
iii. Deep > 300
3. Based on plates-
(i) Tectonic earthquakes
(ii) Non-tectonic earthquake
4. Based on magnitude of earthquake-
GES 2019, MPSE 2017, ISRO 2016
The Richter magnitude of an earthquake is
determined from the logarithm of the amplitude of
Classification of earthquake- waves recorded by seismograph.
1. Based on location-
Richter scale is used to measure earthquake
(i) Inter plate earthquake-
magnitude-
An earthquake that decreases at boundary of tectonic
plates called inter plate earthquake. It is classified Magnitude Category Effects
Level
into following types-
Less than Micro Generally not felt by people
Types of Property
2.9
boundary
1. Convergent Plates comes to each other 3.0 - 3.9 Minor Felt by many people, no damage
boundaries and passage over each other. 4.0 - 4.9 Light Often felt, but only causes minor
• Reverse fault occurs here. damage
2. Divergent Plates away from each other 5.0 - 5.9 Moderate slight damage to building
boundaries • Normal fault occurs here. 6.0 - 6.9 Strong Major damage in populated areas
3. Transform Plates acrosses from the side 7.0 - 7.9 Major Serious damage over large areas,
boundaries to each other loss of life
• Strike slip fault occurs here. 8.0 - 9.0 Great Totally destroy communities
near its epicentre
> 9.0 Disastrous Large areas
5. Based on Intensity -
Intensity is the measurement of the actual strength of
an earthquake. The strength of the earthquake is
measured in terms of the actual damage caused by
the shaking intensity varies from the perception of
people, animals, and other aspects.
Intensity measurement of earthquake -
(i) Rossi - Forrel scale
(ii) Mercalli scale (it is expressed in the range of 1-12)
(iii) Modified mercalli intensity scale (MMI Scale)
6. Based on Epicentral degree-
i. Local earthquake <1
(ii) Intraplate earthquake- ii. Regional earthquake 1 - 10
An earthquake that occurs at central portion of iii.Distant/teleseismic > 10
tectonic plate is called intraplate earthquake. It is earthquake
classified following types- Ground motion measurement -
(a) Dip slip fault
Two types of instrument is used for ground motion
(b) Strike slip fault
measurement.
1. Seismograph - Cheng Hang was invented world's
first seismograph.
Seismograph operate on the principal of inertia.
It is used for low ground motion while accelerogram
for rapid ground motion.
Seismograph is used to record the intensity of
earthquake.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 149 YCT
Zone factor-
MPPSC AE 2021
Zone factors are given on the basis of expected
intensity of the earthquake and different zones.
It is given based on the maximum considered
earthquake (MCE) and service life of the structure in
a zone. As per IS 1893 part (I)-2002 clause 6.4.2.
The design horizontal seismic co-efficient (Ah) for a
structure shall be determined by the following
expression:
ZI Sa
Ah = .
2R g
Where, Z = Zone factor
I = Importance factor
R = Response reduction factor
Sa
= Average response acceleration
g
2. Accelerogram- Co-efficient
An accelerograph is a record of an earthquake Elastic Rebound Theory-
generated by accelerogram. According to elastic rebound theory due to the crust
Accelerographs record the acceleration of the deforms the rock that is span in opposite sides of a
ground with respect to time. fault are subjected to shear stress slowly the
In all important engineering structures and dams deformed until their internal rigidity is exceeded.
accelerogram is fitted. Then they separate with rupture along the fault. The
M.S.K. Intensity Scale- sudden movement releases accumulated energy and
Russian scientist Medevedev, Spoonheuer and therefore the rocks snap back almost to their original
shape.
Karnik Developed a scale called M.S.K. Scale.
Elastic rebound theory given by Harry Reid.
M.S.K. scale classified the three types of structure
This theory explains how energy is released during
and five types (Grade 1 to 5) of damage classification. an earthquake.
Types of Definitions Harry states that, the quake must have been the
structure result of the elastic rebound of the strain energy
A Building in field stone, rural structure stored in the rocks on either side of the fault.
unburnt - brick houses
B ordinary brick building, half– timbered
structure
C Reinforced building, well-built wooden
structure
Seismic Zoning of India -
According to IS 1893 - 1962 India has been
grouped into five seismic zones. Continental Drift-
The Geological survey of India (GSI) first published The movement of continents resulting from the
the seismic zoning map of the country in the year motion of tectonic plates is called as continental
1935. drift.
According to IS 1893 (Part-1) - 2016, India has Energy released during earthquake-
been grouped into four seismic zones. Released energy during earthquake is measured by
UPPCL JE 2020, UPSSSC JE 2019, GPSC AE 2018 Richter scale.
Seismic Zone Intensity Zone MM Zone At Richter scale 32 times more energy released,
Scale factor when earthquake magnitude increasing by one
Zone-II Low <6 0.10 degree.
Zone-III Moderate 7 0.16 At Richter scale every next unit have 10 times more
intensity than previous unit.
Zone-IV Sever/high 8 0.24
During earthquake, magnitude of earthquake is
Zone-V Very Sever/high >9 0.36 related to ground acceleration.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 150 YCT
Released energy during earthquake- said to be under free or natural vibration. It is three
types
a
E = c × × ( D2 + h 2 ) (i) Longitudinal
h
(ii) Transverse
Where, (iii) Torsional
E = Released energy,
3. Forced Vibration-
c = Constant
Body vibrates under the influence of external force.
a = Ground acceleration
Ex. Building vibration during earthquake
h = Focus depth of earthquake
D = Distance of epicenter from consideration Equilibrium method-
site. When vibratory system is in equilibrium the
Magnitude of earthquake- algebraic sum of forces and moments acting on it is
zero.
log10 E = 11.8 + 1.5 M
ωn = k / m
Where, M = Magnitude of Earthquake
Important Points 1
According to the Indian standards considerations, Linear frequency (f n ) = k/m
2π
the most severe earthquake effects is MCE. MCE
stands for the maximum considered earthquake. 1
Time period T =
Depth basis earthquake (DBE) is defined as an fn
earthquake that can be reasonably expected to occur Relation between risk, hazard and vulnerability-
at least one time during the life of structure.
The width of reinforce concrete band is taken the Risk
Hazard =
same as the thickness of wall. The minimum Vulnerability
thickness of the wall should be 200 mm.
Retrofitting-
Vibration- The process of modification of existing structures
When a elastic body is displaced from its like buildings, bridges heritage structures to make
equilibrium position by an external force and then
them more resistant against seismic activity is called
released, the body starts vibrating.
retrofitting.
Types of Vibrations -
A seismic retrofit involves repair and strengthening
1. Damped Vibration-
GPSC AE 2018
to our home's foundation to make it more resistant to
The vibration in which the amplitude of vibrations shaking.
of a vibrating body gradually diminishes, are known Retrofitting is done only in old type buildings to
as damped vibrations. increase safety.
(C / 2m) 2 Note-
Degree of dampness = DSSSB AE 2021, JKSSB JE 2015
ω2n IS:3935-2009 Indian standard guidelines for
Damping factor repair and seismic strengthening
Actual damping coefficient, C C of the buildings.
ε= =
Critical damping coefficient, Cc 2 km IS:1893-2002 Earthquake resistant design of
structures.
Cc = 2.m.ωn or 2 k.m provision for earthquake resistant
IS:4326-1993
Damping Co-efficient construction
C = 2ε k × m IS:13920-1993 Detailing of reinforced concrete
Where, k = spring constant structure subjected to seismic
m = Mass damped harmonic oscillation forces.
GPSC AE 2021, BHEL ET Civil 2019, MPSE 2017 Method of Seismic Strengthening of
ε=1 Critical damped Buildings–
ε>1 Over damped 1. By Inserting earthquake band in masonry wall
ε<1 Under damped Ex. Plinth band, Sill band, Lintel band, Roof band
ε=0 Un-damped etc.
2. Free or Natural vibration- 2. By providing vertical reinforcement at the sides
GPSC AE 2021 (Jambs) of doors and windows.
When no external force acts on the body, after 2. By providing vertical reinforcement at the wall
giving it an initial displacement, then the body is corners and Junction.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 151 YCT
Surveying I ................................................................................................................... 152-181
1. Introduction of Surveying .......................................................................................................153
2. Chain Surveying .....................................................................................................................157
3. Compass Surveying ................................................................................................................165
4. Levelling .................................................................................................................................171
5. Calculation of Area .................................................................................................................178
6. Minor Instrument ....................................................................................................................180
7. Conventional sign ...................................................................................................................181
Surveying II ................................................................................................................. 182-197
1. Plane Table Surveying ............................................................................................................182
2. Contouring ..............................................................................................................................186
3. Theodolite ...............................................................................................................................190
4. Tacheometric Surveying .........................................................................................................193
5. Curve ......................................................................................................................................196
Advance Survey........................................................................................................... 198-207
1. Modern Field Survey System .................................................................................................198
2. Photogrammetric or Areal survey ...........................................................................................201
3. Field Astronomy .....................................................................................................................205
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 152 YCT
01.
INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
Introduction- Note: Equatorial axis is greater than polar axis by
Surveying is the art of determining the relative or 42.95 km and in case of relative to the diameter of
dimensional positions of objects on, above or below the earth this is greater than 0.34%.
the earth surface by measuring horizontal and
vertical distances and angles.
TNPSC AE 2019
"The main objective of surveying is the preparation
of a plan or map."
Headquarter of Survey of India - Dehradoon (1767)
Principal of surveying-
UPMRC AM 2023, RSMSSB JE 2023
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
UPRVUNL AE 2022, NWDA JE 2021
1. To work from whole to part.
2. To locate a new station by at least two
measurements. (Linear or angular) from the fixed
reference point.
SSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2021 Primary division of surveying-
Plan- 1. Survey Based on the Earth's Shape- It is classified
The geographical representation of the features on into two types. It is also known as accuracy based
the earth surface at large scales is called plan. survey.
Plan provides limited data about a certain small (i) Plane surveying
region. (ii) Geodetic surveying- Geodetic survey of India
It is drawn to a large the scale. done by using triangulation.
Map- Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
A visual or geographical representation of an whole • Mean surface of the earth • Actual surface of the
area, typically represented on flat surface is called is considered as plane. earth is taken into
map.
• Used for small area < account.
Scale of map is smaller than scale of plan.
195.5 km2. (In some • Used for large area >
MPPGCL JE 2023
exam, it is 260 km2 as per 195.5 km2
1cm = Lesser value ⇒ Scale = 1
Lesser Value
option.) • It is an arc.
• Line joining two points is • It is more accurate.
⇒ Scale↑ ⇒ R.F.↑ Map will large ⇒ Plan a straight line. • It is used to
1 • It is less accurate. establishing control
1cm = Lesser value ⇒ Scale =
Lesser Value • Used in engineering points for plane
⇒ Scale ↓ ⇒ R.F.↓ Map will small ⇒ Map projects on large scale survey.
like, bridge, dam. • All plumb lines are
Details of earth-
• All plumb lines are radial.
Shape of earth- ellipsoid or oblate spheroid.
parallel. • Property of spherical
Length of polar axis = 12713.80 km
• Property of plane triangle. triangle.
Length of equatorial axis = 12756.75 km
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 153 YCT
The difference in length of an arc and its subtended (iv) Marine or Hydrographic Survey-
chord on the earth's surface. JSSC JE 2022, GWSSB AAE 2015
1. For 12 km, difference = 10 mm It is deals with the large water bodies like pond,
2. For 18.2 km, difference = 15.2 mm river, sea etc.
It is also called bathymetric surveying.
1
Note:- Formula Distance in km = cm (v) Astronomical Survey-
12
RPSC AE 2018, MH PSC Mains 2012
The difference between the sum of the angle in plane Relative positions of celestial bodies such as sun,
triangle and the sum of those in spherical triangle is stars etc. are determined in astronomical surveys.
only 1 second having an area of 195.5 sq. Km.
4. Method of Surveying-
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021
(i) Triangulation Survey-
2. Survey Based on Objective-
TNPSC AE 2012
It is classified into following types
Triangulation is survey the process of determining
(i) Engineering survey- the location of a point by measuring only angles
MP Vyatam Sub Engg 2022
from known points.
It is deal with planning, design, construction,
(ii) Traverse Survey-
maintenance of engineering projects.
Traverse is survey to locate the unknown points
Ex.– Highway, Railway, Bridge etc.
relative to each other and to locate all points within
(ii) Mine Survey-
the traverse relative to a common grid.
MP Vyatam Sub Engg 2022
Principle of different types of surveying work-
It is related to the exploring of mineral wealth.
(iii) Geological Survey- Surveying Types Principal
DDA JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022, ESE 2022 2. Chain Survey Triangulation
It is related with the study of composition, origin, 3. Compass Survey Traversing
age and bedding formation of rocks. 4. Plane table Survey Parallelism
(iv) Hydrological Survey-
5. Optical square Double reflection
Maharastra PSC 2021
In this type of the survey availability, property and Scales-
expansion of the surface or ground water is A scale is the ratio of distance marked on the plan to
determined. the corresponding distance marked on the ground.
3. Land Based Survey- Large scale : 1 cm ≤ 10 m
(i) Topographical Survey- The surveying performed Medium scale : 1 cm = 10 m - 100 m
to determine the natural features like hills, lakes, Small scale : 1 cm ≥ 100 m
springs etc.
Representation of scale-
ESE Pre. 2023, GPSC AE 2022
GPSC GES Pre 2021, OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018 1. Engineer's Scale- 1 cm = x m.
(ii) Cadastral Survey- Representative Fraction-
PPSC Building Inspector 2022, MESCOM AE 2017 RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021
The survey performed to determine the additional The ratio of map distance to the corresponding
details of fields boundaries and areas of and other ground distance independent of units of
property is called cadastral survey. It is also known measurement is called Representative Fraction (RF).
as property survey or boundary survey. In this type
Map distance
of survey measurement is done by Revenue chain. R.F. =
Ground distance
(iii) City Survey-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg 08.11.2022 Shift-I 2. Graphical Scale-
Survey performed for the town planning like water Graphic scale is the most useful scale if the map will
supply, sewer lines, road, electricity etc. is called be reproduced and changed in size. Graphical scale
city survey. does not affects due to shrinkage of map.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 154 YCT
nv = (n +1)s
s
Least Count = v − s = v>s
n
Karnataka PSC AE (WRD) 2021
iii). Extended Vernier–
Extended vernier is similar to the direct vernier scale
Plane Scale- except that every second division is omitted.
NLC (GET) 2020, Nagaland PSC 2017
here, n division of the vernier scale are equal to the
There is possible to measure two dimensions, only
(2n – 1) division on the main scale .
such as unit and tenth.
Diagonal scale- nv = (2n − 1)s
UPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, PSTCL AE 2021
(n − 1).s
The scale in which three successive dimensions can Least Count = s − v = v>s
n
be measured at a time is known as diagonal scale.
"Diagonal scale is based on principle of similarity of Double Vernier-
triangle". It consist of two simple vernier placed end to end
Vernier scale- forming one scale with zero at the centre.
Vernier scales are used on certain precision It is the combination of both direct and retrograde
instruments to increase accuracy in measurement. verniers. Graduations on the main scale are
If the graduations of the main scale are numbered in numbered in both directions in its.
single direction then it is called single vernier and Double folded vernier–
extending one direction. Its length is half of the corresponding double
If graduation of the main scale are numbered both vernier.
directions then it is called double vernier. Micro scale–
A vernier can primarily be divided into the It is a device which enables a measurement to be
following- taken to a still finer degree of accuracy.
(i) Direct vernier- Shrunk Scale–
Calibration in same direction as of main scale. SSC JE 2022
Greater accuracy in linear measurements, is obtained Shrunk Scale = Original scale × Shrinkage factor
by direct vernier.
Shrunk Scale Shrunk length
For direct vernier, Shrinkage Factor = or
Original Scale Original length
n ⋅ v = ( n − 1) s
Comparative scale–
s RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021
Least Count = s − v = v<s
n A scale which has a common representative fraction
Where, but read the different measures, is called a
s = Value of one smallest division on main scale. comparative scale.
v = Value of smallest division on vernier scale. Error due to use of wrong scale–
n = Number of divisions on the vernier scale. If the length of a line existing on a plan or a map is
(ii) Retrograde Vernier- determined by means measurement with a wrong
HPPSC (HPPTCL)AE 2021, MPSC (ASCE) Feb 2021 scale then,
If the smallest division of a vernier is longer than the R.F. of wrong scale
smallest division of its primary/main scale, the Correct length = × Measured length
R.F. of correct scale
vernier is called as retrograde vernier.
2
Here, n division of the vernier scale are equal to the R.F. of wrong scale
Correct area = × Measured area
(n + 1) division on the main scale . R.F. of correct scale
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 155 YCT
Sequence of temporary adjustment for Distance sextant, abney level
various survey instrument- Horizontal Theodolite, compass,
Instrument Sequence Angle clinometer, total station
Compass Centering→ Leveling→ Focusing Vertical Angle Theodolite, sextant, total station
of prism Methods of linear measurement-
Leveling Centering→ Leveling→ Focusing 1. Indirect method-
Plane table Fixing → Leveling → Centering In this method distance are determined by
→ Orientation calculation.
2. Direct methods-
Theodolite Initial setting up on tripod→
In these case distances are directly measured by
Centering→Leveling→Focusing
means of following ways.
of eyepiece
Direct methods of linear measurement are classified
Least Count of Surveying Instrument- into following types.
Instrument Least Count (i) Pacing–
Vernier Theodolite 20" Nagaland PSC 2017
Electronic Theodolite 1" Pacing is a reasonably easy and quick method of
Prismatic compass 30' measuring approximate distance in the field.
Surveyor compass 15' Length of one pace- 75 to 80 cm.
Levelling staff 5 mm or 0.005 m (ii) Passometer–
Dumpy level 5 mm Possometer is used to count the number of paces.
Theodolite- (iii) Pedometer–
Main Scale 20' It is a device similar to the passometer and directly
provide an estimate of distance walked in meter.
Vernier Scale 20"
(iv) Odometer and speedometer-
Total Station-
DMRC AM 2017
Angle 1"
Odometer records the number of revolution travelled
Distance 5 mm
by the wheel. Speedometer directly measure the
Meteric chain 20 cm distance travelled by the wheel then total distance
Linear and angular measurement- = number of revolution by wheel × circumference of
Instrument Application wheel.
Chain and compass Linear and angular measurements In odometer a device attached to the wheel of
vehicle.
Chain and level Linear measurements
Plane table Plot plans of field observation for Chaining-
small scale in plane surface Chaining is the most accurate method of making
direct measurements with the help of chain or tape.
Tacheometry To measure horizontal and vertical
angle in hilly regions Categories of linear measurement
Units of measurements– Order of Measurement Use
st
There are four types of measurements used in plane I order To measure length of
surveying- base line in triangulation
survey
Horizontal By chain, tape, tacheometer,
Distance total station IInd order Used in traverse line
rd
Vertical Level, total station, tacheometer, III order In chain surveying
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 156 YCT
02.
CHAIN SURVEYING
Introduction– C/C length of links = 20 cm
Method of surveying in which only linear
measurements are taken in fieldwork is known as
chain surveying. This types of surveying is done for
surveying of small to describe the boundaries of
plots of land and to locate the existing feature on Chain are classified into following types-
UPRVUNL JE 2022
them.
Suitability of chain surveying- Types of Chain Length No. of Links
RRB SSE Bilaspur 2014 Engineers Chain 100 ft 100
1. Area is small and ground surface is fairly level and Gunter's chain/Surveyor 66 ft 100
open with simple detail. chain
2. Large scale plans or small scale map is required to Revenue chain 33 ft 16
prepare. (use in cadastral survey)
3. Formation or well conditioned triangle is easy. 30m, 20m 150, 100
Principles of chain surveying-
• Length of each links - 20
SSC JE 2022
Metric Chain cm
Principles of chain surveying is "Triangulation"
• Tallies provided - every 5 m
As a triangle is a only simple plane geometrical
figure which can be plotted from the length of the • Brass ring provided - every
three sides even if the angles are not known. There is meter except tallies place
no angular measurements are taken. 1. Engineer's chain–
Accuracy of chain survey is greater than plane table MH WRD JE 2022, UPPCL AE 2014
survey. Engineers chain is related to foot, pound, second
system. At every 10 links brass tags are fastened.
Instrument used in chaining-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 Total length- 100ft
There are different types of instrument used in Number of links - 100
chaining is– Per link length - 1 ft
1. Chain, 2. Tape, 3. Ranging rod, 4. Arrows, 2. Gunters' chain (FPS system)–
5. Pegs, 6. Offset rod, 7. Plumb bob, 8. Mallet, 9. MH WRD 2022, DSSSB AE 2021
Flags, 10. Cross staff, 11. Optical square. TNPSC (CESS) 2021, APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020
RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021 A Gunter's chain, also known as a surveyor's chain.
It consist number of straight links made by Total Length- 66ft
galvanized iron bend into loop connected in series. Number of links - 100
According to IS : 1492 -1956 the joint between two Per link length - 0.66 ft or 7.92 inches or 20.12cm.
links are formed by two oval and one circular rings. 10 square Gunter's chains = 1 Acre
Both side of chain is attached by bronze handle. 10 Gunter chains = 1 furlong
80 Gunter chains = 1 mile = 1.609 km
3. Revenue chain (FPS system)–
UPPCL AE 2022
This chain is mainly used in cadastral survey.
Total length- 33 ft
Important point- Number of link - 16
Shivel joint are used between handle and chain. Per link length - 2 1 foot = 24.75 inch = 61.38 cm
Out to out length of the handle is designated length 16
of the chain. 40 square Revenue chain = 1 Acre
RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021 25 square Revenue chain = 1 Beegha
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 157 YCT
4. Metric chain (IS : 1492-1970)– 2. Metallic Tape–
CHB JE 28.01.2023 GPSC AAE (GMC) Cl-3, 2021, GPSC AE (NWR) 2020
It is the most commonly used chain in India. Metric It is made of waterproof cloth in which brass or
chains are generally available in lengths of 5, 10, 20 copper wires are used as reinforcement. It is more
and 30 m. Number of links per meter length - 5. durable than normal linen tape.
Total length- 30m, 20m Width - 10 - 15 mm.
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 26.09.2021 Lengths of 2m, 10m, 15m, 20m, 30m and 50m.
Number of link - 150, 100 These tapes are used normal accuracy work.
Per link length - 20 cm. A varnish coating has done over the tape.
Brass ring is provided at every meter except tallies 3. Steel tape (IS : 1270)-
place.
Steel tape is made of steel or stainless steel.
Maximum tolerance for metric chain –
Strip width - 6 to 10 mm
Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021
Lengths - 1m, 2m, 10m, 20m, 30m and 50m.
Length of chain Tolerance (mm)
Thickness - 0.15mm, 0.2mm, 0.4 mm.
1 meter ± 2 (not more than 0
10 meter ±3
20 meter ±5
30 meter ±8
5. Steel band or band chain–
Steel band is used in case of high precision work.
The length of the steel band is about 20 m to 30 m. It
is very costly so it is not used in general work.
Width - 12 mm to 16 mm.
Brass stud spacing - 20 cm.
Thickness - 0.3 - 0.6 mm 4. Invar tape–
Adjustment of chain- UKPSC JE 2022, JPSC AE (Pre) 2019
Due to continuous use the length of chain gets JPSC AE (Pre) 2019, J&K PSC AE 2009
altered, so there is adjustment of chain is necessary. Invar tapes are made of an alloy which consists of
If chain is found to be long- 36% of nickel and 64% of steel.
(i) Closing the joints of the rings if opened out. Its thermal expansion co-efficient is very less
–3
(ii) Redesigned the elongated rings. (12×10 /°C). It is not affected by changes in
(iii) Removing one or more circular ring. temperature hence, these tapes are used for high
(iv) Replacing worn out rings. precision works in surveying.
(v) Adjustment of the ends link. Width - 6mm
If chain is found to be short– Length - 20m, 30m, 50m and 100m.
(i) Straightening the links. Note -
(ii) Flattening the circular ring. It is used in most precision work like measuring base
(iii) Inserting additional circular ring. line.
(iv) Adjusting the links at the ends. Effect of creep is very less.
It is very costly so it is not used in general work.
Tapes
Order of tapes accuracy–
Tapes are used in surveying to measure the offset
length, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. Invar tape > Steel tape > Metallic tape > Linen tape
Classification of Tapes– 5. Fiber Tape–
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021 Fiber tape is generally used in electrical works
1. Cloth or Linen Tape– because of its insulation properties.
Linen tape is a varnished strip made of closely Ranging Rod–
woven linen. These tapes may shrunk when exposed It is used to ranging between two station point. It is
to moisture and also elongated when pulled. also known as flag pole, lining rod.
Width of the strip- 12 - 15 mm. It is painted with 20 cm wide bands of red and white
Available lengths - 10m, 20m and 30m. alternate.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 158 YCT
Cross section- 25 mm × 25 mm or 30 mm × 30 mm.
Length - 150 mm.
Mallet–
Used for imparting force on another object.
Flag–
It is placed on the top of the ranging rod and used for
According to IS : 2288 – 1963- increasing the visibility of ranging rod and also
Length- 2-3 m identify the different type of surveying station.
Dia. - 30mm 90º Angle measuring device-
Visible up to - 200m. 1. Cross staff–
Offset Rod– JSSC JE 2022, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
An offset rod is similar to ranging rod with the Cross staff is used to set out the perpendicular
exception that instead of a flag, a recessed hook or directions for offset. There are three types of cross-
stout open ring is provided at the upper end to pull staff-
the chain. (i) Open cross staff–
UPPCL JE 2022, MHADA 2022, Assam PSC AE 2020
Length- 2.0 m
It is the simplest types of cross staff, used for setting
Ranging Poles– out 90° or right angle only.
Ranging poles constructed from steel and wood are There is two line of sight in open cross staff.
ideal for marking out lines, alignment or indicating
boundary areas. Ranging poles are used in high
irregular topographical region.
Length- 4 - 8 m
Dia - 6 to 10 cm
Visible up to - 400 - 500 m
Arrows or marking pin–
UPSSSC 2022
Arrows are made of galvanized mild steel used to
mark the end point of chain or intermediate station. (ii) French or Octagonal cross staff–
Loop dia. - 50 mm CG Vyapam Sub Eng. 2022
Length- 400 ± 5 mm. It consists of a hollow octagonal box with slit cut in
Pegs- each face.
Pegs are used to mark the position of main station or It is used to set out angles 45°, 90° and 135°.
terminal point of a survey line on the ground. The accuracy of French cross staff is less than open
Its 2/3 length should be under the surface and rest cross staff.
over the surface. Total number of line of sight - 4.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 159 YCT
3. Prism square–
JSSC JE 2022
It is based on same principal as that of optical square
used for setting out a line at 90°.
Not required and adjustment for it
It is precise and modern instrument.
(iii) Adjustable cross staff–
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, SSC JE 2022, DMRC AM 2017
It is used to set out any angle of any magnitude.
4. Site square–
It is used only for setting out 90°.
Principal of chain surveying–
Chain survey is the simplest method of surveying.
2. Optical square– ''The principle of chain surveying is triangulation",
OPSC AE 2019, GPSC AE (CLASS 1 & 2) 2019 this means that the area to be surveyed is divided
GUJRAT PSC AE 2017, DMRC AM 2017 into a number of small triangles which should be
UPRVUNL AE 2016 , OPSC AE -2016 well conditioned. In chain surveying the sides of the
An optical square is a hand instrument used to triangles are measure directly on the field by chain
setting/checking out right angle. or tape.
The construction of optical square is based on the Well conditioned triangle–
principal of double reflection of light. The angle TNPSC AE 2022, Karnataka PSC AE 2018,
between the reflecting surfaces is kept 45°. Nagaland PSC 2017, CGPSC AE 2017
A triangle is said to be well conditioned triangle
Angle between incident rays and reflected rays - 2θ
when any angle should not be less than 30° nor
Angle of intersection between Horizontal and Index
greater than 120°.
glass 45°.
Most accurate triangle is formed at 56°14'
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Horizontal glass 'H'- half silvered. Procedure of chain surveying-
ESE Pre 2023, SSC JE 2022
Index glass I - full silvered.
Reconnaissance
Accuracy of optical square is more than cross staff.
↓
Selection of stations and their marking
↓
Location of stations
↓
Ranging between the stations
↓
Chaining,
↓
Offsetting
↓
Field books
↓
Plotting
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 160 YCT
Reconnaissance- Tie station is a point to provide additional rays to
UPMRC AM 2023 intersected point.
Process of primary investigation of the land area to Subsidiary/Auxiliary/Tie line–
be surveyed. UPPSC AE 2020
3. Ranging- The line joining the tie stations for taking offsets
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB) from it, is known as tie line. Main object of tie line
Ranging is the process of establishing many is, to take the details of the nearby objects in order to
intermediate points between two stations on a avoid long offset.
straight line. Tie line join the some fixed station on main survey
Types of Ranging- line.
(i) Direct Ranging– Base line–
ODISA PSC 2020, Nagaland PSC 2017 UPPCL JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
Direct ranging is done when both ends point of a APDCL Junior Manager 2017, Manipur PSC AE 2013
survey line is intervisible. Longest survey line run through the centre of the
Minimum number of ranging rod required - 3 area to be surveyed is known as base line. Invar
Direct ranging is done by two method- tapes are used for measurement with very high
(i) By eye sighting degree of precision.
(ii) By line ranger Check or Proof lines–
UK PSC AE 2022, HPPSC (HPPTCL)AE 2021
UKPSC AE 2020, Manipur PSC AE 2013
The line joining the apex of triangle to some fixed
points on any two sides of a triangle is called check
Line Ranger line.
(ii) Indirect method- A check line is measured to check the accuracy of
When both ends of survey line are not intervisible the framework of triangle.
then indirect ranging is done. It is also known as
Offset–
reciprocal ranging.
It is the lateral measurements from the survey line to
SSC JE 2022
fix the positions of various objects.
Minimum number of ranging rod required - 4.
Main survey stations– Classification of Offset -
DDA JE 2023 1. Length Based Offset–
Main stations are the ends of the lines which (i) Short Offset–
command the boundary of the survey. The lines Length of offset ≤ 15 m.
joining the main stations are called main survey line. Accuracy is better than long offset.
(ii) Long offset–
Length of offset > 15 m.
2. Offset based on direction–
(i) Perpendicular offset–
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022
The distances measured at right angles to the chain
line from the objects are known as perpendicular or
rectangular or right offsets.
Subsidiary or Tie Station -
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021, TNPSC AE 2012
An additional point selected on the main survey line
to run tie line for dividing the area into triangle for
checking the accuracy of triangles and for locating
interior angle.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 161 YCT
(ii) Oblique offsets– Mostly it is used in survey work.
JKSSB JE 2022
All the offsets which are not taken at the right angle
to the chain line are known as oblique offsets.
Limiting Length of the Offsets–
Errors in length and direction –
Sometimes the error in measuring the length of the
offset also occurs.
Conventional Sign
Where, Obstacles in chain surveying and their
Length of error on ground = l sin θ (meter) remedies–
Let scale of drawing 1 cm = s (meter) 1. Obstacles in Ranging–
l sin θ Gujarat PSC 2021 (GWSSB)
Length of error on drawing = cm
s In this type of obstacles the ends of the lines are not
0.025 s intervisible due to rising ground, hill or jungle
Limiting length of the offset l =
sin θ intervening. Here two cases may arise.
Field Book– (a) Both ends may be visible from any intermediate
SSC JE 2022 point lying on the line such as in the case of hill.
The field measurements like chain or tape
(b) Both ends may not be visible from any
measurements, sketches and relevant notes are
intermediate point such as in the case of jungle.
recorded for future reference in a note book, known
as field book. This types of obstacle may be crossed over by
Size 20 cm × 12 cm and open length wise. ''Random line method''.
Types of field book- 2. Obstacle in Chaining–
1. Single line field book– NWDA JE 2021
Every page of this kind of the field book has a single Ends of lines are visible but obstruction in chaining.
red line ruled down the middle. two cases may arise.
2. Double line field book– (a) When the obstacle can be chained around, e.g.
It is similar to the single line field book but Instead
pond.
of single red line in the centre, two blue or red lines
about 1.5cm apart are ruled down in the middle of (b) When the obstacle can not be chained around
each page. e.g. a river.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 162 YCT
3. Obstacles both in Ranging and Chaining– Types of error occurred during surveying in
UPPCL JE 2022, TNPSC (CESS) 2021, KPSC AE 2016 different cases–
The problem in this case consists both in prolonging
the line beyond the obstacle and finding the distance Cases Errors
across it. Incorrect length of tape Cumulative +ve or –
Ex. Building ve
Error of Measurement in Surveying- Bad ranging Cumulative +ve
(i) Instrumental error– Tape not stretched horizontally Cumulative +ve
NLC (GET) 2020 Tape not stretched tight and Cumulative +ve
Error may arise due to faulty or imperfection straight, but both ends in line
adjustment of the instrument by which measurement
Error due to temperature Cumulative +ve or –
is being taken.
ve
Ex. a tape may be too long or short.
Variation in pull Compensating +ve or
(ii) Personal error–
–ve
DSSSB AE 2021, JPSC AE (Pre) 2019, ESE 2001
Errors arise due to want of perfection of human sight Error due to sag Cumulative +ve
observing and of touch in manipulating instruments. Error in marking tape lengths Compensating +ve or
(iii) Natural error– –ve
Error may also be due to variations in natural Disturbing arrows after they are Blunder
phenomenon such as temperature, humidity, gravity, set
wind, refraction and magnetic declination. Errors in reading the tape Mistake
Classification of errors– Incorrect counting of tape Blunder
In case of linear measurement errors may be length
classified in to three types-
Careless holding and marking Compensating +ve or
(i) Compensative/Accidental Error– –ve
UPPCL JE 2022, SSC JE 2022
When error not occurs in same direction in chain Correction in Length–
HPCL JE 2022
surveying is called as compensative error.
Incorrect chain length
Compensative error ∝ l Correct length = Standard chain length × measured length
(ii) Mistakes– Correction in Area–
Mistakes are errors which arise from inattention, 2
Incorrect length
unexperience, carelessness and confusion in the Correct Area = × Incorrect Area
Correct length
mind of the observer.
Correction in Volume–
(iii) Cumulative/Systematic Error-
3
ASSAM PSC AE (IRRIGATION) 2021, DFCCIL J.M. 2021 Incorrect length
Correct Volume = × Incorrect Volume
OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018, GPSC AE 2018 Correct length
It occurs in same or one direction and tends to Note-
accumulate in chaining. True Error = Measured value – True value
Cumulative error ∝ Length of line (l) Correction = True value – Measured value
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 163 YCT
Tape Correction-
SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021
S.N. Correction Condition Error Correction Formula
1. Length (a) Increases –Ve +Ve L'
(b) Decreases +Ve –Ve L = l '
l
2. Temperature (a) Increases –Ve +Ve Ct = α ( Tm − T0 ) L
(b) Decreases +Ve –Ve
3. Pull/Tension (a) Increases –Ve +Ve ( Pm − P0 )
(b) Decreases +Ve –Ve Cp = ×L
AE
4. Sag – Always +Ve Always –Ve w 2l 3 W 2l
Cs = or
24Pm2 24n 2 P 2
5. Slope – Always +Ve Always –Ve CSL = h 2 / 2L or
C v = 2Lsin 2 θ / 2
6. Bad Ranging – Always +Ve Always –Ve Ch = d2/2L
Theory of Probability– When standardized 1 in 5000
UKPSC JE 2022 steel or invar tape is
GPSC DEE (GMC) Cl-2 2022, Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020 used and corrections for
Accidental errors follow the law of probability. This pull, temperature, sag,
law defines the occurrence of errors and can be slope etc. are applied
expressed as an equation for computing the probable Chaining on uneven or sloping ground–
value or precision of a quantity. There are two methods for getting the horizontal
Most probable value– distance between two points.
The most probable value of the quantity is the value 1. Indirect method–
which has more chances of being true than any other The distance along the slope is measured and then
value. the angle of slope θ –
(i) Probable error of single observation–
NLC (GET) 2020, UPPSC A.E. 2007, 2004
Σv 2
E s = ± 0.6745
n −1
(ii) Probable error of the mean–
Σv 2 E
E m = ± 0.6745 = s Sloping or vertical distance between two points–
n(n − 1) n
Where, v = difference between any single
observation and the mean of the series.
Permissible error–
The limit of accuracy of an instrument causes error
in the measurement are called as permissible error.
Degree of accuracy in chaining– 2. Hypotenusal allowance method–
Description Permissible error in
chaining
Rough or hilly ground 1 in 250
Ordinary chain survey 1 in 1000
For greater accuracy 1 in 2000
where steel tape or steel
50
band are used If, θ = 1/ n then AA ′ =
n2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 164 YCT
03.
COMPASS SURVEYING
Introduction–
Branch of surveying in which direction/bearing of
survey lines are measured by the compass and length
by chaining or taping is called compass surveying.
It is best suitable method for large undulating area
where higher accuracy is not required.
If there is a time limit for surveying it is usually
adopted.
Compass surveying is not used in that places which
contain iron ore, electric lines etc., because these are
attracts magnets due to their natural and (ii) Surveyor's Compass-
electromagnetic properties respectively. Surveyor compass is mainly used in mine surveying
Principle of compass survey- Traversing. ring is divided into 4 quadrants and graduation are
Types of compass- made from 0-90° in each quadrant.
1. Prismatic Compass- 0° is marked at the north and south point and 90°
MPPGCL JE 2023, JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022 marked at east and west points.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022
Important point regarding to Surveyor Compass–
Prismatic compass is a portable and sensitive
In case of surveyor compass graduation is done in
instrument made of non-metal box of size 8-10 cm.
quadrantal or reduced bearing system.
It consist a sharply pin (pivot) above which agate is
UPSSSC JE 2022
fitted. magnetic needle is supported at the top of
agate. Graduated ring is also attached with magnetic
needle and can freely rotate with it.
Important point-
Jewel bearing support the prismatic compass needle.
Break pin-
It is used to slow down the motion of the ring.
Spring break-
Used to dampen (Quick rest) the oscillation before a
reading is taken.
Graduation are engraved in the inverted form.
Readings are taken diametrically opposite ends of
the object.
Important point regarding Prismatic Compass–
Needle of prismatic compass is supported on Jewel
bearing.
Agate cap is fitted with the prismatic compass. Rider-
The most useful compass in compass survey is Rider is a part of surveyor compass and used as a
prismatic compass. counter weight to balance the needle.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 165 YCT
Difference between Prismatic and Surveyor's Compass–
Parameter Prismatic Compass Surveyor Compass
Magnetic Needle • The needle is of 'broad needle' type and it • Edge bar type needle is used and it
does not act as index/pointer. acts as an index/pointer.
• The graduations are in Whole Circle • The graduations are in Quadrantal
Bearing system (0° - 360°). Bearing system with 0° in N and S and
Graduated Ring 90° in E and W.
• Graduated ring attached to the magnetic • Graduated ring is attached to the box
needle and do not move with the box. and rotates with box/line of sight.
• Zero are marked at south end. • Zero marked at north and south end.
• Readings are taken with the help of a • Readings are taken by directly seeing
prism provided at the eye slit. through the top cover of glass.
Reading system • Sighting and reading are done • Sighting and reading are not be done
simultaneous from single position of the simultaneously from single position of
observer. observer.
• The eye vane consist of a metal vane • The eye vane consist of a metal vane
Sighting Vanes with a slit. with fine slit.
• The object vane consist of a metal vane • The object vane consist of a metal
with a vertical hair. vane with a vertical hair.
Tripod may or may not be provided. Tripod cannot be used without a tripod.
Tripod Instrument may be used even by holding it
in hand
Least Count Least count of prismatic compass is 30′. Least count of surveyor compass is 15'.
Transit or level compass– Azimuth Angle–
It is an optical instrument mounted on a tripod along SSC JE 2022
with a built-in sprit level. It is the angle b/w observers meridian and the
It is used for determine the relative position of vertical circle passing through the celestial body.
points, lines and objects with combination of tape, Bearing–
rules and calibrated roads. MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
Adjustment of prismatic compass– Horizontal angle in clockwise direction between true
To take an accurate reading of the bearings of a north and survey line is called bearing.
survey line.
Temporary adjustment–
i). Fixing the compass over tripod.
ii). Centering
iii). Leveling
iv). Sighting the object
v). Observation of bearings
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 166 YCT
Classification of Bearing -
1. Azimuth/True Bearing–
DDA JE 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, MPSC (ASCE) Feb 2021
It is the bearing of a line with reference to the
horizontal north and true north (meridian).
2. Magnetic Bearing–
SSC JE 2022, GPSC AE Class (1&2) 2017
Horizontal angle b/w the magnetic meridian and the
survey line is termed as magnetic bearing.
3. Arbitrary bearing–
DDA JE 2023
The horizontal bearing b/w arbitrary meridian and Conversion Of Q.B./R.B. to W.C.B.–
the survey line is called arbitrary bearing. Q.B. Quadrant W.C.B. Angle
st
Nθ1E I W.C.B.= Q.B. 0°–90°
Sθ2E IInd 180° – Q.B. 90°-180°
Sθ3W IIIrd 180° + Q.B. 180°-270°
Nθ4W IVth 360° – Q.B. 270°-360°
Conversion of W.C.B. to Q.B.–
MPPGCL JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022
MH WRD JE 2022
W.C.B. Quadrant Q.B. RB/QB
° ° st
4. Grid Bearing– 0 –90 I QB=WCB Nθ1E
It is horizontal angle of a line from grid meridian. ° ° nd °
90 –180 II 180 –WCB Nθ2E
Bearing system- 180°–270° III rd
180°+WCB Nθ3W
Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B.) System- 270 –360 ° °
IV th °
360 –WCB Nθ4W
Bearing of a line is measured in clockwise direction
with magnetic north. Value of bearing may vary
Key Points
from 0°–360°.
■ The departure and latitude of a forward point with
respect to the preceding point is known as the–
Consecutive coordinates
■ The average triangle closure of a primary
triangulation is– Less than 1 second
■ The forces in a 'Tripod carrying a camera' is an
example of–
non–coplanar concurrent force system
Meridian–
Meridian is that real or imaginary fixed line with
respect to which the direction of the line is
determined. It is classified in following types-
(i) True Meridian/True North–
Quadrant or Reduced Bearing System- MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
Bearing of a line is measured eastward or westward UPPCL AE 2022, GPSC AE CLASS-2 2021
from north or south direction whichever is nearer. A line passing through the geographical north and
It can be clockwise or anticlockwise. south pole at any point on the earth's surface is
In can be from 00–900 known as true meridian.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 167 YCT
(ii) Magnetic Meridian/Magnetic North– Variation in Magnetic Declination-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 DDA JE 2023
UPRVUNL JE 2022
Secular Due to over a long period of time due to
It is the direction indicated by freely suspended and
variation gradual shift in earth's magnetic field
properly balanced magnetic needle.
(iii) Grid Meridian– Annual Due to revolution of earth around the sun.
Grid meridian is the meridian of a country centre variation (Yearly)
place which taken as reference meridian. Diurnal Due to rotation of earth about its own
(iv) Arbitrary Meridian– variation axis. It's more at pole and less at equator.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, MHADA 2022 Considerably more in summer than in
It is a assumed convenient direction as a meridian. winter.
Included Angle- • It is more in day and less in night.
Included angle measured in the clockwise direction • The rate of variation during 24 hours is
from the proceeding line of a traverse to the forward variable.
line. Included angle can be an interior or exterior
Irregular Due to magnetic disturbances in earth's
angle.
variation magnetic field.
Case-1:If bearing of two lines are from a common point
Magnetic Dip/Angle of Dip–
Inclination angle of magnetic needle from the
horizontal Plane is known as magnetic dip.
At equator = 0°
At magnetic poles = 90°
Note - Line of earth's magnetic field run from north
to south.
Important term related to line–
Included angle θ = θ2 – θ1 GPSC AE Dec 2018, MPSC 2017
If, θ2 – θ1 > 1800 - excluded interior angle. PTCUL AE 2016 , TSPSC Deputy Engineer 2015
So, included angle = 360 – (θ2 – θ1) Type of lines The line joining
If, θ2 – θ1 < 1800 - included angle. Isoclinic lines Points of equal dip
Case-2: Bearing of the lines from a different point Aclinic lines Points of zero dip
Isogonic lines Points of equal declination
Agonic lines Points of zero declination
DSSSB AE 26.09.2021
Magnetic Declination (M.D.)-
PGCIL DT 2023, DSSSB AE 2021, GPSC GES Pre 2021
ESE 2021, ODISA PSC AE 2020
Include angle (ABC) It is the horizontal angle between the true north and
magnetic north.
= B.B. of Preceding line– F.B. of Succeeding line
= B.B. of B.A. – F.B. of B.C. It may be due to -
= θ3 – θ2 (i) Due to local attraction.
If included angle ABC > 1800 (ii) Due to annual variation.
Then, for actual value = 3600 – calculated value (iii) Due to place changes.
M.D. = True Meridian − Magnetic Meridian.
(2n 4) 900 ∑ θ′ = (2n + 4) × 900
(all interior (all exterior
angle is correct) angle is correct)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 168 YCT
Where, TRAVERSE SURVEYING
T.N. → True North Traversing-
M.N. → Magnetic North Traversing is defined as the type of survey in which
θE → Declination Easting, +ve a number of connected survey lines form the
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 framework and the directions & lengths of the
θw → Declination Westing, –ve survey lines are measured with the help of an angle
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022
(or direction) measuring instrument and a tape (or
True bearing = Magnetic bearing ± Declination chain) respectively.
A traverse may be two types-
(i) Closed Traverse-
When the lines of a circuit, ends at the starting point
then it is known as a closed traverse.
(ii) Open Traverse–
Assam PSC AE PHED 2021
When the lines of a circuit ends elsewhere except
starting point is known as open traverse.
Closing errors-
The actual distance by which the traverse fails to
close in a traverse survey.
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
i.e., ∑ L ≠ 0, ∑ D ≠ 0
Relation between F.B. and B.B.–
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
Back Bearing = Fore Bearing ± 180°
B.B. = F.B. ± 1800
Take +ve, if F.B. < 1800
and –ve, if F.B. > 1800
In reduced bearing system for back bearing the
value of angle is not change but direction Closing Error in the traverse,
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
(N ↽ ⇀ S and E ↽ ⇀ W) changes.
2 2
Local Attraction– e = PP' = (∑ L) + (∑ D)
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 Direction of closing error-
GPSC AAE (GMC) Class-3, 2021
∑D
Problem of declination of magnetic needle from its tanθ =
∑L
normal or reference pole (N–S) under the influence
of magnetic substance is called local attraction. Check for close traverse by included angle-
If, B.B. − F.B. = 1800 Sum of included angle = (2N – 4) × 90°
NHPC JE 2022, HPCL JE 2022
both station is free from local attraction.
NBCC JE 2022
Sum of external angle = (2N + 4) × 90°
0 AP Poly. Tech. Lect. 2019, ASSAM PSC CCE (PRE) 2015
If, B.B. − F.B. ≠ 180
One or both station may be affected by local
Method of Traversing-
attraction. It is a method in the field of surveying to establish
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 control points. Following types of method is used-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 169 YCT
(i) Chain traversing Departure-
(ii) Chain and compass traversing (Loose needle CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
method) It defined as its co-ordinate length measured at right
(iii) Transit tape traversing. angles to the meridian direction.
(a) By fast needle method
(b) By measurement of angles b/w the lines.
Balancing of Traverse-
1. Bowditch/compass rule-
DDA JE 2023, UKPSC JE 2022
HPPSC Lecturer 2021, MPSC (ASCE) 2021
Used where Angle and Distance are measured with
same precision. W.C.B. Quadrant Latitude Departure Remark
Used in closed traverse 0-90 I + + North +Ve
Latitude
Assumption- 90-180 II – + South –Ve
Error in linear measurement ∝ ℓ
180-270 III – – East +Ve
1
Departure
Error in angular measurement ∝ 270-360 IV + – West –Ve
ℓ
2. Transit method- Degree of accuracy in traversing-
UPPCL JE 2022, UKPSC 2022
Order of traversing Accuracy
Used where angular measurement are more precise st
I order of traversing 6" N
than linear measurement.
L D 2nd order of traversing 15" N
CL = C L = ∑ L × ,CD = ∑ D ×
Lr Dr 3rd order of traversing 30" N
3. Axis Method- Minor theodolite traverse for 1' N
DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021, RPSC AE 2013 detailing
Corrections are applied only to length and angles
Compass traversing 15' N
are measured very precisely.
N = Number of angle measured
1
Closing error Gales method of traversing-
Correction of any length = That length × 2
Length of Axis Traverse computations are usually done in a tabular
Angular measurement required more precision than form, a more common form being gales traverse
table.
linear measurement.
For complete traverse computations, the following
4. Graphical method-
steps are usually necessary-
Use for rough survey work.
(i) Adjust the interior angles to satisfy the geometrical
Traverse computations- conditions.
Latitude- (ii) Starting with observed bearings of one line &
UPPCL AE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 calculate bearing of other lines.
It is defined as its co-ordinate length measured (iii) Calculate the consecutive co-ordinates (i.e latitude
parallel to an assumed meridian direction. and departure).
Latitude, L = ± l cosθ (iv) Calculate the ∑L and ∑D.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 170 YCT
04.
LEVELLING
Introduction- Key Points
RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021 ■ The type of steel used for precision levelling staff
The process to determine relative height or depth of is– Invar
an object with the reference level on the surface of ■ The dumpy level is most suitable for leveling
survey– On flat terrain
the earth.
■ In leveling, the elevation of points is measured and
compared with respect to– Datum surface
Classification of benchmark-
1. G.T.S. (Great Trigonometrical Survey) Benchmark-
It is established by the national agency, all over the
country with a highest precision survey, where the
datum being mean sea level (MSL).
Note:-
Mean sea level adopted by the survey of India for
the reference is located at Mumbai.
R.L. of mean sea level is assumed zero
2. Permanent Benchmark-
Level line Line laying on level surface Established with reference to GTS benchmark by the
(curved line) normal to the plumb line or a line govt. agencies.
parallel to the mean spherical 3. Temporary Benchmark-
surface of the earth. UPRVUNL AE 2022, Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020
Reference point established during levelling work in
Horizontal line It is tangential to the level line
field is known as temporary benchmark.
lying in the horizontal plane.
4. Arbitrary Benchmark-
Level surface Parallel to the mean spheroid The reference point whose R.L. is assumed is the
surface of the earth. field during survey is called arbitrary benchmark.
It is water level surface of still Station-
lake The point where levelling staff is held and reading
Horizontal A surface tangential to the level are taken with levelling instrument.
Surface surface at any point. Methods of levelling-
Datum The surface to which elevations are 1. Indirect Methods
referred. (i) Trigonometrical or Indirect methods levelling-
HPPSC AE 2016, J&K PSC AE 2009
Bench mark It is a fixed reference point of Trigonometrical levelling is the process of
known elevation. determining the difference of elevation of stations
It is establish by spirit levelling. from observed vertical angle and known distance.
Reduced level It is height of any point w.r.t. either (ii) Barometric levelling-
M.S.L. on any bench mark of UPPCL AE 2021
known R.L. Its use the phenomenon that difference in elevation
b/w two points is proportional to the difference in
Objective of Levelling- atmospheric pressure.
(a) Find out the elevation of the given points with respect (iii) Stadia levelling-
to the given/assumed datum or reference line. This is very rapid and convenient method. It is the
(b) To locate the points at a provided elevation or at modified form of trigonometric levelling in which
various elevations with respect to a given or tachometer principle is used to determined the
assumed datum. elevation of point.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 171 YCT
(iv) Hypsometric levelling- The most important error control in precise levelling
GPSC AE (CLASS 1 & 2) 2019 is the balancing of fore sight and back sight distance.
Its principle is that the liquid boils when its vapour
pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Elevation difference is calculated by noting the
temperature at which water starts boiling.
2. Direct Method-
MHADA JE 2022
It is precise and most commonly used.
(i) Simple levelling- Used only to find the elevation b/w
two points.
(ii) Differential levelling (Compound levelling)-
MH WRD JE 2022 Parts of level-
It is used when- 1. Telescope
1. Difference of elevation b/w two points is large (hill). 2. Level tube
2. Obstacles b/w the points. 3. Levelling head
3. Two points at a large distance aparts. 4. Tripod
Note:- Check levelling:-
It is done for the purpose of checking of elevations
which have already taken.
It is a type of differential levelling.
(iii) Fly Levelling-
In this method level line runs to determine the
approximate elevations along the route.
It is useful for linear structure as roads, canal,
railways etc.
It is rapid and low precision levelling used in
reconnaissance.
Also is done for accuracy of levelling work.
Telescope-
Observation taken only B.S. and F.S.
Used to provide an imaginary horizontal line of
(iv) Profile levelling- sight. It is rigidly fixed to the leveling head.
MHADA 2022, SSC JE 2022, NWDA JE 2021
Surveyor telescope is the adaptation of kepler's
It is used to determine the elevations along the
telescope.
central line of the ground surface like road, canal
etc.
(v) Cross levelling-
UPPCL JE 2022
It is done to obtain the elevations perpendicular to
aligned surface (cross-section or of aligned surface)
like road and canal.
(vi) Reciprocal levelling- Surveying telescope has two convex lenses. One
CHB JE (Building) 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
nearest to the object is objective lens and other is
UPPSC AE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
near the eyes is known as eyepiece.
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021, GPSC AM (GMDC) Cl-2 2020
This method is done when the instrument cannot be Component of Telescope-
set up b/w the two points because of an obstruction
like valley, river etc.
Error due to refraction is not completely eliminated
in it and also does not eliminate parallax error.
(vii)Precise levelling-
It is performed where high accuracy is required.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 172 YCT
(i) Objective lens- Key Points
■ If difference in level between two stations A and B
is to be determined, the instrument station shall be
kept _______ for most accurate results–
Equidistant from both the stations
■ Tilt of the staff is stadia tacheometry, increase the
intercept, if it is–
Combination of both lens is called achromatic lens.
Away from the telescope and pointing uphill
Chromatic aberration, distortion, curvature or
spherical aberration etc. defects removed by using Focussing-
achromatic lens. Operation of forming the sharp and clear image of
(ii) Eye piece- the object in the plane of cross hairs is known
focussing.
It is used to magnificate the cross hairs and object
Rotate eyepiece to give a sharp image of the cross
image formed on cross hairs.
hair.
Ramsdon, eye-piece is generally used in surveying
Focusing screw is used to give a sharp clear image
telescope.
of the object being observed.
Double plano-convex lens used in it.
Types of Telescope based upon focussing-
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021
(1) External Focussing Telescope
(2) Internal Focussing Telescope
1. External Focussing Telescope-
Eye-piece and objective are mounted on two
different tube so that one can slide inside the other.
Rack and pinion arrangement operated by the
focussing screw provided on upper tube.
Objective is moved inward or outward with the help
(iii) Diaphragm:- Diaphragm is provided in front of the
of focussing screw.
eye piece and nearer to objective. It contains cross
Focussing is completed when object image is clear
hairs made of dark metal arranged in perpendicular.
formed in the cross hairs plane.
Cross Hairs-
Cross hairs are fitted in front of eye piece. During
observation, image formed by objective lens should
lie in the plane of crass hair.
2. Internal Focusing Telescope-
MHADA JE 2022, ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022
Objective is fixed in their position and additional
double concave lens (fitted with rack and pinion
arrangement) mounted on small tube to move
between the diaphragm and objective.
By moving this focussing lens, image formed by
Vertical Hair- It is used to check the verticality of the staff. objective is formed in cross hair plane of diaphragm.
Horizontal Hair- It is used for note down the staff
reading.
Cross hairs are made of-
(i) Platinum wire
(ii) Silk filament
(iii) Cocoon of spider
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 173 YCT
Optical defects of a single lens- Aberration -
Astigmation- Due to this defect blurred and Aberration is the deviation of the rays of light when
distorted image formed. Light unequally refracted by a lens so that they do not
rays are focused on two or more converge and meet at a focus but separate forming
points in this types of defects. an indistinct image of the object with prismatically
• Cylindrical lens is used to erects colored image.
astigmatism. Magnification-
Spherical A lens with spherical aberration The higher magnification reduces brilliancy of
aberration focused different rays to different image, reduces the field of view and wastes more
points along the optic axis. time in focusing.
Focallength of objective
• Magnifying power ∝
Distortion Changes in the shape of an Focallength of eye piece
image rather than the sharpness
or color spectrum. Sprit Level-
UPSSSC JE 16.04.2022
• Real image formed in the shrunk
An instrument to indicate whether a surface is
form.
horizontal (level) or vertical (plumb).
Chromatic It causes different wavelength of
It contains a curved glass bubble tube with constant
aberration light to have differing focal
inner diameter.
length
Coma Image points near the edges of Bubble Tube-
the film appear as irregular, Bubble tube incompletely filled with a liquid mostly
unsharpe shapes alcohol, because of low viscosity and surface
Curvature of The sharpest image is formed tension.
field on a curved surface not on a flat
plane.
Optical Characteristics of the Telescope -
Achromatism Achromation is the absence of
lense chromatic aberration.Compound
lens free from aberration is called
achromatic combination.
Achromatism is desirable quality
in good surveyor's telescope.
Sensitivity (α) of bubble tube-
Resolving power Power of a telescope to form
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, UKPSC AE 2013
distinguishable image of objects
Sensitivity is the change of angle to required move
separated by small angular
the bubble by a set distance (usually 2 mm and
distance.
sensitiveness is 20")
• It totally depends upon definition Sensitivity of level tube is designated by radius of
Aplanatic A compound lens free from level tube.
combination spherical aberration. Sensitivity of bubble tube α = S × 206265 (In second).
• Aplanation is the absence of n.D
spherical aberration n = Number of division on bubble
Definition It is the capability of a telescope S = Staff intercept
to produce sharp image. D = Distance b/w level and staff
Illumination or It depend upon the magnifying APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020
brightness- power and the number and Factors Affecting Sensitivity-
quality of the lenses. Factors Sensitivity
1 1 (α)
• Illumination ∝ ∝
Magnification Number of lens Internal radius/radius of curvature ↑ ↑
Note:- Achromatic lens is free from spherical Diameter of tube ↑ ↑
aberration. Length of bubble ↑ ↑
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 174 YCT
Temperature ↑ ↓ 4. Invar precision staff-
Roughness of the wall ↓ ↑ This type of levelling staff are used for first order
levelling and for challenging work on large scale
Viscosity of liquid ↓ ↑ construction site ex. tunnels, roads, dams or power
S.G. and surface tension ↓ ↑ plants.
Levelling staff- B. Target Staff-
Levelling staff is a graduated wooden or aluminium Reading is taken by staff man/target man.
vertical pole used for measuring vertical distance Used for larger distance and very precise work.
b/w points or height of points on the ground and the Vernier is provided on target staff for accurate
line of collimation. reading.
GPHC AE 2018, MPSC (Mains) 2015 Experienced staff man is required.
Fundamental axis of Level-
1. Permanent adjustment of level-
(i) Line of collimation or line of sight should be
parallel to the the bubble axis.
UPPCL AE 2022
Peg test is performed to insure this.
(ii) Line of collimation or line of sight should coincide
with the axis of the telescope.
UPRVUNL JE 2022
(iii) Axis of bubble tube should be perpendicular to the
vertical axis.
Classification of Staff- Two peg test is performed to insure this.
NWDA JE (Civil) 01.08.2021 2. Temporary adjustment of dumpy level-
A. Self reading staff (mostly used)- CHB Junior Draftsman 2023
Reading directly taken by level/instrument man MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
looking through the telescope (i) Setting up
It is used for shorter distance (ii) Levelling
Least count - 5 mm (iii) Elimination of parallax.
Each meter have - 200 division CHB SDE (Building) 2023
Black and white division (each 5 mm) alternately. It is done by two steps-
Level man should be more efficient compared to (a) Focussing of eyepiece
staff man. (b) Focussing of objective lens
Visibility -200m Note-
Types of self reading staff- During the levelling of level instrument it should be
1. Solid/Straight/Roorkee Pattern Staff kept in mind that two foot screw should be rotate
2. Folding or Hinged Staff simultaneously either inward or outward direction
3. Telescopic or Sop with Staff with both hand.
4. Invar Precision Staff
1. Solid Staff-
It is in single piece length of 3.0 m.
Very suitable for precise leveling.
2. Folding Staff-
Made of two pieces of well seasoned timber with
each length of 2.0 m. These are folded one over
another. Important Terms used in levelling-
3. Telescopic Staff-
Vertical axis Axis about which telescope can
UPRVUNL AE 2022
It is made of 3 pieces. be rotate in horizontal plane.
Lower parts of staff length = 2.0 m Horizontal/ Axis about which telescope can
While upper both length = 1.0 m each Triunion axis be rotate in vertical plane.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 175 YCT
Back Sight (B.S) It is the first reading taken after (ii) H.I. = B.M. or R.L. + B.S.or I.S.
setting up the instrument.
or R.L. = H.I. − B.S or I.S
Fore Sight (F.S.) It is the last reading taken from GPSC GES Pre 2021
instrument station. Arithmetic check-
It indicate the shifting of
∑ B.S. − ∑ F.S. = Last R.L. − First R.L.
instrument.
Total number of check points = 2.
Intermediate All reading excepts B.S. and F.S.
2. Rise and Fall Method-
Sight (I.S.) UPSSSC JE 2022, GPSC AE Class-2 (NWR) 2021
Change Point The point where F.S. and B.S. This method consist of determining the difference of
(C.P.) both readings are taken. level between consecutive points by comparing each
Note:- If B.S. and F.S. distance are kept equal during point with immediate preceding point.
levelling observation, then the effect of both If staff reading is more it represents fall and if less it
represent rise at that point.
refraction and earth's curvature will be zero.
Arithmetic check-
Principle of levelling-
∑ B.S. − ∑ F.S. = ∑ Rise − ∑ Fall = Last R.L. − First R.L.
"To obtain horizontal line of sight w.r.t. which
OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018
vertical distance of the points above or below this
Total number of check points = 3.
line of sight are found.
Comparison b/w H.I. and Rise & Fall
Method-
H.I. method Rise and Fall method
• It is less laborious rapid • More tedious/laborious
and easy method. method and have involve
• Check provides only for several calculation.
B.S. and F.S. not at I.S. • Provides complete check
• It have more error. on B.S., F.S. and I.S.
•
• Suitable for longitudinal Less error occurred
leveling. • Suitable for fly levelling
• More useful if there are where there is no any I.S.
If the point (station) is lower, staff reading will be many reading to be • Useful where less
taken by the single readings to be taken after
greater.
setting of level. single setting of level.
H.I. = Elevation of B.M. + B.S. Ex.-Profile levelling and Ex.- In check or fly
H.I. = (100 + x) m cross levelling. levelling.
Elevation of point = H.I. – Staff reading at that Curvature and refection correction-
point. SSC JE 2022
or R.L. = H.I − B.S./ I.S. Types of correction Correction to staff reading
1. Curvature correction- d2
Height of Instrument (H.I.)- • C = − or − 0.0785d 2
• Always –ve c
2R
UPPCL JE 2022, RIICO Draftsman 2021
• Staff reading increases
It is the elevation or reduced level of the line of Cc - in m
due to curvature
collimation from mean sea level (M.S.L.) or w.r.t. d - in km
2. Refraction correction-
datum.
• Always +ve 1 d2 1
M.S.L. is taken in India is Mumbai. CR = or × Cc = 0.01121d 2
• Staff reading decreased 7 2R 7
Calculation of elevation of reduced level- due to refraction CR - in m
1. Height of Instrument or Line of Collimation 3. Combined correction-
6 d2
Method- • Always –ve C c = − × = −0.06728d 2
7 2R
WBPSC AE 2016
(i) This method consist to find H.I for every set up of Cc - in m
level and determine the R.L. of every points. Error in levelling due to refraction is compensating.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 176 YCT
Distance of visible horizon-
H = 0.06728D 2 m or D = 3.8553 H km
Where,
H = Height of light house/tower in, m
D = Distance b/w lighthouse and objects in, km
Note-
If height of tower is H1 (m) and object height is H2
(m) then,
Horizon distance, D = 3.8553 ( )
H1 + H 2 km
Average level difference, h =
(b − a ) + (c − d)
2
Degree of precision-
Permissible closing error-
Reciprocal Levelling- E = ±C M and E ' = ± C ' K
If it is not possible to set up the level between two Where,
points as in case of levelling across river, ponds, E = Permissible closing error in feet
lakes etc. The reciprocal levelling is employed to E' = Permissible closing error in mm
carry forward the level on the other side of C & C' = Permissible closing constant
obstruction. M = Distance in miles
Error due to collimation, curvature and partially K = Distance in km
refraction are eliminated by this method.
Types of survey and purpose Error in feet Error in mm
PSC AE Class-2 (NWR) 2021
Rough levelling for reconnaissance survey ± 0.4 M ± 100 K
Ordinary levelling for location and construction survey ± 0.1 M ± 24 K
Accurate levelling for principal bench marks or for extensive survey ± 0.05 M ± 12 K
Precise levelling for bench marks of widely distributed points ± 0.017 M ±4 K
Very precise levelling - ±1 K
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 177 YCT
05.
CALCULATION OF AREA
Area- In this method the area is divided into a number of
Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a triangle, and the area of each triangle is calculated.
region on the plane or on a curved surface. (i) Area of triangle when two sides and one included
Note- angle is measured-
Measurement of area is the main object of land 1 1 1
surveying. A1 = ab sin C = bc sin A = ca sin B
2 2 2
Units of area measurements-
(ii) When three sides of triangle are measured-
(i) British unit/English unit ( sq. ft or acres)
(ii) Metric unit ( sq. meters or hectares) A1 = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
Method of calculation of area- Where, s = half perimeter
1. By computation based directly on field
a+b+c
measurement. s=
2
It include following method-
(a) By dividing the area into a number of triangle Mid ordinate rule (M.O.R.)-
(b) By offsets to base line- Assumption-
It include following method- (i) Base line is divided into a number of division.
(i) Mid - ordinate rule (ii) Ordinate are measured at the mid point of each
(ii) Average ordinate rule division.
(iii) Trapezoidal rule (iii) Boundaries between the extremities of the ordinate
(iv) Simpson's one - third rule are straight line.
(c) By Latitudes and Departure method -
Used for closed traverse. It include following
method-
(i) Double meridian distance (D.M.D.) method
(ii) Double parallel distance (D.P.D.) method
(d) By Co-ordinate method.
2. By computation based on measurement scaled from
O1 + O 2 + O3 + .............O n
a map. A= ×L
n
3. By mechanical method (Planimeter method)-
n
Area computed by sub-division into L × ∑ Oi n
triangle- A= i =1
A = d × ∑ Oi
n i =1
Where,
n = Number of division
d = Distance of each division
L = Length of base line
ΣOi = Sum of mid-ordinate
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 178 YCT
Average ordinate rule (A.O.R.)- d
Area of segment ABCD = [O1 + 4O2 + O3 ]
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 3
The method is same as the mid-ordinate rule, but d
offset are measured each point of the division. Area of segment BEDF = [O3 + 4O4 + O5 ]
3
O1 + O 2 + O n +1
A= ×L d
n +1 Area of segment EGFH = [O5 + 4O6 + O7 ]
3
L n
A= ∑ Oi
(n + 1) i=0
Total area-
d
Trapezoidal rule- A= ( O1 + On ) + 2 ( O3 + O5 + ....) + 4 ( O2 + O4 + ......)
3
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
In this method it is assumed that, shape of each Maharashtra PSC (Mains) 2015
division is trapezoids. Note:- The results obtain by simpson's rule is more
It is more accurate than A.O.R. & M.O.R. method accurate than other rule.
O + O n Calculation of area from Co-ordinate
A = 0 + O1 + O 2 + O3 + ..........O n −1 × d
2
squares-
Simpson's one-third rule- The area of plan is divided into a number of
PPSC JE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022, UPPCL AE 2019
squares of unit area.
In this method, it is assumed that the short length
of boundary between the ordinates are parabolic Each of such square is counted and part of square is
arcs. estimated.
This method is more useful when the boundary line
In order to ease out the procedure, a tracing sheet is
departs considerably from the straight line.
used with squares marked on it.
This tracing paper is placed on the plan and number
of squares is counted.
This method of computing the area is very easy and
rapid and quite suitable where approximate result
are acceptable.
------------------
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 179 YCT
06.
MINOR INSTRUMENT
Minor Survey Instrument and their Use- Tangent Clinometer-
Abney Level (Abney Clinometer)- It is most useful instrument in plane table survey.
It is used to measure slope of ground, vertical This clinometers is used to find out level difference
angle, tracing grade contour, setting of grade and between two point.
BPSC AE Pre 2018, GPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2016
all other rough levelling.
JSSC JE 2022, GPSC AE Dec 2018, J&K PSC AE 2006
Ceylon Ghat Tracer–
Used for setting out gradient and to measure the
slope.
Hand level-
It consist a rectangular or circular tube (10 to 15 cm
long). It is used to locating a contours, preliminary
survey etc.
Pantograph-
It is largely used enlarge or reduce the map. It is
based on the principle of similar triangles.
Planimeter-
To measure undulated area on sheet.
GPSC AAE (GMC) Cl-3, 19.09.2021, KA PSC AE 2018
Area, A = M ( F.R − I.R ± 10N + C )
Sextant-
Gujarat PSC AE 2017 It measure horizontal and vertical angle
Where,
I.R. = Initial reading
F.R. = Final reading
C = Planimeter constant.
If lunger point is out of map then, C = 0
Zero circle in Planimeter-
When the tracing point is moved along a circle
without rotation of the wheel (wheel slides without
any change in reading) the circle is known as "zero
circle" or circle of correction.
If lunger point lie within map then area of zero circle
added in planimeters reading.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 180 YCT
07.
Conventional Sign
S. Object Symbol Colour 20. Hedge Green
No.
21. Wire fencing Black
1. North line Black
Pipe fencing Prussian blue
22.
23. Wood fencing Yellow
24. Building Crimson lake
2. Main stations or Red or crimson (Pukka)
triangulation lake
station 25. Building umber
3. Traverse Red or crimson (Katcha)
stations or lake
substations 26. Huts Yellow
4. Chain line Red or crimson
lake 27. Temple Crimson lake
5. River Prussian blue
6. Canal Prussian blue 28. Church Crimson lake
7. Lake or pond Prussian blue
29. Mosque Crimson lake
8. Open well Prussian blue
30. Benchmark Black
9. Tube well Black
31. Tree Green
10. Footpath Black 32. Jungle Green
11. Metalled road Burnt sienna
33. Orchard Green
12. Unmetalled road Burnt sienna 34. Cultivated land Black and
green
13. Railway line Black
(single) 35. Barren land Black
14. Railway line Black
(double)
36. Rough pasture Black
15. Road bridge or Black
culvert 37. Marsh or Black
swamp
16. Railway bridge Black
or culvert 38. Embankment Black
17. Level crossing Black and
burnt sienna
18. Wall with gate Black 39. Cutting Black
19. Boundary line Black
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 181 YCT
01.
PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
Introduction- sheet. This edge or side is known as fiducial edge
PGCIL DT 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022 or working edge.
UPSSSC 2022, NHPC JE 2022 Fiducial edge is graduated in mm and cm.
DLB Senior Draftsman 2021 An ideal position of alidade to keep the left side of
It is a graphical method of surveying in which field station pin
work and plotting are done simultaneously in the There is two types of alidade-
field. It is most suitable for small and medium scale (i) Plain Alidade-
survey. It consists of a metal (brass) or a wooden ruler (50 -
It is the fast and cheap method of surveying. 60 cm length) with two vanes at the ends. Eye vane
It is simple and easy to perform but its accuracy is has a narrow slit while objective vane is in open
very less. form and carries a hair or thin wire.
The omission of observation is eliminated, as the
surveyor directly plots the detail in the field.
Purpose of plane table surveying-
UPPCL JE 2022 (ii) Telescopic Alidade-
To located the topographic detail. DDA JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022
Preparation of small scale maps. GPSC AM (GMDC) Class-2 2020, ISRO SE 2015
To carry out small scale surveying rapidly. These are used when it is required to take inclined
To survey industrial area, developed city, covering sight. It essentially consists of a small telescope
area where compass surveying is not feasible. with a level tube and graduated ring on the
horizontal axis. It provides quick and accurate
To run the survey line b/w stations that have been
previously fixed by other method of surveying. result.
Principle- Plane table surveying is based on It gives higher accuracy and more range of sights.
parallelism. For undulating areas it can be used very efficiently.
UPRVUNL AE 2016, UKPSC AE 2013 Stadia telescope or tacheometric telescope are used
Instrument used in plane table to exact sighting and to measure directly horizontal
and vertical distance.
surveying- The inclination of the line of sight can be read on
1. Plane Table- There are three types of plane table. the vertical circle.
TNPSC AE 2022
(i) Traverse Table- Small size of plane table used for
rough work.
(ii) Johnson Table- Size, 45 × 60 cm or 60 × 75 cm. It
is joint by tripod with ball and socket joint and
vertical spindle with two thumb screw on the
underside.
(iii) Coast Survey Table- Used for most accuracy.
Shifting of its tripod is not required.
Telescopic alidade is used for sighting in this table.
2. Alidade-
PGCIL DT 2023, DDA JE 2023
UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) Cl-3, 2021
It is used to bisect the object, draw rays, direction 3. Plumbing fork or U-fork-
lines etc. There is one side of alidade is in bevelled JSSC JE 2022, GPSC DEE (GMC) Cl-2 2022
form that is used to draw the line of sight on the NWDA JE 2021, DLB Senior Draftsman 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 182 YCT
Used for centering the plane table over the station (i) Levelling-
point. Plotted point on the sheet and ground station It is that process in which plane table is set in the
are in the same vertical line. horizontal plane over the station point with the help
Plumb-bob is suspends from the end of the lower of bubble tube.
arms of U-fork. Levelling of plane table is done with the help of
GWSSB AAE 2015
sprit level.
For more precise work, Johnson table or coast
4. Trough Compass- survey table are used.
SSC JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022 (ii) Centering-
Trough compass is used for the orientation of plane The operation in which the plane table placed over
table to magnetic north and to show north direction the station situated on the ground that plotted on
on drawing sheet. the sheet corresponding to the station occupied,
should be exactly over the station on the ground is
known as centering.
Centering is done by using plumbing fork/U-fork.
(iii) Orientation-
MH WRD JE 2022, UK PSC AE 2022
UPSSSC 2022, UKPSC AE 2020
Operation of rotating plane table about its vertical
axis so that all the lines on the sheet becomes
5. Ranging Rod- parallel to the corresponding lines on the ground is
Ranging rod is length of 2 - 3 m made of wood or known as orientation. Orientation must be carried
steel with alternate black and white strip of 20-20 out in plane table surveying.
cm. Methods of orientation-
6. Drawing Sheet, Pencil, Rubber, Board Pin, 1. Trough compass or magnetic meridian method.
7. Pegs- 2. Back sighting method.
It is used for mark out residential boundaries, 1. Trough compass/magnetic meridian method-
indicating points and positions of a site. It is This method is suitable when a local attraction is
usually made of wood (although some are made of not suspected in an area.
metal or plastic) This method is rapid but precision is not good.
Cross section – 2.5×2.5 cm or 3×3 cm It is used to approximate orientation or first
Length- 15 cm establishment.
Note- Peg are penetrate up to 10 cm below the In this method of orientation, compass is placed on
ground surface. the upper right corner of the plane table so that the
Working operation of plane table- needle floats centrally and a line is drawn against
the long side of the box.
At any other station, where table is to be oriented,
compass is placed against this line and table is
oriented by turning it until the needle floats
centrally and then table is clamped in this position.
2. Orientation by back sighting method-
1. Fixing- Process of fixing plane table with MHADA JE 2022
tripod. This method is accurate and always preferred.
Plane table is mounted above the levelling head of Orientation can be done precisely by sighting the
tripod with the help of fly nut or wing nut. points already plotted on the sheet.
2. Setting- Setting is done in three steps as following This methods is most suitable when surveying area
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021, ODISA PSC AE 2020 is affected by magnetic substance.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 183 YCT
Methods of plane table survey-
DDA JE 2023, NHPC JE 2022, UPPSC AE 2022
1. Radiation method
2. Intersection method
3. Traversing method
4. Resection method
1. Radiation method-
MHADA 2022, GPSC AE June 2019
This method is suitable for locating the object from
a single station. In this method rays are drawn from
3. Traversing method-
station point towards object and distance from the DLB Senior Draftsman 2021
station to object are measured with the help of This method of plane table surveying is used to
tape/chain and plotted to any suitable scale along plot a traverse in case of stations have not been
the respective rays. plotted previously by some other method.
This method is more suitable when the distance It is widely used to lay down survey line between
between the target and station point are small instrument stations of a closed or open traverse.
(within one tape length) and one single instrument This method is used to plot a close or open
can control the point to be detailed. traverse.
Maximum number of ground measurement are Radiation and intersection method can be used in
taken in this method. combination with this method to obtain details.
2. Intersection method-
JPSC AE 2021, DLB Senior Draftsman 2021 Note-
Arunachal Pradesh Poly. Tech. Lect. 2019 In this method orientation is done by back sighting
This method is the most commonly used when the method.
distance between the stations is too large or the 4. Resection method-
stations are inaccessible or the ground is MPPGCL JE 2023 , JSSC JE 2022
undulating. UKPSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
Its example is survey across river, broken Resection is the process of determining the plotted
boundaries or where it is difficult to measure position of the station occupied by the plane table,
horizontal distance. by means of sights taken towards known points,
locations of which have been plotted.
In this method two stations are selected so that all
or
the other stations to be plotted are visible from
It is the process of determining location of
these stations. instrument station with respect to already plotted
The line joining these stations are known as base station.
line and base line length is measured very This method requires only one linear measurement.
accurately. Methods of Resection-
To locate any point in this method it is essential to Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
have at least two instrument station. 1. Two point problem
This method is also known as graphical 2. Three point problem
triangulation. 3. By compass
This method is more accurate and useful hilly 4. By back sighting
region. Note-
UPPSC A.E. 2011, UK Combined State A.E. 2007 Traversing and resection method is used to locate
Note- Radiation and intersection are the method to the plane table station.
locate the point. Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 184 YCT
Two point and three point problem are the method 3. Lehman's/Trial and Error Method-
of orientation and resection. SSC JE 2022, UKPSC AE 2013
Resection method is more accurate compared to According to Lehman's rule "location of instrument
intersection method. station always distant from of the three rays from
Two point problem- the known points is proportion to their distances".
UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 Trial and error method is the quickest and most
UPCL AE 2021, APSC AE (IRRIGATION) 2021 accurate method to solve three point problem in
The process of determine, location of instrument resection.
station with two reference point that's are already Most rapid orientation is done by "Trial and error"
drawn on the sheet is known as two point problem. method.
Aim of two point problem is to resume the Strength of Fix-
unfinished job from any unknown station. Accuracy with which a plane table station can be
Two point problem method is adopted to orient a located through a three point problem is called its
plane table at a point with two inaccessible points. "Fix". degree of accuracy of the solution of three
point problem is designated as its strength.
If the plane table station P is out side the great
triangle ABC, passing through the station's A, B &
C, the triangle of error will also be outside the great
triangle formed by joining the plotted point.
If the plane table station P is inside the great
triangle, ABC, the triangle of error will also be
inside the great triangle.
Three point problem-
DDA JE 2023, CSE 1994
The three point problem is, to establish the position
of the instrument station on the plan by making
sights towards plane table by means of observation
to three well defined point whose positions have
already been plotted on the plan.
It requires less time, labor and is more accurate and Position of plane table -
simple.
1. Outside the great triangle
Methods to solve three point problem-
2. Inside the great triangle
1. Mechanical/Tracing paper method
3. Lies on or near the circumference of the great
2. Bessel's/Graphical method –
circle.
This is the most suitable method
Fix ∝ Accuracy i.e. high accuracy provide strong
3. Lehman's/Trial and Error method
fix.
4. Analytical method
1. Mechanical/Tracing paper method-
For a good strength of fix-
UPPSC Civil Eng. A.E. 2013
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021
In this method, the plane table is located at a point Middle object/station should be nearest to the
from where three points are visible. position of plane table than other two object.
The orientation of plane table is plotted w.r.t the Location of the instrument station lie within the
plotted lines of those three points great triangle formed by joining the three well
defined stations.
2. Bessel's method-
NWDA JE 2021 Strength of 'Fix' will be poor if-
DLB Senior Draftsman 2021, DSSSB AE 2021 LMRC AE 2017, LMRC AM 2015
In this method, in any inscribed quadrilateral the Location of the plane table lies or near the
angle made by one of the sides with one of the circumference of the great circle/circumscribing
diagonals is equal to the angle made by the circle.
opposite side with the other diagonal. Both the interior angle subtended by well defined
It is based on geometrical principle. objects, at the plane table stations, are small.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 185 YCT
02.
CONTOURING
Contouring- 3. Scale of map (small scale → C.I. is more)
The process of tracing contour lines on the surface 4. Time and money
of the earth is called contouring. Contour interval on the basis of map and
nature of ground-
DLB Senior Draftsman 2021
Scale of map Types of Contour
ground interval in
meter
Large, Flat 0.2 to 0.5
(1 cm = 10 m or less) Rolling 0.5 to 1
Hilly 1, 1.5 or 2
Object of contouring- Intermediate Flat 0.5, 1 or 1.5
PGCIL DT 2023, HPCL JE 2022 (1 cm = 10 m to 100 m) Rolling 1, 1.5 or 2
JSSC JE 2022, DLB Senior Draftsman 2021 Hilly 2, 2.5 or 3
(i) For preparing contour maps in order to select the
Small Flat 1, 2 or 3
most economical or suitable site.
(1 cm = 100 m or More) Rolling 2 to 5
(ii) To locate the alignment of the canal so that it
Hilly 5 to 10
should follow a ridge line.
SSC JE 2022 Mountainous 10, 25 or 50
(iii) To mark the alignment of roads and railways so Contour interval on the basis of purpose-
that the quantity of earthwork both in cutting and Purpose Scale C.I.
filling should be minimum.
(in m)
(iv) For getting information about ground that it is flat,
Building planning 1 cm = 10 m or less 0.2 - 0.5
steep or mountainous.
(v) To determine reservoir capacity and volume of Town planning 1 cm = 10 m to 100 m 0.5 - 2.0
earth work. Locating survey 1 cm = 50 m to 200 m 2-5
(vi) To locate physical feature of ground such as a hills, Horizontal Equivalent-
slope and pond depression. DDA JE 2023, JKSSB JE 2022, ODISA PSC AE 2020
(vii) A suitable route for a given gradient can be It is the horizontal distance between any of two
marked on the map. adjacent contour lines.
(viii) To find out intervisibility b/w two points. Vertical Interval
Contour Interval (C.I.)- Horizontal Equivalent =
Gradient
PGCIL DT 2023, JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022
MPPGCL JE 2023
MPPGCL JE 2023, TNPSC AE 2019
Contour interval is the vertical distance/difference
of elevations between any two consecutive
contours.
For hilly region C.I. value is taken more while less
for plane region.
C.I. value is constant for one contour map.
Contour Line-
An imaginary line on the ground surface joining
the points of equal elevation.
ISRO S.E. 2018, Rajasthan Nagar Nigam AE 2016
Contour interval depends upon-
RSMSSB JEN (Degree) 2021, MPSC (ASCE) Feb 2021
1. Nature of the ground surface
2. Purpose of survey
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 186 YCT
It is variable and varies as steepness of the ground. (ii) Vertical cliff or Wall
For steep slopes, horizontal equivalent will be less. MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021, DSSSB AE 2021
Contour Gradient-
UKPSC JE 2022, Assam PSC AE (IWT) 2021
Contour gradient is an imaginary line lying
throughout on the surface of the ground and
preserving a constant inclination to the horizontal.
If the inclination of such a line is given, then its
direction from a point may be easily located either
on the map or on the ground.
It is find out by clinometer instrument.
1
Contour interval ∝
Scale of map
25
Contour interval = mtr.
No. of cm per km
50
C.I. = feet
No.of inches per mile
CSE 1994
Characteristics of contour lines- 2. A series of equally spaced contour line indicate
UPPCL JE 2022 plane surface.
ASSAM PSC AE (IRRIGATION) 2021 3. Equally spaced contour lines represent uniform
Contour lines are closed curve. slope.
1. Two contour lines are not meet at point nor cut each 4. Widely spaced contour lines indicate gentle slope.
other.
5. Closely spaced contour lines indicate steep slope.
Exception-
(i) Overhanging cliff
NHPC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022
JPSC AE 2021, Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 187 YCT
6. Direction of the steepest slope is along with the Methods of contouring-
shortest distance between the contours. (1) Direct method
7. Closed contour lines with higher value inside centre (2) Indirect method- It is following three type.
indicate hill or rising ground. (a) Method of cross section (b) Method of square
(c) By Tacheometer/Radial line method
1. Direct method-
DDA JE 2023
In this method, contour to be plotted is traced on
ground and points are plotted on plan and contours
are marked through them. This method is more
accurate than indirect method.
In this method, the process of identifying/locating
points lying on a contour is called vertical control. It
is done by using telescope
Horizontal control is done by using plane table.
This method is slow, costly, tedious and adopted in
accurate surveys.
It is useful for regular ground surface for large scale
8. Closed contour lines with lower value towards
of maps and small area where more accuracy is
centre indicate depression, pond or lake.
required.
PPSC JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2014
9. Contour lines cut the ridge or watershed line and For getting speed in levelling some times hand level
and abney levels are also used.
valley or drainage line at right angles (900).
The cross sectional line need not be always be a
10. If in a loop elevation of contour lines increase
right angles to the main line.
towards inside it indicates ridge.
2. Indirect method-
11. And if this value decreases towards inside of loop, it
In this method spot level is taken at the regular
indicate a valley line.
interval along the predetermined line on the ground
and data is plotted on plan by interpolation. This
method is quick, very accurate and used for large
project.
Indirect methods of contouring-
(i) By square or rectangle method-
UPRVUNL JE 2022, DMRC AM 2020
Adopted when the area to be surveyed is small and
ground is not very much undulating and area is
divided into a number of squares.
Size of square 5m × 5m to 20m × 20 m taken,
depends upon contour interval and type of terrain.
12. All contour lines must close either within the map Levels are taken at the vertices of the
boundary. square/rectangles.
13. All points on a contour lines are of the same (ii) By cross section method-
elevation. CIL MT 2020
14. V-shaped contours with convexity towards higher Best suitable for route or alignment survey like road,
ground represent hills/valley. railway line, canal.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 R.L. is taken both side of centre line at
15. U-shaped contours with convexity towards lower predetermined distance.
ground represents ridge. Cross section interval for hilly regions is 20m and
SSC JE 2022 plain regions is 100 m taken.
16. Depression between summits is called a saddle. It is The cross sectional line need not to be always a right
represented by four sets of contour. angles to the main line.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 188 YCT
Interpolation of Contours-
Process of spacing the contours proportionality
between the plotted ground point established by
indirect method is called interpolation of contours.
Only spot level is taken in this method.
Ground between two points is assumed to be
uniform slope.
interpolation is done for indirect method of
contouring to determine the point of fix elevation.
(iii) By Tacheometer-
JKPSC AE 2021, DSSSB AE 2021
It is best suitable for hilly terrain.
In this survey theodolite with tacheometry facility is
commonly used.
Horizontal distance- D = K.Scos 2 θ + C cos θ
Vertical distance, V = D tan θ Methods of interpolation-
1. Arithmetical method-
Where, NWDA JE 2021
S = Stadia reading This method is time consuming very tedious but
K = Multiplying constant most accurate method.
C = Additive constant Used for small area where accurate result required.
Position of contour points between guide points is
Comparison b/w direct and indirect methods of
located by arithmetic calculation.
contouring-
2. Estimation method-
Direct Method Indirect Method APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020
• Very accurate but slow and • Less accurate but This is very rough method and is usually adopted
tedious quicker and less where the ground forms are quite regular, scale of
map is small and high accuracy is not required.
tedious
Assumed that slope between ground points is
• Appropriate for small • Suitable for large uniform.
projects requiring high projects requiring If is simple and rapid method.
accuracy moderate to low 3. Graphical/mechanical method-
accuracy JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022, UPPCL AE 2015
• More suitable for low • For hilly region This is a most rapid and convenient method and
undulating terrain provide high accuracy than estimation method.
Many interpolation work is involve in this method.
• Less economical • More economical
In the graphical method, the interpolation is done
• After contouring, • Can be checked as and with the help of a tracing paper or a tracing cloth.
calculation cannot be when needed. Note-Arithmetical method is more accurate than
checked graphical method.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 189 YCT
03.
THEODOLITE
Introduction-
Theodolite is a surveying instrument used for
measuring horizontal and vertical angles,
consisting of a small tripod mounted telescope that
is free to move with horizontal and vertical planes.
UPPCL AE 2021
Use-
GPSC DEE (GMC) Cl-2 2022, ODISA PSC AE 2020
1. Distance, horizontal and vertical angle
measurement
2. Layout of curve
3. Locating points on a line
4. To measure deflection angle
5. Prolonging survey lines
6. Setting out horizontal angles
7. Tacheometric surveying
Classification of theodolite-
1. Based on (i) Transit Theodolite-
Transition Telescope can be revolved through
1800 about its horizontal axis in the
vertical plane.
(ii) Non-Transit Theodolite-
Line of sight can't be revolve by
revolving the telescope 1800 in the
vertical plane.
Ex.-Y-Theodolite and Everest theodolite
2. Based on (i) Precise Optical Theodolite-
method of Mostly used for astronomical works.
obtaining Least count- 1"
reading (ii) Vernier Theodolite-
It consists two vernier scale for
measuring angle more precisely
upper plate of a transit theodolite has Note-
two verniers, which are diametrically Size of theodolite is represented by the size of
opposite to each other. main scale plate.
3. Based on (i) 8 - 12 cm Greater the size of plate represents greater
size of plate Used for ordinary work. accuracy.
(ii) 12 - 25 cm DMRC AM 2017, Vizag steel MT 2017
Used for high precision work like Least Count-
triangulation. UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022, TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
(i) Vernier Theodolite - 20"
Micro-optic Theodolite-
(ii) Electronic Theodolite - 1"
This is the most accurate instrument and it is used
in geodetic survey and military survey. A (iii) Micrometer Theodolite - 2"
micrometer is used to measure the reading in this Micrometer is used to take reading in microscopic
theodolite. theodolite
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 190 YCT
Main parts of theodolite- 4. Shifting Head-
UPPCL JE 2022
Shifting head allowed slight movement of
instrument in horizontal direction remains the
tripod station.
After completion of leveling, it is used to exact
centering of the instrument.
5. Index Frame-
It is the T-shaped frame carrying the vernier of the
vertical circle.
It's vertical arm is known as clipping arm and
horizontal arm is index or vernier arm.
6. Altitude Bubble-
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
It is placed on the vernier frame and used to make
the horizontal axis truly horizontal.
7. Vertical Circle-
JSSC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022
Vertical circle is attached to the trunnion axis.
1. Lower plate/Scale plate- It provides the main scale reading for the vertical
Lower plate monolithically constructed with outer angles.
spindle. It provide main scale reading of a Slow motion screw is used to accurate target of an
horizontal angle. object.
It is also known as scale plate, main plate or
Some basic definition-
horizontal plate.
It is graduated in degree from 0° – 360° with least Centering-
count 20". Process of setting up the instrument exactly over
For control the lower plate, a lower clamp screw the ground station marked.
and slow motion screw or tangent screw are used. A plumb bob is used for precise centering.
2. Upper Plate/Vernier plate - Optical plummet is used in windy condition to
UPRVUNL JE 2022, J&K PSC AE 2009 centering theodolite.
It is the horizontal circular plate monolithically JSSC JE 2022
constructed with inner spindle. Transiting/ Reversing/Plunging-
At upper plate two vernier is attach in opposite ISRO Tech Asst. 2022, NHPC JE 2022
direction. The process of turning the telescope about
Note- horizontal axis through 1800 in vertical plane.
If lower clamp screw tightened and upper clamped Swinging-
screw is unclamped then lower plate does not KA PSC AE (WRD) 2021, HPPSC (HPPTCL)AE 2021
moves but upper plate moves. Turning of the telescope in horizontal plane about
Upper clamped screw is clamped but lower its vertical axis.
clamped screw is unclamped then both plate moves
Right Swing-
together in same direction for that condition it
measure horizontal angle. Swinging the telescope into clockwise direction.
UPRVUNL JE 2022 Left Swing-
Both upper and lower plate screw is clamped then Swinging the telescope into anticlockwise
there is no movement between plates. direction.
3. Leveling Head- Changing Face-
DDA JE 2023, MPPGCL JE 2023
Changing face means the operation of bringing the
It consists of two parallel plates that are separated
telescope from face left to face right or face right to
by three leveling screw. Upper parallel plate is
left.
known as tribrach and lower plate is called trivet.
The face is changed by plunging the telescope and
Leveling head provide a balanced level to the
swinging it by 1800.
instrument.
It support the upper part of instrument. Note:- The errors that are eliminated by changing the
face are-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 191 YCT
(i) Error due to horizontal axis does not being 1. Axis of plate level must be perpendicular to
perpendicular to vertical axis. vertical axis.
(ii) Error due to line of collimation 2. Axis of telescope must be parallel to the line of
Right Face- collimation.
Vertical circle is in right hand side to the observer 3. The line of collimation must be perpendicular to
during observation. the horizontal axis.
Vertical circle should read zero, when the line of
Left Face-
collimation is horizontal.
Vertical circle is in left hand side to the observer
4. Horizontal axis must be perpendicular to vertical
during observation.
axis.
Left swing is not favored because reading is 5. Line of collimation should coincide with the
increase in clockwise. optical axis of the telescope and should also be
Telescope Normal or Direct Telescope- perpendicular to the vertical axis.
Telescope is said to be normal or direct, if vertical
Adjustment of theodolite-
circle is in left hand side to the observer and bubble
1. Temporary Adjustment-
of the telescope is above it.
DDA JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022
Telescope Inverted- (i) Setting up and centering
The telescope is said to be inverted when vertical (ii) Levelling
circle is in right hand side to the observer and (iii) Elimination of parallax (focussing)
bubble tube is downward to it. (a) By focussing of eye-piece
Fundamental axis of theodolite and (b) By focussing of objective lens
relation between them- Note-
Horizontal /Trunnion or Transverse axis- Parallax-
DDA JE 2023, Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020 It is defined as the error occurs, when image
It is defined as the axis about which telescope and formed by objective lens is not in the same plane
vertical circle both rotates in vertical plane. with cross hairs of the telescope.
Vertical Axis- Parallax bar is used to measure parallax difference.
Axis about which telescope rotates in horizontal 2. Permanent adjustment-
plane. These are made to establish the relationship b/w the
fundamental line/axis of theodolite.
It is also called "azimuth axis".
This is the axis about which the lower and upper Axis relation/permanent adjustment of
plates rotate. theodolite and their test-
Line of Sight or Line of Collimation- Axis Relation Test Conducted
WBPSC AE 2021, TNPSC AE 2022, UPSC JWM 2017 1. Horizontal axis should be Spire test
It is defined as the line passing through the perpendicular to vertical axis.
intersection of cross hairs of diaphragm and optical 2. Vertical axis should be Plate level test
centre of objective lens and its continuation. perpendicular to the axis of level
If line of sight is horizontal then it is called as line tube.
of collimation. 3. Line of collimation should be Azimuth test
Axis of Plate Level or Bubble Axis- perpendicular to horizontal axis
It is the axis which tangential to the longitudinal 4. Axis of bubble tube should be Vertical arc index
curve of the level tube at the center of the tube. parallel to line of collimation. test
Axis of telescope- Horizontal angle measurement method-
CHB JE (Building) 2023, UKPSC JE 2022 1. General method-
GPSC AE (GMB) Class-2 2021
Theodolite is turned clockwise from the back
The line joining the optical center of the object station to the forward station.
glass to the center of eye-piece is called axis of
2. Repetition method-
telescope. UPPCL JE 2022, RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021
Relation- This method is used to measure horizontal angle
These axis relation is also known as the permanent very accurately. This method is preferred for the
adjustment of the theodolite. measurement of single angle.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 192 YCT
In this method angle is measured several times and b. Unequal graduations.
average angle value is taken i.e. (iii) Measuring the angle on the different parts of circle.
3. Reiteration or Series Method-
UPPSC AE 2020, MH PSC Mains 2018
Method of reiteration is used when the many angle
are to be measured from the single setting at a
point.
Sum of total angle
Angle =
No. of observation taken
Errors eliminated by repetition method-
(i) By changing face of theodolte
a. When line of collimation not being
perpendicular to the horizontal axis. Note-
b. Horizontal axis not being perpendicular to the By reading both the verniers, any identical errors
vertical axis. due to eccentricity of verniers is counteracted.
c. Line of collimation not coinciding with the axis To measure the magnetic bearing of line compass
of the telescope. is used in modern theodolite.
(ii) By reading both verniers and averaging the Error due to the equidistant lines not being
readings. perpendicular to the horizontal axis, can be
a. When vernier plate not coinciding with the axis eliminated by taking the both face observation.
of the main scale plate. SSC JE 2022
04.
TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING
Introduction- Objective of Tacheometry Survey-
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023, UPMRC AM 2023 The primary object of tacheometry is the preparation
KPSC AE 2021, HPPSC (HPPTCL) AE 2021 of contour maps or plans requiring both for the
Tacheometric surveying is defined as a method of horizontal as well as vertical control.
angular surveying in which a tachometer is used to Tacheometric surveying is preferred over chain or
determine the horizontal and vertical distance tape surveying.
between two points. It is rapid and more convenient, specially in hard
A transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is terrains such as broken grounds, deep ravines or
generally used for tacheometric survey. undulation exists, swampy areas etc.
Uses of Tacheometry- Types of telescope used in stadia surveying-
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022, RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021 1. Simple external focusing telescope.
• Reconnaissance surveys for highways, railways etc. (It is also known as stadia theodolite).
• Preparation of topographic maps which require both 2. External focusing anallactic or Porro's telescope.
elevations and horizontal distances. (It is known as tacheometer).
• Hydrographic surveys. 3. Internal focusing telescope.
• Checking of measured distances. • Additive constant of the tacheometer is zero so it
• Survey work in difficult terrain (Hilly and undulating have more advantage over than other two types.
ground) • The stadia diaphragm generally consists of two hairs,
• Establishing the secondary control points. and equidistant from a central horizontal hair.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 193 YCT
(b) Movable Hair Method or Subtense Method-
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 26.9.2021
The staff interval is kept constant by changing the
distance between the stadia hairs i.e. here stadia
interval is variable and staff intercept is kept fixed.
It is a slow method.
2. Tangential method-
DDA JE 2023, UPPSC AE 2020
In this method, the readings are taken against the
horizontal cross hair.
The stadia hair is not used in tangential method.
Essential Features of Tachecometer- There is two observations are required from the
Telescope should have truly anallactic lens to make staff station to the instrument station.
the additive constant zero. Generally this method is not used.
Axial horizontal line exactly midway between the Three type of tangential method–
other two lines. A. When both of the observed angle are elevated-
Multiplying constant should have 100.
Magnification of powerful telescope is in 20 to 30
diameters.
The aperture of the objective should be 35 to 45 mm
in diameter to have a sufficiently bright image.
System of tacheometery-
S S.tan α 2
D= , V = D tan α 2 =
tan α1 − tan α 2 tan α1 − tan α 2
1. Stadia system- B. When both the observed angles are in depression-
(a) Fixed hair method-
NHPC JE 2022, GPSC AE Dec 2018
In this method interval between two stadia hair is
fixed and the staff interval or intercept on the
levelling staff varies with the distance.
It is the most common method in tacheometry.
S S.tan α 2
D= , V = D tan α 2 =
tan α 2 − tan α1 tan α 2 − tan α1
C. When one of the observed angles is an angle of
elevation and the other an angle of depression-
Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021
Distance between the stations and staff is obtained
by multiplying the stadia constant to the staff
intercept. D = K.S + C Where, S = S3 – S1
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
UPRVUNL JE 2022, GPSC AE (CLASS 1 & 2) 2019
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 194 YCT
S S.tan α 2
D= , V=
tan α1 + tan α 2 tan α1 + tan α 2
Subtense bar/horizontal stave-
DDA JE 2023
Subtense bar can measure horizontal and vertical
distance in places where chaining is impossible
because of undulations and rough topography.
It can measure short distance upto 200 m.
Length - 2 - 3m
Horizontal distance-
Stadia Rod/Vertical stave-
It is a graduated rod used with an instrument having D = K.S.cos 2 θ + C cos θ
stadia hairs to measure the distance from the NHPC JE 2022, UPPSC A.E. 2013
observation point to the place where the rod is Vertical intercept-
positioned. sin 2θ
V = K.S. + C.sin θ
Principle of stadia method- 2
It is based on the principle "the ratio of the r = Central hair reading
perpendicular to the base is constant in similar MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
isosceles triangles." Distance and elevation formulae for staff
normal-
D = (K.S + C) cos θ ± r sin θ
UPRVUNL AE 2015, CSE 1999
V = (K.S + C) sinθ
+ve when θ is upward
–ve when θ is depressed downward
D = K.S + C Fergusson's percentage unit system-
GPSC AAE (GMC) Cl-3, 2021, JPSC AE 2021 In this system a, circle inscribed in a square is
Where, divided into eight equal parts.
D = Horizontal distance of the staff from the vertical Each octants is of length equal to the radius of the
axis of the instrument. circle and is divided into 100 equal parts as shown
above figure.
Focal Length (f )
Multiplying constant, K=
Stadia Interval (i)
DDA JE 2023, SSC JE 2022
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
Additive constant, C = f +d
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, GPSC GES Pre 2021
d = Distance of the vertical axis of the instrument
from O point
S = Staff intercept.
Note-Multiplying constant depends upon the magnitude
of the angle, if angle is made equal to 34'22" then the
multiplying constant is obtained 100.
Distance and elevation for staff held vertical
and inclined sight-
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021, RPSC ACF & FRD 2021
HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021, West Bengal PSC AE 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 195 YCT
05.
CURVE
Introduction- Types of Transition Curve-
Curve is defined as the arc with some finite radius 1. Spiral/Clothoid curve
provided between intersecting straights to gradually (It fulfill the condition of an ideal transition curve)
negotiate a change in direction. 2. Cubic Parabola
3. Bernoullis Lemniscate curve
(This is the ideal shape of transition curve)
DDA JE 2023, GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021
1. Simple curve-
A curve which consists of a single arc of a circle Summit Curve-
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023
connecting two straights. Types of vertical curve in which two grades meet at
the summit having convexity upward side is termed
as summit curve.
• Parabola is the ideal shape of summit curve.
Valley/ Sag curve-
It meets at valley and convexity have downward
side.
Elements of a simple circular curve-
2. Compound Curve-
It consist two or more arc of different radii
deflecting in the same direction and laying on the
same side of common tangent.
3. Reverse Curve-
UK PSC AE 2022 Paper-II Back tangent or first The tangent previous to the
It is the types of curve which consists of two tangent curve.
circular arc or simple curve of same or different Forward Tangent or The tangent following the curve.
radii having their centre's on the opposite sides of a second tangent
common tangent. Point of Intersection The point where back and
These are also known as serpentine curve or S- (P.I) forward tangent intersect.
curve Point of curve (P.C.) The point where the curve
If two line meets at a very small angles, reverse changes its alignment from
straights to a curve.
curve is the better option to connect them.
• It is the beginning of the curve.
4. Transition Curve-
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, NWDA JE 01.08.2021 Point of tangency The point at which the curve
A curve of varying radius is called as transition (P.T) changes its alignment from curve
curve. It is also called spiral curve or easement to a straight.
curve. • It is the end of curve.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 196 YCT
Intersection angle (θ) It is the interior angle between Degree of railway curve 1° – 6°
the back and forward tangent. Degree of highway curve 1° – 20°
Deflection angle (∆) Exterior angle between the two Radius and versine relation of curve-
tangent (forward and rear
tangent). C2
V= V,C and R in m
Tangent Length Distance b/w P.C./point of BR
tangency and the point of 125C2
intersection. V= C and R in m and V in cm.
R
External/Apex Distance between mid point of
curve and point of intersection. 1.5C2
distance V= C. and R in feet, V in inch.
R
Length of curve (l) Curved distance b/w P.C. and
P.T. Setting out of curve-
Length of chord It is the straight distance b/w A. Linear Method
P.C. and P.T. In this method, only tape or chain is used.
Mid-ordinate (M) Vertical distance b/w mid point
of curve and mid point of long It is used when-
chord. (a) High degree of accuracy is not required.
Normal chord Horizontal distance between two (b) Curve is short.
successive regular station on the Linear Method of Setting out of Curve-
curve. 1. By Offset/Ordinates from long chord-
Sub-chord It is an any chord shorter than
the normal chord. O x = (R 2 − x 2 ) − (R − O o )
Right hand curve If the curve deflects to the right 2. By Successive bisection of chord-
hand side of the progress of Offset = R(1 – cos θ/2)
survey work.
3. By Offsets from tangent-
Left hand curve Curve deflects to left hand side
of the progress of survey work. O x = R − R 2 − x 2 Perpendicular offset
Important formula related to elements of
simple circular curve- O x = R 2 + x 2 − R Radial offset
1. Length of Curve πR∆ 4. By offsets from chord produced or deflection
l=
1800 distance-
2. Tangent Length ∆ C
T = R tan O n = n ( C n −1 + C n )
2 2R
3. Length of Long chord ∆ B. Angular method-
L = 2R sin In this method, an instrument such as theodolite with
2
4. Apex distance ∆ or without tape or chain used.
E = R sec − 1 It is used when-
2
(a) High degree of accuracy is required.
5. Mid ordinate ∆
(b) Curve is long.
M = R 1 − cos
2 Angular method of setting out curve-
∆ 1. Two theodolite method-
= 2R sin 2 This is the most suitable method, based on the
4
Designation of Curve- principle that the deflection angle between a tangent
(i) By Radius of curvature and a chord is equal to the angle which the chord
(ii) By degree of Curvature subtends in the alternate segment.
Degree of curvature is defined as the angle One theodolite is kept at the point of curve and
subtended by arc or angle subtended by a chord of another is at the point of tangency (P.T.).
30 m or 20 m length of chain at the centre of the
curve. 2. Tachometric method-
In this method a point on the curve is fixed by the
1chain length × 180
Radius, R = defection angle from the rear tangent and measuring
π×8 tacheometrically the distance of that point from
1719 point of curve (P.C.).
= For 30 m chain
θ 3. Rankine's method of tangential (or deflecting)
UPPCL JE 2022, UK PSC AE 2022 angle-
1146 In this method, the curve is set out by the tangential
R= For 20 m chain
θ angles with a theodolite and a chain (or tape).
Chord definition is used in case of railway. It is also called as chain and theodolite method.
Arc definition is used in case of highways. s This method is accurate than tachometry method.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 197 YCT
01.
MODERN FIELD SURVEY SYSTEM
Methods of measuring distance b/w two Note-
points- There should be good intervisibility between the
stations.
DDM ODM EDM
This method is avoided in case of large amount of
It is done by By tacheometer, Geodimeter, inconsistency in the terrain or large obstruction.
Chaining or Horizontal substance tellurometer,
Classification of EDM Instrument-
taping method or telemetric distomat etc.
1. On the basis of carrier wave used-
method
Property Instrument
- Range- 100-150m Up to 100 km
5 Microwave Visible Infrared
• Unsuitable Accuracy- 1 in 100 to 1 1 in 10
in difficult In 10000 Range Long, Medium, Short
terrain It is carried out by means < 100 km < 25 km 2 - 5 km
- of optical wedge Frequency 3 - 30 GHz 5 × 1014 Hz 3 × 1014
attachment. range Hz
Example Tellurometer Geodimeter Distomat
Key Points
■ Geodimeter (Electronics distance measurement 2. On the Basis of Reflector Type-
device) is based on– (i) Active reflector- Power is required for it
The propagation of modulated light waves Ex.- Tellurometer
■ The height deduced from GPS observations is– (ii) Passive reflector- Prism reflector
The ellipsoidal height Ex.- Geodimeter, Distomate
■ The first median remote sensing Bhaskara-1 (iii) No- reflector-
launched– June 1979
■ A DGPS provides improved location accuracy
because it uses–
Network of fixed ground–based reference
stations
■ ......... is a type of spatial data used in GIS–
Polygon
Note-
■ IRS 1C satellite platform carries the sensor system
Distance is measured by the phase difference b/w
is– LISS III
the transmitted and reflected signals.
■ The normal altitude of a GPS satellite is–
20,200 km Total Station (T.S.)-
A total station also known as electronic tacheometer,
Electromagnetic Distance Measurement is an optical instrument that is designed as a
(EDM)- combination of an electronic theodolite and an
HPSC Lecturer 2022, HPCL JE 2022 electronic distance meter (EDM) and software that
NWDA JE 2021 runs on a computer which is referred to as the data
EDM is the method of determining distance b/w two collector.
points, using phase change that occurs due to A microprocessor inbuilt in to the instrument takes
electromagnetic energy waves traveling from one care of recording, reading and necessary
end of the line to another end. computations.
Principle- UPPCL AE 2022
Determination of time required for electromagnetic Microprocessor transfer the data to the computer
waves to travel between two stations. where it can be used to generate a map.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 198 YCT
T.S. store the data in a electronic book (memory Global Positioning System (G.P.S.)-
card) that can be unloaded to the computer. TNPSC AE 2019
GPS is a space based all weather radio navigation
system that provides quickly, accurately and
inexpensively the time, position and velocity of the
object anywhere on the globe at any time.
Current GPS is based on accurate ephemeris data on
the real time location on each satellite and on a
precisely kept time.
It uses the satellite signals, accurate time and
sophisticated algorithms to generate distances in
order to triangulate positions anywhere on earth.
Total 24 satellites are used in GPS survey in 6
Working principle- orbits.
These instruments measure the distances of prism Min. 4 satellites are required for the GPS to
poles mounted with prism with the help of laser determine precise position of object.
beam or infrared rays. GPSC AE 2022, DLB Senior Draftsman 2021
A signal is emitted by the EDM and reflected back LMRC AM 2019, GPSC AE January 2018, GPSC AE 2017
to EDM by the prism mounted on the prism pole. There is three segments comprised in GPS-
Then, 1. Satellite constellations or space segment-
Total time taken b/w emission and reflected back to EDM It consists of the nominal 24- satellite constellation.
Distance = × Velocity
2 2. Ground control or monitoring network
t (operational control segment)-
or, D = ×V
2 It is responsible for maintaining the satellite and
their proper functioning.
3. User receiving equipment or user segment-
It receives and process the L-band signals
transmitted from the satellite to determine users
position, velocity and time.
Types of GPS-
1. Differential GPS-
Use of T.S.- It is a system in which differences b/w observed and
(i) Civil engineering works computed co-ordinates or ranges called differential
(ii) Land surveying and alignment surveying corrections, at a particular known point called the
(iii) Mining reference station are transmitted to users to improve
(iv) Coordinate determination the accuracy of the user's receiver position.
(v) To track ceiling balloons to determine the height of
2. Kinematic GPS or Real Time Kinematic (RTK)-
cloud layers.
It is used to enhance the precision of position data
6. Angle, slope and distance measurement.
derived from satellite based positioning systems
Advantage-
being unable in conjunction with GPS, GLONASS
Quick collection of information.
and Galileo.
Quick and efficient layout of construction site
Setting up of T.S. is also easier due to use of laser Glonass-
plummet. It is the satellite navigation system, providing real
It helps to contouring and map preparation. time position and velocity determination for military
Greater accuracy in area computation. and civilian users.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 199 YCT
Galileo- REMOTE SENSING
It is used to provide a high precision positioning Introduction-
system.
HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021
Sources of errors in GPS- Remote sensing is the science and art of collecting
(i) Ephemeris error information about object, area without physical
(ii) Multipath error contact with them.
(iii) Clock drift error
(iv) Atmospheric conditions error
Geographic Information System (GIS)-
PGCIL DT 2023, UPPCL AE 2021
GIS is a computer aided system for storing
managing, manipulating geographical data to solve
special problems of real world.
It has five component- Electromagnetic remote sensing process
(i) Hardware Note-
(ii) Software Remote elevation measurement is the process of
(iii) Data finding the height of an object without going to the
(iv) Procedure top.
(v) Users UPPCL AE 2021
Representation symbol in GIS- Areal photography is the first remote sensing
Point It is used to denote survey control points. technique.
Ex.-Village, building, city is represented Types of remote sensing base on the source
by point based on scale of map.
of energy-
Line Ex.- Roadway, Railway, river, Canal, Pipe
1. Active Remote Sensing-
Line, boundary etc.
MPPGCL JE 2023, DLB Senior Draftsman 2021
Polygon It is used to depict an area i.e. A system in which energy collected by sensors is
Forest, cultivated land, water body etc. actively generated by a man made device for the
Nadir point- collection of data is called active remote sensing.
It is an imaginary point just vertically below the In this system, waves are propagated near the sensor
observer's position in celestial sphere.
and are bounced on the earth's surface to be recorded
CGPSC AE 2017, Rajasthan JEn (Degree) 2016
on their return.
Zenith point-
Ex.- Radar
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2020
An imaginary point at which plumb lines appears to 2. Passive Remote Sensing–
intersect upward the observers in celestial sphere is Assam Engg. College Lect. 2021, GPSC AE Cl-2 (NWR) 2021
called zenith point. UPPSC AE 2020, GATE 2016
A system that uses an existing source of energy (like
sun rays) is called passive remote sensing.
Advantage of R.S.-
Provide synoptic overview of the earth surface.
Data generated by this technique is multi spectral
and have repetitive coverage.
It collect the images and explain the intensity of the
disaster and its areal expansion.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 200 YCT
02.
PHOTOGRAMMETRIC
OR AREAL SURVEY
Introduction- Optical axis is intentionally inclined to the vertical
Photogrammetric survey is the science and art of axis at a large angle. It is used to get a more familiar
obtaining accurate measurements by use of view of the terrain.
photographs for various purpose such as the It is further two types-
construction of planimetric and topographic maps, (a) Low oblique photograph-
soil classification, interpretation of geology and the Intentional deviation is 15° - 30°
preparation of composite pictures of the ground etc. Photographs do not shows horizon.
ESE 2022 It is often used in reconnaissance survey.
Objects are measured without being touched, in this (b) High oblique photograph-
method. It is obtained when camera axis is intentionally
1. Ground or Terrestrial Photogrammetry- inclined about 60° from the vertical axis.
Photographs are taken from the fixed position on or It shows the horizon.
near the ground. It is also used in reconnaissance surveys.
2. Areal Photogrammetry-
Photographs are taken by a camera mounted in an
aircraft flying over the area is called areal
photogrammetry.
Mapping by this means is the best mapping
procedure for developed large project.
This method is suitable for inaccessible area and
mountainous region.
Comparison between vertical and oblique
It is rapid, economical and best for large area
mapping.
photographs-
Attributes Vertical Oblique
Types of areal photographs on the basis
Low Oblique High Oblique
of orientation of camera axis- Optical Axis Tilt < 3° i.e. Deviation < Deviates by
1. Vertical photograph- exactly or 30° from the axis > 30°
Optical axis of the camera is truly vertical at the nearly vertical axis from vertical
moment of exposure to the surface of the earth. coincides axis
with the
It closely resembles a map.
vertical axis
Characteristics Horizon does Horizon does Horizon
not appear not appear appears
Coverage Small area Relatively Largest area
larger area
Shape of the Square Trapezoidal Trapezoidal
area
Photographed Uniform, if Decreases from Decreases
scale the terrain is far ground to from the fore
flat background ground to the
background
Difference in Least Relatively Greatest
2. Tilted photograph- comparison to greater
UPCL AE 2021 the map
Camera axis is unintentionally inclined to the Advantages Useful in Reconnaissance Illustrative
vertical by < 3° topographical Survey
3. Oblique photograph- and thematic
ESE 2022 mapping
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 201 YCT
Phototheodolite- Isocenter (i)-
Phototheodolite is the combination of theodolite and The point on photo that falls on a line half-way b/w
terrestrial camera mounted on the same tripod. It is the principal point and the Nadir point is known as
used in terrestrial photogrammetry for the making of Isocenter.
map and other various purpose.
Tilt (t)-
Some important terminology-
Vertical angle defined by the intersection at the
exposure station.
A tilt in an areal photograph is radial from the
isocentric point.
Terrestrial Photogrammetry-
(Horizontal photograph)
Where, f = Focal length of camera
N = Ground Nadir point
(H – g) = Altitude
h = Height of G.L. from datum
H = Flying height
Camera Body- Object distance on photo x
Scale, S = =
Camera body is the part of camera provided at the Object distance on ground X
top of the cone of camera. From similarity of triangle-
Camera Axis-
f x
It is passing through the centre of camera lens = =S
perpendicular to camera plate (–ve) and picture D X
plane (photograph). Scale of Areal/Vertical Photograph-
Exposure station (O)-
The point from where pictures are taken is known as
exposure station.
Principal point (p)-
GPSC AE Dec 2018
Scale of vertical photograph-
The point where the perpendicular projected through
the centre of the lens intersect the photo image. x f
S= = Flat terrain
Ground Nadir point (N)- X H−h
Ground point vertically beneath the exposure station ESE 2022, CSE 1998
is called ground nadir point. If object is directly over the ground level then-
Nadir point or photo Nadir point (n)-
x f
It is the point where plumb line intersects the SD = = Datum scale
X H
photograph.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 202 YCT
If Vertical Photograph Taken Over Variable H − hA x
XA = .x A = A
Terrain- f SA
H − hA y
YA = × yA = A
f SA
H − hB x
XB = .x B = B
f SB
H − hB y
YB = × yB = B
f SB
So, distance between two point by coordinate
geometry
( X A − X B ) + ( YA − YB )
2 2
D=
Then, SA =
f Relief Displacement-
H − hA
f
SB =
H − hb
x f
Then, Average scale, Savg = =
X H − h avg
h + hB
h avg = A
2
Ground Coordinates and Their Distance-
Distance on a photograph, from the image of any
ground point to its fictitious image projected to a
datum plane is the image displacement caused by
topographic relief is known as relief displacement.
Relief displacement is always radial from the
principal point in case of vertical photograph.
Relief displacement,
d = (r – r0)
f .R.h
= by similar triangle law-
If coordinates of a photo point (x, y) and ground H(H − h)
coordinates are (X, Y)
then from scale of photograph, r.h f .R f .R
d= ro = , r =
x f H−h x
H H H−h
= or X = .x = And if datum height (h') is given, then
X H−h f S
If there is two points A and B on the ground with r.h
d=
elevation hA and hB then their ground coordinates. H − h'
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 203 YCT
Flight planning for areal survey- Number of photograph (N)-
st
1. Longitudinal overlap- I method
The overlap by two successive photo taken by
Total area to be surveyed A
camera in the longitudinal direction of flight is N= =
called longitudinal or end overlap. Net area of ground covered by a
single photegraph
It is carried out to prevent gaps due to tilt, crib,
terrain and flying height variation etc.
• Net ground length covered by each photograph
2. Lateral overlap-
= l.s (1 − le )
It is the area overlapped by two camera in the lateral
or side direction of flight. • Net ground width covered by each photograph
= w.S (1 − le )
So, G = lw.S2 (1 − le )(1 − ls )
A
N=
l.w.S (1 − le ) × (1 − ls )
2
IInd method-
N = No. of exposure per flight line × No. of flight
lines
i.e. N = N1 × N 2
Where,
L
N1 = +1
l.S (1 − le )
B
N2 = +1
w. S (1 − ls )
Note-
Optimum flight planning for a photogrammetric Note-
survey is done by taking side lap and end lap both. Overlapping is required to orient prints so as to form
Longitudinal/end overlap- a continuous flight strip.
G−w for stereoscope vision, only the overlap portion is
le % = ×100 useful.
G
Where, Drift-It is the shifting of aircraft from its planned
G = Ground covered by single photograph. flight lines often caused due to strong wind.
w = Distance b/w two successive exposure. Stereoscope-
Transverse/lateral or side lap- An instrument used for viewing stereo pair in areal
G−b or photogrammetric surveying is called stereo scope.
ls % = ×100
G It is also used to magnify the depth of perception.
Note- Note-
Two consecutive overlapping photograph taken
le = 55- 65% ≃ 60%
from adjacent positions during a flight is called
ls = 25- 35% ≃ 30%
stereo pair.
Let- Classification of Stereoscope -
L = Ground length to be Surveyed (i) Mirror stereoscope
B = Ground width
(ii) Lens stereoscope
l = Length of photograph
(iii) Scanning mirror stereoscope
w = Width of photograph
S = Scale of photograph (iv) Zoom stereoscope
le = Longitudinal/End overlap (v) Stereoscopic plotting instrument.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 204 YCT
03.
FIELD ASTRONOMY
Introduction- 2. Zenith and Nadir-
JSSC JE 2022 CGPSC AE 2017, APPSC AE 2016 (Mains)
Field astronomy is required at the places where high These are the extreme points on celestial sphere
degree of precision is required by determining the along the direction on gravity.
absolute position of points on earth. Point of the celestial sphere directly above the
Purpose of field astronomy- observer is called zenith point and point directly
It is used to determine the true meridian, latitude , below the observer is called nadir point.
longitude and time . 3. Celestial/True/Geocentric Horizon-
Position of point is determined in terms of latitude IRCON AE 2017, Kerala PSC AE 2015
and longitudes. It is great circle which is perpendicular to zenith -
Determination of orientation. nadir lines and passes through the celestial center of
Note- sphere
Earth Revolves about the polar axis from west to Note-
east with a time period of 24 hours. It is not necessary that the earth centre of sphere is
Earths Ellipticity- also passes through the celestial centre of sphere and
vice versa.
(Equatorial radius - polar radius)
e= 4. Terrestrial Poles-
2
The points where the earth's surface and earth axis of
The ellipticity of earth is small and it is about 0.52
rotation meets.
%(H ≃ 1/193) so we can consider it a sphere without
5. Terrestrial Equator-
calculating error.
The great circle of the earth, the plane of which is at
Astronomical Terminologies- right angles to the axis of rotation. The two poles are
equidistant from it.
6. Celestial Equator-
When equator of the earth is extended to the celestial
poles, it forms great circle in the celestial sphere
which is known as celestial equator.
7. Sensible Horizon-
The small circle passing through the observer's
station being tangential to the earth's surface and
perpendicular to the zenith-nadir line at the point of
observation is known as sensible horizon.
8. Visible Horizon-
The circle of contact with the earth surface of the
visible rays passing through the point of observation
1. Celestial sphere-
is called as visible horizon. It is a small circle of
A projection of altitude and longitude onto the sky.
earth.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 205 YCT
9. Vertical Circle-
These are the great circles passing through zenith &
nadir.
10. The Observer's Meridian-
The Meridian of any particular point is that circle
which passes through the zenith (Z) and Nadir (Z')
and poles P point as well as through the poles.
11. Prime Vertical/prime control-
A vertical circle which is at right angle to the
observer's meridian and passes through the east and
west point of the horizontal.
(i) East and West Points-
These are the points on which prime vertical meets
18. Declination Circle of Celestial Body-
the horizon.
The declination circle of celestial body is the
(ii) North and South Points-
celestial meridian which passes through the celestial
It is the projected points of the elevated north pole
body.
and depressed south poles.
Alternatively, declination ( δ ) of a celestial body is
12. Latitude(θ)-
the angular distance measured on stars meridian
It is the vertical angle above or below equator.
north or south of the celestial equator. It varies from
+ve, when place is at the north of equator
0 to 900.
–ve, when place is at the south of equator.
+ve, when place is at the north of equator.
13. Co-latitude-
–ve, when place is at the south of equator.
It is angular distance from zenith to the pole.
19. Co-declination or polar distance-
It is complement of latitude i.e.(90–θ).
It is angular distance of heavenly body from nearer
14. Longitude-
pole. Compliment of declination i.e. (p = 90 – δ).
It is the horizontal angle between the fixed meridian
20. Hour Circle-
(i.e prime meridian) and the meridian on the place of
It is a great circle passing through north and celestial
the observer.
poles.
The normally adopted prime meridian is the
Ex.- Declination circle of heavenly body.
Greenwich. It is measured on the plane of equator
and it expressed in degree or hour minutes and 21. Hour Angle-
seconds. It is the angle between the observers meridian and
15. Altitude(α) the meridian of the declination circle of the celestial
It is the angular distance of a heavenly body above body. It is measured towards west.
the horizon, measured on the vertical circle passing From 00 to 3600 or from 0 to 24 hour (by taking 150
through it. = 1 hour).
16. Co-Altitude/Zenith Distance- CSE 1994
It is the complement of altitude i.e (90 – δ). It is the 22. Right ascension (R.A.)-
angular distance between the body and zenith. It is the equatorial angular distance measured
17. Azimuth- eastward from the first point of Aries to the hour
The angle between the observer's meridian and the circle through the heavenly body.
vertical circle passing through the celestial body and 23. Ecliptic (path of sun)-
TNPSC AE 02.07.2022, CSE 1996
the zenith is called azimuth.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 206 YCT
It is the great circle of the heavens which the sun
appears to describe on the celestial sphere with earth
as a centre in the course of the year.
The plane of the ecliptic is inclined to the plane of
the equator at an angle of about 23°27'.
24. Solstices-
These are the points at which sun's declinations 1.
The sum of three sides of spherical triangles is
always less than the circumference of the great
( north or south) are maximum.
circle.
(i) Summer Solstices- 2. If two of three angles of the spherical triangle are
It is the time at which north declination of the Sun is equal then opposite sides are also equal.
maximum(or Sun is farthest from equator) it occurs 3. Any angle,
on 21st June every year. A or B or C < π or 180º
(ii) Winter Solstices- 4. Sum of three angle,
It is the time at which south declination of the Sun is
π or 1800 < (A + B + C) < 3π or 540º
maximum.
5. Sum of any two sides should be greater than third
It occurs on 22nd December every year.
i.e. (a + b) > c, (b + c) > a, (a + c) > b
25. Celestial Meridian-
UPPSC State Eng. A.E. 2007
Area of spherical triangle-
It is the great circle passing through the celestial πR 2 .e
As =
poles. In fact all meridians passes through the 180º
celestial poles. Spherical Excess-
Great Circle- It is the amount by which the sum of three angles of
When plane of the circle passes through equator or spherical triangle exceeds 180º.
centre of sphere then the circle is called as great Spherical excess (e) = (A + B + C) – 180º.
circle. Local sidereal time(LST)-
The amount of time that has elapsed since the vernal
Small Circle-
equinox has last traversed the meridian.
The plane passing through the earth rather than Co-ordinate systems-
equator and cuts the earth's surface is called small For determining the positions of the stars and planets
circle. where the distance to the object often is unknown it
Nautical Mile- usually suffices to use two co-ordinate various types
APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020 of co-ordinate system are:-
When the length of arc subtends an angle of 1 • The horizon system
minute at great circle then the length of the arc is • Equatorial co-ordinate system
called as 1 nautical mils • Ecliptic co-ordinate system
• Galactic co-ordinate system
2πR
1 nautical mile = = 1.853(km) Important Abbreviations-
360 × 60
(i) GMT - Greenwich mean time.
Spherical Triangle-
(ii) LMT - Local mean time.
It is a triangle formed by the intersection of three (iii) L.Std. T - Local standard time.
great circles. the angles formed at the vertices of the (iv) S.I. - Sidereal interval.
spherical triangle are called as spherical angle. (v) HA - Hour angle.
Characteristics of Spherical Triangle- (vi) LMM - Local mean midnight.
GPSC AE Dec 2018, CSE 1997 (vii) GST - Greenwich sidereal time.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 207 YCT
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 209
2. Unit of Measurement and Payment ................................................................................ 212
3. Methods of Building Estimate ........................................................................................ 215
4. Earth work in road and canal .......................................................................................... 217
5. Analysis of Rates ............................................................................................................ 219
6. Valuation ........................................................................................................................ 222
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 208 YCT
01.
INTRODUCTION
Estimation- 1. Plinth area estimate-
UPPCL JE 2022, Assam PSC AE (I.W.T.) 2021
It is the process of working out the approximate cost
In this method of estimate plinth area of building is
of an engineering project before execution of the
multiplied by the prevailing plinth area rate to get
work. the cost.
It is totally different from calculation of the exact
Approximate estimate = Plinth area × plinth area rate
cost after completion of the project.
Estimation is carried out to fulfill following needs- For a multi storeyed buildings plinth area estimate is
generated individually for each level.
(i) It helps to evaluate where there is any benefit to
This method is most accurate in approximate
execute the project.
estimate method.
(ii) It helps to inviting the tenders for the project.
It is 10-20% more than the carpet area.
(iii) It gives an idea about material (quantity) required 2. Cubic rate estimate-
for completing of work. DSSSB JE 2022, PPSC JE 2022, TNPSC AE 2012
This method is generally used for multi-storied
buildings. In this method structure cost is calculated
approximately as the total cubical contents (volume
of buildings) multiplied by rate per unit volume.
Cost of building/Approximate estimate
= Volume of building × Rate per unit volume
Where,
Volume of building = plinth area × Height of the
building (floor to roof top)
It is more accurate than plinth area method and unit
rate method.
Length and breadth are measured out to out of walls
excluding the plinth offset.
3. Unit rate estimate-
SSC JE (Civil) 2022
Unit rate estimating consists of choosing a standard
OPSC AEE 2019, TNPSC AE 2015 unit of accommodation and multiplying an
approximate cost per unit.
A. Preliminary estimate- Approx cost = No of unit × unit rate
SSC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022 4.
Typical bay method-
Assam PSC AE 2020 In this method, estimate is made by considering the
To obtain administrative approval of project. cost of bay (span).
Least accurate estimate which has a very high [Approximate cost = Number of bays × bay rate]
chances of error. B. Detailed Estimate-
It helps in deciding the financial aspect of project. DSSSB JE 2022
UKPSC JE Civil 2022, MHWRD JE 2022
About 5% of total cost of project is added in the
To prepared detailed estimate detailed drawing and
form of contingencies.
JKSSB JE (Civil) 2022
specifications are required. It consists of working
This estimate is prepared from practical knowledge out the quantities of each item of work and working
and cost of similar work. the cost.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 209 YCT
It is most accurate and best reliable method. 4. To determine earnest money and security deposit
It is prepared for technical sanction and useful for 5. For inviting tender
the execution of project. 6. Forecasting of material required and project
Total actual cost = Quantity × rate of item duration.
Classification of detailed estimate- 7. It serves as a guide during the execution of the work.
1. Revised estimate- It is prepared when- Some important area used in building-
MHWRD JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022 Built up area-
SSC JE Civil 2022, NWDA JE (Civil) 2021 SSC JE Civil 2022
(a) Original sanction amount or estimate exceed more It is defined as the area covered by the building just
than 5%. above the plinth level.
NHPC JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022
Super built up area = (Built up area + Common area)
Assam PSC AE (I.W. T.) 2021, MPPSC AE 2021
(b) The expenditure of the work exceeds more than 10% Max. Built up area for a building-
of the administrative approval. Plot area Max. built up area
DSSSB Tech. Asst 2021 up to 200 m2 60% of the plot area
(c) The material deviation is required. 2
200 - 500 m 50% of the plot area
(d) It is found that the sanctioned estimate is more than
500 - 1000 m2 40% of the plot area
the actual requirement.
2. Supplementary estimate- Above 1000 m2 33.33% of the plot area
JSSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022 Plinth area-
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021, UPPCL AE 2021 CHB JE (Building) 2023, UPSSSC JE 2022
It is required when further development is required MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, JSSC JE 2022
during the progress of original work. It is the built up covered area of a building measured
It is prepared when original sanctioned estimate is at the floor level of any storey by taking external
likely to exceed more than 5% due to changes in dimensions.
quantity of materials or rates. Plinth offset excluded if any.
3. Annual repair and maintenance estimate-
Plinth area = Built - up area − Deduction
DSSSB JE 2022, CGPSC AE 2017
It is prepared to know the maintenance cost of the As per IS:3861-2002 Included and Excluded area
building which will keep the structure in safe and Included Area Excluded Area
perfect condition. • Area of porch other than • Architectural bands,
This estimate prepared for annual repairs or cantilevered. cornices cantilevered
maintenance. Here the estimated cost should be porch etc.
within 1.5% of the total/capital cost of building.
• Internal shafts for • Internal sanitary shaft
It consists, white washing, painting, minor repairs etc.
sanitary installation provided these more
4. Item rate or detailed estimate-
provided these do not than 2m2 in area.
SSC JE 2022, MHWRD JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
exceeds 2m2 in area, air
It is an accurate method of estimating in which the
condition ducts, lifts etc.
entire building work is subdivided into individual
item of work. • Opening of elevators, • Open staircase, open
Objects of detailed estimate- door and window sills platform
1. Administrative approval • Headroom other than • Head room at terrace
2. Technical sanction terrace level, area of level, terrace at first
3. Accurate idea for the cost of construction barsati at terrace level floor.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 210 YCT
• Air conducting ducts and • Area of lofts, balcony. Circulation Area-
lift well with landing. It is the floor area which are used to movement of
• Machine room and • Spiral staircase people using the building.
porches, excluding the including landing. Circulation area is approximately equal to (plinth
cantilevered ones. area – carpet area).
• If there are any common • Towers, domes It is two types as-
walls b/w two buildings, projecting above the 1. Horizontal circulation area-
half the area of such walls terrace level at terrace. It is the area of the buildings for horizontal
shaft be considered. movement of the users.
Its included area of verandahs, passages, porches,
Key Points
balconies, corridors.
■ ..........field book is used for a comparatively large
scale and most detailed dimension work– It is 10-15% of plinth area.
Single line 2. Vertical circulation area-
■ Workman's compensation act 1923 came to force Area required for vertical movement of the users is
st
on– 1 July 1924 called vertical circulation area.
Floor area- Example-Area occupied by staircase, lifts, entrance
CHB Junior draftsman 2023 hall, ramps, escalators.
It is the total floor area between the walls, i.e. It is 4-5% of the plinth area.
Floor area = Plinth area − Area occupied by walls Deduction made for plastering & pointing-
Plinth area = L1 × B1 Area of opening Deduction
Floor area = L× B Up to 0.5 m2 No deduction
2 2
0.5 m to 3 m Only one face
2
>3m Made for both faces
(But the area of soffit, Jamb and
sill shall be measured and added)
No deduction shall be made for ends of joists, steps,
beams, posts, rafters etc.
As per IS-1200, deduction made for openings
of brickwork-
Sills of door and openings, area occupied by walls,
No deduction shall be made for-
pillars and any other intermediate support are not
(i) Openings up to 0.1m2 or 1000 cm2
included in the floor area of the building.
(ii) Ends of beam, purlins, post, rafters etc. up to 0.05
Total Floor area of all floors
Floor Area Ratio (F.A.R) = m2 or 500 cm2 Chajjas where thickness does not
Area of plot
exceeds 10 cm.
Carpet Area-
(iii) Wall plate, bearing of chajjas, bed plate where
It is an useful or liveable area or rentable/Lettable
thickness does not exceeds 10 cm.
area.
PPSC Building Inspector 2022, Assam PSC AE (IWT) 2021 (iv) Volume occupied by reinforcement.
Carpet area = Total floor area – Circulation area (v) Bearing of floor and roof slab are not deducted from
It is generally 50 to 60% of the plinth area. the masonry in the superstructure.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 211 YCT
02.
UNIT OF MEASUREMENT & PAYMENT
Measurement accuracy for different Corrugated Asbestos 1.10 2.20
item- Trafford sheet
Collapsible gate 1.50 -
Item Measurement Accuracy
Dimension/Linear 0.01 m
Work/Item/Name/ % of total cost of
Measurement
Expenditure project/capital cost
> 25 m 0.1 m
Water charge 1.5
Reinforcement 0.005 m
Annual repair 1.5
Area 0.01 m2
T & P (Tools and plants) 1- 1.5
Weight 1 kg.
Work charge establishment 1.5 - 2
Cubic content/volume 0.01 m3
Earnest money 2
wood work (thickness) 0.002 m
Contingencies 3- 5
steel work 0.001 m
Sanitary work 8
volume of wood work 0.001 m3
Thickness of slab projected 0.005 m Electrification 8
outside beam or column Water distribution work 8
Note- Generally more accuracy is required in width and Departmental charge 10-15
thickness measurement comparison to length. Contractor profit 10
Multiplying factor for calculation of painting area - Bond or guarantee 10
Irregular shape Multiplying factor Labour Expenditures 25-35
For one For both Electric fan 4
side side
Unit of Measurement and payments for various item
Flush Door 1.20 2.00 of Civil work-
Panelled, framed, batten and 1.30 2.25 Particular of Item M.K.S. System
Braced door.
Measurement Payment
Fully glazed or gauged steel 0.80 1.00
unit unit
door.
I. Earth work-
Partially panelled and 1.10 2.00
Surface-dressing 15 cm Sq.m Per Sq. m
partially glazed or gauzed
up to depth
door.
Foundation excavation Cu.m Per Cu m
Corrugated iron sheet (G.I. 1.14 2.28
Sheet) Earth work dressing Sq. m Per Sq. m
Corrugated asbestos sheet 1.20 2.40 Earth filling on base of Cum Per Cu m
(A.C. sheet) road, with rolling
Semi Corrugated Asbestos 1.10 2.20 II. Brick work-
sheet Brick, Earth Tile (with Thousand Per
Steel Rolling shutter 1.10 2.50 size) Thousand
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 212 YCT
Half brick thick masonry Sq. m Per Sq. m Iron railing (height and quintal Per quintal
(up to 10 cm Thick) types specified).
In Super Structure brick Cu. m Per Cu m Bending, binding of steel quintal Per quintal
masonry work (> 10 cm reinforcement
thick) Steel reinforcement bars quintal Per quintal
Honey - Comb brick Sq. m Per Sq. m etc. in RCC and RB work.
masonry work
Flat soling of brick Sq. m Per Sq. m Rivet, Bolts and Nuts, quintal Per quintal
Anchor bolts, Lewis
Cornice, string course Running Per m
bolts, Holding down bolts,
meter
etc.
Soling coat of brick Sq. m Per Sq. m Iron grill, Collapsible Sq. m Per Sq. m
Brick Bat Coba Sq. m Per Sq. m gate, Rolling Shutter
III. Stone work- Iron gate (may also be by Sq. m Per Sq. m
Stone Masonry Cu.m Per Cu. m weight, quintal)
IV. RCC & CC Work- VII. Plastering, paints and finishing-
Reinforce Cement Cu. m Per Cu m Painting, Varnishing (No. Sq. m Per Sq. m
Concrete of Coat specified)
Removing of paint or Sq. m Per Sq. m
Concrete Jaffri, Net work Sq. m Per Sq. m
Varnish
D.P.C. Sq. m Per Sq. m
Painting Furniture's Number Per number
Dado (Thickness and type Sq. m Per Sq. m
Supply of paint ready Liter Per Liter
specified)
mix.
Skirting (Thickness type Running Per
Plastering-cement or lime Sq. m Per Sq. m
and height specified) meter Running m mortar (thickness and
V. Wood work- proportion specified)
Doors and windows Cu m Per Cu m Pointing Sq. m Per Sq. m
frames or Chowkhats, White Washing, color Sq. m Per Sq. m
Rafters Beam washing , cement wash
Shutters or leave of Door Sq.m Per Sq.m (number of coats
and window (thickness specified)
specified) Distemper (number of Sq. m Per Sq. m
coats specified).
Panelled, partition wall Sq.m Per Sq.m
VIII. Flooring-
Doors and windows Number Per number
25 mm cement concrete Sq. m Per Sq. m
fittings (like hinges, tower
over 75 mm lime concrete
bolts, sliding, handles)
floor (including L.C.).
VI. Steel work-
25 mm or 40 mm C.C. Sq. m Per Sq. m
Fabric reinforcement, Sq.m Per Sq.m floor
expanded metal wire Doors and window sills Sq. m Per Sq. m
netting (C.C. or cement mortar
Barbed wire facing Meter Per meter plain)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 213 YCT
IX. Roofing- Measurement and payment of "Brick Bat Coba" is in
R.C.C. and R.B. slab roof Cum. Per Cum. square meter.
(excluding steel)
L.C. roof over and Cum. Per Cum.
inclusive of tiles or brick
or stone slab etc.
(thickness specified)
A.C. sheet roofing Cum. Per Cum.
Centering and shuttering Sq. m Per Sq. m
form work
X. Miscellaneous work-
Floor tile, glass tiles Hundred Per Note-
Hundred A waterproofing compound confirming to IS : 2645
C.C./R.C. Chajja Cum. Per Cum. is blended with the cement water mixture as per the
Reinforcement bars Quintal Per quintal manufacture specification.
Electrification light, Fan, Point Per point Key Points
Plug points ■ For residential plot area from 500 to 1000 m2, the
minimum area to be reserved for parking is–
Glass panels (supply) Sq. m Per Sq. m
One – fourth of the open area
Centering and form work Sq. m Per Sq. m
■ The percentage of contingencies and work charged
On Roof bitumen Sq. m Per Sq. m
establishment cost, respectively, will be added
painting while preparing detailed estimate is– 5% and 2%
Roof of Corrugated sheet Sq. m Per Sq. m ■ No deduction is made in the quantity estimation
Steel wooden trusses, No. Per No. for plastering work in cement mortar for openings
Fixing of glass panels or having size up to– 0·5 m2
cleaning Contingency-
Pile driving or Sinking meter Per m Contingency is the accidental expenses of
Supply of water closet, Number Per miscellaneous nature which cannot be classified
W.C. (size specified) Number under only distinct sub-head yet pertains to the work.
Explosive for blasting kg Per kg It is taken as 3-5% of total estimated cost.
NBCC JE 2022
Rain water pipe/Plain pipe Running Per running
Earnest money-
meter meter
GPSC AE 2021 (GWSSB), UPCL AE 2021
GPSC AAE (GMC), 2021, PPSC SDE 2021
Brick Bat Coba-
GPSC AE January 2018, APDCL Junior Manager 2017
Brick bat coba is an effective way of providing Contractor recurred to deposit some amount with the
waterproofing and insulating for thermal comfort for department as guarantee of the tender during tender
flat RCC roofs to prevent leakage of water. submitting is called earnest money.
The brick bat coba materials are laid on the flat roof It is 2% of estimated cost.
surface at the thickness of 75 to 150 mm. Security deposit = 10% of estimated cost.
Slope of 1 : 100 shall be maintained. Cost plus% contract = Actual cost of construction
Gaps should be filled with 1 : 6 cement mortar. + profit.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 214 YCT
03.
METHODS OF BUILDING ESTIMATE
Building Estimation- It is also called PWD method or out to out and in
Building estimation is determining the probable cost to in method. It is useful for all types of the wall.
of buildings before the construction proceeds, in In this method, the wall along the length of room is
order to achieve success in the project. considered to be long wall while the wall normal to
Building estimation is also beneficial for passing its is said to be short wall.
To get the length of long wall or short wall firstly
tenders.
calculate the centre line length of individual walls
Quantities of earthwork, foundation concrete,
then-
brickwork in plinth, foundation and superstructure
Length of long wall = C/C length of wall + Half breadth at
can be worked out from the following methods. (i)
each ends of wall
1. Long wall-short wall method
UKPSC JE 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
2. Centre line method
3. Crossing method (ii) Length of short wall = C/C length of wall − Half breadth at
each ends of wall.
4. Bay method
5. Service unit method (iii) Quantity of item = Total length of wall × breadth ×
depth/Thickness.
1. Long wall-short wall method-
SSC JE 2022, SSC JE (Civil) 2022 Volume covered by door, window, ventilators
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021 should be deducted if available in superstructure.
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2020, OPSC AEE 2019
Note-
Length of long wall decreases from earthwork to brickwork
in superstructure while the short wall increases.
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
It is accurate method and used in all government
department.
C/C refers centre to centre distance.
Plan- Length and width or top views are shown.
Elevation- Length/width and height or side views
are shown.
2. Centre Line Method-
MP Vyapam Sub. Engg. 2022, SSC JE 2022
UPPCL JE 20222, CG Vyapm Sub. Engg. 2022
This method of building estimation is suitable for
the walls of same thickness or symmetrical cross
section.
Steps for quantity calculation-
1. Calculate total centre line length of item.
Total Quantity of item = C/C Length × breadth ×
2.
depth/Thickness.
3. Deduction if available.
CHB JE (Building) 2023, PPSC JE 2022
In case of cross wall or partition or verandah walls
and other T-Junctions the centre line length shall be
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 215 YCT
reduced by half of breadth for each junction and for In case of hospitals, the service unit is a bed, in case
total length of the centre line it will deducted equal of water tank, it is a litre and in case of cinema hall,
to thickness of wall. the service unit is a seat.
Estimate prepared by this method is very quick and Key Points
easiest than other methods. ■ The most accurate method for approximate
Deduction made for the cross wall, to obtain c/c estimation of a building is–
length equal to thickness of wall. Cubical content method
If both junction of cross wall are not same- ■ For estimation of quantity of stepped foundation,
t1 t 2 length of which wall reduces as the thickness of
Then deduction = +
2 2 the step decreases– Long wall
t1, t2 = thickness of both wall ■ The detailed estimate prepared for renovation or
renewal of structure, damaged works, minor
improvements in buildings is called–
Annual repair estimate
Measurements and calculation Proforma
of quantities (standard measurement
back)-
Item Particulars of No. Measurement Quantity Unit Remark
No. Item Length, Breadth,
Height/depth
Abstract of Estimated Cost-
3. Crossing method- The cost of each item of work is worked out from
UPPCL JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
the quantities that already computed in the details
This method is adopted when external walls is of
measurement form at workable rate.
one thickness and interior walls of different But the total cost is worked out in the prescribed
thickness. form is known as abstract of estimated form.
In this case centre line method is used for external 4% of estimated cost is allowed for petty
walls and long wall short wall method is used for supervision, contingences and unforeseen items.
interior walls. Item Particulars of item Quantity unit Rate Amount Remarks
No.
4. Bay method- DSSSB JE 2022
This method is useful and is generally followed in
case of building having several bays.
The cost of the one class room is worked out and
Schedule of rate book-
then multiplied by the number of bays in that
NBCC JE 2022
building. It is very important book for civil engineers in which
5. Service unit method- a schedule of rates for all items of works in
This method is followed in cases such as school maintained.
building where there are so many classroom. Deduction in lintels over openings = L × B × T
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 216 YCT
04.
EARTH WORK IN ROAD & CANAL
Surface excavation- General Cross section of road-
Excavation exceeding 1.5 m in width as well as 10
m2 in plan but not exceeding 300 mm in depth is
called surface excavation.
It is measured in m2.
Excavation more than 300 mm in depth is measured
in m3.
Trench-
A narrow excavation where depth is greater than the Sectional Area,
width, but not wider than 15 feet (4.5m) is known as A = Area of rectangle ABCD + Area of triangle DEB
trench. + Area of triangle CFA
Indicating works left in excavated trenches to 1 1
= B × d m + S.d m × d m + S.d m × d m
facilitate the measurement of borrow pits are known 2 2
as Tell-Tales. For uneven or sloping ground,
diagonal "Tell-tales" shall be left. A = Bd m + Sd 2m
Average Depth- d1 + d 2
Shallow Excavation - up to 1.5m deep Where, dm =
2
Medium Excavation - 1.5 m - 3.0 m deep Area of Sloping side-
Deep Excavation - > 3.0 m deep RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2020
Lead- A = L.d 1 + S (for single sloping side)
2
It is the average horizontal distance b/w the centre of
excavation to the centre of deposition. A = 2 × L.d 1 + S2 (for both sloping side)
The cost of conveyance of materials depends on
lead.
Lead is taken as 30 m.
Lift- Area computation-
It is the average height b/w the borrow pit and the 1. Average ordinate rule-
centre of deposition or place of spreading.
Normally earthwork is estimated for 1.5m lift and
30m lead.
According to C.P.W.D. lead is taken 50m.
Multiplying factor other than metalled road for
the estimation of lead-
1. For Metal track Lead × 1.0
2. For Cartz track lead × 1.10
Area =
( O1 + O2 + .........On ) × L
3. For Sandy track lead × 1.40 n +1
Side Slope- Where,
In cutting (H : V) 1 n + 1 = Number of ordinates
1:1-1:1
2 n = Number of parts of Base line
In filling (H : V)
1 L = Length of base line
1 :1- 2 :1 2. Mid ordinate rule-
2
Scale for Plotting of Longitudinal Section- O1 + O 2 + .......O n
Area = ×L
Horizontal Scale 1 cm = 10 m to 1 cm = 30 m n
Vertical Scale 1 cm = 1 m to 1 cm = 5m or, A = (h1 + h2 + .............hn)×d
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 217 YCT
3. Simpson's 1/3rd Rule- 3. Cross-sectional Area method-
SSC JE 2022 ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2019, GPSC AE 2018
It states that, sum of first and last ordinates has to be APDCL Junior Manager 2017
done. Add twice the sum of odd ordinates and four Suitable if length, width, slope etc. remains constant
times the sum of remaining even ordinates in whole length of road/canal.
multiplying to this total sum by 1/3rd of the common V = ( Bd + Sd 2 ) × L
distance b/w the ordinates i.e.
DSSSB JE 2022
d
Area = ( O1 + On ) + 4 ( O2 + O4 + O n −1 ) + 2 ( O3 + O5 + ...O n −2 ) 4. Prismoidal Formula-
3 CHB JE (Building) 2023
This method provides more accurate value.
d
or, A = ( O1 + O n ) + 4ΣOeven + 2ΣOodd (i) V = L ( A1 + A n ) + 4 ( A 2 + A 4 + ......A n −1 ) + 2 ( A3 + A5 + ....A n − 2 )
3 3
Simpson's three point formula- L
= [(Sum of First and last area) + 4 ∑Even area +
d 3
A= [ h1 + 4h 2 + h 3 ] 2 ∑odd area]
3
L
h1, h2, h3 = mid-ordinate (ii) V = [ A1 + A 2 + 4A m ]
This rule is applicable only if ordinates are odd or 6
number of divisions or sections is even. Where,
Simpson's rule is more accurate than that of above A1 = Cross sectional area at first end
two. A2 = Cross sectional area at last end
Even if first or last ordinate happens to be zero, they d + d2
are not to be omitted from Simpson's rule. A m = Bd m + Sd 2m , dm = 1
Boundary length b/w two adjacent ordinates 2
assumes parabolic curve or as a arc of a parabola. Vprismoidal > Vtrapezoidal
UPPCL JE 2022 EARTHWORK QUANTITY IN HILLY ROADS-
It provide exact quantity of earthwork in case of 1. Fully in cutting 2. Fully in Banking/filling
rugged/rough surface of earth.
Methods for volume calculation-
1. Mid sectional area method
SSC JE Civil 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022
MP Vyapam (Sub Engg.) 2022
Volume = A m × L = ( Bd m + Sd 2m ) × L
d1 + d 2 Area in cutting/filling-
Where, dm = Average or mean depth =
2 Sb 2 + r 2 ( 2bd + Sd 2 )
Am = Bdm + Sd 2 A=
m r 2 − S2
L = Length of cutting/filling
2.A Trapezoidal formula- Sb 2 + r 2 ( 2bd + Sd 2 )
SSC JE 2022, MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 Volume, V = A × L = ×L
DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021 r 2 − S2
It is also called mean sectional area method. 3. Partially in cutting and banking/filling-
Best suitable if both ends area are not same.
It is very easy method.
A + A2
Volume = 1 × L or A m × L
2
Where, A1 = Bd1 + Sd12
A2 = Bd 2 + Sd 22
2.B Trapezoidal formula for a series of cross
sectional area at equal interval- (a) Partially in cutting-
GPHC AE 2018, GWSSB AAE 2015
1 ( b + r.d )
2
A + A n V = ×L
V = L × 1 + ( A 2 + A 3 + .....A n −1 ) 2 ( r − S1 )
2
(b) Partially in filling-
or
1 ( b − rd )
2
L = ×L
V = × ( A1 + A n ) + 2 ( A 2 + A 3 + .......A n −1 ) V
2 (r − S2 )
2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 218 YCT
05.
ANALYSIS OF RATES
Analysis of rates- 5. Location of site of work and the distance from
MPPGCL JE.2023, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021 source and conveyance charges.
Determination of rate per unit of a particular item of Task work or out turn work-
work from the cost of quantity of materials, cost of SSC JE Civil 2022
labours etc. for its completion is known as analysis It is the capacity of doing work by a skilled labour in
of rates or rate analysis. the form of quantity of work per day.
Schedule of rates- Work done per day per mason for a
NBCC JE 2022, OPSC AEE 2015 particular item-
It is a documents that contains detail description of
Item Description Work Done per
all the items of work (quantities are not mentioned)
day per mason
together with current rates.
Earth work in excavation in rock 1.0 m3
Number of brick required-
Disposal of surplus earth < 30 m 2.83 m3
• Per cubic meter brick masonry - 500
CHB Jr. Draftsman 2023, UKPCS AE Civil 2022 Brick work in foundation and 1.50 m3
UKPCS AE Civil 2022, UP Awas Vikas Parisad 2022 plinth with mud-mortar
• Per cubic meter brick in lots - 650 Brick work in super structure with 1.25 m3
• Per square meter brick flat soling - 32 mud-mortar
• Per square meter brick edge soling - 54 Brick work in foundation and 1.25 m3
Data about cement bag- plinth (sub-structure) with lime or
Weight of 1 bag cement 50 kg cement mortar.
0.0347 cum or Brick work in super structure with 1 m3
34.722 ≃ 35 Litre lime mortar or cement mortar.
Volume of 1 bag cement 1440 kg/m3 Brick work in partition wall 5.0 m2
28.80 ≃ 30 bag Random rubble stone masonry in 1.0 m3
Density of cement lime or cement mortar
1 Cubic meter cement Course rubble stone masonry lime 0.80 m3
Specification of cement bag- or cement mortar
Plan area 0.30 Sq.m or 3000 cm.2 Lime concrete or cement concrete 8.5 m3
Volume 0.054 cum (P.C.C.) in foundation and plinth
Height 18 cm Lime Concrete in Roof Terracing 6.0 m3
Length 70 cm 1 : 2 : 4 C. C. work 5.0 m3
Width 42 cm R.C.C. Work 3.0 m3
Plastering specification- 12 mm thick plaster work 8.0 m2
No. of plastering coat Thickness Pointing work 10.0 m2
Single coat plaster 10-15 mm White washing/colour washing
(Both internal and external) 1 Coat 200 m2
3 Coat 70 m2
Two Coat Plaster
(a) Backing Coat 10-12 mm Excavation of soil 1.0 m3
(b) Finishing Coat 3-8 mm Earthwork in the excavation in 2.0 m3
hard soil
Three Coat plaster
Excavation in ordinary soil 3.0 m3
(For very rough surface, both internal and
external) Ashlar stone dressing 0.70 m3
(a) Base Coat 10-15 mm Flagstone dressing 1.50 m3
(b) Second Coat 3-8 mm Stone arch work 0.40 m3
(c) Finishing Coat 3-5 mm Lime concreting (1 : 2 : 4) 5.00 m3
Factors affecting rate of particular item- Sawing hard wood 4.00 m2
1. Profit Sawing soft wood 6.00 m2
2. Overhead and establishment charges Half brick wall in partition 5.00 m3
3. Cost of labour and their wages Painting large surface 35 m2
4. Quantity of material and their costs. Distempering Ist coat 35 m2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 219 YCT
Door/window painting or 25 m2 Volume of reinforcement for various member in case
st of absence of detail design-
varnishing, I coat
DPC 2.5 cm thick 200 m2 Member Volume in % of the total
Dry volume for various work: concrete volume
Slab/Lintel 0.7 - 1
Work Description Dry Volume
Beam 1-2
coefficient
Column 0.8 - 6
P.C.C. work, C.C. and all 1.52 to 1.55 Footings/Foundation 0.5 - 0.8
types of concrete work
Volume of steel in RCC work when items are not
excluding C.C. floor specified - 0.6 - 1%.
For brick masonry 0.30 cum Concrete masonry unit (IS : 2185 - 1)-
Random Rubble masonry 0.42 cum (Hollow and solid concrete block)
Coursed Rubble masonry 0.40 cum Length - 400, 500 or 600 mm
12 mm thick plaster work 0.0196 m3 ≃ 0.02 m3 Height - 200 or 100 mm
Width - 50, 75, 100, 150, 200
Painting work 0.006 m3 250 or 300
C.C. floor- Calculation of material in concrete (A : B : C)-
2.5 cm thick 0.1875 m3 or 7.5 m2 Quantity of particular item =
5 cm thick 0.0825 m3 A or B or C, which is required
7.5 cm thick 0.12375 m3 × K dry × Vconc.
∑ (A + B + C)
Capacity of truck-
Truck 3 Tone 5 Tone 8 Tone A
1. Quantity of cement = × K dry × Vconc.
Capacity Capacity Capacity ∑(A + B + C)
Brick transport 1000 brick 1500 brick 2500 brick
3
4.20 m3 5.60 m3 B
Ballast, Brick, 2.80 m 2. Quantity of sand = × K dry × Vconc.
Kankar, Sand (100 feet ) (150 feet ) (200 feet3)
3 3 ∑(A + B + C)
Minimum height of stack and allowance to or
be deducted for shrinkage and/or shrinkage = Quantity of cement × Sand proportion/ratio
3. Quantity of Aggregate
when measured in fresh stacks-
Minimum Allowance to be C
= × K dry × Vconc.
height of deducted for ∑(A + B + C)
Materials stacks shrinkage and/ or
cm or shrinkage = Quantity of cement × Agg. proportion/ratio
Stone metal, ballast 32.5 1/13 Where,
chips, shingles or (A : B : C) = Cement : Sand : Aggregate
gravel A = Cement proportion
Stone boulders 35 1/7 B = Sand proportion
size ≥15 cm C = Aggregate proportion
Stone boulders 45 1/9 Kdry = Dry volume coefficient
size < 15 cm Vconc.= Volume of wet concrete
Jhama bats or bricks 53 1/7 Bar Bending schedule (B.B.S.)-
bats BBS is a list or reinforcement bars for a given
reinforced concrete work item and presented in
Jhama metal, khoa or 34 1/9
tabular form for easy visualization.
chips
BBS provides detail of reinforcement cutting and
Sand 61 1/8 bending length.
Surkhi 61 1/4 It provide the better estimation of steel requirement
Lime 61 1/4 for each and every structural member.
Moorum 33.5 1/13 1. Hook length-
Carried earth 34 1/9
Rubbish (building or 34 1/9
kiln)
Steam Coal or slack 61 1/8
coal
Cinder 61 1/9
Total hook length= 4 φ + φ + 4φ = 9φ
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 220 YCT
2. Bend length of Bent - up/Cranked bar-
4. Stirrups-
d d
Here, sinθ = ⇒ x1 = ..........( i )
x1 sin θ
d1 d
tan θ ⇒ x2 = ..........( ii )
x2 tan θ
∵ x1 always will > x 2
Length of beam
∴ Additional length of bar, Number of stirrups = +1
Spacing
1 1
ℓ a = x1 − x 2 = d −
sin θ cos θ
Note-
if θ = 45°, Then Span length / width of memebr
Number of bar = +1
1 C / C Spacing
ℓa = d
1/ 2
(
− 1 = 2 − 1 d ) • Total length of bar = Cutting length × Total No. of bar
• Extra length equal to dia. of bar (φ) is taken at each
= (1.414 − 1) d
bend.
= 0.414d ≃ 0.42d φ2
Weight of bar per m length = or0.00612 φ 2 kg
3. overlap length- 162.2
(a) For tension member- 40φ Where,
(b) For compression member - 50φ φ = Dia. of bar (in mm)
Shape of Bar Hook length Bend length Total length of bar Total weight calculation
Straight bar
9φ+9φ - l + 18 φ
Total weight of bar
= No. of bar × weight of
bar per m length
Double Bent up bar
l + 2 × 9 φ + 2× 0.42 d φ2
9φ+9φ 2 × 0.42 d = l + 18 φ + 0.84 d No. of bar × kg
162.2
OR
No. of bar × 0.00612φ2 kg
Overlap bar
9φ+9φ - 40 φ to 50 φ + 18 φ
Stirrups
4l + 2 × 9 φ + 3 φ
9φ+9φ 3×φ = 4l + 18 φ + 3 φ
= 4l + 21φ
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 221 YCT
06.
VALUATION
Introduction- Capital cost = Land cost + construction cost
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 (When buying a land).
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB), TNPSC AE 2019 Capital cost = Market value
Valuation is the technique of assessing the present (When buying a whole property)
fair value of a property such as a building, land and
Price:
other different types of engineering structure at a It is the total cost including project.
stated time.
Some important definition-
Object of valuation-
(a) Buying and selling of property Book value-
MHWRD JE 2022, DMRC AM 2017
(b) Rent fixation (6 - 10%) GPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2016, PTCUL AE 2016
(c) Taxation (14%) - The value of property during its useful life based on
It may be property tax, municipal tax and wealth tax. purchase value and depreciation is called book
(d) Security of loans or mortgage value. or
(e) Betterment charges It is the amount shown in the account book after
(f) Compulsory acquisition
allowing necessary depreciation.
(g) Insurance and speculation etc.
Book value is independent from market value.
Gross Income-
Book value after n1 years
It is the total income received from property.
Outgoings, operational cost and collections charges = Original cost or Captical cost − n1D
are not deducted in it. C − V
Net Income- Where, Depreciation D =
n
The amount remains after deducting all outgoings is
known as net income of property. Market value-
MHWRD JE 2022
Net Income = Gross income − Outgoings SSC JE Civil 2022, TNPSC (CESE) 2021
Outgoings- The value of the property which can be received at
The expenses that required to be incurred to any particular point if it is kept for sale is called
maintain the revenue of the property is known as market value.
outgoings. This is variable, depending upon the buy or sell.
Various Types of outgoings- Annuity-
1. Property tax, wealth tax, municipal tax etc. The net installment of periodical (monthly, yearly,
2. Repairs, sinking fund etc.) payment of repayment of the capital amount
3. Loss of rent, insurance invested in a property for a specified period is called
4. Management and collection charge annuity.
5. Electricity charges for various use Annuity Due-
Value- The amount of annuity is paid at the beginning of
At present day the cost of an engineering structure each period of year and payments continued for
(saleable value) is called value. definite number of periods is called annuity due.
Cost- Perpetual Annuity-
MHWRD JE 2022 The payments of the annuity continue for indefinite
It is the actual amount incurred in producing period (no end).
acommodity which has some value. Annuity Certain-
Value as comparison to the cost may be less or more MPPGCL JE 2023
depending upon the present utility of a structure. An amount of the annuity is paid for a definite
Capital Cost- number of periods or years is termed as annuity
The total cost of the construction including lands or certain.
the original total amount required to possess a Deferred Annuity-
property is known as capital cost. Payments of the annuity begin after some years.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 222 YCT
Rateable Value- Key Points
It is the net annual letting value of the property ■ In break–even analysis, the condition for a
which is obtained after deducting the amount of company to have a profit is–
yearly repairs from the gross income. Contribution > Fixed cost
Scrap value- ■ Contractor's overhead as per latest CPWD
MPPGCL JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022 Analysis of Rates has been taken as– 7.5%
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022
■ The value of a property depends on its–
The value of the dismantled material after deduction
Legal control, Life, Location
the cost of dismantling at the end of useful life of a
structure is known as scrap value or demolition Sinking Fund-
MHWRD JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022, JSSC JE Gen. Engg. 2022
value i.e. DSSSB JE 2022, UP Jal Nigam AE 2016
Scrap value = Junk value − Cost of dismantling The fund which is gradually accumulated by way of
periodic or annual deposit for the replacement of the
Scrap value may to +ve or –ve depending upon cost
of demolition. property or structure at the end of its useful life is
called sinking fund.
Salvage value-
DSSSB JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
Cost of land is excluded in calculating of sinking
MHWRD JE 2022, TNPSC (CESE) 2021 fund.
The value of the built-up property at the end of its Annual installation of sinking fund,
useful life without being dismantled is called S.i
salvage value of the property. Sc = = i c .S
(1 + i )
n
−1
It is usually 10% of the total cost of construction.
Capitalized value- Where, S = Capital cost,
Kerala PSC AE 2021, TNPSC AE 2019 n = number of years
The amount or money whose annual interest at the i = Rate of interest in decimal
highest prevailing rate will be equal to net income Coefficient of annual sinking fund
received from the property is known as capitalized i
ic =
value. (1 + i )
n
−1
It is necessary to know highest rate of interest
prevailing on such properties and net income from Building cost index-
It indicates the increase and decrease of the cost
the property to calculate the capitalized value.
above the cost at a certain base year and is expressed
Obsolescence- by a percentage rise and fall.
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022, SSC JE (Civil) 2022
Year's purchase-
The value of the property decreases if its design and UPPCL JE 2022, KPSC AE 2020
style are outdated. This phenomenon is called It is define as the capital sum required to be invested
obsolescence. in order to receive on annuity of Rs. 1 at a certain
Reason of the obsolescence is changing technique of rate of interest.
construction, design, ideas etc. 100 100
Year's purchage = =
Free hold property- Rate of interest i
Any property which is in complete possession of the
1
owner is known as freehold property. Y.P. =
i +i
The owner can use this property in anyway he likes c p
without obstruction but he will have to follow the ic = Sinking fund coefficient
guideline of municipality. iP = rate of interest for year's purchase
Lease hold property- Capitalized value = Net income × year's purchase
If a property is given to some person on yearly
payment basis by the free holder then this property
Depreciation-
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, GPSC AE 2021
is known as lease hold property. A structure after sometimes gradually losses some of
The person who takes the property on lease is called its value due to its continuous use and other reasons
lease holder. such as age, wear, decay then value of the property
The lease is taken 9 to 99 years in case of building. is reduced or damaged is known as depreciation.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 223 YCT
Annual depreciation- (iv) Quantity Survey method-
MPPSC AE 2022, TNPSC AE 2022 In this method the property is studied in detail and
C−V loss in value due to life, wear and fear, decay,
D=
n obsolescence, etc., worked out.
Each and every step is based on some logical ground
Where, C = Capital cost of property without any fixed percentage of the cost of the
V = Scrap value property.
n = Useful life of property (in years) (v) Sum of year's digit method-
Rate of Depreciation based on life of structure- This method also falls in the category of accelerated
Life of structure Annual Total type of depreciation method like declining balance
(years) Depreciation Depreciation method.
(per year) Various methods of valuation-
0-5 0 0 1. Depreciation method of valuation-
5-10 2.5% NHPC JE 2022, TNPSC AE 2019
1
% In this method, the structure is divided into four
2
parts for calculating depreciation walls, roof, floors,
10-20 3 7.5% door and windows.
%
4 • First method-
20-40 1% 20% n
100 − rd
40-80 1
1 %
60% D = P
2 100
Total = 90% D = Depreciation value
Method of depreciation- P = Present value
NHPC JE 2022, MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 rd = Fixed percentage of depreciation
1. Straight Line method n = Number of years
• IInd method-
2. Constant percentage or Declining balance method
C−S
3. Sinking fund method D=
4. Quantity survey method. n
5. Sum of the years digit method. 2. Value based on cost-
MH WRD JE 2022
(i) Straight line method- In this method, the actual cost of the construction is
SSC JE (Civil) 2022, NHPC JE 2022
found out and valuation is done after considering
PPSC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
depreciation and considering the type of
Annual depreciation, construction and design of the construction.
Original cost − Scrap value C − S 3. Valuation based on profit-
D= = MHWRD JE 2022
Life in year n
Under this sub-head valuation of cinemas, theater,
(ii) Constant percentage method/Declining balance banks etc. after located at suitable places is done
method- where profit is of capitalized value.
1/ n The capitalized value is calculated by multiplying
S
Annual Depreciation, D = 1 − year's purchase with net profit.
C The net profit is worked out after deducting all
This method cannot be used when salvage value is possible outgoing and expenditures from the gross
zero. income.
4. Value by development method-
(iii) Sinking fund method-
This method is used for working out the value of a
In this method the depreciation of property is building.
assumed to be equal to the annual sinking fund plus In certain cases, some additions, alterations and
the interest on the fund for that years, improvements are carried out which increases the
i cost of the building.
Sc = 5. Rental method of valuation-
(1 + i) n − 1
MHWRD JE 2022
• The value of sinking fund at the end of useful life of In this method the rent of the building is used as the
the property is 90%. base for calculating the value of the building.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 224 YCT
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 225 YCT
01.
Engineering Drawing
Extension of drawing- DWG
Engg. Drawing-
Language of an engineer by which he/she can represent
his/her imagination on paper with proper dimensioning Sizes of drawing board-
and precision is known as engineering drawing. • According to IS:1944-1989, drawing board is
Types of Engineering Drawing- represented by 'D'.
DFCCIL JE 2021 • According to IS:1946-1988, drawing board is
1. Geometrical drawing • Plain represented by 'B'.
geometrical
Standard size and designation of drawing board-
Drawing. (plane - 2D)
ISRO Draughtsman 2018-19
• Solid geometrical Designation of Size (in mm) :
Drawing. (solid - 3D) drawing board (Length × Width × Thickness)
2. Mechanical Engg. Drawing of parts of D0 1500×1000×25
drawing machine D1 1000×700×25
3. Civil Engg. drawing Drawing of parts of D2 700×500×15
structure D3 500×350×15
4. Electrical Engg. Drawing of circuits, D4 350×250×15
drawing electrical parts etc.
Mostly imperial size (D2) drawing board is used in
DRAWING INSTRUMENT- engineering drawing.
Drawing instrument is used to prepare drawing 2. T-Square-
BSPHCL JE 2019
easily and accurately.
Made of hard-quality wood such as teak or
Following Instruments are used in engineering drawing- mahogany etc.
1. Drawing Board 2. T-Square Stock and blade joined together at right angle.
3.. Mini-Drafter (MD) 4. Protractor It is used horizontal and parallel lines.
5. Pencil 6. Set square
7. Scale 8. French curve
9. Drawing Sheet 10. Eraser (Rubber)
11. Divider 12. Compass
13. Drawing board pins, 14. Clinograph
Clips or Cello tape
15. Pencil cutter and sand T-square is not used to draw inclined lines.
paper T-square is named by blade length.
1. Drawing Board Designation Length of Blade (in mm)
Drawing board is in rectangular shape and made of T0 1500
well-seasoned softwood strip. T1 1000
I-strip protect drawing board from warping. T2 700
One of the edges of the board is used as working T3 500
edge, on which the T-square is made to slide. T4 350
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 226 YCT
Grades of pencil and its use-
Grade of pencil Uses
Hard grade Used to draw light and
(9H, 8H, 7H, 6H, 5H, fine lines
4H)
Medium grade Used for lettering and
(3H, 2H, H, HB, B) dimensioning
Soft grade Used to draw thick and
(2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, shiny lines
7B)
9H Very hard grade pencil (Clay content↑)
3. Mini-Drafter- 7B Very soft grade pencil (Graphite
DFCCIL JE 2021 content↑)
All the advantages of T-square, set-square, scale 2H Use to draw thin line, outer lines,
and the protractor are available in mini-drafter. dimension line, dotted line and arrow
Mini-drafter are used to draw horizontal, vertical head.
and inclined parallel lines on the sheet with saving HB Used to draw thick line.
of time. 3H or 4H Used to draw to center line and section
line.
Generally 20 grade of pencils are used.
B = Black
HB = Mid grade
H = Hard
4. Protractor
F = Fine
It is made of wood, transparent celluloid or plastic 6. Set-Square
material. Triangular in shape & are made of celluloid or
These are circular semi-circular or flat in shape. plastic materials.
Protractor are used to measure angles and to draw It is used for drawing all straight lines except the
angles with L.C. = 1o. horizontal lines which are usually drawn with the
T-square.
Vertical lines can be drawn with the T-square and
set-square.
The angle which is divisible by 150 are made with
the help of set square.
Ex.-150, 300, 1050, 1200, 1650 etc.
They are following two type –
(a) 45o - 45o - 90o set square
(b) 30o - 60o - 90o set square
5. Pencil
Lead of pencil is made of graphite powder or
kaolin or clay.
Drawing pencils are graded according to increase in
relative hardness.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 227 YCT
7. Rule or Scale 10. Rubber or Eraser
Scales are made of wood, steel, celluloid or plastic. It is made of rubber and used to erase extra or
It is used to draw straight lines. wrong pencil work.
Edges of the scale are marked with division of
centimeters which are sub-divided into millimeters.
11. Divider
Divider is used to divide straight or curved lines
into desired number of equal parts.
8. French Curve
French curves is a flexible curve consists of a lead
bar inside rubber which bends conveniently to
draw a smooth curve through any set of points.
Used to draw curve which can not be drawn with 12. Compass
compass (for irregular curve) It is used to draw circles and arcs of circles of
required diameter.
9. Drawing Sheet
Size of drawing sheet is represented by ratio of
length and width of the sheet.
Where, x → Length of sheet
x : y = 1: 2
y → Width of sheet 13. Drawing clips or drawing pins
Standard size of the drawing sheet as per IS : These are used to fix the drawing sheet firmly in
10811 : 1983 their position to the drawing board.
Designation Trimmed size Area, Sheet Name
of Sheet (in mm) m2
A0 841×1189 1 Anti Quarian
A1 594×841 1/2 Double Elephant
A2 420×594 1/4 Imperial
A3 297×420 1/8 Half Imperial
A4 210×297 1/16 Quarter Imperial 14. Clinograph
A5 148×210 1/32 - Clinograph is a drawing instrument which works
with a T-square and function like an adjustable set-
A2 size drawing sheet is mostly used by engineering
square.
drawing students.
It is made of wood or plastic
Untrimmed size of drawing sheet is approximately
30 mm greater than trimmed size. It is an instrument used to draw inclined parallel
lines.
SCALE-
The proportion by which we either reduce or
increase the actual size of the object on drawing
sheet is called scale.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 228 YCT
CLASSIFICATION OF SCALE-
(A) According to the size-
2. Diagonal scale
RSMSSB JE 2020, ISRO Draughtsman 2019
• Drawing is drawn with the bigger
Scale, X : 1 (X>1 )
Enlarging scale
dimensions comparison to the actual
dimensions of the objects.
• Used for small objects that's need to be
enlarged. • It can measure three consecutive division or
units.
• R.F. > 1
Ex. m - dcm - cm, yard - feet - inch.
• Used for drawing that parts which are
Full scale
drawn easily on the sheet with their actual
Scale 1 : 1
size.
Ex.- Spanner, pen, nut-bolt etc.
• R.F. = 1
• Used when the dimensions on the • These scales, like diagonal scale, are used to
3. Vernier scale
drawing sheets are smaller than the actual read a very small unit with great accuracy.
Scale 1 : X (X <1)
Reducing scale
dimension of the object. • It consists of two parts–
Primary scale
• It is used to represent a big object.
Vernier scale
Ex.-Buildings, bridges, boilers, ships,
• In forward vernier scale, n divisions on
aeroplanes etc. vernier scale is equal to (n–1) division on
• R.F. < 1 main scale.
Graphical scale- • In backward vernier scale, n divisions on
Scale is drawn an the drawing itself. It takes care the vernier scale is equal to (n + 1) division on
main scale.
shrinkage of the engineers scale when the drawing
becomes old.
Representative Fraction (R.F.)-
4. Comparative
It is the ratio of the size of object on the drawing
sheet and actual size of the same object.
scale
Length of object on the drawing • It is a plain scale having same R.F. but
R.F. = or calibrated to read different units.
Actuallength of object Ex. km – mile, km – minute etc.
Map distance
(In terms of length)
Ground distance
5. Scale of chords
Area of object on thedrawing
= 2
Actualarea of object
(In terms of area)
Volume of object on the drawing
= 3
Actual volume of object • It is used to measure or draw angles in
(In terms of volume) absence of protractor.
Layout of drawing sheets-
Length of scale = R.F. × Max. length to be measured UPPCL JE 2019, ISRO Draughtsman 2016
• R.F. is unitless.
(B) According to type-
GES 2019
1. Plain scale
(a) Margins or border lines-
• It measure two consecutive division or unit. Left side - 20 mm
Ex. m - dcm, dcm - cm, yard - feet Other three side - 5 mm
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 229 YCT
(b) Title block Location Regulator
Right side & lower most of the drawing sheet.
Size - 185 mm × 65 mm
Title block- Fuse
ISRO Draughtsman 2016
Conventional Representation of Breaks–
Object Convention
Rectangular
section
Round
section
Pipe
Tubing
Wood
rectangular
All dimensions in mm section
SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION- Rolled
Sign Conventional representation of materials- section
Sign Convention Material Channel
Steel, cast iron, copper and its section
alloys, aluminium and its alloys
etc. Types of Lines, Lettering & Dimensioning-
White-metal like Lead, zinc, tin, DSSSB JE 2022, UPRVUNL JE 2021, RSMSSB JE 2020
BSPHCL JE 2019, ISRO Draughtsman 2019, MPSE 2018
etc.
Lines - As per B.I.S. S.P. :46-1988, various types of
lines are demonstrated below.
Glass
Porcelain, stoneware, marble,
slate etc.
Asbestos fiber, felt, cork,
linoleum, rubber, leather, wax,
insulating and filling materials
Wood, plywood etc.
Object Convention
Spot weld
Plug weld
Seem weld Out lines • Lines drawn to represent
(Continuous welding) visible edges and surface
Ceiling fan boundaries of objects.
(Two blade) • Also known as object lines or
Exhaust fan principal lines.
• Represented by continuous
thick lines.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 230 YCT
Dimension lines • Continuous thin lines, used Cutting-plane lines/ • These are long, thin chain
for giving dimensions of Thick end line line with thick ends.
drawing. • Used to show the location of
• It is terminated at its outer cutting plane.
end with an arrow head
touching the outline, Thick chain lines • Used to indicate special
extension line or centre line. treatment on the surface
Extension or • Continuous thin lines, used
Chain thick • Used to show outlines of
projection lines for dimensioning an object.
double-dashed lines adjacent parts, alternative
• Extended by about 3 mm and extreme positions of
beyond the dimension lines. movable parts, centroidal
Construction lines • Thin continuous lines used in lines and parts situated in
solid projection front of the cutting plane.
Section or • Thin continuous lines, used Margin lines • Continuous thick or wide
Hatching lines to show the section lines along which the prints
evidently. are trimmed.
• These are uniformly spaced Hatching line • Hatching line is used to
thin lines (0.7 mm spaced) indicate that object has cut
and inclined at 45° to the by the cutting plane and then
main outline of the section. it viewed. It drawn usually at
Leader or pointer • Continuous thin lines drawn 450 with uniform distance of
lines to connect a note with the 2.5 mm.
specific feature in the Minimum thickness of thick line = 0.5 mm
drawing. Note-
• Angles should not be less As per IS : 962 - 1989 min. space b/w parallel lines
than 30° (usually 45°). including hatching should ≮ 0.7 mm.
• Leader line establish relation LETTERING
b/w text and drawing of any Mainly two types of lettering is used in Engg.
item. drawing-
Short break lines • Continuous, thin and wavy 1. Gothic lettering 2. Roman lettering
free hand lines drawn to 1. Gothic lettering- Lettering having all the alphabets
show the break of an object or numerals of uniform thickness called gothic
for a short length. lettering.
• Also used to show irregular This lettering is most common style used in working
boundaries drawing and most appropriate because of it is easy
Long Break Lines • Thin ruled lines provided to read & write consist of uppercase letter,
with short zig-zags at lowercase letter and numerals.
suitable intervals. Gothic lettering is also classified into two types.
(in mm) • Drawn to show long breaks Vertical Gothic • Single stroke vertical
Hidden or Dotted • Closely and evenly spaced lettering Gothic lettering
lines dashes lines of equal lengths
(2 mm).
• Double stroke vertical
• These are medium thick lines
and are used to show the Gothic lettering
invisible or hidden parts of
the object in the drawing.
Italic or inclined • Single stroke Italic Gothic
Centre lines • These are thin, long, chain
Gothic lettering lettering
lines composed of
(Letters inclined at
alternatively long and short
dashes spaced at an 75o to the horizontal)
approximately 1 mm • Double stroke Italic Gothic
distance. lettering
• It divide the section into two
equal parts.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 231 YCT
2. Roman lettering– • Dimensions are inserted
The lettering in which all the letters are formed by by breaking the
thick and thin elements is called Roman lettering. dimension lines at the
It may be vertical or inclined. middle.
Single stroke letters are two types– (i) Vertical (ii)
Inclined
• The size of letters are described by its height. They Types of Dimensioning-
are classified by- UPRVUNL JE 2021, ESE 2020, BSPHCL JE 2020
h 1. Chain •A series of adjacent
(i) Lettering 'A' ⇒ d = dimensioning dimensions are arranged in
14
one horizontal row.
h • Used when tolerance
(ii) Lettering 'B' ⇒ d =
10 accumulated on each of the
chain dimensions does not
(Where, d = thickness of letters, h = height of letters)
affect the functional
Recommended size (height, h) of letters/numbers- requirement of the part.
Main Title - 5 mm, 7 mm, 10 mm 2. Parallel • Dimensions are measured in
Sub- Title - 3.5 mm, 5 mm dimensioning the same direction from a
Dimensions, notes etc. - 2.5 mm, 3.5 mm, 5 mm common surface or line.
Symbols used in Engg. Drawing- • All the dimensions from the
• φ - Diameter of circle same feature is called
• SR - Radius of sphere parallel dimensioning.
• 6φ8 - 6 holes, 8 mm diameter
• Sφ - Spheriodal diameter
3. Combined • Both the chain and parallel
R 40 - Method of writing radius dimension. dimensioning dimensions are used in the
Ratio of length and thickness of arrow head = 3 : 1 same drawing.
DIMENSIONING- 4. Progressive • Adopted when dimension
Types of dimensions- dimensioning has to be established from a
1. Size dimension particular datum.
(Denoted by 'S')
2. Location
dimension
(Denoted by 'L') 5. Dimensioning by • This method is done when a
coordinates number of holes of different
System of dimensioning- sizes have to be
1. Aligned system • They are read from the dimensioned.
bottom edge or right hand
side of the drawing sheet.
• Dimensions are placed at Equidistant Dimensioning-
the middle and above top Dimension is calculated by the product of the
of the dimension lines. number of spacing and dimension value. A point is
set to be equidistant for a set of objects if the.
2. Uni-direction system • Dimensions are placed in
such a way that they can
be read from the bottom
edge of the drawing
sheet.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 232 YCT
Repeated dimensions- Classification of Projection-
When certain features or elements of the same size
are repeated a number of times on drawing, to avoid
repetition of the same dimension everywhere, the
product of a number of repeated feature and the
dimensions value may be indicated only at one such
feature.
Conic sections-
Curves, which are obtained when a double cone is
intersected by a plane at different angles relative to
the axis of the double cone.
• Mainly there are three types of conic sections–
1. Ellipse 2. Parabola 3. Hyperbola
Note- 1. Pictorial Projection-
Circle, rectangular parabola etc. are special case of Pictorial view shows all three dimensions in one
conic section.
view.
Ellipse • Obtained by the intersection of a cutting It provides a realistic view of a 3D object.
plane, inclined to the axis of the cone and
cutting all the generators. Types of pictorial projection-
• Angle of inclination of the cutting plane (a) Oblique projection-
with the axis of the cone > the angle of One dimension of object is parallel to H.P. and
generator with the axis. second is vertical to the horizontal or parallel to V.P.
Parabola • Obtained by the intersection of a cutting and the third is at an angle of 30º or 45º to the H.P.
plane, inclined to the axis of the cone and
parallel to one of the generators.
Hyperbola • Obtained by the intersection of a
cutting plane, inclined to the axis of the
cone at an angle < The inclination angle
of the generator with the axis.
Circle • Obtained by the intersection of a cutting
plane, parallel to the base of the cone.
Properties of conic section–
Types of oblique projection-
Conic section Standard Eccentricity
equation Cavalier • Projection lines make an angle of
Circle 2
x +y =r 2 2
e=0 projection 30º, 45º or 60º with the plane of
2
y = 4ax e=1 projection.
Parabola
Ellipse 2 2 e <1 • Reading line are drawn to full
x y size scale.
+ =1
a 2 b2
Hyperbola x 2 y2 e>1
− = 1
a 2 b2
PROJECTION AND VIEW-
Principle of Projection-
If straight lines are drawn from various points on
the contour of an object to meet a plane, the object Cabinet • Projection lines make an angle
is said to be projected on that plane and that plane projection with the projection plane, it
are called plane of projection. becomes about ½ both the axes
The image of object on the plane of projection is by decreasing scale.
called projection of the object. • Difference b/w cavalier and
cabinet projection is how the
depth of the object.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 233 YCT
Cliongraphic • In cavalier and cabinet In orthographic projection methods, an object is
projection projections, the main face of the represented by two or three view on an
object is made parallel to the perpendicular projection planes.
projection plane. In some cases, Each projection view represents two dimension of
when the object is rotated at an an object.
angle, the plane of projection is For the complete description of the three
called cliongrahic plane. dimensional object in this projection, at least two
(b) Perspective projection- or three views are required.
Linear projection where three dimensional objects Planes of orthographic projection-
are projected on a picture plane is known as Two planes employed for purpose of orthographic
perspective projection. projection are called principal planes (i.e. H.P. and
In this projection the image of object is greater than V.P.)
the original object. Ex.- Projector. They intersect each other at right angles (90º).
(c) Axonometric projection- Note-
WBPSC JE 2016
The line at which V.P. and H.P. intersect is called
Isometric All the three
Reference line (XY).
projection faces of cube
make equal • Projection on the V.P. - Front view or elevation
angles with the • Projection on the H.P. - Top view or plan
plane. • Projection on the A.V.P. - Side view
Dimetric Two faces of Quadrants system of orthographic projection-
projection cube make equal
angles with
plane.
Trimetric All three faces
projection of cube make
unequal angles
with plane.
Remember-
In Isometric view shape conversion
Quadrant Object position
Circle ⇒ Ellipse
First In front of V.P. and above the H.P.
Square ⇒ Rhombus
Second Behind the V.P. and above the H.P.
Rectangle ⇒ Parallelogram
Third Behind the V.P. and below the H.P.
Methods of projection used in Engg. Drawing-
Fourth In front of V.P. and below the H.P.
1. Orthographic projection 2. Isometric projection
3. Oblique projection 4. Perspective projection Difference between first angle and third angle
projection-
2. Orthographic Projection-
BSPHCL JE 2019, ISRO VSSCTA 2015
BSPHCL JE 2019, ISRO Draughtsman 2016
First angle projection Third angle projection
When the projectors are parallel to each other and
perpendicular to the plane, the projection is called
orthographic projection.
● Object lies between the ● Plane of projection lies
observer and the plane of between observer and
projection. object.
● Plane of projection is ● Plane of projection is
assumed to be non- assumed to be
transparent. transparent.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 234 YCT
● H.P. and V.P. is located ● H.P. and V.P. is Auxiliary plane -
below and above the located respectively Sometimes two views of object (front view & top
reference line (X-Y above and below the view) are not sufficient to convey all information
lines) respectively. reference line. regarding the object. In this condition the
● Projection is drawn ● Projection is drawn additional view, called auxiliary view and
apposite to the viewer same side to the viewer projected on that plane known as auxiliary plane.
side Auxiliary view may also be used for determining–
(a) The true length of a line
(b) The point view of a line
(c) The edge view of a plane
(d) The true size and form of a plane.
Types of auxiliary plane –
1. Profile plane-
It is vertical to the H.P. and V.P. both.
Front view- Front view-
Above X-Y line Below X-Y line
Top view- Top view-
Below X-Y line Above X-Y line
Right view- Right view-
Above X-Y line parallel Below X-Y line parallel
to V.P. and in left of to V.P. and in right of
elevation. elevation.
Left view- Left view-
Above X-Y line parallel Below X-Y line parallel 2. Auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P.)
to V.P. and in right of to V.P. and in left of 3. Auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P)
elevation. elevation.
This method of projection ● This method of
is used in India and projection is used in
Europe. U.S.A.
Difference between Perspective and Parallel
Projection (i.e. Orthographic Projection)–
Orthographic Perspective Projection
A.V.P. is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to
Projection
the V.P.
A.I.P. is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to
the H.P.
Projection of side view of the object is drawn on
auxiliary plane.
Miter line-
Miter line is used to construct side view.
This line is drawn at 45o to the horizontal.
• Observer is situated at • Observer is situated at
infinite distance from finite distance from the
the object. object.
• Projection rays (or • Projection rays are
projectors) are intersect at view point.
parallel.
• Projection has same • Objects appear smaller
size of original object. the farther away they
are.
Application– Application–
Architecture, computer Animation, visual
aided design etc. simulation etc.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 235 YCT
Projection of straight line- 2. Line contained by one or both the planes–
1. When line parallel to one or both the planes– i. Line contained by Top view-
i.When a line parallel to Top view- horizontal plane (H.P.) A line of true length (ab
= AB)
both planes(H.P. and A line of true length
Front view-
V.P.) and parallel to XY- A line smaller than true
line. length in XY-line (a'b'
Front view- < AB).
A line of true
length and parallel to
XY-line.
Side view- Point
ii. Line contained by Top view-
vertical plane (V.P.) A line smaller than
true length in XY-
line.
ii. When a line is parallel Top view- Front view-
to H.P. and inclined to A line of true length A line of true\ length.
V.P.- and inclined to XY-
line (ab = AB)
Front view-
A line smaller than
true length and
parallel to XY-line iii. Line contained by Its front view and top
(a'b' < AB) both plane (H.P. and view coincide with
V.P.) each other in XY
line.
3. Line perpendicular to one of the plane
i.Line perpendicular to Top view- A point
iii. When a line parallel to Top view-
horizontal plane Front view-
V.P. and inclined to A line smaller than (H.P.) A line of true length
H.P. true length and perpendicular to XY-
parallel to XY-line line .
(ab < AB)
Front view-
A line of true length
and inclined to XY-
line. (a'b' = AB)
ii. Line perpendicular Top view-
to vertical plane A line of true length
(V.P.) perpendicular to XY
line
Front view- A point
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 236 YCT
2. Projection of a plane perpendicular to one plane
and parallel to the other plane
i. Plane, perpendicular • Its H.T. is parallel to
to the H.P. and parallel XY-line.It has no
to the V.P. V.T.
Top view-
A line parallel to XY-line
4. Line inclined to both planes (H.P. and V.P.)–
Front view-
Top view- A plane of true shape and
A line smaller than
size
true length inclined to
XY-line
Front view-
A line smaller than ii. Plane perpendicular • Its V.T. is parallel to
true length inclined to to the V.P. and parallel XY-line. It has no H.T.
XY-line. to the H.P. Top view-A plane of true
shape and size
Front view- A line
parallel to XY-line
When a line is parallel to a plane , its projection on
that plane will show its true length and true
inclination with the other plane. 3. Projection of a plane perpendicular to one plane
and inclined to the other plane–
Trace of a line-
When a line is inclined to a plane, it will meet that i. Plane perpendicular • Its V.T. is perpendicular
plane, produced if necessary. to H.P. and inclined to to XY-line and H.T, is
The point in which the line or produced line meets V.P. inclined to XY-line.
the plane is called its trace. Top view- A line
The point of intersection of the line with H.P. is inclined to XY-line
called horizontal trace (H.T.). Front view- A plane
The point of intersection of the line with V.P. is smaller than true size of
called vertical trace (V.T.)
plane.
When a line is parallel to a plane it has no trace upon
that plane
Projection of a plane-
Plane- ii. Plane perpendicular • Its V.T. is inclined to
Plane have only two dimensions (i.e. length and to V.P. and inclined to XY-line and H.T.
breath). They do not have thickness. H.P. perpendicular to XY-line.
1.Projection of plane, • In this case, H.T. and Top view-
perpendicular to both V.T. are in a straight line, A plane smaller than true
the H.P. and V.P. perpendicular to XY-line. size of plane
Top view and front view- Front view- A line
A line perpendicular to inclined to XY-line
XY-line.
PROJECTION OF SOLID-
A solid has three dimension (i.e.-length breadth
and thickness)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 237 YCT
Types of solid–
(1) Polyhedral
(2) Solids of revolution
1. Polyhedral-
A polyhedron is defined as a solid bonded by planes
called faces.
Ex- Tetrahedron, Cube, Prism, Pyramid,
Octahedron, Dodecahedron Icosahedraon etc.
ii. When the axis of solid is perpendicular to V.P.
beginning should be made with front view, top view
should be projected from it.
2. Solid of revolution-
Ex.- Cylinder , Cone , Sphere
PROJECTION OF SOLIDS-
When the axis of solid perpendicular to one plane,
it is parallel to the other– iii. When the axis is parallel to both the H.P and the
V.P., neither the top view nor the front view, will
show the actual shape of the base.
When the axis is parallel to both the H.P. and V.P.,
an auxiliary plane (side view) will show the actual
shape of the base.
Note
(i) The part of the object between the cutting plane and
the observer is assumed to be removed and the view
is then shown in section.
(ii) The surface produced by cutting the object by the
• Projection of a solid on the plane to which its section plane is called the section.
axis is perpendicular , will show the true shape (iii) It is indicated by thin section lines uniformly spaced
and size of its base. and inclined at 45o.
i. When the axis of solid is perpendicular to the H.P. (iv) The projection of the section along with the
the top view should be drawn first and front view remaining portion of the object is called a sectional
projected from it. view.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 238 YCT
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 239 YCT
01.
AUTO CAD
Introduction-
CAD is an advance computer software that is used for creating designs and generate technical drawings in 2D
and 3D by engineers, architects and drafters.
CAD - Computer Aided Design.
CADD - Computer Aided Design & Drafting.
Auto CAD is a commercial operating system software.
It is developed by Autodesk company (America) in December 1982. UPPCL JE 2022
Founder - John Walker, Father - Mike Riddle.
Latest version auto CAD 2022.12
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 240 YCT
Menu bare is located below the title bar. ARRAY Command AR
OFFSET Command O
POLYGON Command POL
TRIM TR
Polyline PL
CIRCLE Command C
ELLIPS Command EL
Property Palette Ctrl + 1
To design Center Palette Ctrl + 2
Tool Palette Ctrl + 3
Sheet Set Palette Ctrl + 4
Close the application window Alt + F4
Displays the text window Alt + F2
Displays the macros dialog box Alt + F8
Close the current drawing Ctrl + F4
Move the next file tab Ctrl + F6
Toggles markup set manager Ctrl + 7
Toggles the quick calc palette Ctrl + 8
Toggles the command line Ctrl + 9
window
Selects all the objects in drawing Ctrl + A
that are not locked or frozen
Toggle snap Ctrl + B
Copies objects to the clip board Ctrl + C
Copies objects to the window Ctrl + Shift + C
clipboard with base point.
To paste the copied object Ctrl + Shift + V
Toggles dynamic UCS Ctrl + D
Toggles running object snaps Ctrl + F
Toggles grid display mode Ctrl + G
Toggles the coordinates display Ctrl + I
Deselect the selected object Shift + click on to
be deselected object
Command and its shortcut key- Repeats last command Ctrl + J
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Inserts a hyperlink Ctrl + K
RSMSSB JE 2020-21, ISRO Draughtsman 2016
Toggles Ortho mode Ctrl + L
Command Short Key
Open/Creates a new drawing Ctrl + N
LINE Command L Opens an existing drawing Ctrl + O
CHAMFER Command CHA
Saves the current drawing Ctrl + S
FILTER Command FI
ARC Command ARC Displays the save as dialog box Ctrl + Shift + S
AREA Command AA Pastes data from the window Ctrl + V
FILLET Command F clipboard
RECTANGLE Command REC Redo the last undo action Ctrl + Y
EXPLODE Command X Toggles 3-D object snap mode Ctrl + Shift + Y
SCALE Command SC To undo the last action Ctrl + Z
POINT Command PO Plot the current drawing Ctrl + P
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 241 YCT
Important Command and their use- (iii) 3-D CAD (3-D object)
RSMSSB JE 2020, ISRO Draughtsman 2019 (iv) 3-D wireframe and surface modeling
Command Use (v) Solid modeling (solid geometry)
Name Functionality area of CAD-
OFFSET To draw the parallel object at a specified There are four category
distance.
(i) Geometric modelling
FILLET To create rounded edges between (ii) Engineering analysis
perpendicular lines.
(iii) Design review and evaluation
TRIM To remove reusable parts of an object.
(iv) Automate drafting
ERASE Remove the object from a drawing.
PURGE To remove from the drawing.
Process of designing-
There are six steps for designing
PAN To change the cross hair cursor in to hand
cursor. (i) Recognition of need
MEASURE To create a vertical and horizontal rays from (ii) The definition of a problem
the location of the pointing device and divide (iii) Synthesis
the object in predefine length. We can also (iv) Analysis and optimization
measure the distance or area. (v) Evaluation
DONUT Create solid circle or ring. (vi) Presentation
LINE Create straight line. Units in Auto CAD-
X LINE Draw a line of infinite length. ISRO Draughtsman 2019
There are five units available in Auto CAD-
X ATTACH To attach a drawing in another drawing. (i) Architectural Unit-
EXPLODE To break the poly line in individual It is based in feet and inches and use fractions to
1"
segment . represent partial inches for example 12', 4 . The
2
JOIN To convert individual objects into polyline. base unit is the inch unless otherwise specified, so if
OOPS To restore the erased object. you enter a number like 147.5, then Auto CAD will
SCALE To enlarge or reduce size of selected object. 1"
under stand it to be 12', 3 .
CHAMFER To level edge of an object. 2
BLOCK To create block of object which I want to use (ii) Decimal Unit-
regularly in different drawing. It is not based on any particular real world unit with
LAYER To create layer decimal unit each unit in the drawing could
HATCH Fill an enclosed area or selected object with a represent an inch, a millimeter, a for long a fathom,
hatch pattern, solid fill or gradient fill. or any other unit of measure you deem suitable for
ORTHO 0
To draw normal (90 ) straight line. example 15.5.
(iii) Engineering Unit-
Use of function key in Auto CAD-
It is based in feet and inches and use decimals to
Function Key Use represent partial inches for example 12'3.5".
F1 Online/Offline help/Displays help (iv) Fractional Unit-
F2 History of command/toggle b/w Fractional unit is same as the decimal unit both unit
drawing screen to text screen are unit less and show values as fractions rather than
F3 Snap on/off 1
decimal numbers for example 15 .
F4 3D snap on/off 4
F5 Switch isoplane on/off (Isometric (v) Scientific Unit-
view) It is also unit less and show value as exponents. It is
F6 Dynamic UCS on/off used for drawing really tiny or really large things. If
F7 Grid on/off you design molecules or galaxies, this is the unit
type for you.
F8 Orthographic mode on/off
Example- 15.5 E + 06 = 15,500,000
F9 Snap with grid point on/off 15.5 E – 06 = 0.00001550
F10 Snap with polar point on/off
Work space available in Auto CAD-
F11 Object snap tracking These are classified in to 4 parts.
F12 Dynamic input on/off 1. Drafting and annotation
Type of Auto CAD- 2. 3-D Basic
(i) 2-D CAD (Flat drawing) 3. 3-D Modeling
(ii) 2.5-D CAD (Prismatic model) 4. Auto CAD Classic
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 242 YCT
Methods to draw circle in Auto CAD- Method of object selection -
1. Center radius method (i) Window selection - Select the whole object from
2. Center diameter method left to right under blue block.
3. 2 - P method (ii) Crossing window - Select the any part of object
from right to left under green block.
4. 3 - P method
Modern CAD system-
5. Tan - tan radius method
In modern CAD system ICG is used. The interactive
6. Tan - tan - tan method
computer graphics denotes a user oriented system in
Methods to operate line command in Auto CAD- which the computer is employed to create, transform
There are 4 method to operate line command and display data in the form of pictures or symbols
1. Cartesian coordinate method ICG consists software and hardware components.
2. Relative Co-ordinate method Short Name-
3. Relative polar method UCS User Coordinate System
4. Free hand method WCS World Coordinate System
Important Point- COA Council of Architecture
Sides in polygon- ICG Interactive Computer Graphics
Maximum- 1024
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
Minimum- 3
LTS Line Type Scale
While drawing a circle using three point method, all
Auto Automatic Computer Aided Design
three point are taken on the circumference of the
CAD
circle.
The Co-ordinate of cursor in graphics window are Architects Act 1972-
visible in STATUS bar. This act provide registration to architects.
Enactment date - 31 May 1972.
Distance between two adjacent point in grid-
Enforcement date 2 April 1973.
(i) When new file is open with imperial - 0.5.
Location of different room as per Vastushastra-
(ii) When new file is open with metric - 10.
The size of object can be change or object can be
displaced with the help of grip point.
Five grip point are present in a circle.
Objects are rotated about base point.
Relative coordinate system is designed by- @
Points to define rectangle and line command-
2 (starting and end point)
Minimum layer in Auto CAD drawing is - 1.
Number of snap point depends on the object.
Object can be rotate around the base point.
Default size of CAD graphics window in metric-
420 (H) × 297(V)
The Maximum number of view port in Auto CAD-
4.
Type of File Extension
Auto CAD file (save file) .dwg Specification functionality area of auto CAD–
(i) Design
Layer states manager file .las
(ii) Analysis
Auto CAD file (not save) .v$
(iii) Visualization
Auto save .sv$ Note-
The character limit for dwg file name is - 256. STADD Pro - Used for structural analysis and
Maximum limit of error in drawing - 0.25 mm design.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 243 YCT
1. Construction Management, Planning and Scheduling ..................................................... 245
2. Organization .................................................................................................................... 252
3. Miscellaneous .................................................................................................................. 253
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 244 YCT
01.
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT,
PLANNING & SCHEDULING
Purpose of project- 2. Scheduling-
DSSSB JE 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
To complete the project in minimum time period.
It is the process of arranging the objective define
Project completion with minimum cost and without
during planning in sequence and allocation of
delay.
resources to these activities.
Use of optimum available man power and local
resources. Advantages of scheduling-
(i) Construction scheduling gives information regarding
the quantity of work, labour machinery, equipment
etc. required a particular period.
(ii) The progress of the work and the expenditure can be
checked and adjusted.
(iii) The project can be completed systematically and
effectively.
(iv) The work progress can be well monitored and
Resources needed for construction- evaluated.
Assam PSC AE 2020 (v) It prevents undue delay and extension of time.
Project resources are components that are necessary Classification of scheduling-
for successful project implementation they include. TNPSC AE 2012
(i) Money (ii) Materials (iii) Machinery (iv) Man (i) Construction schedule
power (v) Management. (ii) Material schedule
It is also known as five M. (iii) Labour schedule
Functions of construction management- (iv) Equipment schedule
In addition to on site work, construction engineering 3. Controlling -
managers are often called upon to use computers and UPPSC JE (Civil) 2022, GPSC GES 2021, AP (VSS-1) 2017
construction management software to produce and Execution of planning and scheduling comes under
analyze designs for their projects. the controlling.
(i) Planning (ii) Organizing (iii) Staffing (iv) Stages in construction project-
Directing (v) Motivating (vi) Controlling (vii) Three types of steps used for completion of a normal
Coordinating (viii) Communication project-
(i) Conception (ii) Design (iii) Realization
Basic Element of Project Management :-
1. Planning 2. Scheduling 3. Controlling Key Points
MH WRD 2022 , AP (VSS-1) 2017 ■ For repetitive operations, better information can be
1. Planning - obtained from– Line of balance
It is the process of selecting a particular method and ■ Sensitivity analysis is a study of–
the order of work to be adopted for a project from all Change in output due to change in the input
the possible ways and sequences in which it could ■ The measure and adjustment of price levels for
be done. It essentially covers the aspects of what to goods and services across a broad sector of the
do and how to do it. economy is called as– Indexation
The most important phase of project management. ■ Triple constraints in construction Management
Following types of project planning steps. are– Time, cost and scope
Methods of project management-
Planning and scheduling of construction activities
helps engineers to complete the project timely and
within budget.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 245 YCT
Bar-Chart or Gantt Chart - Assign-
ESE Pre. 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, GPSC AE 2022, GPSC AE 2021 Assign is the duration of time for the completion of
GPSC AE (GMB) 2021, TNPSC (CESS) 2021, JPSC AE 2021 each activity.
Bar chart is a graphical representation of activities Represent-
(on Y-axis) vs. time (on X-axis) introduced by Represent is the information about the activities in
Henry Gantt. the bar chart, indicating the relative position of each
Here activities are shown with to help of bar and activity.
length of bar signifies time required for completion
of activity. Mile Stone Chart-
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, UPPCL JE 2022 GSSSB AAE 2021, ESE 2019, GPSC AE 2018
Left end or starting end of bar represents the time of In case of mile stone chart certain portion of the
start and right end of bar represents the finished time activity that is completed in terms of mile stone with
of activity. the help of arrow, circle or square.
Unit - Hrs., Day, week, month etc. Each mile stone can be considered as an event of
Advantage of Bar Chart - main activity.
1. Skill manpower is not required. Mile stone chart represents the events which work
2. It is simple to draw and easy to understand. either the beginning or the end of the activity. Mile
3. Represents visual views of the projects. stone can be drawn.
4. Starting and finishing of project can be observed
clearly.
5. More convenient to construction schedule.
Limitation of bar chart -
MH WRD JE 2022, ESE 2021
1. Lack of degree of details.
• Bar chart shows only the major activities. It does
not represent sub-activities.
2. Review of project progress.
3. Lack of activity inter-relationship.
It is modification of the original Gantt chart (Bar
chart).
Characteristics of bar chart- Controlling can be better achieved with the help of
Maharashtra PSC AE 2012 mile stone charts.
Bar chart is activity oriented. It is simplest scheduling method
Provide idea about physical progress of the project It is suitable for small projects.
i.e. comparison of actual progress with the schedule Key features-
progress. Displays activity against time.
The width of bar does not signify anything it can be Lines represent duration of single activity with
any size.
appropriate start and stop mile stone.
It is adopted for small and medium type construction
Open triangles indicate mile stones planned.
work.
Closed triangle indicate mile stones completed.
Important stages in developing a bar chart-
Breakdown- By Network Technique-
It is the process of breaking entire project in various UPPSC AE 2022, JK SSB JE 2022, Karnataka PWD AE 2021
activities or jobs or operations, each representing Network technique is the graphical and logical
manageable unit for planning and control. representation of different activities and it is the
Decide- modification of bar chart and mile stone chart.
Decide is the method to be employed in execution of It is based on the basic characteristic of all the
the project as well as for each activity or operation projects that all the project must be done in well
or task. defined steps.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 246 YCT
(i) Critical path method- Event-
UKPSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2022, TNPSC AE 2022, UPPSC AE 2022
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
CPM method is given by Morgan R. Walker and Event is an instant of time which marks the start or
Ramination K. James. E. Kelly in 1957. completion of an activity. Event may be in circular
It is also known as critical path analysis (C.P.A.) square or rectangular shape.
critical path scheduling (C.P.S.) and network
management technique (N.M.T.)
CPM is activity oriented method and used for
planning, scheduling and controlling purpose.
Critical path method is used in civil construction area Flow diagram-
while P.E.R.T. is in research and development works. A flow diagram is a visualization of actions,
(ii) Programme Evaluation and Review Technique movement within a system and/or decision points.
(PERT)-
ESE PRE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022 Critical path-
PERT charts are used to plan tasks within a project GPSC AE 2022, UP Awash Vikas Parishad 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
JKSSB JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022, JPSC AE 2021
making it easier to schedule and coordinate team
members. A critical path consumes maximum resources and
Elements of Network Technology- join critical activities. It is the longest path and
(i) Activity- consumes maximum time.
UPPCL JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022 Forms of Network-
Assam PSC AE 2020, Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017 Methods to draw network is following types-
Actual performance of the task is called as activity. (i) Activity on arrow system (A.O.A.)-
Time and source both are required for activity. ESE 2021, GPSC AE (NWR) 2021, JPSC AE 2021
It is represented in arrow form. Arrows tail represent Activities are marked on arrows while event marked
start of activity and head represents the end of in the node. The first circle represents the start of the
activity. activity and second circle represents the finish of the
activity.
Types of activity-
(i) Serial activity-
Serial activity started only after the completion of (ii) Activity on Node system (A.O.N. system)-
another activity. It refers precedence diagramming method which use
boxes to denote schedule activities. These various
boxes or "nodes" are "connected from beginning to
(ii) Parallel activity- end with arrows to depict a logical progression of
These activity carried out simultaneously. the dependencies between the schedule activities.
Node
Dummy activity-
JKSSB JE 2023, MH WRD JE 2022
GSSSB AAE 2021, GPSC AE (GMB) 2021
Slack Activity-
An imaginary activity which does not consume any Slack is also called float. It is the amount of time in
resources and time is called dummy activity. It is which a task can slip before it bumps into another
used to connection b/w events in order to maintain a task. It is automatically calculated into your project
logic in the network. when your schedule tasks, and you can use it as
It is connecting link for control purpose and for buffer time if needed when your schedule is at risk
maintaining uniqueness of activity. of being delayed.
It is represented by dotted/broken arrow. There are two types of slack
(i) Free Slacks-
The free slack of an activity is the time in which
Ex.- activity can be delayed without delaying
(a) Install new machine immediately following (successor) activity.
(b) Remove existing machine (ii) Total slack-
(c) Dispose existing machine It is the amount of time. An activity can be delayed
(d) Wait delivery of new machine without delaying the entire project.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 247 YCT
Rules for network construction- (iii) Converging Network-
A complete network should have only one point of In this network activity, C is totally depends upon
entry (a start event) and only one point of exit (a activity, A and B.
finish event).
Each activity is represented by one and only one
arrow in the network.
An event can not occur twice.
There must be no dead end left except the final
node. (iv) Parallel Network-
No activity can start until its tail end event has Parallel activities in project management can be
occurred. defined as a situation where two activities take place
Any arrow should represent singular situation. simultaneously without affecting the performance of
Representation of the network should be such that each other.
every activity is completed.
Logic of network should always be maintained.
It is usual practice to show the time flow from left to
right.
Fulkerson's Rule- Common errors in network diagramming-
In a network, the events or nodes at the tail and head Three types of common errors occur in network
of an activity have to be numbered for proper diagramming.
identification. The numbering of the various events (i) Dangling Error-
should progress from left to right reflecting the To disconnect an activity before the completion of
logical sequence of activities. all activities in a network diagram is known as
Procedure of Fulkerson's rule- dangling error.
(i) In every network there is one 'initial' event. This
'initial' event has arrows coming out of it and no
arrows entering it. Number this event as 1.
(ii) Neglect all arrows coming out of the 'initial' event.
This will give rise to one or more new 'initial' events.
(iii) Number the new 'initial' events generated in step (ii)
as (ii), (iii) etc.
(iv) Neglect all arrows coming out of the new 'initial'
The activity 4 to 8, 5 to 6 are known as dangling
events, which will give rise to further initial events.
error.
Number these initial events sequentially.
(v) Repeat step (iv) till the last event, which has no (ii) Looping Error-
arrows coming out of it, is numbered. Looping error is also known as cycle error in the
In networks for large and complex projects, skip network drawing and endless loop in a network
numbering may be adopted for the events or nodes. diagram is known as error of looping.
In skip numbering the events are numbered as 10,
20, 30, 40, 50 etc. This system permits
additional/more detailed activates.
Basic Network diagrams-
(i) Sequential Network-
Activity, B can not be start until activity, A is
finished i.e. activity, B depends upon activity, A. (iii) Redundancy Error-
Unnecessarily inserting the dummy activity in a
network diagram is known as error of redundancy.
(ii) Diverging Network-
This error occurs in AON network.
Unless activity first is not completed, second and
third activity can not yet start.
But activity second and third start at same time.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 248 YCT
Event Time- It is the earliest possible time at which an activity
(i) Earliest Event Time (TE)- can be finish.
Minimum time taken for reach at any event is E.F.T = TL + D or tij
known as earliest event time. It is written at near the TE = E.F.T. − D or t ij
event in a square section.
It is calculated by forward pass method. E.F.T. of an activity is not equal to head event.
(ii) Latest Event Time (TL)- 3. Latest Start Time (L.S.T.)-
JKSSB JE (Civil) 2022, GPSC AAE (Civil) 2021
The max. time in which an event can possible begin GPSC AE (Civil) 2021
without delaying the schedule of the project. It is It is the latest possible time by which an activity can
written at near of event in triangular section. start without affecting the completion time of
It is calculated by backward pass method. project.
Slack- LST = LFT – tij
The time by which occurrence of an event can be 4. Latest Finish Time (LFT or TL)-
delayed without affecting the schedule completion It is the time by which a specific activity must be
time of project is called slack. completed.
Slack, S = TL – TE It is calculated by moving from last event to the first
Slack value may be +ve, –ve or 0. event of the network diagram.
(i) If, S = TL – TE = 0 or TL = TE L.F.T. = L.S.T + duration of that activity
Then event is called critical event. It indicates that Float-
event is on schedule we can not allowed the delayed Rajasthan VP ITI 2018, TNPSC AE 2012
in the occurrence of this events.It is also known as Float is the time by which starting and finishing of
zero slack (S = 0). an activity can be delayed without affecting the
(ii) If, S = TL – TE > 0 or TL > TE scheduled completion time of project.
It means the event running ahead of the schedule Types of float-
time. This event is called sub critical event. It is also GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, GPSC GES 2021
indicate condition of excess resources deployed. It is 1. Total float (FT)-
called as positive slack. ESE Pre 2023, DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021
(iii) If slack, S = TL – TE < 0 or TL < TE Karnataka PWD AE 2021, JPSC AE 2021
CHB SDE (Building) 2023 It is the excess of maximum time available over
It indicates that this event is running behind the activity duration.
scheduled time. This types of event is called as super Succeeding and proceeding both activities are
critical event it also indicate that resources deployed affected by total float.
are not adequate enough. It is known as negative Total float,
slack.
FT = L.S.T − E.S.T
Key Points
or, L.F.T − E.F.T
■ The approaches creates perseverance to learn,
know practice and strive toward a high level of FT = 0 Critical activity
safety at the job site is– Economic incentives FT < 0 Super critical activity
■ During the construction stage, cost control of the FT > 0 Sub-critical activity
project can be best achieved in– 2. Free float (FF)-
Labours and plants &equipment PPSC JE 2022, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, UKPSC AE 2022
■ The method that measures changes in the price of GPSC AE 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
inputs to the construction process by monitoring JPSC AE 2021, GPSC AE (GMB) 2021, ISRO SE 2020
separately the cost of each factor is called as– Free float is the excess of time available over
Input indices activity duration.
■ An official letter addressed by personal name is– Only proceeding activity is affected in free float.
Semi–official Letter FF = Total float − Head event slack
Start and finish time of activity- = FT − S j
1. Earliest Start Time (TE)-
3. Independent float (FI)-
Punjab SDO 2021
GPSC AE 2022, MPSC (ASCE) 2021, KPSC AE 2020
An activity has minimum time for its completion
It is defined as the earliest possible time at which an when its tail event occurs at latest time and head
activity can be start. It is calculated by moving from even occurs at the earliest time.
first to last event in a network diagram.
2. Earliest Finish Time (EFT)- FI = Total float − Tail event slack
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB) = FF − S j
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 249 YCT
4. Interfering float (FIF)-
MPPSC 2022, Punjab SDO 2021
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021, KA PWD AE 2021
It is also known as head event slack-
FIF = FT − FF
= TLj − TEj
5. Project Float-
It is the amount of time a project can be delayed Properties of frequency distribution curve-
without delaying the externally imposed project Mean-
finish date by the customer or the project finish date. Mean of the distribution may be defined by the
PERT METHOD algebraic sum of time durations taken by various
UKPSC JE 2022, UPCL AE 2021, GPSC AE 2021 jobs divided by the number of jobs.
It is developed by U.S. Navy in PERT is a technique ∑t
tm =
which is used for planning, scheduling and n
controlling the project.
Where,
PERT is used in R & D type projects. PERT is an
∑t = t1 + t2 + ...........tn
event oriented network. It follows non-deterministic
Deviation/variation-
approach or probabilistic approach.
δ = t – tm
Method of time estimate for the activity-
Where, δ = deviation of any time 't' from the mean
Deterministic approach-
t = time under consideration
(i) Optimistic Time Estimate-
RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021, MH PSC 2021
Variance-
It is the shortest possible time in which an activity It is the mean of the square deviations.
can be completed, under ideal conditions. It ∑ δ2 ∑(t − t m )2
σ2 = =
represents the time of completion of an activity, if n n
everything goes perfectly well. It is denoted by 'to'.
Standard Deviation-
(ii) Pessimistic Time Estimate- TNCSC AE 2020, TNPSC AE 2019
GPSC AE 2021, GPSC AE (NWR) 2021 PTCUL AE 2016, UPPSC State Eng. A.E. 2003
The longest estimated time period within which a It is the square root of the variance.
task is likely to be completed and is used in project
management activities. It does not include possible ∑(t − t m ) 2
σ=
effects of earthquakes, floods and fires. It is denoted n
by 'tp'. Beta distribution-
(iii) Most likely time- RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
MPSC (ASCE) 2021, ODISHA PSC 2021
Standard deviation for β-distribution is
DSSSB AE 2021, HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021
It is the time in which the activity is normally tp − to
σ=
expected to complete under normal contingencies. It 6
lies between optimistic and pessimistic time 2
estimates. It is denoted by 'tm'. t −t
Variance, σ2 = p o
Probabilistic (expected completion) time (te) for 6
completion of an activity-
TNPSC AE 2019, APPSC AE 2016
t o + t p + 4t m Probability Factor (Z)-
te =
6 ODISHA PSC 2021, UPPSC AE 2020, Haryana PSC AE 2020
JK SSB JE 2022, MHWRD JE 2022, PPSC JE 2022 ts – te
Z=
UKPSC AE 2022, TNPSC AE 2022, MPSC (ASCE) 2021 σ
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021, UPCL AE 2021
Where,
Frequency distribution- ts = Scheduled completion time
To determine time estimates is quite difficult, unless te = Expected completion time
proper guidance is provided. If a curve is plotted Probability 0 ±1 ±2 ±3
between 'time' of completion and the number of Factor (Z)
activities complete in that 'time', is called frequency
P(%) 50 84.13 97.72 99.87
distribution curve.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 250 YCT
Difference between CPM and PERT- Normal time(tn)-
UPPCL JE 2022 GPSC AM (GMDC) 2020, GPSC AE 2019
CPM PERT It is time taken by the project without any delay in
1. It is used to manage only 1. It is used to manage any activity of the project. Normal time of the
certain activities of any uncertain time not project does not contain crashing of any activities.
project. activities of any project.
Normal Cost (Cn)-
2. It is activity oriented 2. It is event oriented
technique. technique. It is the direct cost an activity associated with the
3. It is deterministic model. 3. It is probabilistic model. normal time.
4. It is suitable for 4. It is suitable for projects Crash Cost-
construction projects. which required research Crash cost is the cost associated when the project is
and development. completed with crash time of the project.
5. It uses activities for 5. It does not used any Crash time (tc)-
representing sequence of dummy activities. Crash time is the minimum time by which the
activities.
project may be completed by assigning extra
6. Focused on cast 6. Focused on time control.
recourses.
optimization 7. Three time estimate
7. one time estimate follow β distribution. Cost Slope-
8. follow normal UPPCL AE 2022, MPPSC AE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
distribution.
Crash cos t – Normal cos t
Note-Slack in a PERT network refers to event. Cost slope =
Normal time – Crash time
In PERT, entire project is assumed to follow normal
probability distribution curve.
COST TIME BALANCING OF PROJECT
Project costs management is one of the main and
undeniable components in the project management
processes, which becomes more important in costly
and long term projects such as major construction
projects. Cost time balancing is one of the important
issue is the transactional analysis of a variety of
project costs and project execution time. For any
activity two types of costs.
(i) Indirect cost (ii) Direct Cost
(i) Indirect Cost-
UPRVUNL AE 2023, UPPSC AE 2022
It is that cost or expenses which can not be
computed individually for an activity, but can be
found for the entire project. Optimum Cost-
Ex.-cost at inspection staff, workshop, staff, UPPSC AE 2020
workshop establishment or storage shed. Optimum cost is defined as that cost which is lower
(ii) Direct Cost- as compared to that of the normal project cost at
JKSSB JE (Civil) 2022, ODISHA PSC 2021
optimum lower project duration.
It is the those expenses which are directly
chargeable and can be identified by activities. Optimum Duration-
Ex.- Cost of material, Machinery, Labors etc. Optimum project duration is the time corresponding
to minimum project cost for completion of the
project.
Crashing
The process of reduction of total project duration
along critical path to obtain minimum cost is termed
as crashing.
1
Note:- Crash cost ∝
"Direct cost decreases with increase in time". Crash time
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 251 YCT
02.
ORGANIZATION
The project organization is the structure of the This type of organization preferred for medium size
project. Created separately with specialists and construction work.
workers from various department.
Various types of organizations-
1. Line/Military organization-
ESE 2021, Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017
It is the most oldest and simplest method of
administrative organization. According to this type
of organization, the authority flow from top to
bottom in concern.
It is suitable for small construction works.
Chief Engineer
↓
Superintendent Engineer
↓ Principle of organization-
Executive Engineer Principles of project management are follows as.
↓ Span of control or management
Assistant Engineer Unity of command
↓ Delegation of authority and responsibility
Unity of assignment
Job definition
Organizational relationship
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 Ultimate authority and responsibility
Classification of construction work-
2. Functional organization- Type of Work Amount
GPSC AM (GMDC) 2020, GPSC AE 2019
Petty Works < 2000
This type of organization was introduced by F.W.
Miner Works < 20000
Taylor.
Under the functional organization, the quality of Major Works 20000 - 100000
work is better, wastage of material is minimum and Large Project > 100000
specialized knowledge and guidance to individual Construction work may also classified as
member is provided. follows-
This type of organization is suitable for large/heavy (a) Light Construction-
construction works. It includes the works with light structural members,
light foundations and light timber member. The
construction of residential & commercial buildings,
school, villages, city roads, small water supply &
sewage works, wave houses & light industrial sheds
are considered as light construction.
(b) Heavy Construction-
It includes heavy structural members on massive
foundations. The construction of tunnels, bridges, oil
pipe lines, railways, airports, dams thermal and
hydroelectric power generation plants, are
3. Line and staff organization- considered as heavy construction.
It is also known as specialist organization. This type (c) Industrial Construction-
of organization have practically all the advantages of In industrial construction all the construction work
both the line and functional organizations. In the line related to industries producing commercial products.
and staff organization, the quality of work improved The construction of refineries, fertilizers, chemical
and there is less wastage of material, man and plants and steel mills are considered as industrial
machine. construction.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 252 YCT
03.
MISCELLANEOUS
Muster Roll- Site order books-
It is used for keeping a complete record of Site order book means the order books which shall
attendance, payment made, unpaid wages, and work be maintained by the contractor at the site. It is used
done by daily labour engaged in the execution of for recording instructions given by the executive
works. It is the initial record of the labour employed engineer at site.
day on a work and must be written daily by the
Difference between cash inflow and out flow-
subordinate in charge of work.
The difference between cash inflow and outflow is
Muster roll consist of the three parts.
known as net value. In cash out flow to acquire fixed
Part- 1 (Nominal Roll)-
In this part of the muster roll full information about assets like property plant and equipment is included
the labour employed is recorded and daily but outflow from interest payment is not included.
attendance of the labour is marked. Cash inflow from the sale property, plant and
Part-2 (Register of arrears of wages due to equipment are included but interest income is not
worked people)- included.
This part of the muster group is used for keeping a BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021
record of all unpaid wages. Pay back method-
Part-3 (Details of measurement of work done by The method that ignores cash generation beyond
labour)-
period when cash inflow exceeds investment is
Measurement books-
known as pay back method. It is a method of
measurement book (MB) is a record in which
evaluation a project by measuring the time. It will
measures are recorded for the work performed by
the contractor for good's or services provided on the take to recover the initial investment.
site with all the direction, dimension and quantity Accounting rate of return (ARR)-
with date of execution of work. It is also known as average rate of return or ARR is
Measurement book is recorded at two different financial ratio used in capital budgeting. The ratio
stages as per below. does not take into account the concept of the time
1. Progressive measurement value of money ARR calculates the return, generated
2. Final measurement from the net income of the proposed capital
Note-The entries in the measurement books (MB) investment. The ARR is a percentage return.
has to be entered by the section officer.
Internal rate of return-
Different types of acts-
It is a method of calculating an investments rate of
(i) Payment of wages act, 1936
PPSC JE 2022
return the term pinterval refers to the fact that the
(ii) Minimum wages act, 1948 calculation excludes external factors, such as the risk
(iii) Workmen's compensation act, 1923 free rate, inflation, the cost of capital or, financial
DSSSB JE 2022 risk.
(iv) Contract labour act, 1970 Build operate transfer system (BOT)-
Labour payment method- MPPSC AE 2021
(i) Time rate wage payment A build operate transfer contract is a model used to
(ii) Piece rate wage payment finance large projects typically infrastructure
(iii) Incentive/bonus method projects developed through public private
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 253 YCT
partnerships BOT projects are normally large scale, Fulkerson's Rule-
Greenfield infrastructure projects that would GPSC AE 2018, MH PSC 2017
otherwise be financed, built and operated solely by It is used for numbering events involved in the
the government. project scheduling network. Every activity in a
Classification of construction planning- network is given a name or symbol. The events are
Construction planning is classified two types- represented by a circle at the beginning and at the
(i) Owner's planning- end of an activity and are assigned numbers.
It is classified two steps- Numbering of events helps in drawing the network
(a) Pre-tender planning- correctly. Numbers should be so assigned to the
events that they reflect the logical sequence of
The planning undertaken by the contractor after
events in the network. In Fergusson's percentage unit
receipt of tender notices and before submitting the
system the circle is divided into 8 parts.
bid is pre tender planning.
Note-
(b) Post tender planning-
Hungarian method -Assignment problems
A practice the public sector used to negotiate better
terms after receiving formal tenders and before Johnson's rule -Scheduling jobs
awarding contracts. Simplex method -Linear programming
(ii) Contractor's planning- Logic Splitter-
It is classified two types- It is used in critical path network when two
(a) Pre contract planning concurrent activities are followed and preceded by
the same activity.
(b) Post contract planning
Build operate transfer system (BOT)-
Key Points
Under BOT model, a private player is granted a
■ ______ is defined as a set of international
concession to finance, build and operate a project for
standards on quality management and quality
a specified period of time (20 to 30 year concession
assurance developed to help companies effectively
period), with the developer recouping the investment
document the quality system elements needed to
by ways of user charges or tolls charged from
maintain an efficient quality system– ISO 9000
customers using the facility and there by taking on a
■ The form used in public works for measurement
certain amount of financial risk.
book is– Form 23
Mobilization advance payment-
Log Book- The mobilization advance is a monetary payment
Construction log book means the document entitled made by the client to the contractor for initial
Dziennik Budowy in polish. Provided by the expenditure in respect of site mobilization, and a fair
employer to the contractor at the commencement. proportion of job overheads or preliminaries.
The responsibility of the contractor. • The concept of MAP came in it to being with the
Mobilization advance payment- objective of overcoming financial difficulties of
The mobilization advance is a monetary payment small & medium scale contractors.
made by the client to the contractor for initial Log Book-
expenditure in respect of site mobilization, and a fair It is the day-to-day record of all activities on the
proportion of job overheads or preliminaries construction site prepared and maintained by the
mobilization advanced payment (MAP) Reduces contractor. It is provided by the employer to the
contractors 'need for working capital'. contractor.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 254 YCT
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 256
2. Working stress method (WSM)....................................................................................... 259
3. Doubly Reinforced Beam ................................................................................................ 263
4. Shear and Bond Strengths ............................................................................................... 264
5. Reinforced Concrete Slab ................................................................................................ 268
6. T-Beam or Flanged Beams .............................................................................................. 273
7. Columns and Footing ...................................................................................................... 276
8. Retaining Walls ............................................................................................................... 280
9. Limit State Method.......................................................................................................... 283
10. Prestressed Concrete...................................................................................................... 286
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 255 YCT
01.
INTRODUCTION
Essential features of concrete- IS : 456 : 1953 - First revision
(i) Strength IS : 456 : 1957 - Second revision
(ii) Durability IS : 456 : 1964- Third revision (Limit state method)
(iii) High compressive strength
(iv) Economical
(v) Fire resistance
(vi) Less maintenance cost.
Average strength variation-
Grade
Average of the group of 4 Individual test
Non overlapping test results result (N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
M-15 ≥ fck + 0.825σ or fck + 3 (fck – 3)
Which is more
Uses of PCC-
(i) Mass concrete work ≥ M-20 ≥ fck + 0.825 σ or fck + 4 (fck – 4)
(ii) Lean concrete work Which is more
(iii) Simple foundation Where,
Properties of PCC- fck = Characteristic strength
• It is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate (sand) and σ = Standard deviation
coarse aggregate without reinforcement. Test result of the sample is rejected if individual
• PCC have more compressive strength and negligible variation becomes greater than ±15% of average.
tensile strength.
Key Points
• PCC is brittle in nature. ■ For concrete members buried under aggressive sub
Properties of RCC- soil or ground water, the minimum grade of
• Sufficient compressive and tensile strength. concrete to used is– M 35
• Higher fire and weather resistance. ■ Grades of concrete, for a reinforced concrete shall
• More life not be lower than– M20
• Inform before failure. ■ ........... is used in concrete in civil engineering–
Note- Steel
Fibres like as steel, asbestos, polypropene, nylon etc. Target mean strength (fm)-
used in fibre reinforced concrete are also called as
It is defined as the design strength determined for
secondary reinforcement.
the manufacture of reinforced concrete.
Steel Reinforcement-
B.I.S. recommended following types of steel for
reinforcement-
(a) Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars conforming
to IS 432 : 1982 (Part-I)
(b) High yield strength deformed steel (HYSD) bars
conforming to IS :1786-1985
(i) Fe-415 (Tor-40)
(ii) Fe-500 (Tor-50)
(c) Hard drawn steel wire fabric for concrete
reinforcement conforming to IS : 1566 -1967.
(d) Structural steel conforming to grade A of IS 2062. f m = f ck + 1.65σ
Important points- AP TRANSCO AEE 2017, RPSC GWD A. En. 2014
According to IS-456 : 2000 plain and reinforced Note-
cement concrete is used. Above equation is used when probability of block
Some Important revision in IS code- failure is 5% or less.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 256 YCT
Standard deviation (σ)- • For the inelastic region, E IT > E T > ES
Quality of concrete or strength variation is depend
on standard deviation. • Lower strength concrete has greater ductility.
Standard deviation, • Curve generally linear up to a stress of 0.6 (15%)
(i) If No. of test samples ≥ 30 times of peak stress.
Creep-
∑ (x − µ) 2
Then, σ = Creep can be defined as the elastic and long term
n
deformation of concrete under a constant load.
(ii) If No. of test samples < 30 It is a time dependent component of total strain.
∑ (x − µ) 2 Creep Co-efficient-
Then, σ =
n −1 Ultimate creep strain
θ=
∑x Elastic strain
Average strength, µ=
n Total creep = Elastic strain + Ultimate strain
• Strength of cube is the average of 3 specimen of a
Creep Recovery-
sample.
After unloading of structure the reduction in strain
σ with time other than elastic strain is known as creep
Co-efficient of variation, C v =
µ recovery.
Where, Creep recovery < creep strain
n = No. of test sample
x = Strength of block The creep strains are caused due to-
(x – µ) = Deviation from mean Dead load - Permanent strain
Distribution of standard deviation (σ) is the measure Live load - Temporary strain
of quality control. Where-
Strength Quality of
variation concrete
Standard More More Poor
deviation Less Less High
Modulus of elasticity-
1. Initial tangent (EIT)/Dynamic modulus-
It is the slope of stress-strain curve at origin of
curve.
It is also known as short term modulus of elasticity
(Ec).
As per IS : 456 : 1978 (Min. grade M-15)
Deformation of Hardened Concrete
E c = 5700 f ck N / mm 2 Effect of creep on young's modulus of
As per IS : 456 : 2000 (Min. grade M-20) elasticity-
E c = 5000 f ck N / mm 2 It is also known as long term modulus of elasticity
(Ecl)-
JPSC AE 2021OPSC AEE 2019, GPSC AE 2018
2. Tangent modulus (ET) - E
E cl = c Where, Ec = 5000 f ck
Slope of tangent of any point in stress strain curve is 1+ θ
known as tangent modulus. So,
It is also known as instantaneous value of modulus
of elasticity. 5000 f ck
E cl =
3. Secant modulus (ES)- 1+ θ
Slope of line joining the any point on stress strain Haryana PSC AE 2017, UPPSC A.E. 2007, ESE 2007
curve to origin is called secant modulus.
Due to effect of creep modulus of elasticity of
In designing secant modulus should be used.
concrete is reduced.
Note - Modulus of elasticity of concrete (Ec) is also
called as secant modulus. Tensile strength of concrete-
The tensile strength of concrete can be express as
• For the elastic region, E IT = E T = ES follows-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 257 YCT
(i) Flexural tensile strength- Important points-
Modulus of rupture indicates the flexural tensile Order of strength of concrete is-
strength. f ck > f cr > f cs > f ct
Specimen-
Cube strength > Cylinder strength > Modulus of
(a) If aggregate size ≤ 20 mm
rupture > Split tensile strength
Specimen size - 100 mm × 100 mm × 500 mm
A higher modular ratio shows lower compressive
Rate of loading - 180 kg/min. strength of concrete.
(b) If aggregate size > 20 mm Modulus of rupture of concrete is a measure of
Specimen size - 150 mm × 150 mm × 700 mm flexural tensile strength.
Rate of loading - 400 kg/min. Reinforced cement concrete was developed by
3Pl Francois coignet.
Flexural tensile strength f cr =
2bd 2 John Smeaton is considered as the father of civil
According to IS : 456 : 2000 flexural tensile engineering
Founder of Portland cement is Joseph Asphadin
strength, f cr = 0.7 f ck Joseph Monier is the founder of ferro cement.
GPSC AE 2018, Vizag steel MT-2017 To prevent corrosion of steel reinforcement in RCC
(ii) Splitting tensile strength- structures highly alkalined pH value of water is used
It is necessary to determine the tensile strength of If the fibres are not dispersed properly in FRC then
concrete to the bed at which the concrete members the resulting problem is called as balling.
may crack. Steel corrodes in exposure of air and moisture and
This test provides more uniform and accurate result. rust has 2.5 times the volume of steel.
Same sample can be used to find the compressive Calcium silicate hydrate (C.S.H) is also known as
strength of concrete. 'Tobermorite gel'.
Specimen- Concrete is a heterogeneous or composite mixture.
• Length- 300 mm Fine and coarse aggregate are used in inert form in
concrete mixture.
• Dia.- 150 mm
Shrinkage crack is the first crack that occurs in any
• Dia. : Length- 1 : 2 RCC member.
2P Key Points
f cs =
πDL ■ The strain at yield of reinforcing steel is–
Where, P = Applied uniaxial load elastic strain + (design yield stress/Young's
D = dia. of specimen modulus of steel)
L = Length of specimen ■ Minimum clear cover provided in the design of
water tank is– 25 mm
f cs = 0.66 f cr ■ The minimum number of cores to be taken for core
(iii) Direct tensile strength- test, in connection with inspection and safety of
It is the half of the flexural strength of concrete. Its concrete structures is– 3
value varies, 0.55 to 0.62. ■ In a highly aggressive environment, width of crack
in RCC member permissible as per IS: 456‑2000
f ct = 0.55f cr
is– 0.1 mm
EXPOSURE CONDITIONS AND REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
WORKS WITH NORMAL AGGREGATES OF 20mm NOMINAL SIZE
Exposure Description Nominal Cover Min grade Min cement Max free w/c
(mm) Content ratio
(Kg/m3)
RCC PCC RCC PCC RCC PCC
Mild Normal 20 M20 M15 300 220 0.55 0.60
Moderate Expose to rain 30 M25 M15 300 240 0.50 0.60
Severe immersed in sea 45 M30 M20 320 250 0.45 0.50
water
Very Severe Exposed to sea 50 M35 M20 340 260 0.45 0.45
spray
Extreme Tidal zone 75 M40 M25 360 280 0.40 0.40
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 258 YCT
02.
WORKING STRESS METHOD
Introduction- (a) ≤ 20 mm 140 190
In WSM method, the structural material behaves (b) > 20 mm 130 190
elastically due to working loads (service loads). Permissible stress of concrete (IS 456 :
The stress has within its limit and a proper factor of 1978) or Direct tensile stress-
safety can be achieved.
Ft
WSM is also known as elastic method. The direct tensile stress σ t =
A c + m A st
UPPCL AE 2019
Factor of safety- Permissible tensile stress for various grade of
Rajasthan Nagar Nigam AE, 2016 concrete-
Ultimate strength of concrete Grade of
Factor of safety of concrete = M-10 M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40
Working strength concrete
Yield strength of steel Tensile
Factor of safety of steel =
Working strength stress 1.2 2.0 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4
Factor of safety- (N/mm2)
Punjab SDO 2021, GPSC AE 2019 Modular ratio (m)-
For concrete- In case of RCC section
(a) In bending compression 3.0 Es
(b) In direct compression 4.0 Modular ratio, m =
Ec
For steel 1.78
Where, Ec = Modulus of elasticity of concrete
Assumption of working stress method-
Es = Modulus of elasticity of steel
A section which is plane before bending remains
Due to effect of creep modular ratio increases.
plane after bending.
Es E s (1 + θ)
All tensile stresses are taken by steel. m= =
The stress-strain relationship of steel and concrete E cl Ec
under working loads is a linear or straight line. Higher modular ratio shows lower compressive
CIL MT 2017 strength of concrete.
The modulus of elasticity of steel and concrete are As per IS : 456 : 2000 relation between modular
constant. ratio and compressive bending stress of concrete is-
Permissible Stress in reinforced steel bar
280
(N/mm2)- m= Where creep is partially considered.
3.σcbc
GPSC GES 2021
Type of stress in steel Mild steel HYSD 1
ES is constant so m ∝
bars, Fe-250 bar Fe-415 EC
1. In tension and shear (σst or σsy) So modular ratio is only depend upon grade of
a. ≤ 20 mm 140 230 concrete.
b. > 20 mm 130 230 Modular ratio for different grades-
2. Compression in column bars (σsc) 130 190 UPRVUNL AE 2022
3. Compression bars in a beam or a slab where Grade of M-10 M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40
compressive resistance of the concrete is not taken concrete
into account Ratio 31.11 18.67 13.33 10.98 9.33 8.11 7.18
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 259 YCT
Permissible stress in concrete (N/mm2)- 2. For span > 10 m
(Span )
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022 2
Permissible stress in Permissible stress Effective depth =
10A
compression in bond for plain
Grade Where, A = Span to effective depth ratio
bars in tension τbd
Bending (σcbc) Direct (σcc) LSM WSM Lateral stability of beams -
M-10 3.0 2.5 - - Slenderness limit to maintain the lateral stability of
M-15 5.0 4.0 - 0.6 beams.
M-20 7.0 5.0 1.2 0.8 1. For S.S.B. and continuous beam -
M-25 8.5 6.0 1.4 0.9 UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, LMRC AM 2015
M-30 10 8.0 1.5 1.0 60b
M-35 11.5 9.0 1.7 1.1
L0 min. of OR
M-40 13.0 10 1.9 1.2 250b 2
Note- d
The bond stress shall be increased by 25% when Here, L0 = Clear distance b/w lateral restrains of
bars are in compression. beam
The value of bond stress is increased by 60% when b = Width of beam, d = Effective depth
deformed bars are used. 2. For cantilever beam –
The ratio of permissible stress in direct compression DDA JE 2023, MPPGCL JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022
and bending compression is less than one. 25b
Equivalent area of composite section- L0 min. of OR
100b 2
(i) In terms of concrete-
d
P = σc (m As + Ac)
(ii) In terms of steel- SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM
A The beam that is longitudinally reinforced only in
P = σs A s + c tension zone is known as singly reinforced beam.
m
In such beams, the ultimate bending moment and the
Equivalent Area-
tension due to bending are carried by the
(a) Equivalent area of concrete- Ac = m. Ast reinforcement, while the compression is carried by
σst the concrete.
Stress in concrete, σc =
m Neutral Axis of beam section-
where Ac = Area of concrete Neutral axis is an axis of beam where the stress is
Ast = Area of steel zero. It is neither in compression nor in tension.
(b) Equivalent area of compression steel = B.xa – Asc
Equivalent concrete area in compression zone
= Asc(1.5m – 1)
Permissible deflection for beam section -
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, CGPSC AE 2022
SSC JE (Civil) 2022, JSSC JE 2022
Types of Beam Max. Span/eff.
depth ratio
1. For span ≤ 10 m.
(i) Simply supported beam and 20 Where,
T- beam x = Depth of N.A.
(ii) Fixed and continuous beam 26 dc = Effective thickness of cover
(iii) Cantilever beam 7 d = Effective depth
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 260 YCT
Types of concrete section- Note-
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021 This expression suggest the value of neutral axis
(i) Under reinforced section depth factor does not depend upon the grade of
UJVNL AE 2021, GPSC AE 2019, BPSC AE 2019 concrete. It depends only on the permissible stress in
In this types of section the percentage of steel reinforcement.
provided is less than balanced section. Increasing the quantity of steel ,the depth of neutral
Steel is fully stressed while stress in concrete is less axis increases.
than σcbc. 3. Lever Arm (z)-
In this type of section, the failure is ductile because The perpendicular distance between the line of
steel fails first and sufficient warning is given before action of the couple forming compressive and tensile
collapse. force in a reinforced concrete section is known as
Due to ductile failure and economy, under lever arm.
reinforced sections are preferred by designers. x
Lever Arm, z = d − a
(ii) Over reinforced section 3
UPRVUNL AE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, KPSC AE 2020
4. Moment of Resistance (MR)-
Percentage of steel is greater than balanced section
so, the section is uneconomical. The ability of beam to resist bending moment is
known as moment of resistance.
Stress in concrete reaches its permissible value
while steel is not fully stressed. 1
Total compressive force , Fc = σcbc × x a × B
Concrete is brittle in nature, hence failure is known 2
as compression or brittle failure. It is also known as Total tensile force-
sudden failure
σ
(iii) Balanced section or Economical section- FT = st .mA st = σst .A st
m
A balanced sections is that section in which stress in
MR = Force × distance between two forces
concrete and steel reaches their permissible value at
the same time. (i) If xa > xc
The percentage of steel in reinforced balanced σ
( M R )C = B.x a cbc d − a
x
section is greater than under reinforced section. 2 3
(ii) If xa < xc
ESE 2022, UKPSC AE 2007
( M R )T = σst .Ast d −
xa
3
(iii) If xa = xc
GPHC AE 2018, Maharashtra PSC AE 2012
From the stress diagram- σcbc xa
M r = B.x a d −
1. Critical depth of neutral axis (CNA)- 2 3
Critical neutral axis depth is such a depth where or
stresses in concrete and steel attains its maximum
x
value at same time. M r = σst .A st d − a
3
mσcbc
xc = ×d Percentage of steel reinforcement-
mσcbc + σst
UKPSC AE 2007
2. Actual depth of neutral axis(ANA)- A st
Percentage of steel, p = × 100
Bx 2a b.d
= mA st (d − x a )
2 OR
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 261 YCT
50x 2a Max. spacing-
Economical % of steel p =
md ( d − x a ) 300 mm
Min. of
Note- Beam width
As per IS: 456, Due to creep and shrinkage effect
factor 1.5 m is used for compression steel.
Reinforcement spacing for beam -
(i) Min. horizontal spacing will be maximum of-
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2020
(a) Equal to dia. of bar if the dia. is equal.
(b) Dia. of larger bar if the dia. are unequal.
(c) 5 mm more than nominal maximum size of coarse Classification of Concrete Section Based
aggregate.
on Neutral
(ii) Vertical spacing
Dia. of thicker bar Axis Condition-
15 mm Types of section Neutral Axis Formula
< Maximum of
2 × Max. nominal size of coarse aggregate condition
3 Under ANA < CNA mσ cbc d
Xc =
Reinforced mσ cbc + σst
Side face reinforcement-
Side face reinforcement shall be provided as per (Steel or Ductile
(Cl.26.5.1.3 & 26.5.17(6) of IS 456 : 2000. failure)
• Beam depth > 450 mm (If beam is subjected to Over ANA > CNA Bx 2a
torsion) = mA st (d − x a )
Reinforced 2
• Beam depth > 750 mm (If beam not subjected to
(Concrete or
torsion)
• Provide at the rate 0.1% of web area and distribute it Brittle failure)
equally on both side faces. Balanced ANA= CNA xa = xc = x
Value for various parameter for various grade of steel -
In case of critical neutral axis-
Parameter Formula M-15, σcbc = 5N/mm2, m = 18
Fe-250 Fe-415 Fe-500
σst = 140 N/mm2
σst = 230 N/mm 2
σst = 275 N/mm2
Neutral axis mσcbc × d 0.39d 0.281d 0.246d
xc =
mσcbc + σst
Lever arm x 0.87d 0.906d 0.918d
z = d − c
3
Resisting moment b.x c .σcbc xc 0.85bd2 0.64bd2 0.564bd2
Mr = d −
2 3
Percentage of tensile A st 0.70% 0.31% 0.22%
p= × 100
Reinforcement b×d
Area of tensile p× b×d 0.007bd 0.0031bd 0.0022bd
Ast =
reinforcement 100
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 262 YCT
03.
DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM
Introduction- Actual depth of neutral axis, (Xa)-
R.C.C. beam which comprises of reinforcement both bX 2a
in tension zone as well as compression zone is called + (1.5m − 1)A sc (X a − d c ) = mA st (d − X a )
2
doubly reinforced beam.
Moment of Resistance, (MR)-
Conditions when doubly reinforced beam is
(a) For over reinforced section-
preferred-
+ (1.5m − 1) Asc .σc ( d − d c )
(i) When the size of the beam is confined. 1 x
M r = .σcbc .B.x a d − a '
GPSC AAE (GMC), 2021 2 3
(ii) When the section of the beam is subjected to (b) For under reinforced section-
reversal stresses.
M r = σst A st (d − y)
(iii) When the beam is under eccentric loading.
(iv) It is idle when accidental or sudden lateral loads xa
govern the beam. C1 × + ( C 2 + d c )
y=
3
(v) It is used when bending moment changes sign for ( C1 + C2 )
prevent torsion moment.
Where,
(vi) In case of continuous beams at support, where
negative moment developed at top fibre. C 1 and C2 are resultant forces of compressive
concrete and compressive steel.
Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017
Note-
Advantage -
As per IS:456:2000 ,Due to creep and shrinkage
1. Compression steel and tensile steel increases the effect a factor 1.5m is used for compression steel.
section's flexibility. It is always used in earthquake In doubly reinforced concrete beam-
prone areas.
Stress in compression steel < Stress in tension steel
2. The doubly reinforced beam has steel in tension and
compression zone to reduce the section's deflection. Steel beam theory-
It increases the sections rotation capacity. Steel beam theory is used to find the approximate
value of the moment of resistance of doubly
3. Compression steel helps in reducing the long-term reinforced beam specially when the area of
deflection of beam. compression steel is equal to or more than the area
4. Area of steel in compression is reduced in case of of tensile steel.
shrinkage and creep effect. UJVNL AE 2021, OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018
Analysis of doubly reinforced beam Steel beam theory is used to analysis and in the
design of doubly reinforced section.
section- Assumption of steel beam theory-
1. Concrete is completely neglected.
2. The moment of resistance is taken equal to the amount
of the couple of compressive and tensile steel.
3. The permissible stress in compression in steel
= permissible stress in tensile steel.
4. Area of compression steel = Area of tension steel
5. Maximum permissible stresses are generated
simultaneously both in compression and tension steel.
6. The strain at the level of compression reinforcement
in a doubly reinforced concrete beam is taken as-
Critical depth of neutral axis, (Xc)-
d'
mσcbc ∈c = 0.0035 1 − c
Xc = ×d x
σst + mσcbc
Punjab SDO 2021 Where, d 'c = Effective cover, x = N.A.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 263 YCT
04.
SHEAR AND BOND STRENGTHS
Introduction- Where,
It is defined as strength of reinforced concrete V = Actual shear, T = Actual torsional moment
section to resist failure in bending. B = Width of beam
(i) Shear stress distribution for homogeneous Maximum shear stress (q) in concrete of a
section- RCC beam-
V V
Shear stress at any plane τ = q=
bd Z× B
Where, Where,
V = Shear force V = shear force, Z = Lever arm
b = width of section Diagonal tension and diagonal compression-
GPSC AE 2021, Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
The tension which is caused in the tensile zone of
the beam due to shear near the supports is called as
diagonal tension.
Where shear stress can not be resisted by concrete
then diagonal tension is provided.
Diagonal tension in beam increases below the N.A.
and decreases above the N.A.
Du to development of diagonal tension cracks at
ultimate failure in case of diagonal tension is
depends on shear span and effective depth.
NBCC JE 2022
The type of failure that takes place by crushing of
Shear stress is parabolic with zero at top and bottom
concrete in the compression zone near the load. This
and the max. Shear stress occurs at neutral axis
types of failure occurs at 450.
(middle) that is-
Shear Reinforcement-
3V 1.5V
τ= or The purpose of shear reinforcement is to prevent
2bd bd failure in shear or resist diagonal tension. It is also
When a rectangular concrete section b × d is loaded known as web reinforcement.
then shear stress distribution is parabolic. Type of shear Reinforcement-
(ii) Shear-stress distribution in Heterogeneous In concrete beam following types of shear
section- reinforcement is provided-
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022 ,SSC JE 2022, (i) Vertical stirrups-
When reinforced concrete section b × d is loaded It is the best in case of load reversal and provided
then shear stress distribution above the neutral axis around the tensile reinforcement at suitable spacing
is parabolic and below the neutral axis is along the length of the beam.
rectangular. Diameter of stirrups- 6 to 12 mm.
Hanging bar (anchor bar) dia. is provided 8 mm to
12 mm.
Spacing between two stirrups should not greater
than lever arm.
As per IS : 456 : 2000 nominal shear stress-
V
τv =
b×d
As per IS 456 : 2000 the equivalent shear in torsion-
Ve = V + 1.6 × ( T / B )
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 264 YCT
Spacing for vertical stirrups- Provision of shear reinforcement-
0.87f y A sv .d 1. Nominal shear stress (τV)-
Sv = (LSM), fy ≯ 415 N/mm2 It is the average shear stress in a cross section.
Vus
V
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 τV or τavg. = N / mm 2
As per IS : 456 : 2000 spacing between stirrups- b×d
σsv .A sv .d 2. Design shear stress, τC-
S= (WSM) It is depend upon,
Vs
(i) Area of concrete
Where, (ii) % of main tension reinforcement
Vs = Total shear force on section
σSV = V0
Permissible stress in stirrups τc = N / mm 2
ASV = Area of one vertical stirrups b×d
S = Spacing between stirrups Note-
d = Effective depth of section % Ast↑ ∝ τc↑
Note- Grade↑ ∝ τc↑
S ( Ast )support
First stirrups provided at the half distance v of
2 %A st = ×100
bd
above spacing.
(ii) Inclined bars of shear reinforcement- 3. Maximum design shear stress, τc max-
UKPSC AE 2022, AP TRANSCO AEE 2017
In simply supported beam, bending moment is
maximum at mid span and zero at supports, but in Shear stress developed in the beam should not be
shear case shear force is maximum at supports and more than the maximum shear stress of the beam.
minimum at mid span. Inclined stirrups are also τc max depends upon the grade of concrete.
provided generally at 450. Grade of M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40 and
conc. above
0.87f y A sv .d(sin α + cos α)
Sv = (LSM), Sv ≮ (Sv)min R/F τc max LSM 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4
Vus WSM 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.5
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, CGPSC AE 2017
σsv .Asv .d(sin α + cos α )
Sv = (WSM)
Vs τc max ≃ 0.63 f ck (LSM)
(iii) Bent up bars- If, τv < τc min. shear reinforcement is provided.
Shear force taken by bent up bars,
A sv 0.4
Vsb = 0.87f y A sb .sin α ≥
B.Sv 0.87f y
Note- DDA JE 2023, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021, MH PSC 2019
Fe-500 grade steel is not used in shear Where,
reinforcement. Sv = Stirrups spacing along the length of member.
Resisting shear force by inclined Asv = Total cross sectional area of stirrups legs.
reinforcement- Key Points
When inclined angle is 'α' and number of bars is n ■ The permissible shears stress in concrete depends
V = n.σSV .ASV .sin α upon– Grade of concrete and % steel in tension
0
■ The development length of a reinforcement bar
At 45 resisting shear by inclined bars = ASV.σSV sin depends on– The diameter of the bar,
450. the strength of concrete and the type of bond
V = 0.707 σSV.ASV ■ The provision given in IS 456–2000 for the design
Where, shear strength of concrete applicable for–
σSV = Permissible shear stress One–way shear only
ASV = Area of inclined reinforcement Reason to provide min. shear reinforcement-
(iv) Combined system of shear reinforcement- Sikkim PSC AE 2017, UPRVUNL AE 2014, ESE 2004
Total shear force = shear force by inclined stirrups + (i) To prevent brusting of concrete cover.
shear force taken by vertical stirrups. (ii) To avoid brittle shear failure.
V= Vb + VS (iii) To hold up reinforcement in their own place while
When bent up bars are provided, then shear concreting.
resistance contribution shall not be more than 50% (iv) To prevent brittle shear failure due to shrinkage,
of the total shear. internal cracks, thermal stresses etc.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 265 YCT
Design of shear reinforcement- Bond due to pull or push-
TNPSC AE 2022
πφ2
τv > τc but Then shear reinforcement is provided τ= × σst
for a shear force 4
τv < τc max.
Vs = ( τv − τc ) .bd Development length for tension
MH WRD JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
τv < τc Then minimum shear reinforcement is
σst φ
provided. Ld = (for mid steel)
No shear reinforcement is required for 4τbd
τc
τv < beam. Where,
2
Minimum shear reinforcement is φ = Dia of bars, Ld = Development length
τc
≤ τ v ≤ τc provided in form of stirrups. σst = Stress in steel
2
τv > τc max. Re-design of section. t×d
Length of embedment, Ld =
4τavg.
Spacing of shear reinforcement-
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, MH WRD JE 2022 Where,
NHPC JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022 , DSSSB AE 2021
t = Maximum stress, d = Diameter
0.75d - for vertical stirrups τavg. = Average bond stress
d, - for inclined stirrups Development length of compressive bars-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UPPCL AE 2022
Min. of 300 mm
As per IS : 456 : 2000 (bond stress) of compression
S = 2.175f y .A sv bars is increased by 25%.
v B σsc .φ σ .φ
Note- Then, L d = ⇒ L d = sc
4 × 1.25τbd 5τbd
Spacing between two successive stirrups in RCC ≮
100 mm. Development length in compression should not less
Important point- than 24φ.
Shrinkage in a concrete slab causes tension cracks. Note-
Spacing of stirrups in rectangular beam is increased Development length for M-15 grade of concrete is
at centre of the beam and reduces near supports. 58φ.
Bond in reinforced concrete sections- Development length should not be less than 12φ in
ESE 2018, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2008 any condition.
The bond strength between reinforcement and Permissible bond stress for concrete (τbd in
concrete comes mainly from friction, adhesion and WSM)-
mechanical resistance (deformed bars). a. With tensile reinforcement
CGPSC AE 2022 LMRC AM 2018
Adhesive resistance is provided by chemical Grade M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40 M-45
reaction between concrete setting.
1. Fe-250/ 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
The bond due to friction is provided by gripping of Plain bar
bars due to shrinkage. 2. Tor Bar 0.96 1.28 1.44 1.60 1.76 1.92 2.08
Mechanical resistance is provided in the form of
Ld , Fe-250 58φ 46φ 39φ 35φ 32φ 29φ 27φ
deformed bars.
Methods of improving bond strength b. With compression reinforcement-
between steel and concrete- Grade M-15 M-20 M-25 M-30 M-35 M-40
UPPSC AE 2022 Fe-250 0.75 1.00 1.125 1.25 1.38 1.50
• Using deformed bars in place of plain bars. Fe-415, Fe-500 1.20 1.60 1.80 2.0 2.21 2.40
• Increased grade of concrete. Note-
• Using thinner bars but mores in numbers. Bond stress can be increased by for HYSD bars -
• Increasing cover around each bars. • 60% in LSM. • 40% for in WSM.
• Providing standard hook, bends, anchorages. Anchorage value for various type of hook-
• Increasing the roughness of bars. Types of hook Anchorage value
• Increases compaction of concrete.
450 bend 4φ
Type of bond- 0
90 bend 8φ
1. Nominal or Direct bond or Anchorage bond- 0
When sufficient length of steel embedded in 135 bend 12 φ
0
concrete to resist the pull or push force and increase 180 bend or Standard 16 φ
bond strength is known as direct bond. hook
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 266 YCT
2. Local bond stress or Flexural bond- Lap Length = 50φ
Shear force at the section (V) Where, φ = Diameter of reinforcing bar
τbd =
Total perimeter of bars (nπφ) × lever arm (z)
Where, n = Number of bars
z = Lever arm
Development length of bars in tension-
Relation between development length and resisting
moment at any beam section.
M1 σst .A st Z
Ld = = Where, M1 = σst. Ast.Z
V V Lap length in tension-
The designed drawing stress should not exceed its L
permissible limit. It should be- (i) For flexural tension, whichever more d
30 φ
M1 MH PSC 2015, UPPSC AE 2011
Ld ≤
V 2L
(ii) For direct tension, whichever more d
Development length due to flexure- 30 φ
M1 Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB), GPSC AE 2018
Ld ≤ +L (iii) Straight lapping length of the reinforcing bars must
V
200
Where, L = Anchorage length due to hook. be greater than
15 φ
Max. of (d or 12φ)
Due to over safety of simply supported beam, the
Lap length in compression-
ODISA PSC AE 2020
M The value of lap length in compression-
value of 1 is increase by 30%.
V
L
Whichever is more d
M 24 φ
Ld ≤ 1.3 1 + L
V DDA JE 2023, JPSC AE 2021
Haryana PSC AE 2017, ESE 2011
Curtailment of tensile bars- Note-
It is the way of reducing the area tensile For the reinforcement bars with different diameters,
reinforcement at point where B.M. is minimum or the lap length must be calculated using the diameter
zero for the purpose of economic design of member. of the smaller bar.
Lap length for various members-
Members Lap length
Column 45 φ
Slab, Beam 60 φ
L Nx Note-
x= If dia. of bar > 32 mm the lap splice should not be
2 Nc
used as per amend. no. IS-Code 456:2000. In this
Note - condition it is suitable to provide weld.
In simply supported slab alternate bars are curtailed GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022, CIL MT 2017
at (1/7)th of the span. Lap splices shall be considered as staggered of the
The anchorage value of hook- centre to centre distance of the splices is ≮ 1.3 times
Punjab SDO 2021, ODISA PSC AE 2020, TNPSC AE 2018 lap length.
As per IS : 456 : 2000 when required development Ends of the shear stirrups in beam and columns
length is not available in tensile bar then hook is
should be bent at 135°.
provided according to IS 2502. Radius of hook is GSPHCL AE 2020
taken as kφ. Important point-
Where, k = 2 - for mild steel bars Tension bars in a cantilever beam must be enclosed
k = 4 - for HYSD steel bars. in the support up to Ld.
Lap length in reinforcing bars- Anchorage value is provided for standard hook or U-
It is defined as the overlapping length of two type hook 16φ.
reinforcing bars thereby ensuring safe and efficient Bond strength of TOR bars is more than 40% of
transfer of load from one bar to another bar. mild steel.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 267 YCT
05.
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB
Introduction- Where,
A molded layer of plain or reinforced concrete, flat, k1, k2, k3, & k4 are the
horizontal usually of uniform but sometimes of correction/modification/reduction factor
variable thickness and supported by beams, k1 → It is applied when span exceeds 10m.
columns, walls other frame work is known as slab. k2 → Depends upon area, stress and % of tension
Effective span in different support condition reinforcement.
(Le)- Note-
This factor allow to make shallow members by
1. For S.S. beam/slab-
HPPSC POLY. LECT. 2022, Assam PSC AE 2020
increasing area of tension R/F.
k3 → It depends upon % area of compression steel.
w w
L + + k4 = It is a reduction factor which depends the ratio
L e = Whichever is less c 2 2 of web width to flange width in case of flanged
L c + d beam.
Where, Check of deflection in one-way slab-
w = Width of support Permissible deflection for beam section-
d = Effective depth (i) For 10 m Span
2. Continuous beam- Types of slab Max. ratio of
L Span/Eff. depth
(a) If width of support, ws ≤ c then
12 One way slab 30
Lc + d Two way slab 35
Le = Min. of Continuous slab 40
c / cdistance b/w support Cantilever slab 12
L
(b) If, ws > c then (ii) If span is > 10m-
12
10
Lc + 0.5d Then above value is multiplied by
Le = Min. of span
L c + 0.5w Control/check of deflection in two way
3. Cantilever beam/slab- slab-
Le = Lc + d / 2 DSSSB AE 2021, CGPSC AE 2017
Check for deflection in beam and slab- Support condition Basic ratio of span to gross
(i) Final deflection occurring including all the loads and depth
the effect of temperature, creep and shrinkage shall Mid steel HYSD/TMT bar
span Simply supported 35 28
not exceed and it is measured from cast level
250 two way slab
of the support. Continuous two 40 32
MH WRD JE 2022
way slab
(ii) The deflection due to all the loads, temperature,
Note-
shrinkage and creep after the erection of partition
wall and the application of finishes shall not exceed- These value is taken 80% in case of HYSD/TMT
bars.
Span Condition- Load ≯ 3 kN/m2
Span ≯ 3.5m
Whichever is less 350
Types of end support for slabs-
20 mm (i) Simply supported slab-
MH WRD JE 2022 Free end of slab supported on wall. It is two types-
Control of deflection- (a) Corners held down-
In this case due to partial stability at middle part of
Span L
≤ × k1 × k 2 × k 3 × k 4 slab bending moment reduced but in corner torsion
Effective depth D basic is produced.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 268 YCT
(b) Corners not held down- Design of one way slab-
In this case corners free for hogging. Design strip-
(ii) Cantilever slab- For design criteria, one meter width of slab is taken
One end fixed and other is free. Negative moment is in the direction of length.
produced in this slab, so main reinforcement is Min. reinforcement-
provided on the top portion of slab (above N.A.). 0.15
(i) × BD (for Fe-250)
(iii) Continuous slab- 100
A slab extends over three or more support in a given GPSC Assistant Prof. 2016, OPSC AEE 2015
direction is called continuous slab. 0.12
When a single jointed slabs supported at more than (ii) 100 × BD (for HYSD/TMT bars-250)
two supports, which is known as continuous slab. CGPSC AE 2020, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2020
Note- Maharashtra PSC 2019, GPSC AE 2018
When shear stress exceeds the permissible limit in a Distribution bars or temperature bar-
slab, then it is reduced by increasing the depth. It is taken 0.15% of cross sectional area (b × D) or
Types of slab- 20% of main reinforcement area.
A monolithic reinforced concrete slab is essentially In case of HYSD bar. It is taken 0.12% of cross
a statically indeterminate structure. sectional area ( b × D)
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
Classified according to the method of support as
Dia of bars-
follows-
(a) For main reinforcing min. dia.-
1. One-way slab (spanning in one direction)
ESE 2022
10mm - for mild steel
2. Two-way slab (spanning in two direction) 8mm - for HYSD bars
lx 1
lx Dia.of Main reinforcement bars ≯ × thickness of
8
lx slab.
ly >2 ly JKSSB JE 2022, RIICO Asst. Eng. 2021, TANGEDCO AE 2018
ly
(b) For distribution bar 6 mm to 10 mm dia. of bars
uses.
One-way slab Load Transfer-One way slab Note-
lx lx In case of one way slab main R/f is provided along
shorter span.
lx Max. area of reinforcement-
ly ≤2 ly Amax. = 4% of B.D
ly
4
= × BD
Two-way slab Load Transfer-Two way slab
100
B.D = Cross sectional area of slab
1. One-way slab-
Max. Spacing of bars for slab-
A slab will be one way if- Min. horizontal distance- Minimum of
(i) It is supported only on the two opposite sides. (a) Equal to dia. of bar if the dia. is equal.
L (b) Dia. of larger bar if the dia. are unequal.
(ii) > 2 Where, L = Longer span
B (c) 5 mm more than nominal maximum size of coarse
aggregate.
B = Shorter span
JSSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
As per IS : 456 - 2000, Clause 26.3.3-
UPSSSC JE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022 (i) For main bar-
3d
Minimum of
300mm
UKPSC JE 2022, MH ADA 2022
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018, GPSC Assistant Prof. 2016
(ii) For distribution bar-
5d
Minimum of
450mm
UKPSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2022, WBPSC AE 2020
Cover-
At the ends of reinforcing bars-
2φmain
Whichever is more
25mm
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 269 YCT
At bottom minimum cover- If two way slab, unsafe in shear, then increase the
φmain thickness of slab.
Whichever is more Important features regarding two-way slab-
15mm i. To control the cracking of corners wire mesh is
Anchorage- provided at the corner of slab.
For mild steel bar at sides standard hook is provided, ii. Main reinforcing bars are provided in both
but for HYSD bars hook is not required for directions.
anchoring. iii. Distribution bars are not provided in tow way slab.
L iv. The deflected shape is like a dish or saucer.
Main bars provided till d depth at support. vi. Special torsion reinforcement at the corner has to be
3
provided to check the cracking of corners.
Design steps- vii. Shorter span is taken to obtained the thickness of
Span- slab.
Clear span + Effective depth of slab Types of slab and condition Design method
Le = Which is Minimum
C/C distance between support 1. Simply supported at the Grashoff Rankine
Thickness of slab- four edges with corners not method
To control deflection, minimum thickness for one- held down and carrying UDL.
way slabs is taken as following- 2. Simply supported on the I.S Code method
Support Simply One end Both ends Cantilever four edges with corners held Marcus's method
types supported Continuous continuous down. Pigeaud's method
One way ℓ/20 ℓ/24 ℓ/12 ℓ/10 3. Slab with edge fixed or I.S code method
slab continuous and carrying UDL
Generally slab thickness should not be less than 90 Design method of slab-
mm. (a) Rankine Grashoff theory-
Generally thickness of one way slab always >Tow In this method assume that load on the slab is shows
way slab in case of same loading condition. between strips of unit width running in the two
Depth of Slab- directions parallel to the side of the slab.
Mr Load distribution-
d req. =
Q.b L4
Load at shorter span, w B = 4 4
×w
DDA JE 2023 L +B
Main reinforcing steel-
B4
a st × 1000 Load at longer span, w L = 4 × w
A st = L + B4
S
Where, Long span (L)
If r =
π Short span (B)
ast = area of one bar = × φ2
4 r4 1
Distribution Reinforcement- then, w B = 4
w , wL = 4
w
1+ r 1+ r
0.15 × bD
A st = Moment distribution-
100
r 4 wB2
Spacing of bars- (i) For shorter span, M B = 4
2 1+ r 8
a ×1000 a st1 S
S = st = 1 1 WL
2
A st a st S (ii) For longer span, M = 4
2 2 L
1+ r 8
2. A slab will be two way- Shear force-
Rajasthan Nagar Nigam AE, 2016
1
(i) If, a slab supported by beams on all the four sides (i) Shorter span, VB = w.B
and the loads are carried by the support along with 3
both directions r
(ii) Longer span, VL = w.B
(ii) If,
L
≤ 2.0 2+r
B (b) IS Code method-
Note- Case- I, Simply supported slab when corners are free
In case of two way slab, the limiting deflection of to lift -
the slab is primarily a function of the short span. Moment in both direction
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 270 YCT
M B = α B .w B . L2B Flat Slab-
Flat slab is a one-way or two way slab system that
built monolithically with the supporting columns
M L = α L .w B . L2
L and is reinforced in two or more direction without
Where, any provision of beams.
αB, αL - Bending moment co-efficient It is supported on columns monolithically built with
Negative moment are not developed in this case slab.
Kerala PSC AE 2015
Case- II, For any types of slab with edges and
corners are prevented from lifting- Note-
Critical failure is punching or two way shear
M B = α B .w. L2B failure.
Max. reinforcement spacing ≯ 2 × slab thickness.
M L = α L . w. L2L
Where,
Value of αB is +ve, and αL is -ve
Two-way slab when corner held down-
The torsional reinforcements for corners held down
in the slabs are provided at discontinuous edge.
TRB Poly. Tech. Lect. 2012
following method is used for design of slab.
(i) Pigeaud's method-
Pigeaud's method is applicable to rectangular slab
supported freely on all four sides and subjected to a
symmetrical placed load.
The moment in two directions can be obtained by
rational method.
Advantages of flat slab-
Bending moment at shorter span-
A flat slab reduces the overall height of the
wB2 w B B2 structure.
M B = rB . =
8 8 It is directly supported on columns without any
Bending moment at longer span- beams
TNPSC AE 2022, WBPSC AE 2016, KPSC AE 2015
rL wL2 w L L2 These slabs are capable of lifting concentrated loads.
ML = =
8 8 It required less form work.
(ii) Marcus method- This gives a better appearance and diffusion of light.
It is an approximate method for determining bending Better fire resistant than other floor system.
moments in slabs simply supported on four edges Terms related to flat slab-
with corners prevented from being lifted and (i) Drop panel-
considering torsion in the slab. The thickened part of a flat slab over the supporting
Thickness of slab = 1/30 of shorter span. column is known as drop panel.
This method is used to design rectangular RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, JKPSC AE 2021, HPSC AE 2018
orthogonal slabs. Drop panels increases the shear strength, negative
Marcus introduced a reduction correction factor to moment capacity and stiffness of the slab.
the existing Rankine Grashoff theory in order to It also reduce the deflection.
account for the torsinol restraints at the corners. Min. thickness of a flat slab - 125 mm
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, MPPSC AE 2022
5 r 2
Reduction factor Cr = 1 − 4
UKPSC AE 2022, JPSC AE 2021
6 1+ r Min. thickness of flat slab-
APPSC AEE 2012 HESCOM AE 2017, KPTCL AE 2016
Bending moment at shorter span- Without drops ≮ L/36
With drops ≮ L/32
r 4 wB2
M B = Cr 4
. Width of middle strip, where drop is used
1 + r 8 = Width of panel – width of drops.
Bending moment at longer span- (ii) Capital/ Column Head-
2 UKPSC AE, 2022
1 wL
M L = Cr 4
. In slabs, columns are provided with an extended
1 + r 8 head known as capital or column head.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 271 YCT
Column head is used to increase rigidity of the slab 2wR 2
column connection. At support M θ = +
Dia. of column head = 0.25 le (on each side) 16
UPPSC AE 2022, HESCOM AE 2017 (iii) Radial shear force-
It reduce the punching shear.
wR
Ribbed slab- At centre V=
Ribbed slab provides a lighter and stiffer slab than 2
equivalent flat slab. At support V = Vmax.
Reducing the extent of foundation a ribbed slab is a
type of reinforced concrete slab in which some of 2. When circular slab is fixed at edge-
the volume of concrete in the tension zone removed (i) Max. radial and circumferential moment at centre-
and replaced with hollow blocks or left as voids.
wR 2
Property of ribbed slab- M R or M θ =
It is provided where slab vibration is an issue, such 16
as laboratories and hospitals. (ii) Max. negative moment at support-
It is also provided for plain ceiling, thermal and
acoustic insulation purpose. 2wR 2
M R or M θ =
Maximum dia. of bar- 22 mm 16
Maximum s/c spacing ≯1.5 m. Note-
Top thickness of ribbed slab- 50 -80 mm. When circular slab subjected to external loading
Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
deflects in form of parabolloid.
The overall depth of any two ribbed slabs should not
exceed 4 times the width of the slab. Maximum negative radial moment at edge -
Aggregates size used in ribbed slab should ≯10 mm.
Provides thermal insulation, sound proof and
acoustic structure.
Note-
Two way ribbed slab is also known as waffle slab.
The ratio of the breadth to effective depth of beam is
kept between 0.5 to 0.67
Circular slab-
Circular slab are mostly used in water, tanks,
swimming pools, manhole covers.
1. When circular slab not fixed at edge-
Note-
Shrinkage deflections in case of rectangular beams
and slabs eliminated by putting-
(i) Radial moment, MR =
3w
16
( R 2 − r2 ) Compression steel = Tensile steel
Moment capacity of different type of slab-
3wR 2 Type of slab Moment capacity
At mid span r = 0, so M R max. =
16 Equilateral triangular slab wl 2
UKPSC AE 2022, Assam PSC AE 2020
RSMSSB JEn (Degree) 2020, GPSC AE 2018 72
At support r = R, so M R min. = 0 Simply supported square wl 2
slab 24
(ii) Circumferential moment
Square slab fixed at all wl 2
3wR 2 edges
At centre M θ = 48
16
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 272 YCT
06.
T-BEAM OR FLANGED BEAM
Introduction- (c) For Isolated T-Beam-
The portion of the slab which acts integrally with the Which is less-
beam to resist loads is called flange while the l0
portion below the flange is called web or rib of the (i) bf = l + bw
beam. 0
+4
b
Advantages of T-beams-
TNPSC AE 2022
Since the beam is cast monolithically with the slab
(ii) bf = b
the flange also takes up the compressive stresses
which means it will resist the sagging moment (d) For Isolated L-Beam-
acting on the beam. Which is minimum-
Due to uses of T-beams in case of roofing 40% 0.5 l0
concrete and 50% steel are saved. (i) bf = + bw
l0
T-Beam section have maximum strength in +4
b
compression. Most economical section in
rectangular beams is T-section. (ii) bf = b
When span of roof slab is more than 4m the Where,
provision of T-Beam is economical. bf = Effective width of flange
Disadvantages of T-beams- bw = Width of web
Due to change in cross section shear stress increases Df = Thickness of flange
at the junction of the web and flange. b = Actual width of flange
Since the beam slab is monolithic, it becomes very l0 = Distance between the points of zero
weak in resisting lateral shear forces. moments of the beam.
APPSC AEE 2012
For continuous beams- l0 = 0.7 leff
For SSB l0 = Effective span
2. Thickness of flange (Df)–
Df = Thickness or depth of the slab
3. Overall depth of T- beam (D)-
Span Span
It is generally taken as to
10 20
Dimensions of a T-Beam- Types of load Over all depth
1. Effective width of the flange- Light loads Span Span
(a) For Monolithic T-Beam- to
15 20
Which is minimum-
Medium loads Span Span
l0 to
(i) b f = + b w + 6D f 12 15
6 Heavy loads Span Span
Maharashtra PSC 2017, GPSC R&B AE 2016 to
10 12
1
(ii) b f = b w + × Clear spacing between beam 4. Width of web (bw)-
2 Width of web is the width of beam supporting to
A B slab.
= bw + + Where T-beam is supported on column, the width of
2 2
the rib should not be less than width of column.
(b) For Monolithic L-beams
1 2
l0 Then width of web (bw) = to of total depth or
+ b w + 3Df 3 3
b f = Which is minimum 12 depth of rib.
b + B 5. Depth of web- d w = d − Df
w 2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 273 YCT
6. Reinforcement steel in T-Beam m.σcbc
(a) Minimum tensile reinforcement- xc = .d
m.σcbc + σst
0.85b w × d
A st = Calculation of moment of resistance-
fy
(i) If xa = xc, section will be balanced-
Where, fy = Characteristic strength of steel (N/mm2)
σcbc xc
(b) Maximum tensile or compression steel- M R = bf × x c × d −
2 3
A st = 0.04 b w × D
(ii) If xa > xc section will be over reinforced-
7. Transverse Reinforcement-
As per IS : 456 : 2000, 23.1 total area of transverse σcbc xa
reinforcement should not be less than 60% of main M R = bf × x a d −
2 3
bars provided in the middle part of slab.
HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021 (iii) If xa < xc section will be under-reinforced-
Position of neutral axis x
(A) Actual Neutral Axis- There may be three position M R = σst .A st d − a
3
of N.A.
(i) Within flange, (ii) At the flange and web NOTE-
junction, (iii) outside flange or within rib. In the designing of T-beam, reverse or indirect
method is used.
• The compressive stress induced at the bottom end of
the flange is-
x − Df
σ'cb = × σ cb
x
• When neutral axis lies in flange then T-beam
behaves as a rectangular beam of a width equals to
its flange.
Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020, JPSC AE 2019
Maharastra PSC main 2018, ESE 2017
Case(I)– When neutral axis is in flange section-
x a < Df • The thickness of the flange of T-beam of a ribbed
slab is assumed as thickness of concrete topping.
x a2
bf . = m.A st ( d − x a ) • A T-beam is called ideal and economical if neutral
2 axis of T-section passing through rib.
Case-(II)- When neutral axis is in web- • T-beam is economical over rectangular beam.
x a > Df • T-beam reduce the concrete volume and weight of
the beam.
D
bf × D f x a − f = mA st (d − x a ) • In a T-Beam the breadth of the rib is equal to the
2
breadth of the beam in tensile zone.
Case (III)- When neutral axis is at the bottom line of
flange-
Side face reinforcement (SFR) in T-Beam-
Side face reinforcement is provided along the two
x a = Df faces of the beam section to take into consideration
the crack width limitation and lateral buckling of the
D 2f x2
beff × = m A st ( d − Df ) or bf × a = mA st (d − x a ) web in beam.
2 2
• According to IS 456 : 2000, side face reinforcement
(B). Critical Neutral Axis- is provided as-
(i) When beam is subjected to torsion-
Depth of beam > 450 mm.
(ii) When beam is not subjected to torsion-
Depth of beam > 750 mm.
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
• Total area of side face reinforcement shall not be
less than 0.1% of web area equally distributed on
both face.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 274 YCT
Max spacing of side face reinforcement- Position of Natural Axis–
Web thickness
Whichever is less
300mm
Economical or effective depth-
r.M
d=
σ st .J.b w
Where,
rt
r=
rc
rt = Cost of 1 Cu.m steel
rc = Cost of 1 Cu.m concrete
J = Lever arm constant
M = Resisting moment
bw = Width of web.
Doubly Reinforced T-beam-
A T-beam in which the reinforcement steel bars are
provided in compression and tensile zone is called
doubly reinforced T-beam.
Doubly reinforcing T-beam is not economical
because stress produced in compression steel is less Case-1 When N.A. within flange. (xu < Df)
than permissible stress. Case-2 When N.A. at the flange and web junction (xu = Df)
Analysis of doubly T-beam- Case-3 When N.A. outside flange or within rib. (xu > Df)
(i) Actual Neutral axis- Design compressive stress in concrete = 0.466 fck
(a) When, Xa > Df Design tensile stress in steel = 0.87 fy
D Area of the stress block = 0.36 fck.xu
b eff .Df x − f + (1.5m − 1) A sc (x − d ') = mA st (d − x)
2 N.A. is situated in the flange-
(b) When Xa < Df 0.87 f y A st
Depth of the N.A. (xu) =
x 2 0.36 f ck b f
b eff a + (1.5m − 1)A sc (x − d ') = m.A st (d − x)
2 x u x u max.
(ii) Critical neutral axis- < (Section is under reinforced)
d d
m.ca Moment of resistance, Mu = 0.87 fy.Ast (d – 42xu)
Xc = .d
t a + m.ca x u x u max
= (Section is balanced)
(iii) Determination of section- d d
Limiting moment of resistance-
Xa < Xc under reinforced section
Mu,lim = 0.36 fck.bf.xu max. (d – 0.42 xu max.)
Xa = Xc Balanced section
Mu,lim = 0.87fy.Ast (d – 0.42 xu max.)
Xa > Xc Over reinforced sections ESE 2020
(iv) Calculation of moment of Resistance- x u x u max.
> (Section is over reinforced)
c + c' d d
M R = beff .D f a a
× z + (1.5m − 1) A sc × σ cb × z 2 Note-
2 1 1
In a T-beam, if the equivalent rectangular stress
NOTE: block for concrete, with uniform stress 0.47 fck will
L-Beam are designed for bending moment and have depth of 0.15 xu + 0.65Df.
torsion moment. As per Whitney's theory, the maximum depth of
For L-Beam permissible stress of concrete is taken stress block for a balanced section of a concrete
less than 30%. beam is limited to 0.537d.
Beam used for design of stairs and lifts. M.O.R. for balance section
T-Beam (LSM)- 1
M R = .σcy bd 2
Natural Axis (N.A.)- 3
x u = 0.43x u + 0.57x u Where, σcy = Cylinder comp. strength of concrete.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 275 YCT
07.
COLUMNS AND FOOTING
COLUMNS NOTE: Minimum eccentricity should not be less than 20
GSPHCL AE 2020 mm in any case.
A column is defined as a vertical compression PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, Kerala PSC AE 2021
member which carrying axial load. Reinforcements for Columns-
Short column fail in compression while long column 1. Longitudinal Reinforcement-
in buckling. Minimum 0.8% of gross cross-section area of
Classification of column- column.
1. Based on shape- MP PGCIL JE 2023, PPSC JE 2022
(i) Rectangular JSSC JE (Civil) 2022, ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022
(ii) Square Maximum 6% of the gross cross-section area.
(iii) Circular It is generally 4% taken due to concreting problem.
(iv) Polygon (Octagonal, Hexagonal)
2. Based on Slenderness ratio- Pedestal with plane concrete 0.15% of gross cross
section area.
• Slenderness ratio of reinforced concrete column is- Minimum Dia. – 12mm
UJVNL AE 2012 DDA JE 2023, UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Effective length of column l ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, BPSC AE 2022
λ= = e Range of main bar Dia. – 12 to 50 mm.
Least lateral dimension b min
Note-
Slenderness ratio Classification of column If the size of a column is reduced above the floor,
then the main bars of the columns continues up or
S.R. ≤ 3 Pedestal bend inwards at the floor level or stops just below
S.R. ≥ 12 Long column the floor level and separates lap bars.
3 < S.R. < 12 Short column Minimum number of bars in column-
NHPC JE 2022, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022 JSSC JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
JSSC JE 2022, Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021 JPSC AE 2021, JPSC AE 2019
NOTE: If the column is supported on all sides Rectangular column 4
throughout its length then its S.R. will be zero. Circular column with helical reinforcement 6
3. Based on type of loading- Octagonal column 8
(i) Axially loaded column
(ii) Eccentric loaded column Spacing for periphery >/ 300 mm.
4. Based on pattern of lateral reinforcement- 2. Transverse reinforcement
(i) Tied RCC columns Purpose:
(ii) Spiral RCC columns i. To avoid buckling of longitudinal bars and hold them
Minimum eccentricity- in their position.
(i) For rectangular section- ii. To increase resistance of column against shear and
torsion.
nl0 B or D iii. Transverse reinforcement are provided in the
+
emin = Max.of 500 30 form of tie bars and helical/spiral bar.
20 mm
Tie bar–
UKPSC AE 2022, PSTCL AE 2021 (i) Dia.
Rajasthan VP ITI 2018, BPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2016 PTCUL AE 2016, RPSC GWD En. 2011
Note-
1
For any column if the lateral size 'B' is less than 400 × dia of longitudinal bar
mm its minimum eccentricity will be more than ≥ Maximum of 4
0.05D. 6mm
(ii) For non-rectangular section- (ii) Pitch
UP Jal Nigam AE 2016, UPPSC A.E. 2007
l0
Least lateraldimension
e min = Max.of 300
20 mm ≥ Minimum of 16φ
300 mm
B = Least lateral dimension
l0 = Unsupported length of column (φ = longitudinal bar dia)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 276 YCT
Helical or spiral bar– • When one end of the column is unrestrained-
(i) Dia. ≥
100b 2
1 l0 ≯
× dia of longitudinal bar D
Maximum of 4 UPPCL AE 2022, MH PSC 2019
6mm l0 = Unsupported length
(ii) Pitch- b = Least lateral dimension
• Maximum pitch ≤ D = Depth of the column section
Coredia Key Points
■ For each span the column strip shall be designed to
Minimum of 6
75 mm resist _____ of the total positive moment in the
panel– 60%
• Minimum pitch ≥ ■ For the purpose of the design of a reinforced
GPSC GES 2021 concrete footing–
3φsp A flexible base and linear pressure
Minimum of distribution is assumed
25 mm
Note- Terminology related to column-
Load carrying capacity of spiral column is more than (i) Actual length-
5% of tied column. Distance between both ends of column is known as
RPSC AE 2018, UPPSC AE 2016, HPPSC Poly. Lect. 2016 actual length.
Lap length of bar >| 36 mm × dia. of bar (ii) Effective length (leff)-
Distance between the point of zero moment or point of
If dia. of bar is greater than 36 mm, it is suitable to contra flexure is called effective length of column.
weld. The effective length of the column depends upon its
Lap length in the column is kept equal to the end conditions.
development length but it should not be less than Effective length of column for different end conditions
24φ. MH WRD JE 2022, SSC JE 2022 , NHPC JE 2022
Lap length- End conditions of the Effective Symbol
column length leff
φσ
Lap length Ld = sc Both ends are fixed leff= 0.65 L
4τbd
Lap length in continuous column-
In continuous column lap length is provided at floor
level or beam connection. One end fixed and leff= 0.80 L
Minimum lap length of column- other is hinged
for main bars- 24φ
for dowel bars - 48φ
Both ends are hinged leff = L
Least radius of Gyration (rmin)-
Imin
rmin =
A
Where, One end fixed and leff = 2 L
Imin = Least moment of inertia other free
A = Cross sectional area of column
If,
Cover
lef (i) 40 mm or φmain which is more
< 40 - Short column
rmin ODISA PSC AE 2020, GPSC AE 2019
lef (ii) When column size is less than 200 mm and dia of
> 40 - Long column bar is less than 12 mm - 25 mm
rmin Kerala PSC AE 2021, HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021
HARYANA PSC AE 2020 (iii) In case of fire or water attached structure - 50 mm
Maximum Unsupported Length Axially loaded short column-
• When laterally restrained at ends- A reinforced concrete column is subjected to an
axial load when the line of the resultant thrust of
l0 ≯ 60b loads supported by the column coincident with the
DDA JE 2023, PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023 line of C.G. of the column in longitudinal direction
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022 JSSC JE 2022 is known axially loaded short column.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 277 YCT
Strength of short column An isolated footing is used to support a single
(i) By elastic theory method column.
Strength of column, P = σcc .A c + m.σcc × A sc This types of footing is used when-
Columns are not closely spaced
or P = σ cc (A c + mA sc ) Loads on footings are less
Where The safe bearing capacity of the soil is generally
σsc = Stress in compression steel = mσcc high.
σcc = Stress in concrete. If there is no footing is to be provided to the wall the
Ac = Net area of concrete section = (A – Asc) width of the foundation should be equal to 3 times,
the thickness of wall.
Asc = Area of steel
(ii) Load factor method of B.I.S. method- Reinforcing details of isolated footing-
(a) Strength of column- Minimum reinforcement < 0.12% of gross sectional
area.
P = σcc .A c + σsc .A sc
Minimum diameter of bar < 10 mm.
(b) For helical reinforcement-
Spacing-
P = 1.05 [ A c × σcc + A sc × σsc ]
300mm
Minimum of
Axially loaded long columns- 3d
A long column or slender column buckles more JPSC AE 2021, GUJRAT PSC AE 2017
easily hence it has less strength than a short column Dowel Reinforcement-
for the same sectional area.
Dowels are commonly used as interface
Reduction Factor reinforcement between column and footing. It is set
l in the footing prior to casting the footing concrete
Cr = 1.25 − eff If (λ ≥ 12)
48b and are subsequently spliced to the longitudinal bar
OPSC AEE 2019, Vizag steel 2017 in the column.
Dowel bars in RCC footing extend into the column
l at a distance equal to development length. These
Cr = 1.25 − eff If (λ > 40) length is an example of development bond.
160 rmin
Where, b = Least lateral dimension of column
rmin = Least radius of gyration
Note-
Cr is always < 1
Strength of long column-
(i) For the tied column-
P = C r [ σcc × A c + σsc × A sc ]
(ii) For spiral/helical reinforcement-
P = 1.05 C r [ σ cc × A c + σsc × A sc ]
(iii) Strength of long column- Dowel bar is used to transfer the load of column to
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 the footing .
Lap of dowel bars should not be less than 48φ.
P = 0.4f ck A c + 0.67f y A sc × C r
• Min. number of dowel bar- 4
Minimum size of RCC column should be kept 200
mm for earthquake resistance. • Min. area- 0.5% of grass cross sectional area of
supported column.
FOOTING
The portion of the foundation which transfers the • Dia. of dowel bar- < dia. of column bar +3mm
load of the structure to soil and it is remains contact
with soil is called footing. Dimensions of Isolated footing-
R.C. footing is recommended where bearing (i) Depth of foundation-
capacity of soil is less. Depth of foundation according to Rankin formula-
Minimum cover for footing - 50 mm 2
CIL MT 2020, GPSC AE 2019, TSPSC AEE 2017, LMRC AM 2015 P 1 − sin φ
D=
If RCC footing is not to extend in the plot of the γ 1 + sin φ
neighbouring house, then strap footing is preferred.
Isolated column footings- Where,
Isolated footings are the most commonly used D = depth of foundation,
footings for reinforced cement concrete column P = safe bearing capacity of soil
because it is simple and most economical. γ = Unit weight of soil (kN/m3), φ = Angle of repose
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 278 YCT
(ii) Area of foundation- Short sideof column
P+w W βc =
A= or A = Total load W = p + w Long sideof column
P P
Where, W = Self weight of footing Permissible bearing stress of footing-
(iii) Thickness of block footing- σ br = 0.25f ck For W.S.M.
Thickness of block footing is depend on bending
moment and shear. σ br = 0.45f ck For L.S.M.
As per I.S : 456-1978 , Minimum thickness of CGPSC AE 2014
footing on piles at its edge - 150 mm NOTE: Maximum bearing should not exceed.
Failure of Isolated footing-
Following are the different types of failure of A1
foundations:
σ br = 0.45f ck
A2
Where A1 = Maximum area of supporting surface
that is similar to and concentric with loaded area.
A2 = Loaded area at the column base.
A1
• Factor × ≤2
A2
Important points-
i. According to IS 456 : 2000 the thickness of
reinforced concrete footing on piles at its edge
should not be less than 30 cm.
GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022, JSSC JE 2022, KPSC AE 2020
ii. If footing is resting on soil then it should not be less
than 15 cm.
UPPCL JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022, MH PSC 2018
iii. The weight of foundation is assumed to be 10% of
(i) Punching/Two way shear failure- the total superimposed load.
It is also known as diagonal tension failure of iv. If the width of the footing for two equal columns is
foundation. restricted the shape of the footing generally adopted
Foundation fails due to formation of inclined cracks is rectangular.
around the perimeter of the column. v. Self weight of the footing is not considered for
Critical section- d/2 from the face of column. calculating the upward pressure on footing.
Ex. - Section at 2-2
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, ESE 2021 Design Steps of Footing-
(ii) One-way shear failure- 1. Calculate superimposed load, P .
Critical section- d' from the face of the column. 2. Total area = P + 0.1 P ( For footing) = 1.1 P
Ex.- Section 1-1 3. Area of footing required-
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, GPSC AE 2022, MPPSC AE 2021
(iii) Flexure failure or vertical shear/ B.M. Total load
calculation- A req =
Safe bearing capacity of soil
Critical section- At the face of column.
Ex.-Section 3-3 P
UKPSC AE 2022, MPPSC AE 2016 4. Net soil pressure over block, p net =
Mu A
During design of footing flexural strength = 5. Calculate bending moment and find out effective depth
bd 2
Where, 6. Calculate total depth (effective depth + cover ).
Mu = Ultimate or factored moment M
b = Width of footing, d = Depth of footing 7. Calculate steel reinforcement , A st =
σ st .z
Permissible punching shear stress for
footing– Note-
τcp = k s .0.16 f ck for W.S.M. As per IS : 456 - 2007.
Non- dimensional slenderness ratio-
τcp = k s .0.25 f ck for L.S.M. fy
λ=
0.5 + βc f cr
k s = Which is minimum
≤ 1 Where, fcr = Critical bending compressive stress.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 279 YCT
08.
RETAINING WALLS
Introduction- Note- If FOS against sliding ≤ 1.5 then shear key is
Retaining wall is a structure that is used to retain any provided.
material and prevents it from sliding or eroding Types of retaining wall-
away. 1. Gravity retaining wall
It is designed to resist the pressure of the material
It provides suitability by its dead/own weight so it is
that is holding back.
known as gravity wall.
The material that is retained by the retaining walls is
called back fill. • It is made of masonry or mass concrete.
Components of retaining wall and their • Plain concrete gravity walls are not used for height
function- exceeding about 3.0m.
2. T-shaped Retaining wall Cantilever retaining wall
3. L-shaped retaining wall (suitable up to fill of 6m)
4. Counterfort retaining wall and buttress wall
Counterfort retaining walls have thin vertical slab,
known as counterfort spaced across the vertical stem
at regular intervals. Here
• Vertical stem and base slabs are connected with the
help of counterfort.
WBPSC AE 2001
• Purpose of providing counterfort is to reduce shear
force and B.M. in the vertical stem and in base slab.
• It is more widely used than a buttress because
counterfort is hidden beneath the material.
1. Stem- Stem is a vertical components holding the • Suitable height > 7 m.
backfill.
• Its vertical slab is designed as a continuous slab.
stem is designed as cantilever slab.
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, WBPSC Poly Lect. 2019
2. Toe-
Important points regarding counterfort
Toe is the portion of the footing in front of the wall.
It is designed as a inverted cantilever type slab.
retaining wall-
Upward pressure of soil acts on the bottom surface Vertical slab (stem) and heel slab are both designed
of toe. as continuous slab.
3. Heel- Portion of the footing at the backfill side is In counterfort retaining wall the main reinforcement
called Heel. is provided on the bottom face in front counterfort
4. Weep Holes- Weep hole drained out the water from and inclined face in back.
the backfill. RPSC AE 2018, ESE 2005
Use to reduce the development of excessive lateral Counterfort retaining wall are more economical than
pressure (Hydrostatic pressure), weep holes are cantilever walls for height above 6 m.
provided. KPSC AE 2020
• The weep holes are spaced 5m horizontally and 2m The design of a retaining wall assumes that the
vertically. retained earth is dry, free from moisture and not
Note-Total number of cantilevers in cantilever retaining cohesive.
wall is three. Buttressed walls-
5. Shear Key- Shear key is structural element which is
It is similar to the counterfort retaining wall but the
sometimes used in the bottom side of footing of
difference is that buttress is provided on the opposite
retaining walls to reduce wall's sliding.
PSTCL AE 2021, MH PSC 2017
side of the retained material. Buttress wall act as
CGPSC AE 2014, ESE 1998 compression members.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 280 YCT
5. Depth of foundation from G.L.-
From Rankine formula
2
P 1 − sin φ
D=
γ 1 + sin φ
Where,
P = Safe bearing capacity (kN/m2)
γ = Density of soil (kN/m3)
φ = Angle of repose of soil
Generally depth of foundation is provided between
50 cm to 100 cm.
6. Lateral pressure at the wall due to filler soil-
According to Rankin formula lateral pressure for
plain filling-
Key Points
■ In the design of circular over head water tanks the
1
rise of dome is taken of– D
4
■ In the design of water tank for thickness up to 100
mm, minimum percentage of reinforcement should
be– 0.3%
■ In a R.C.C. retaining wall, a shear key is provided,
if the– Retaining wall is not safe against sliding wh 2 1 − sin φ
P=
Cantilever retaining wall- 2 1 + sin φ
It is a wall which resist the horizontal earth pressure Where, w = Filling soil density (kN/m3)
and any other, by the cantilever bending action. h = Height of filling soil (m)
It is most common type of retaining structure and is 7. Reinforcement-
generally economical for heights of 6 m to 7 m. Tensile or main reinforcement is provided at the
Design concept and thumb rules for inner face of stem in the form of vertical bars.
cantilever retaining wall- ODISHA PSC 2021, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
ESE 2018, Chandigarh SDE 2017
1. Total height of wall-
(i) Minimum reinforcement-
H = Height above the ground level + Depth of GPSC AE 2018
foundation For Fe-250- 0.15% of gross sectional area.
2. Vertical Slab or Stem- For Fe-415- 0.12% of gross sectional area.
Width - 15 to 30 cm Bending moments reduced towards free ends of
Min. top width ≮10 cm stem at the rate of, h3
3. Base slab- B.M max
• B.M. at 0.79h (from bottom) =
Width (B) - (0.4 to 0.6) H 2
H H h 2h
Thickness- to (Minimum 30 cm) • Curtailment of bars at and
10 15 3 3
GPSC AE 2018 Where, h = Depth of filling
4. Toe extension- (ii) Distribution steel-
B B For Fe-250- 0.25% of gross sectional area.
It is provided to
4 3 For Fe-415- 0.20 % of gross sectional area.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 281 YCT
(iii) Temperature reinforcement- (2) Sliding failure-
At the outer face of stem temperature reinforcement It is defined as the change in the position of the
is provided to prevent cracks and shrinkage. It is retaining wall away from the backfill on the wall.
same as distribution reinforcement. Shearing failure is the main cause of sliding failure.
Vertical and horizontal reinforcement is provided if
Shear key is provided to increase the sliding
wall thickness is > 200 mm at the both faces of stem.
resistance (F.O.S. < 1.5).
(iv) Spacing-
Resisting force or friction force (f) = µw
3d
Whichever is less For normal loading condition-
450mm
µw
Note- ≥ 1.40
P
The tension rod is to be reduced at any point, it
Kerala PSC AE 2021, APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020
should be done only by extending up to from that
For earthquake loading-
point-
µw
d ≥ 1.0
Whichever is more P
12 φ
(3) Bearing failure of soil-
Toe- Pressure under the base of the wall is not uniform
Tensile/main reinforcement is provided at the
due to rotation.
bottom face of slab.
The pressure exerted by resultant vertical force at
Self weight of toe is neglected during calculation.
toe of wall must no exceed the allowable bearing
Heel-
capacity of soil.
Tensile reinforcement is provided at the top face of
slab. The pressure distribution is assumed to be linear.
GPSC AE 2018, RPSC AE 2013 Stressed could be checked from the following
Minimum cover- equation.
(i) At the base slab (Heel and Toe) - 70 mm. F My
(ii) At the vertical slab (stem) - 50 mm. σ= ±
A D
For cantilever retaining wall-
The factor of safety against bearing failure-
1
Stem design shear force = k a rh 2 Allowable bearing pressure
2 Fb = < 3.0
1 Fmax.
Stem design moment = k a rh 2
6 (4) Slope stability failure-
Mode of failures of retaining walls- If there is a slope stability issue or even other
(1) Overturning failures- failures modes have higher factors of safety, we
Following causes of overturning failure of wall- could not be able to avoid the failure of the retaining
An inadequate factor of safety is taken against wall.
overturning.
(5) Tension failure at bottom-
Inadequate width of the base.
For safety of tension failure, resultant of all types of
Increase the filling heights with the time.
forces should be passes middle third of the base of
To prevent the overturning of wall, the resultant of
wall i.e. eccentricity, e ≤ b/6.
horizontal and vertical forces should be passes
UPPSC AE 2022
through the base.
(6) Shallow shear failure-
Factor of safety ≮ 1.55.
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 This type of failure occurs along a cylindrical
H surface passing through is, the heel of retaining wall.
Overturning moment = P ×
3 F.O.S. > 1.5 (not occurs shallow shear failure).
Restoring moment = W × (b − x) Note-
Main reinforcement in counterfort retaining wall is
W.(b − x)
Then, ≥ 1.55 provided at bottom face in front counterfort and
P×H/3
inclined face in back counterfort.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 282 YCT
09.
LIMIT STATE METHOD
Introduction- Value of partial safety factor (γm)-
The serviceability limit state is the design to ensure SSC JE (Civil) 2022, UP Awas Vikas 2022
JSSC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, UPSSSC JE.2022
a structure is comfortable and useable.
Material Limit state method
The acceptable limit of safety and serviceability
before failure of any structure is called limit state. Collapse Deflection Cracking
Concrete 1.5 1.0 1.3
Types of limit state-
Maharashtra PSC Mains 2018 Steel 1.15 1.0 1.0
1. Limit state of serviceability- Note-
GPSC GES 2021, Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020 Partial F.O.S. of concrete is high due to the quality
UPPSC AE 2020, UPRVUNL AE 2016 control of concrete is not good as compare to steel.
The condition under which the building analyzed Safety factor is to maintain the limiting safety of
useful is called the limit state of serviceability. structure.
It includes limit state of Deflection, Cracks, Characteristic strength -
Vibration, Settlement, Deterioration, Corrosion, SSC JE (Civil) 2022
Ponding , Fire resistance etc. Strength below which not more than 5% of test
2. Limit state of collapse- result are expected to fall.
NBCC JE 2022 Allowable or Design strength and characteristic
The limit state of collapse is assessed from collapse strength-
of the whole or part of the structure. Strength Allowable/Design Characteristic
Collapse limit deals with Shear, Flexure, Torsion,
Tension and Compression. Concrete 0.45 fck 0.67 fck
Note- Steel 0.87 fy fy
LSM of collapse deals with the safety of the
structure and the limit state of serviceability deals Stress-strain curve for concrete-
with the durability of the structure in LSM. Relation b/w stress-strain of concrete depends on
Stress level in limit state method is more than the concrete mixture, strength, age, creep and specimen
working stress method. size.
Stress-strain curve for concrete is-
Assumptions in limit state of collapses under
(i) Parabolic from 0 to 0.002
flexure- (ii) Constant from 0.002 to 0.0035
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021
UPMRC AM 2023
i. Plain section normal to the axis remain plain after
Concrete is considered to have failed at maximum
bending, it means the strain distribution across the
strain (0.0035) in stress strain diagram.
depth of the cross-section is linear (strain UKPSC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022, CGPSC AE 2022
compatibility).
ii. Maximum strain in concrete, which occurs at
outermost compression fibre is taken as 0.0035 in
bending.
iii. The stress-strain curve for concrete having parabolic
shape upto 0.002 strain and constant upto limit state
of 0.0035.
iv. For design purpose strength of concrete is assumed
0.45 fck and for steel 0.87 fy.
UPPSC State Eng. A.E. 2007 Stress-strain relation for steel-
v. The maximum strain in steel at failure-
fy
≮ + 0.002 .
1.15E s
vi. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected.
vii. Relationship between compressive stress and strain
distribution in concrete may be assumed to be
rectangular, parabolic trapezoidal or any other shape
which results in prediction of strength in substantial
agreement with the result of test.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 283 YCT
For mild steel, the value of characteristic strength is Design load-
taken as yield strength and the design curve is Design load is considered as characteristics load with
obtained after applying a factor of safety of 1.15 to multiple of partial factor safety in limit state design.
yield stress.
Design load = Partial F.O.S. × Characteristics load
fy
i.e. Design strength = = 0.87f y Value of Partial Safety Factors For Various types
1.15 of loading -
For HYSD bars, the yield point is not distinct, hence As per I.S. 456 : 2000-
yield stress is taken as 0.2% proof stress and factor NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022, GPSC AE 2022
of safety is applied to it. JSSC JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Design strength for various grade of steel- Load Limit state of Limit state of
Steel grade(fy) Design strength (N/mm2) Condition collapse serviceability
250 217.5 Dead Live E.Q.L. D.L. L.L. E.Q.L.
415 361 load load / W.L. / W.L.
500 435 D.L. + L.L. 1.5 1.5 - 1.0 1.0 -
f ck or f y D.L. + W.L. 1.5/0.9* - 1.5 1.0 - 1.0
Design strength = D.L. + W.L. 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.8
γm
/E.Q.L. + L.L.
γm = Partial safety factor. HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021
Proof stress- Where,
It is defined as the stress at which the material D.L. = Dead load, L.L. = Live load, W.L. = Wind
undergoes plastic deformation. load, E.Q.L. = Earthquake load.
It is determined as the stress corresponding to 0.2% 0.9* value is considered when stability against
of strain from the stress-strain curve of the given overturning and reversal stress is critical where dead
material. loads contributes to stability.
The strain at 0.2% is called permanent plastic strain
and inter section of the parallel line at curve is called Design stress block parameter-
as proof point. Analysis of a singly reinforced beam-
fy • In such beams, the ultimate bending moment and the
Total strain at proof stress, ∈Total = 0.002 + tension due to bending are carried by the
ES reinforcement while the compression carried by the
fy concrete.
Maximum permissible strain, ∈max. = 0.002 + Stress-strain distribution in singly reinforced
1.15ES
beam-
0.87f y As per IS : 456 : 2000
= 0.002 +
Es
Actual strain for various steel grade-
Steel Grade Actual Strain
250 0.00308
415 0.0038
500 0.0042
Note-
For steel permissible strain is taken as 0.003800.
Key Points GPSC AE (Civil) 18.09.2022
■ In limit state of collapse: The area of stress block 1. Strain distribution-
for a rectangular section subjected to flexure is– It varies as zero at neutral axis and maximum at the
Area of rectangular portion extreme fibres.
+ Area of parabolic portion Strain at constant stress of 0. 45 fck, εc = 0.002
■ It the Moment 'M' is carried by flanges only, then SSC JE (Civil) 2022
the economical depth 'd' of girder is given Ultimate strain in steel at failure-
by______ Where 'fy' yield strength of steel and 'Af' 0.87f y
is the net area of tension flange– d = M/(fy Af) εst ≥ + 0.002
Es
■ The total moment of all the forces about neutral
axis of the section is called–Moment of resistance UPRVUNL AE 2022, BPSC AE 2019 P-V,
Rajasthan VP ITI 2018, RPSC AE 2018
■ In Ultimate Load Method, the load used in the
design of R.C.C. structures refers to– Maximum strain for concrete, εcu = 0.0035
CGPSC AE 2020 ,GPSC AE 2017
Working load multiplied by a load factor GPSC R&B AE 2016, GPSC Assistant Prof. 2016
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 284 YCT
2. Stress distribution- Note-
It has a parabolic shape from A to E then linear from For balanced section, percentage of steel depends
E to C above the neutral axis. upon-
Stress at N.A. is zero. (i) Yield strength of steel (fy)
0.67f ck (ii) Characteristics strength of concrete (fck)
Stress at 0.002 strain = = 0.446f ck ≃ 0.45f ck (iii) Geometry of the section
1.5
Stress at top most fiber - 0.45 fck Liver Arm (z)-
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, GPSC AE 2019 From stress - strain diagram
Maximum stress in steel - 0.87fy. z = d − 0.42x u
UPRVUNL AE 2022
3. Area of stress block- Different types of section-
As per IS : 456 : 2000, from strain diagram- JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
(a) Area of parabolic section= 0.17fck.xu xu < xu Lim Section is under reinforced
(b) Area of rectangular section =0.19fck.xu xu = xu Lim Section is balanced
Area of stress block- xu > xu Lim Section is over reinforced
C R = 0.36f ck x u Note-
In limit state design, over reinforced section is not
OPSC AEE 2019, PTCUL AE 2016, ESE 2011
considered because before steel failure, maximum
4. Depth of C.G. of stress block (from extreme
strain is visible.
compression fiber)-
In LSM, balance design of a reinforced concrete
c1 y1 + c 2 y 2 beam gives smallest concrete section and maximum
y= , y = 0.42x u
c1 + c2 area of reinforcement.
OPSC AEE 2019
SSC JE (Civil) 2022, UKPSC AE 2013
As per IS 456 : 1978, In limit state design, the
5. Moment of resistance-
maximum limit imposed on the redistribution of
(i) Compression section-
moments in statically indeterminate beam is 30%.
MR = Compression force .×Liver arm
= 0.36 fck .B. xu (d – 0.42xu) Marginal value of moment of resistance for
(ii) Tensile section- different grade of steel-
MPPGCL JE 2023, DDA JE 2023
MR = Stress in steel × Area of steel × Lever arm MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UK PSC AE 2022
MR = 0.87 fy. Ast (d – 0.42xu) Steel grade Moment of Maximum
6. Depth of Neutral Axis- (fy, N/mm2) resistance (Mu Lim) strain
N.A. is the axis at which the stresses are zero and it N-mm
is situated at the centre of gravity of section.
250 0.149 fck bd2 0.00308
0.87f y .A st 415 0.138 fck bd2 0.00380
xu =
0.36f ck .B 500 0.133 fck bd2 0.00417
Limiting depth of Neutral axis (xu max or xu Lim) Important point regarding limit state
700d method-
x u Lim =
1100 + 0.87f y Maximum strain in concrete for direct compression
is 0.002.
Limiting depth of N.A. for Different grade of steel-
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, JSSC JE 2022
According to Whitney's theory ultimate strain in
SJVNL Jr. Eng. 2021, Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021 concrete is taken 0.3%.
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
Steel grade fy Limiting depth (xuLim)
Whitney replaced the actual parabolic stress
(N/mm2)
diagrams lies at the same point and their areas are
250 0.53d
also equal.
415 0.48d
According to IS 456 : 2000 in limit state method
500 0.46d probability of structures failure is taken as 0.0975.
550 0.44d AP TRANSCO AEE 2017
Max. percentage of reinforcement steel, (Pt Lim)- In limit state design, the criteria of failure for RCC
Limiting percentage of reinforcement- beam and column is maximum principal strain
Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020 theory (St. Venant theory).
A st 0.414f ck .x u Lim OPSC AEE 2019, GPSC AE 2019
Pt Lim = = In limit state design, deflection is computed by using
B.d f y .d
short and long term modulus of elasticity.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 285 YCT
10.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Introduction- (2) Post-Tensioning Method-
Pre-stressed concrete that is placed under a KPSC AE 2020
compressive load to give it specific advantages over Pre stressing of concrete is done after concrete being
other forms of concrete. hard.
It is substantially "pre-stressed" (compressed) during Note-
production, in a manner that strengthens it against High strength steel used in pre-stressed concrete can
tensile forces which will exist when in service. take maximum strain upto 4%.
In pre-stressed concrete, member is advisable to use JPSC AE 2021
high strength of concrete and steel. Losses in post tensioning structures-
BPSC AE 2022 JPSC AE 2021, i. All kind of immediate and time dependent losses
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, UPSC JWM 2017
IS : 1343 - 1980 related pre-stressed concrete. may occur.
ii. Elastic deformation of concrete that too in tendons
Concept of prestressing- are stressed sequentially.
Prestressing is the application of an initial load on iii. In post tensioned members, elastic shortening loss
the concrete structure, so that the structure is able to will be zero if all bars stressed simultaneously and
counteract or withstand the stresses coming due to
service loads. anchored.
In prestressed concrete, higher grade of concrete is iv. Loss of prestress in post-tensioning due to shrinkage
used for controlling the pre-stress loss. 2 × 10−4
= ×Es
Needs for Prestressing Concrete- log10 (t + 2)
The need for prestressing of concrete can be justified Maharashtra PSC 2018
by the following issue- Where, t = Age of concrete at transfer (in days)
Concrete is weak in tension and strong in
compression. Method of pre tensioning-
To prevent the flexural cracks the concrete is Long line method/system-
induced with compressive stress. JPSC AE 2021
The pre compression that is induced as a part of It is also known as Hoyer process, this method is
prestressing helps to enhance the bending, shear, and used for production in larger numbers of pre-
flexural capacity. stressed members.
A compressive prestressing force can be applied Maharashtra PSC 2019, OPSC AEE 2019, RPSC AE 2018
concentrically or eccentrically. In the longitudinal In this system two bulk heads or abutments
direction of the member this prevents cracks at independently anchored to the ground are provided
critical mid span and supports at service load. several meters.
A prestressed concrete section behaves likes elastic. Apart this method is used at large scales production.
Methods of prestressing- Ex.- railway sleepers, electric poles, beams, etc.
Karnataka PSC AE (WRD) 2021, CGPSC AE 2014
The prestressing can be performed by two methods-
(1) Pretensioning Method- It is not economical for long-wide heavy structures.
In this system, the high strength steel tendons are Key Points
pulled between two end abutments. ■ A system of pre–stressing in which the wires are
Before the casting of concrete the abutments are anchored in layers by wedging sandwich plates is
fixed at the ends of a prestressing bed. the– Magnel Blaton system
Important term regarding pre-tensioning ■ The materials used in Prestressed concrete are–
concrete- High strength steel and high strength concrete
UKPSC AE 2022, CGPSC AE 2022, NBCC JE 2022 ■ Short – term deflection of pre– stressed concrete
Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021, Kerala PSC AE 2021
beams is estimated by– Mohr's theory
Water cement ratio 0.45
Slump value 75 mm Post tensioning systems-
Concrete grade M-40 (40 N/mm2) Following types of method is used–
Losses in pre-tensioning structures- (i) Freyssinet system-
UPMRC AM 2023, UK PSC AE 2022, DMRC AM 2020 This system was introduced by French Engineer
Immediate • Elastic deformation of concrete Freyssinet.
losses Pre-stressing anchorage unit using multiple wire
Time- • Shrinkage of concrete = 3 × 10–4 cables exists in the Freyssinet system.
dependent • Creep of concrete, creep of steel It was the first method to be introduced high
losses strength steel wires of 5 mm or 7 mm diameter
Other losses • Due to friction loss numbering 8, 12, 16, 24 are grouped into a cable
with a helical spring.
• Slippage in anchoring Maharashtra PSC AE 2012
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 286 YCT
Inside spring keeps proper spacing for the wire cable Total allowable losses-
is inserted in the duct. OPSC AEE 2019
This system consists of a cylinder with a conical Type of losses Pre-tensioned Post-tensioned
interior through which the high tensile wires pass. Elastic shortening of 3% 1%
The advantage of this system is a large number of concrete
wires can be tensioned simultaneously this system is
based on wedge action. Creep in concrete 6% 5%
(ii) Magnet Blaton system- Shrinkage of concrete 7% 6%
In this system the anchorage device consists of a Relaxation of steel 2% 3%
sandwich plate having grooves to hold the wires and Total loss 18% 15%
wedges which are also grooved. Important points-
Each sandwich plate can hold upto four pairs wire Due to shrinkage of concrete or retardation creep
i.e. (8 wires). strain is near about 0.0003.
This system is based on wedge action. HYSD bars is used in prestressing having ultimate
(iii) Gifford Vidal system- strength 1750 N/mm2 and yield strength is 1260
It consists of a steel split cone and cylindrical cone N/mm2 taken.
anchorages to house the high tensile wires against
the steel plates. HYSD bar is taken in pre stressed concrete structure
It is a single wire system in which each wire is according to IS 1785 or IS 2090.
RPSC AE (GWD) 2014, ESE 1999
prestressed separately. This system is based on
The minimum longitudinal reinforcement in post
wedge action.
(iv) Lee - McCall system- tensioned concrete units ≮ 0.2% of cross sectional
Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018 area.
It is uses high tension alloy steel bars having threads A cable profile that produces no support reactions
at ends as tendons. due to prestressing is known as concordant cable
GPSC AE 2021, MPPSC AE 2017 profile.
Diameter of bars 12 to 28 mm and length of bars 18m. The ultimate strength of the steel used for pre-
The rivet or bolt heads or threads formed at the end stressing is 1200 - 1500 N/mm2.
of the wires directly bear against a block. Linear pre-stressing concrete is used for beam and
This system is based on direct bearing from bolt or slab.
rivet formed at end of wires. Circular pre-stressing concrete is used for pipes,
Merits of prestressed concrete- silos, chimney etc.
Longer span length increases untroubled floor space Concrete for pre-stressing work should have
and parking facilities. minimum compressive strength of 300 kg/cm2.
Thinner slabs, that are important for high rise Normally pre-stressing wires are arranged in the
building as with the same amount of cost. lower part of the beam.
Long-term durability.
Thickness of lining slab in precast, for smaller
Better finishing of placed concrete.
channel 50 mm and for longer channel 80 mm is
It requires a smaller amount of construction
preferred.
materials and section size small.
It resist stresses are higher than normal RCC Practice of assembling components of a structure in
structures and is free from cracks. a factory away from the construction site is called
pre fabrication.
Demerits of prestress concrete-
Limit state of serviceability of pre-stressed concrete
It requires high strength concrete and high tensile
strength steel wires. section should satisfy cracking, deflection and
The main disadvantages is construction requires maximum compression also.
additional special equipment like jacks, anchorage When concrete in pre-stressed by pre-tensioning
etc. system, then generally the wires used are of
It requires highly skilled workers under skilled diameter 5mm to 8mm.
supervision. In pre-stressed member, the wobble effect is related
Construction cost is little higher than RCC with frictional losses.
structures. Serviceability Limit States-
Merits of Post-tensioning- IS : 1343 : 2012 (clause 24.2.1)
Loss of pre-stress is less. Class-I structures-
It can be done in factories and at the site also. Kerala PSC AE 2021
It used for large spans and heavily loaded structures. Class-I structures- No cracking under service loads.
Demerits of Post-tensioning- Class-II structures-
TSPSC AEE 2017
Requirement of anchorage device and grouting
equipment. Class-II structure- No visible cracking, σ < 3 N/mm2
It is costly. Class-III structures-
ESE 2021 Class-III structure- Concrete section un-cracked;
Additional labour cost & project delays. crack width to be calculated to check.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 287 YCT
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 288 YCT
01.
APPLIED MECHANICS
INTRODUCTION Scalar and vector quantity-
Branch of science which deals with the study of Scalar A quantity that has magnitude but not
action of forces on body is called mechanics. quantity particular direction is described as
scalar quantity.
Idealization in Mechanics- Ex.- Volume, Density, Speed, Energy,
(i) Body is rigid and treated as continuum. Mass and Time.
(ii) Support conditions are idealized as simple, Vector A quantity that has magnitude and acts
hinged, fixed etc. quantity in a direction is called vector quantity.
Note- Ex.- Displacement, Force, Torque,
Continuum- Linear momentum, Acceleration,
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023 Velocity, Magnetic field etc.
When the body is assumed to consist of a Like Parallel to each other and have same
continuous distribution of matter is called as vectors sense but unequal magnitude
continuum. Representation of vector
Note-
Vector product A × B = AB sinθ
Scalar product A.B = AB cos θ
Units- A
Quantity used as the standard measurement is Unit vector  =
A
known as unit.
Two types of units are used- FORCE ANALYSIS
(i) Fundamental unit- Any action that tends to maintain or alter the motion
It is independent from any other unit. of a body or to distort it is termed as force analysis.
Types of fundamental unit- Force in defined following four characteristics-
● Line of action ● Direction
Quantity S.I. unit Symbol
● Magnitude ● Point of application
Fundamental unit-
Units of force-
Length Meter M
(i) Absolute units-
Mass Kilogram Kg
A unit of measurement that can be defined in terms
Time Second S of mass, length and time is called absolute unit.
Electric current Ampere A (ii) Gravitational units-
Amount of substance Mole Mol. This unit is used by engineers for all practical
Luminous intensity Candela Cd purpose.
Temperature Kelvin K These units depend upon the weight of a body
Supplementary unit- Gravitational unit of force = g × Absolute unit of
Plane angle Radian rad force.
Solid angle Staradian sr Type of Forces According to Nature-
(ii) Derived unit- (i) Tension and thrust
Tension is a pulling force that acts along the lengths
It is depended on fundamental units (area, volume,
of medium such as cable or rope.
force etc.).
Thrust is a reactive force that propels an object in a
Systems of units- linear action.
(i) Foot - Pound - Second system (FPS) (ii) Action and reaction-
(ii) Centimeter - Gram - Second system (C.G.S.) An action force is a force that is applied to an object.
(iii) Meter - kilogram- Second system (M.K.S.) A reaction force is a consequence of an action force
(iv) International system of units (S.I. units) which is opposite in direction.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 289 YCT
(iii) Attraction and repulsion- Coplanar non- The forces, whose lines of
It is actually non-contacting forces exerted by one concurrent forces action lie on the same plane
body or another without any visible medium but do not meets at a single
transmission such as magnetic forces. point.
Newton's laws of motion Non-coplanar Line of action does not lie on
DSSSB JE 2022 concurrent forces the same plane but meet at a
st single point.
1 law Body in motion tend to stay in motion
and body at rest tend to stay at rest Non-coplanar The forces, whose lines of
unless acted upon by an unbalanced non-concurrent action do not lie on the same
force. (Laws of inertia) forces plane and do not meet at
2nd law It states that the rate of change of single point.
momentum of a body is directly Non-concurrent Line of action of all forces do
proportional to the impressed force and forces not pass through a single
it takes place in the direction of the force point.
acting on it. Collinear forces Line of action of all forces
3rd law For every action there is an equal and passes through a single line.
opposite reaction. Parallel forces Line of action of all forces are
• 1st Law of motion V = u + at parallel to each other.
(a) Like parallel Line of action of all forces are
1
• 2st Law of motion S = ut + at 2 forces parallel to each other in same
2 direction.
• 3rd Law of motion V 2 = u 2 + 2aS (b) Unlike parallel Line of action of all forces are
forces parallel to each other in
Where,
different direction.
u = Initial velocity, V = Final velocity, S = Distance.
CHB SDE (Building) 2023 Non-parallel Line of action of all forces are
D'Alembert's Principle- forces not parallel each other.
• For a system of mass of particles, the sum of the
difference of the force acting n the system and the
time derivatives of the moments is zero when
projected onto any virtual displacement.
OR
• If a rigid body is acted upon by a system of forces,
this system may be reduced to a single resultant
force whose magnitude, direction and the line of
action may be found out by the methods of graphic
statics.
Systems of Forces- Newton's law of gravitation-
It is a sum of forces acting on a body in one or more The force of attraction between any two bodies is
planes. directly proportional to their masses and inversely
Force system Definition proportional to the square of the distance between
Coplanar forces The forces, having lines of them.
action lie on the same plane. G.M1M 2
F=
Collinear forces Line of action of forces lie on d2
the same line. G = Gravitational constant (6.67×10–11 N.m2/kg2)
Concurrent forces When the forces meet at single Principal of Transmissibility of Forces -
point or line of action of all HPPSC AE 2016
forces passes through a single The effect of an external force on a rigid body
line remains unchanged if that force is replaced by the
Coplanar Line of action lies in a same same magnitude and direction at some other point
concurrent forces plane and meets at a single along its line of action.
point to each other. This principal is only applicable for rigid bodies
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 290 YCT
Here , same magnitude , same line of action and Resultant fore-
same direction
( ∑ Fx ) + ( ∑ Fy )
2 2
Resultant Force- R=
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
A single force that is equal to sum of all forces in Sign convention
magnitude and opposite in direction acting on a Fy
tan θ = →↑ + ve
rigid body is called resultant forces. Fx
Mutually perpendicular components- ←↓ − ve
RPSC ACF & FRD 2021
Key Points
When the force component Py at right angle to Px
■ The rate of change of velocity and the rate of
then from right angle triangle property-
change of momentum of a moving body
respectively are– Acceleration and force
Px = P cosα ■ A small quantity of water may be lifted to a great
Py = P sinα height by– Hydraulic ram
■ The forces in the members cut by the method of
section should NOT be– Concurrent
Graphical Method
Parallelogram law of forces -
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
Analytical Method-
DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021
Composition of forces- "If two coplanar forces, acting simultaneously on a
The process of finding out the resultant forces is body, be represented in magnitude and direction by
called composition of forces. the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram then their
Resolution of forces- resultant may be represented in magnitude and
Process of breaking a force into two components direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which
(horizontal and vertical) is called resolution of passes through their point of intersection."
forces.
Resolution of concurrent coplanar forces-
The magnitude of resultant force R-
HPCL JE 2022, LMRC AM 2019
R = P + Q + 2PQ cos α
2 2
Direction of resultant force R with the force P-
∑ Fx = P1 cos α + P2 cos β + P3 cos γ + P4 cos δ JSSC JE Gen. Engg. 2022
DSSSB AE 2021, APPSC AEE 2016
∑ Fy = P1 sin α + P2 sin β + P3 sin γ + P4 sin δ
Q sin α
Triangle law of force- tan θ =
P + Q cos α
Punjab PSC SDE 2016
"If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are Direction of resultant force R with the force Q-
represented in magnitude and direction by the two P sin α
sides of triangle taken in order then their resultant tan β =
Q + P cos α
may be represented in magnitude and direction by
the third side taken in opposite order." When,
P Q R α = 0° R=P+Q
= = α = 90°
sin ( α − θ ) sin θ sin α R= P2 + Q2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 291 YCT
If, Q = P, then R = 2P Note-
Lami's theorem is applicable only for coplanar,
α
and θ = concurrent, non-linear and radial forces.
2 When applied force on body is in equilibrium then
α = 180° R=P–Q angle formed at joint should be 120º.
Polygon law of forces - Law of Conservation of Momentum
Assam PSC AE PHED 2021 The total momentum of two bodies remains constant
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2015, Punjab MCP SDO 2015 after their collision or any other mutual action.
If number of forces acting simultaneously be (m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2)
represented in magnitude and direction by the sides m = Mass
of the polygon takes in an order, then the resultant of
u, v = Initial, final velocity
all forces may be represented in magnitude and
Coefficient of Restitution-
direction by closing side of polygon in opposite
Velocity of separation (v2 – v1)
order.
= e × [velocity of approach (u1 – u2)]
Note-
e = Coefficient of restitution
Determination of resultant force by vector method is
e = 0 (Bodies are inelastic)
called polygon law of forces.
e = 1 (Bodies are perfectly elastic)
General Conditions of Equilibrium-
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022
Projectile Motion-
NLC (GET) 2020, LMRC AM 2018 Height u 2 sin 2 θ u2
When number of forces or resultant force acting on a h= h max. = , ( θ = 90° )
2g 2g
body produce no change in its state of rest or of
motion then the body is said to be in equilibrium.
Time period 2u sin θ 2u
1. Force law of equilibrium- T= Tmax. = , ( θ = 90° )
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, TRB Poly. Tech. Lect. 2012 g g
(i) Algebraic sum of all the horizontal forces is zero,
∑H = 0 Range
R=
u 2 sin 2θ
R max. =
u2
, ( θ = 45° )
(ii) Algebraic sum of all the vertical forces is zero, g g
∑V = 0 NOTE-
2. Moment law of equilibrium- Rectilinear/Translation motion-
Algebraic sum of all the moments is zero, ∑ M = 0 The motion of a body in a straight line is known as
rectilinear motion.
Note-
Resultant of equilibrium forces is zero.
MOMENTS
Introduction -
Equilibrium force brings the body in equilibrium
condition. Rotational tendency of a force about of fixed point is
called moment.
Lami's Theorem -
M = Force × Perpendicular distance of
MHWRD JE 2022, MHWRD JE 2022 Moment,
NMDC JOT 2022, GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022 force from fixed point
"If three coplanar forces acting at a point in a body Unit- N-m
which is in equilibrium, then each force is Varignon's theorem-
proportional to the sine of the angle between the DSSSB JE 2022, GPSC AM (GMDC) 2020
other two forces." "The algebraic sum of the moment of a resultant of
two forces, about a point lying in the plane of the
forces, is equal to the algebraic sum of moments of
these two forces about the same point."
The force system may be either coplanar or spatial,
but it must be concurrent.
∑M Forces = M Resultant
When these forces are in equilibrium then, as per Principle of moments is the extension of varignon's
Lami's theorem - theorem.
P Q R Couple -
= = MHWRD JE 2022
sin α sin β sin γ Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021, APPSC AEE 2016
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 292 YCT
It is a pair of two equal and opposite forces acting on (i) Friction acts parallel to the surface of contact.
a body in a such way that the lines of action of the (ii) Friction depends upon the nature roughness of the
two forces are not in the same straight line. surface contact and material also.
OR Frictional Force-
"The moment of a couple is known as torque which DSSSB JE 2022, DSSSB AE 2021
is equal to one of the forces forming the couple When, a body moves relative to an other, a tangential
multiplied by arm of the couple." force always developed along the surface of contact.
These tangential forces is called frictional force.
Ex.-Twisting a screw driver, Turning the cap,
Opening or closing a water tap Friction force is directly proportion to the normal
reaction i.e.
Lever- f∝R
It is consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a
fixed hinge, or fulcrum about which it can rotate. f = µ.R
"It works on the principle of moments." Where,
CLASS OF LEVER- f = Frictional force
Class-I Lever- R = Reaction force
µ = Friction factor or co-efficient of friction
Co-efficient of friction (µ)
UPPCL AE (Civil) 2022, DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022
MHWRD JE 2022, GOA PSC Asst. Prof. 2020
The Ratio of limiting friction (fmax) and normal
Ex. - A pair of Scissors, Crowbar, Beam balance, reaction (R) is known as co-efficient of friction.
Hand pump. For fully smooth surface, µ = 0
Mechanical Advantage, M.A. ≥ 1 There is two types of co-efficient of friction.
Class-II Lever- (i) Static co-efficient of friction (max. friction)-
fs
µS =
R
(ii) Kinetic co-efficient of friction-
fk
µk = Note- µs > µ k
R
Ex.- Nut-crackers, Wheel barrow, Paper sheet cutter,
Bottle openers, Weight lifting rod Angle of friction -
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018, J&K PSC AE 2009
M.A. > 1 (Always)
Angle between normal reaction R and resultant force
Class-III Lever- is called angle of friction. It is also called limiting
angle of friction
Ex.-Fishing rod, Tongs, Human forearm, Forceps,
Shovel, Knife
M.A. < 1 (Always)
Mechanical Advantage (M.A.)-
Effort arm Load W
M.A. = = =
Load arm Effort P
∵ µS = tan λ
FRICTION Static co-efficient of friction is equal to the tangent
Introduction- of friction angle.
Friction is a force resisting relative motion between
λ = tan −1 ( µS )
two surface.
Angle of repose(φ)-
GPSC GES Pre 2021, NLC (GET) 2020
Minimum angle of a inclined plane with the
horizontal on which a body can slip is called angle of
repose.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 293 YCT
At equilibrium condition-
f = W sin θ
R = W cos θ
Sliding condition-
b
tan θ = µ <
h
Rolling condition-
b
tan θ = µ >
Angle of repose = Angle of friction h
tan φ = µS MACHINE
Types of Friction- Law of machine-
LMRC AM 2018, Haryana PSC AE 2018 It is relationship between the effort applied and the
Static The frictional force which prevents one load lifted.
Friction body from sliding on another is known as For an ideal machine the straight line will pass
static friction. through the origin.
Limiting The max. friction force, when a body just
friction begins to slide over the another surface of
body is called limiting friction.
• At this condition the body just start
moving
Dynamic It is defined as the friction that occurs
friction between any two surfaces when they are
in a moving position. It is also called
kinetic friction.
Rolling The friction resisting the motion of a
friction rolling body on another surface is known P = mW
as rolling friction. For an actual machine straight line will have an
intercept at C.
Condition for sliding and rolling -
GPSC AM (GMDC) 2020 The intercept C is the amount of effort required by
(i) At rough horizontal surface- the machine to overcome the friction.
b
Sliding condition- µ<
2h
b
Rolling condition- µ >
2h P = mW + C
(ii) At Inclined rough surface- Where,
P = Applied effort to lift the load.
m = Slope of graph= tan θ (constant)
W = Lifted load
C = Constant (machine friction)
TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN MACHINES-
(i) Effort (P)-
The force which is applied to lift a load is called
effort.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 294 YCT
(ii) Mechanical advantage - A screw jack used for lifting the loads is a non-
Lifted Load W reversible machine.
M.A. = =
Applied Effort P System of Pulleys-
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021
(iii) Velocity Ratio -
UPPSC AE 2022 Types of Velocity M.A
System Ratio
Displacement of theeffort y
V.R. = =
displacement of theload x First 2n W.2n
W + w(2n − 1)
Velocity ratio of a belt-
● If thickness of belt is considered- 2πR
n V.R =
N 2 d1 + t Second p1 − p 2
=
N1 d 2 + t
P(2 n − 1) + w(2 n − n − 1)
● If thickness of belt is neglected- 2n-1 P
Third
N 2 d1
= Weston's Differential Pulley -
N1 d 2 Odisha PSC AE 29.11.2020
Velocity ratio of compound belt drive is- 2R
V.R = Where , R = Radius of large pulley
Speed of last follower Product of dia of drivers R −r
=
Speed of first driver Product of dia of follower r = Radius of small pulley
For maximum power transmission, the velocity of Screw jack-
belt is- It is a load lifting machine, that is used to lifting the
Tmax larger weight.
v= Its efficiency is increases by increasing pitch.
3m
Simple Screw Jack-
Where,
HPPSC (HPPTCL) AE 2021
Tmax = Max. tension in the belt
tan α
m = Mass of belt per meter length in kg. Efficiency ( η) =
tan ( α + ϕ )
(iv) Efficiency of a machine -
Where, α = helix angle, ϕ = friction angle
Output of themachine w.x
η= =
Input to the machine P.y ϕ
For maximum efficiency of screw jack, α = 45 −
2
(v)Relation b/w M.A., V.R. and η of a machine -
HPPSC (HPPTCL)AE 2021 W.n
Mechanical advantage
W+w
M.A
η=
V.R Where, p = Pitch of screw
w(2 n − 1) R = Length of handle
(a) If η = 100% then, M.A = V.R
2πR
(b) For Ideal machine M.A = V.R Differential Screw Jack V.R =
p1 − p 2
(c) For Practical machine M.A < V.R p1 = Pitch of larger screw
(vii) Ideal machine or perfect machine - p2 = Pith of smaller screw
(a) If no frictional losses, then
Principle Of Virtual Work-
η = 100% or 1 (Frictionless Machine)
If a system of forces acting on a body or a system of
(b) If friction losses consider bodies be in equilibrium and the system be imagined
η < 100% or 1 to undergo a small displacement consistent with the
Note- geometrical conditions, then the algebraic sum of the
Non-reversible machine also called self-locking virtual work done by all the forces of the system is
machine. zero.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 295 YCT
1. Simple stress and strain ................................................................................. 297
2. Principal Stress and Strain ............................................................................. 303
3. Strain Energy ................................................................................................. 306
4. Theories of Failure ........................................................................................ 307
5. Shear Force and Bending Moment ................................................................ 309
6. Direct stress and bending stress..................................................................... 313
7. Slope and Deflection of Beam....................................................................... 314
8. Bending Stress in Beams ............................................................................... 317
9. Shear Stresses in Beams and Shear Centre.................................................... 319
10. Column and Strut......................................................................................... 321
11. Torsion ........................................................................................................ 323
12. Springs ......................................................................................................... 325
13. Pressure vessels ........................................................................................... 327
14. Centre of gravity and moment of Inertia ..................................................... 328
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 296 YCT
01.
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN
Stress-
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023
Stress is the internal resistance or counterforce of a
material to distorting effects of an external force or
load.
Applied load P
Stress, σ = =
Cross-Sectional area A
Unit- N/m2, MPa
Engineering/convectional/Nominal stress (σE ) –
Applied load
σE =
Cross-sectional area before loading
Engineering strain (ε E ) -
Change in dimension
εE =
Original dimension
True/Actual/Natural stress ( σT ) -
It is related to the study of the plastic behavior of
material and follows power's law.
Applied load
σT =
Cross section area after loading
Strain- True Strain ( εT ) -
Strain is the deformation or displacement of material Deformation under applied load of a material is
that results from an applied stress. or Displacement known as true strain.
per unit length (cause of stress).
Change in instanteneous dimension
Change in length δl εT =
Strain (ε) = = Dimension after loading
Original length l
Normal strain is measured with the help of lf A d
ε T = ln = ln i = ln i
extensometer/wire strain gauge. l
i A
f df
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Unit- Dimensionless quantity. Elasticity-
Types of strain- CHB Junior Draftsman 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
(i) Tensile strain (ii) Compressive Strain It is the property of material by virtue of which it
(iii) Volumetric strain (iv) Shear strain return back to its original dimensions during
unloading.
Tensile strain-
WBPSC AE 2020 Hooke's law-
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite MH WRD JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
JKSSB JE 2022, MPSC (ASCE) 2021, SJVNL ET 2019
axial force pulls, then body tends to extend its
length, strain induced is known as tensile strain. Hooke's law is valid for homogeneous, isotropic and
Compressive strain- linearly elastic material.
Maharastra PSC (Main) 2021 Every material obeys Hooke's law within its limit of
When a material is subjected to two equal and proportionality i.e.
opposite axial forces pushes then length of material Stress(σ) ∝ strain (ε) or σ = E.ε
decreases, strain induced is known as compressive
strain. Elastic constant-
Shear strain- (i) Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity
GPSC AE 2018
Longitudinal stress σ
The stress induced in body, when subjected to two E= =
equal and opposite forces, acting tangentially across Longitudinalstrain ε
the resisting section is known as shear strain. MHADA JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022, UPPSC AE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 297 YCT
Note- σ2 σ
Modulus of elasticity is based on Hook's law. Strain in y-direction, ε y = −µ 1
E E
Material will be more elastic if E is more.
(ii) Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus (G)- Poisson's Ratio (µ)-
MPPSC AE 2021 NBCC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022, DDA JE 2023, SSC JE 2022
It is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain within The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is
elastic limit i.e. known as Poisson's ratio.
Shear Modulus, Range - [–1 to 0.5]
Shear stress τ A Poisson ratio less than –1 would correspond to a
G= = material that when compressed in a given direction,
Shear strain φ
shrinks more in transverse direction than in the
CGPSC AE 2022, SSC JE 2022 given direction.
NBCC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
Poisson's ratio,
(iii) Bulk or volume modulus of elasticity-
MH WRD JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 Lateral strain 1
µ=− =
NBCC JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022 Longitudinal/ Linear strain m
The ratio of normal/direct stress to volumetric strain
UPPCL AE 2018, Karnataka PSC AE 2015
is defined as bulk modulus i.e.
Where,
Direct or hydrostatic stress σ • m = Modular ratio (lie between 3 - 4).
K= =
Volumetric strain εv ∆d d − d o
• LateralStrain = = (Circular section)
−∆P ∆P do do
K= = −V
∆V ∆V ∆l l − lo
• Linear Strain = =
V l lo
Where, –ve sign shows decrease in volume. Material Poisson's Ratio
Volumetric strain- Human Tissues –1
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022, GPSC AE 2021
Cork 0
The ratio of the change in volume of a body to its
original volume is known as volumetric strain i.e. Glass 0.18 - 0.3
Change in volume ∆V Cast Iron 0.23 - 0.27
εv = = Elastic Material 0.25 - 0.40
Original volume V
Steel 0.27 - 0.33
P σ
= (1 − 2µ ) = (1 − 2µ ) Rubber 0.50
b.t.E E
Wrought Iron 0.30
Where, l = Length of bar, b = Breadth of bar Concrete 0.10 - 0.20
t = Thickness, P = Axial force
Mild steel 0.286
ESE 2023, CHB JE 2023
Relation between stress and strain- Aluminium (Pure Alloy) 0.33
HARYANA PSC AE 2020 Copper 0.33 - 0.36
ESE 2023, SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
Relation Between Elastic Modulii-
UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
9KG 1
• E = 2G(1 + µ), • E= , • µ=
3K+G m
3K − 2G
• E = 3K(1 – 2µ), • µ=
6K + 2G
Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020, UPPSC AE 2020
For any engineering material ⇒ 0 ≤ µ ≤ 0.5
Limit µ G K
σ σ Minimum Limit 0 E/2 E/3
Strain in x-direction, ε x = 1 − µ 2
E E Maximum Limit 0.5 E/3 ∞
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 298 YCT
ELONGATION IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF BAR- Key Points
(i) Due to axial load- ■ Limit of proportionality depends upon–
Type of bar Elongation δl Type of material
Prismatic bar Due to external load ■ For a composite bar system of length L, change in
length of the two members are same". This is
Pl σl
δl = = referred to as ..... condition– compatibility
AE E ■ The unit failure stress is taken as _______ stress–
Rupture
Circular tapered bar 4Pl ■ If an external force is applied to a compound bar,
δl =
π d1d 2 E it is shared between the individual component
materials in proportions depending on the–
Axial rigidity
Rectangular tapered bar b Modulus of Elasticity for different types
Pl loge 2 of Material-
δl = b1 Punjab PSC SDE 2016, APPSC (PHE) AE 2012, UJVNL AE 2012
(b2 − b1 )Et
Material Young's Modulus (E)
t= thickness (MPa)
Composite bars P = P1 + P2 Steel 2×105
Change in length Copper 1.17×105
δl1 = δl2 =
P1L PL
= 2
Cast Iron 1.7×105
A1E1 A 2 E 2 Timber (wood) 0.10×105
A1E1 Aluminum 0.70×105
P1 = ×P
A1E1 + A 2 E 2 Glass 0.80×105
A2E2 Stress-strain diagram for mild steel-
P2 = ×P
A1E1 + A 2 E 2
(ii) Due to self weight-
APPSC AEE (Civil/Mechanical) 2012
Types of bar Elongation due to self weight
(W)
Prismatic bar γl 2 Wl
δlp = =
2E 2AE
wl ρgl 2
= = PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022
2E 2E
• OA - Proportionality limit, (here, stress ∝ strain).
(w or γ = ρg)
• OB - Elastic limit but OB is Non-linear.
Uniform tapering Wl γl 2 ρgl 2 • C - Upper yield point (here elasticity is finished).
or conical bar δlc = = or
6AE 6E 6E • D - Lower yield point (also known as yield stress fy).
or • DE- Constant stress region.
1 Wl 1 • EF - Necking region, material starts offering
δlc = × = × δlP resistance against deformation.
3 2AE 3
Prismatic bar due to • FG - Strain hardening region, material starts
PL WL
external load (P) & δl = + offering resistance against deformation.
AE 2AE
self weight • G - Breaking point
Note-
In mild steel, ABC are closer to each-other,
therefore it is known as linear elastic material.
The fracture or failure in mild steel depends upon
percentage of carbon present in steel.
Strain at yield stress is about 0.00125 or 0.125%.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 299 YCT
DE represents plastic yielding i.e. it is the strain PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS -
which occurs after the yield point with no increase (i) Brittleness-
in stress. DDA JE (Civil) 2023
Strain at point E is about 0.015 or 1.5%. It is the property of breaking of a material with little
Strain in the range DE lies between 10 to 15 times permanent distortion. If percentage of carbon
the strain at yield point. increases, brittleness of material increases.
Only linear elastic material is used in civil Ex - High carbon steel, concrete, glass, ceramic
engineering works. material.
Stress-Strain diagram for various types of steel- For Brittle material-
UPPSC AE 2022, Haryana PSC AE 2020 Ultimate Stress
F.O.S. =
Working Stress
Max. load
Where, Ultimate stress =
Area
Note-
If, plastic deformation < 5% - material is brittle.
If, plastic deformation ≥ 5% - material is ductile.
Rubber comes under the brittle material.
(ii) Hardness-
1. Elasticity E M.S = E HYSD = E HCS The ability of a material to resist deformation,
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022 penetration, indentation and scratching is known as
hardness.
2. Carbon and strength H.C.S > H.Y.S.D. > M.S
Methods of hardness testing-
3. Ductility M.S. > H.Y.S.D > H.C.S (a) Rockwell test- For indentation depth, diamond
Vizag steel MT 2017 indenter is used.
(b) Brinell test- 10 mm dia. hard steel ball is used as
indenter.
P
Brinell Hardness number =
πD
D − D2 − d 2
2
Where,
P = Standard load (kg)
D = Dia of steel ball (mm)
d = Dia of indent (mm)
(iii) Malleability-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, JSSC JE 2022
It is a property of a material by which it can be
Note- Esteel = 3.EAluminium. hammered/beaten in the form of thin sheet without
breaking.
= 2.Ecast iron
Ex.- Aluminium, Copper, Gold, Silver and Iron.
= (10-20) Econcrete. RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021, OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018
Proof Stress - OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018, GPHC AE 2018
Proof stress of a material can be defined as the stress Note- Malleability ∝ Ductility
at which the material undergoes plastic deformation. (iv) Ductility-
It is determined as the stress corresponding to 0.2% PGCIL DT 2023, ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022
of strain from the stress strain curve of the material. NBCC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022
Working/ permissible stress- Ductility is the ability of a material by which it can
Maximum allowable stress at which material can be drawn or plastically deformed without fracture or
subjected to under service load. ductility is the property of the metal due to which it
Factor of safety- can be stretched into thin wire without breaking.
In case of mild steel Ductile materials has long plastic elongation range.
Maximum ductile material shows necking zone
yield stress before breaking point.
Factor of Safety =
working stress (v) Toughness-
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, GSSSB AAE 2021
Note- Ability of a material to withstand stress (resist
Ultimate stress > yield stress > working stress fracture due to high impact loads) without fracture is
known as toughness.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 300 YCT
(a) Proof Toughness- (viii) Fatigue Strength-
Maximum impact energy absorbed by the any GPSC AE 2022, UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021
material without fracture is called proof toughness. APPSC (PHE) AE 2012
When a material is subjected to cyclic or repeated
σ + σy loading, failure occurs before the yield strength is
Proof toughness, U PT = u .ε u × V
2 known as fatigue strength.
(b) Modulus of Toughness- (ix) Stiffness (k)-
GPSC AM (GMDC) 2020, GPSC AE 2018 Stiffness is related to the resistance of a material
Total strain energy per unit volume upto fracture against deformation due to applied load.
point is known as modulus of toughness.
k ↑ - Deflection ↓
Impact test is done to measure the toughness of
material. (x) Resilience-
(vi) Endurance Limit (EL)- ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, PPSC JE 2022
Endurance limit or fatigue limit is the stress level GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, DSSSB AE 2019, GPSC AE 2018
below which an infinite number of loading cycles Strain energy stored due to strain within elastic limit
can be applied to a material without causing fatigue by the elastic material is called resilience.
failure. The resilience of a material is considered when it is
1 subjected to shock loading.
Endurance strength = × ultimate strength.
2 σ2
UR = ×V
If σind ≤ EL, then infinite life (i.e. ≥ 10 cycle).
6
2E
If σind > EL, then finite life (i.e. 10 to 10 cycles).
3 6
(xi) Proof Resilience-
WBPSC AE 2021, NLC (GET) 2020
OPSC AE 2019, Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
The maximum strain energy stored by the material
upto elastic limit without creating a permanent
distortion is known as proof resilience.
Proof resilience = Modulus of resilience × volume of
the body
σ 2p
i.e. UP = ×V
2E
S-N Diagram (xii) Modulus of resilience-
(vii) Creep- CHB JE (Building) 2023, OPSC 2021
CHB JE 2023, RSMSSB JE 2022
HPSC Lecturer 2022, GPSC AE 2022
Proof resilience per unit volume is called modulus of
It is time dependent and permanent deformation of a resilience.
material when subjected to a constant load or stress. Modulus of resilience = Shaded area of a material in
It is a temperature dependent quantity. stress-strain curve upto elastic limit
Stages of creep-
AP Poly. Tech. Lect. 2019, ESE 2008, CSE 1996
Primary Starts at a rapid rate and slows with
Creep time.
Secondary It has a relatively uniform rate
Creep
Tertiary Tertiary creep has accelerated creep
Creep rate and terminates when the material
rupture.
σ 2p
Modulus of Resilience =
2E
Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
Where,
σp = Proof stress
(xiii) Relaxation-
Gujarat PSC AE 2017
Stress relaxation is the time dependent decrease of
the stress in a material under constant strain at
constant temperature. It is similar to creep of
concrete. This loss is commonly in the order of 2 to
JPSC AE 2021 8% of the initial stress.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 301 YCT
(xiv) Tenacity-
GPSC AE 2018
It is the properties of material, to resist tensile force
without failure. OR
Ultimate strength of material due to tensile force is
called tenacity.
Types of material- (vii) Linear elastic (viii) Ideal fluid (ix) Rigid linearly
ESE Pre (Civil) 2023, PPSC JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022 material plastic behavior
GPSC GES 2021, Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
Homogeneous It has same elastic properties at Thermal Stresses-
Material any point in a given direction Stress induced in a body due to change in
temperature is known as thermal stress.
Isotropic Properties of a material are
Material identical at a given point in any
direction
Ex.- Steel, Al, Cu.
Orthotropic A material which has different
material properties in all three mutually
perpendicular planes.
Ex. Rolled metals, many crystals. Thermal Stress, σT = α.∆t.E.
Where, α = Co-efficient of linear expansion
Anisotropic Anisotropic materials are ∆t = Change in Temperature
material direction dependent. It have Note–
different properties in all
direction at a point in the body αΑluminium > αΒrass > αcopper > αSteel
Ex.- Wood, Glass , Water ∵ αcopper > αsteel so copper will expanded more in case
Number of Elastic Constant for various of composite section. A material realize
Materials- compression whose coefficient of thermal expansion
PPSC JE 2022, SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021 will be more.
Types of Total number of No. of As temperature increase-
Material dependent Elastic Independent
Constants Elastic Constant Material – 1, α1
(E.G.K & µ) Material – 2, α2
Homogeneous 4 2 (i) When end constrained-( α1>α2)
and Isotropic
α↑ then expansion is more, then
Orthotropic 12 9 Material –1 – Compression
Material– 2 – Tension
Anisotropic ∞ 21 (ii) When both end is constrained by fixed wall–
Stress-Strain Curve for Different Types ( α1>α2)
of Material- α↑ then expansion is more, then both material feel
compression due to fixed end.
Relation between engineering stress and True stress-
σT = σ E (1 + ε E )
σT > σE - In tension zone
σE < σT - In compression zone
(i) Brittle material (ii) Elasto-plastic (iii) Perfectly plastic
material material
Note-
Grade of steel ∝ Brittleness ∝ Hardness ∝ Strength
1 1
∝ ∝
Elongation Ductility
For brittle material breaking strength is more than
ultimate strength.
(iv) Elastic plastic (v) Elastic-Plastic (vi) Ideal rigid
strain hardening material material Percentage elongation of mild steel at failure is 20%
material -30%.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 302 YCT
02.
PRINCIPAL STRESS AND STRAIN
Principal Plane- (ii) When plane subjected to direct stress into two
UKPSC JE 2022, RSMSSB JE 2022 mutually perpendicular directions-
UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022, BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021
The planes which have no shear stress are known as
principal planes or the planes of zero shear stress.
These planes are subjected to only normal stress.
At this plane normal stress is max./min..
Angle b/w principal plane and max. shear plane is
45° & 135°.
Principal stress-
ESE Pre (Civil) 2023, PPSC JE 2022
Normal stress, acting on a principal plane is known
as principle stress. Maximum normal stress is called
σn =
(σ x + σ y ) σx − σy
+
a major principal stress and minimum normal stress cos 2θ (Normal stress)
2 2
is called minor principle stress.
Oblique plane- Tangential or shear stress (τ)
In realistic approach stresses does not act in normal
direction but rather in inclined or oblique planes. σ x − σy
τ= sin 2θ
Method for determining the stresses on oblique 2
section-
1. Analytical method For τmax, θ = 450; 1350 then
2. Graphical method (Plane of maximum shear stress)
BY ANALYTICAL METHOD- σx − σ y
∴Maximum shear stress (τmax) =
(i) Uniaxial stress applied on oblique plane of a 2
member-
σ − σy
Minimum shear stress (τmin.) = − x
2
(iii) When a member is subjected to direct stresses in
two mutual perpendicular directions
accompanied by a simple shear stress-
Normal stress, σ n = σ cos 2 θ
[Stress on FG = σ cos θ]
Karnataka PSC AE 2018
o
At θ = 0 , σ n = σ (maximum)
θ = 90o , σ n = 0 (minimum)
Shear stress/tangential stress-
TNPSC AE 2022, CSE 2009
σ
τ = σ sin θ.cos θ = sin 2θ MPPSC AE 2021
2 Normal stress across the section BD-
Where, σ = P/A
σx +σy σx −σy
σn = + + cos 2θ + τxy sin 2θ
σ 2 2
At, θ = 45o and 135o , τ = (maximum)
2 Maharashtra PSC (Mains) 2017 Paper–I
θ = 0o and 90o , τ = 0 (minimum) Tangential or shear stress-
Relation between shear stress and normal stress- σx −σy
Ratio of shear stress (τ) and normal stress (σn) τ = − .sin 2θ + τxy cos 2θ
2
τ
= tan θ HPPSC AE 2016
σn Position of Principal Plane-
Resultant stress- 2τxy
tan 2θ = For principal planes, τ = 0
σR = σ + τ2
n
2
(σ x − σ y )
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 303 YCT
Major and minor principal stress-
Major/minor principal stress,
2
σx + σ y σx − σ y
σ 1 / σ2 = ± + τxy
2
2 2
σx + σ y 1
( σ x − σy )
2
OR ± + 4τ2xy
2 2
CHB JE (Building) 2023, HPPSC 2016
• For major principal stress take, +ve sign.
• For minor principal stress take, –ve sign.
Maximum shear stress-
2
σ + σy
τmax = x + τxy
2
OR
2
1
(σ − σ y ) + 4τ2xy
2
= x
2
GRAPHICAL OR MOHR'S CIRCLE
METHOD-
Mohr's circle is a graphical method of finding
normal, tangential and resultant stresses on an
oblique plane. It is useful in visualizing the
relationships between normal and shear stresses
acting on a stress element at any desired orientation.
Mohr's circle is a geometric representation of the 2-
D transformation of stresses with shear stress.
Mohr's circle is drawn for the following case-
General points regarding Mohr's circle-
Case I :
A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular Dia of Mohr's circle (σ1 – σ2)
principal stresses which are unequal and unlike (one Radius of Mohr's circle σ1 − σ 2
is tensile and other is compressive).
BPSC AE 2022, Manipur PSC AE 2013 2
Case II : Max. shear stress (τmax) σ1 − σ 2
A body subjected to two perpendicular principal
2
tensile stresses accompanied by a simples shear
stress. Center of Mohr's Circle σx + σy
Case III : , 0
2
A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular
principal tensile stresses of unequal intensities. Shear stress on the plane of maximum obliquity is
less than the maximum shear stress.
Sign convention- Normal stress on the plane of maximum shear is
Tensile - +ve equal to each other.
Compressive - –ve The angle of obliquity (φ) will be maximum when
Clockwise - +ve resultant stress (σr) line becomes tangential on
Anticlockwise - –ve circle.
Step to Draw Mohr's Circle In case of pure torsion, Mohr's circle is circle &
symmetric about axis.
In case of thin sphere, Mohr's circle exist as a point
on normal stress axis or x-axis.
Angle of inclined plane will be 2θ, when the angle
of stress element is θ.
Angle of obliquity-
The angle made by resultant stress with normal
stress is called angle of obliquity.
σ
tan φ =
σn
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 304 YCT
Case I : Draw the Mohr's circle
Draw the Mohr's circle
Mohr's Circle for Special States of
Stress-
(i) When body is subjected to pure shear-
Centre of Mohr's circle is exist at origin (0, 0)
Radius of Mohr's circle is τmax = τ
In case of pure shear, Mohr's circle is symmetric
about axis.
For pure shear, σx = + τ, σy = – τ,
Radius of Mohr's circle is equal to σx + σy/2.
Case II : GATE 2023, PPSC JE 2022
(ii) When body is subjected to general tension-
(iii) When body is subjected to general tension and
compression-
MH PSC (Main) 2021, Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017
Draw the Mohr's circle
(iv) When body is subjected to general compression-
(v) When body is subjected to uniaxial cmpression-
Radius of Mohr's circle is equal to σx – σy/2.
Case III :
(vi) When body is subjected to uniaxial tension-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 305 YCT
03.
STRAIN ENERGY
Strain Energy- 2 EAh P 2
P 2P
JKSSB JE (Civil) 2022, HARYANA PSC AE 2020 σ impact = + + 2 If h = 0 σ =
The energy stored in a material due to elastic A P A A
deformation is called strain energy. It is a scalar
2EPh
1 When, δl < h σimpact =
quantity. Strain Energy, U = P.δ AL
2
Where P = applied load, δ = Elongation of the body 4. Strain energy due to self weight-
CHB JE (Building) 2023
Strain energy = Work done
2
Unit - Joule or N-m 1 1 PL P L
U self = Pδ = P × =
Strain energy for different conditions 2 2 2AE 4AE
Types of Strain Strain energy (U) 5. Strain energy due to self weight and applied load-
loading energy, (U) in constant variables
general case P2L P2L
U= +
Axial/Direct L
P 2 dx P2L σ2 2AE 4AE
load (tension
or
∫ 2AE
0
2AE
or
2E
× Volume
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB)
compression) Where, Applied weight = Self weight.
Bending L
M 2 dx M 2L 3P 2 L
U=
∫0 2EI 2EI 4AE
or U = 3 × U self
Direct shear
Strain Energy for Different types of
L
P 2dx P2L τ2
∫0 2AG 2AG
or
2G
× Volume Beam
Types of Beam Strain Energy
Transverse L
kV 2 dx kV 2 L W 2l 3
shear ∫0 2AG 2AG 6EI
Torsion-
1. For a solid L
T 2 dx T2L τ2
shaft ∫0 2GJ or
2GJ 4G
× Volume
w 2l 5
2. For a hollow - τ2 R 2 + r 2 40EI
shaft . .Volume
4G R 2
Strain Energy due to various types of W 2 l3
loading- 96EI
1. Strain Energy due to Gradual Loading-
Strain energy, U = σ 2 /2E × Volume w 2l 5
2. Strain energy due to sudden loading- 240EI
UPPSC AE 2022, OPSC AEE 2019
σ2
σsudden = 2 × σgradual U = 4×
× Volume
2E W 2 l3
U = 4 × Strain energy due to gradual loading 384EI
3. Strain energy due to impact loading-
w 2l 5
1440EI
M 2l
2EI
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 306 YCT
04.
THEORIES OF FAILURE
Introduction-
The failure of a material is classified into ductile or
brittle failure. The property of materials are usually
determined by simple tension or compression test
for different failure condition of materials at
different loading.
Failure of ductile material-
(i) Tensile failure-
Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018 (iii) Torsion failure -
In a ductile failure, ductile shear surfaces angled at In case of torsion brittle material fails at 450 to the
450 to the applied load. Failure surface is known as plane. This type of failure is known as helicoidal
cup cone failure. failure.
(ii) Compression failure- Note-
Failure surface angle is 900 with axis. Strain energy for ductile material > brittle material.
Fractured surface of ductile material is rough and for
brittle material is smooth.
Theory failure for static loading-
Failure factors are classified into three types-
(i) Stress factor-
(i) Maximum principal or normal stress theory
(ii) Maximum shear stress theory
(ii) Strain factor-
(i) Maximum principal strain theory
(iii) Energy factor-
(i) Maximum strain energy theory
(ii) Maximum shear strain energy theory
(iii) Torsion failure- Octahedral shear stress theory-
Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
According to this theory, failure occurs when
Ductile material generally fails in shear. Under octahedral stress in a complex stress system equals
torsion, ductile material fails at a plane the octahedral stress developed at yield stress in
perpendicular to the shaft axis. uniaxial loading.
Failure of brittle material- 2
τoct = σy
(i) Tensile failure- 3
Brittle material are weak in tension and strong in For design
compression. When failure surface perpendicular to
applied load then failure is known as flat fracture 2 σy
τoct =
surface. 3 FOS
Where,
1
2 σ − σ 2 σ 2 − σ3 σ3 − σ1 2
2 2 2
τoct = 1 + +
(ii) Compressive failure- 3 2 2 2
Failure plane is 450 from the axis.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 307 YCT
Important points- strain at the elastic limit in simple tension or when
For ductile material the most appropriate theory of the minimum principal strain reaches the elastic
failure is maximum shear strain energy theory. limit strain in simple compression.
Maximum shear strain energy theory is not applied σy
ε1 ≤
for material under hydrostatic pressure. FOS
Theory Given by Suitable Graphical Karnataka PWD AE 2021
for representation Where ,
Material 1
ε1 =
E
[ σ1 − µ(σ2 + σ3 ]
Maximum Rankine or Brittle
Principal Lami's 3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory-
Stress or Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
normal stress According to this theory failure will occur when the
max. shear stress in the complex system reaches the
(Square) value of the maximum shear stress in simple tension
Maximum St. Venants Brittle/ at the elastic limit.
Principal Ductile σ y / FOS
Strain τmax ≤
2
CSE 2000
σ1 − σ 2 σ σ
(Rhombus) τmax = σ max or 1 or 2
2 2 2
Maximum Guest & Ductile
Shear Stress Tresca's or 4. Maximum Strain Energy Theory-
Coulamb Strain energy theory states that the failure of a
material occurs when the total strain energy in the
material reaches the total strain energy of the
(Hexagon) material at the elastic limit in simple tension.
( σy /FOS)
Maximum Haigh & Ductile 2
Strain Energy Beltrami Strain energy/Volume ≤
2E
CSE-2009
CSE-2003 Total strain energy per unit volume
CSE-1994
1 2
σ1 + σ22 + σ32 − 2µ ( σ1σ 2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3σ1 )
(Elliptical) 2E
Maximum Von- Best APPSC AEE (CIVIL/MECHANICAL) 2019
Shear Strain misses and result for 5. Maximum Shear Strain Energy-
Energy/Disto Henky ductile Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018, RIICO AE 2015
rtion Energy Manipur PSC AE 2013
material
theory Shear strain energy theory states that elastic failure
(Elliptical) occurs where the shear strain energy per unit volume
in the stressed material reaches a value equal to the
1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory- shear strain energy per unit volume at the elastic
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021, CSE 2005
limit point in the simple tension test.
σy
σ max. or σ1 ≤ Shear strain energy per unit volume
FOS
1
( σ1 − σ2 )2 + ( σ2 − σ3 )2 + ( σ3 − σ1 )2
2. Maximum Principal Strain Theory- 12
According to maximum principal strain theory
( )
2
failure of a material occurs when the maximum = σ y / FOS
principal tensile strain in the material reaches the
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 308 YCT
05.
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
Introduction- beam is known as gradually varying load. It is also
Shear force is an internal force acting perpendicular known as triangular load.
to the longitudinal axis of a structural member.
Beam-
CGPSC AE 2022, UPPCL AE 2022
Beam is a structural member which have uniform
cross section and sufficient length as compared to
lateral dimension and subjected to transverse shear
load. Types of support reactions-
TYPES OF BEAM- Support Reaction
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Roller/simple/ Rocker
UPSSSC JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022
movable support
Hinged or pin support
Fixed or built in
support
Link support
Note- Shear Force-
Fixed or built in beam is also known as encaster CHB JE 2023, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
beam. Beam is subjected to bending moment. DSSSB JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Types of loading- The algebraic sum of the vertical forces at any
(i) Concentrated or point load- section of beam to the right or left of the section is
A point load is a force applied at a single point on a known as shear force. One which shows variation in
beam or structure. OR shear force along the length of beam is known as
shear force diagram.
A point load is one with its weight significantly
concentrated in one places on the beam.
(ii) Uniformly distributed load-
The magnitude of the load remains uniform Note-
throughout the whole structure or beam is known as Maximum bending moment occurs where shear
uniformly distributed load. force changes its sign from positive to negative.
+Ve bending moment provides sagging curve while
–Ve bending moment provides hogging curve.
RIICO AE 2014
Key Points
(iii) Gradually Varying load-
■ The shear associated with change of bending
The load which will be spread over the length of the moment along the span is known as–
beam such a way that the rate of loading will vary
from point to point throughout the length of the Flexural shear
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 309 YCT
■ The relation between the load intensity (W) and Various types of beam and their SFD and
the bending moment (M) at any section of the BMD
d3M Continuous beam having UDL-
beam– =W
dx 3
Degree of SFD & BMD Diagram for various loading–
Loads SFD BMD
Point Constant Linear
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
SFD-
UDL Linear Parabolic
MH WRD JE 2022
UVL Parabolic Cubic
MH WRD JE 2022
Parabola
NBCC JE 2022
Important points- BMD-
Types of beam (S.F.)max and (B.M.)max
1. Fixed beam with wL
S.F.max =
triangular load 4
5wl 2
B.M.max, =
96
2. Fixed beam with UVL wl 2
B.M.max.B =
20
wl 2
B.M.max.A =
30
Point of Contraflexure-
DDA JE (Civil) 2023, DSSSB JE 2022, HPCL JE 2022
NHPC JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
A point where bending moment changes its sign or
gives zero bending moment is know as point of
contraflexure or point of contra shear. SSB having moment at centre-
Point of Inflexion- NBCC JE 2022
It is the point where shear force changes its sign.
Note-
In case of overhanging beam no. of contra flexure
point is two.
Equal Overhanging beam with U.D.L- SFD-
BMD-
Maximum B.M occurs at a distance, L = 2 2 a
Over hanging part, a = 0.207L
Distance between support, b = 0.586L UPPCL JE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 310 YCT
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 311 YCT
----------
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 312 YCT
06.
DIRECT STRESS AND BENDING STRESS
Direct stress- Max. Limit of eccentricity of different
Body is subjected to an axial tension or section–
compression, produces a direct stress. Section For no tension in Shape of
P the section limit core
Direct stress, σd =
A of max.
MH WRD JE 2022 eccentricity
Bending stress- limit
1. Solid Rectangular b d Rhombus
When a body is subjected to bending moment, then e x −x ≤ , e y− y ≤
Section 6 6
stress, produces in the member is known as bending
Side of core =
stress.
b2 + d 2
M
Bending stress, σ b = 6
Z
It is known as middle
MH WRD JE 2022 third rule.
Combined stresses- 2. Square Cross a Square
When a body is subjected to eccentric loading 'P' at section e≤
6
a distance of 'e' then body undergoes combined
stresses. Kernel size, a × a
3 3
3. Solid Circular d Circular
Section e max ≤
8
Dia. of core, d/4
It is known as middle
fourth rule.
4. Hollow Rectangular BD3 − bd 3 Rhombus
Section ex−x ≤
6D(BD − bd)
DB3 − db3
e y− y ≤
Maximum and minimum stress, 6B(BD − bd)
Maximum stress σ max = σd + σ b
Minimum stress σ min = σd − σ b
When column is in rectangular shape then 5. Hollow Circular D2 + d 2 Circular
e max ≤
Section 8D
6M P
σb = σd = , d>b Dia. of core, D + d
2 2
bd 2 bd
4D
Max. and min. stress in column due to eccentric load-
P 6e
σ max = 1 +
A b
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
P 6e Note- For no tension in the section eccentricity must not
σ min = 1 − 2k 2
A b exceed-
d
Where, e = eccentricity, b = width of section Where, k = radius of gyration.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 313 YCT
07.
SLOPE AND DEFLECTION OF BEAM
Introduction- find slope and deflection at particular point in
statically determinate structure. In this method given
Slope deflection method is a structural analysis
beam is firstly converted into conjugate beam.
method for beams and frames introduced in 1914 by
George A. Money. This method provides very easy approach.
Deformation due to bending only. This method modified form of moment area method.
Strength and stiffness are the two main design Note–
criteria for a beam. Conjugate beam method can be directly used for SSB.
Deflection- Conjugate Beam-
It is the vertical distance between the axis of beam An imaginary beam for which the load diagram is
before and after loading at that point. M
the called conjugate beam.
Deflection is always zero at support. EI
Slope- West Bengal PSC AE 2021
Angle between deformed beam to the actual beam at M
If is +ve, loading is upward
EI
the same point is called slope.
Conversion of actual beam into conjugate beam -
KPSC AE 2017, OPSC Civil Services 2011
Actual Beam or Real Conjugate Beam
Beam
Hinged support Hinged support
Roller support Roller support
Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018
Slope at any point Shear force at that point
Methods of slope and deflection-
Deflection at any point Bending moment at that point
1. Moment area method (Mohr's method)-
DSSSB JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 M/EI diagram due to Loading on conjugate beam
It is a graphical method that relates slope and applied load/curvature.
deflection of beam. Fixed end Free end
This method is more suitable where position of
Internal hinge Interior roller
centroid of the bending moment area is known.
Internal pin Hinge
It is more useful compared to double integral
method. Free end Fixed end
Given load M
A Ax diagram
θ= and y = Mohr 'sTheorem , EI
EI EI
Where A = Area of BMD over entire span 3. Double Integration method-.
UP Jal Nigam AE 2016
2. Conjugate beam method-
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021
The First integration yields the slope and second
Conjugate beam method is developed by Heinrich gives the deflection.
Mullar-Breslau in 1865. It is graphical method to Differential equation for deflection curve.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 314 YCT
d2 y 6. Strain Energy Method-
EI = −M Alberto Castigliono's developed a method to find out
dx 2
deflection of structures by strain energy. When
GPSC AE 2018, APPSC AEE (Civil/Mech.) 2012
external loads are applied on elastic body they
This equation is also known as basic formula of deform.
slope and deflection.
∂U ∂U
δ= and , θ =
dy ∂P ∂M
Ist Integration- EI = E.I.θ = − ∫ M + C1
dx
1 M2
Strain energy U = P.δ = ∫ xx dx
IInd Integration- EI.y = − ∫∫ M + C 2 2 2EI
Important Equation-
Note- APPSC AEE 2012, 2016
Moment area and double integration method are dy
Deflection, δ= EI.y Slope, θ = EI.
suitable for uniaxial or single load. dx
4. Macaulay's method- d2 y d3 y
Moment, M = E.I. Shear, F = EI.
UPRVUNL JE (Civil) 2022, APPSC AEE 2016 dx 2 dx 3
It is very efficient for point load or discontinuous d4 y
Load equation w = E.I.
loading conditions. Macaulay's method is used in dx 4
structural analysis to find the deflection of beams, Slope and deflection for different type of
Bending moment and curvature from Euler
beam at different loading-
Bernoulli beam theory. When distance 'X' moves
Special case-
d2y
past where the load is applied. ± EI 2 = M xx 1. S.S.B. with eccentric load-
dx
Then Macaulay Brackets-
0, x < a
(x − a)
n
=
(x − a) n
, x ≥ a
For different type of load-
When,
θA =
P.b
6EI.L
( L2 − b2 ) , θB = 6EI.L
P.a
(L2 − a 2 )
n=0 - Point moment
n=1 - Point load P.ab 2
Deflection y = L − (a 2 + b 2 )
n=2 - Uniformly distributed load 6EI.L
n=3 - Uniformly variable load 2. Cantilever beam-
Section is consider between two load. (i) Load P act at one third of the span then
Suitable for several loads.
This method is also called method of singularity
function.
5.Super position method-
The deformation (Slope or deflection) of a beam at P. ( L / 3)
3
PL3
any point is equal to the resultant of the deflection at point 'C' y c = 3EI
=
81EI
deformations (Slopes or deflection). At that point
3
super position method is valid upto proportional Deflection at free end y = 4 PL
B
limit. 81 EI
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 315 YCT
2L Type of beam and loading Slope Deflec
(ii) When Load 'P' act distance from support
3 tion
Simply Supported Beam PL2 PL3
1. With point load at centre 16EI 48EI
2. With U.D.L. (w N/m) wL3 5wL4
8PL3
Deflection at point 'C' y c = 24EI 384EI
81EI
14 PL3 3. With triangular load 5wL3 wL4
Deflection at free end- y B = maximum at
81EI 192EI 120EI
centre and zero at both ends
3. Propped Cantilever beam-
Cantilever Beam- PL2 PL3
It is a beam with one end fixed and other is provided 1. With point load at its free 2EI 3EI
with simple / roller/pin support in order to resist end
deflection of beam. 2. With U.D.L. (w N/m) wL3 wL4
It provides more rigidity than S.S.B and cantilever DDA JE (Civil) 2023 6EI 8EI
beam 3. With gradually varying PL3 PL4
(i) When point load act at the centre of beam then, load zero at free end and 24EI 30EI
maximum at fixed end
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
4. Cantilever beam with point PL2 5 PL3
load at centre 8EI 48 EI
GPSC AE 2018
R B L3 5. With U.D.L.(w N/m) from wL3 7wL4
Upward deflection due to prop reaction, y B =
3EI fixed end to centre of beam 48EI 384EI
BPSC AE (Pre) 2018
5PL3
Deflection due to load 'P' yB = 6. with U.D.L. (wN/m) from
48EI 7wL3 41wL4
centre of beam to free end 48EI 384EI
(ii) When U.D.L. Act-
7. with clockwise moment at ML ML2
its free end EI 2EI
Fixed Beam- PL3
y=
192 EI
1. Point load at its centre
Upward deflection due to reaction RB
2. With U.D.L (wN/m) y max =
wL4
R L3
yB ( ↑ ) = B 3. Triangular load max. at
384 EI
3EI
centre and zero at both ends. at centre
4
wL
Downward deflection due to load 'P' y B (↓) = 7wL4
8EI y max = or
3840EI
WL2 7
Bending moment at fixed end, B.M = × S.S.B
8 32
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 316 YCT
08.
BENDING STRESS IN BEAMS
Pure bending- E = Young's modulus of elasticity
When a beam bends under the action of uniform or R = Radius of curvature of N.A.
constant bending moment without any shear force is σ = Bending stress
known as pure bending or simple bending.
y = Distance of outer most fiber from N.A.
Assumption of pure bending or simple bending-
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, MH WRD JE 2022 Bending Stress, σ My
MH WRD JE 2022, MHADA JE 2022 I
(i) The material of the beam is homogenous, isotropic
Radius of curvature , R EI
and young's modulus of elasticity is the same in
M
tension and compression. It obeys Hook's law.
Curvature of Section M
(ii) The transverse section of the beam is symmetrical
EI
about a line passing through the centre of gravity in
the plane of bending Flexural Rigidity EI
(iii) The transverse sections plane before bending Difference between Bending stress and Shear stress
remains plane after bending.
Bending stress Shear stress
(iv) Each and every layer of the beam is free to expand
or contract, independently of the layer above or At neutral axis-
below it. bending stress is zero. shear stress is not-zero.
(v) The radius of curvature is very large as compared to
At extreme fiber-
the cross-sectional dimension.
bending stress is shear stress is zero.
(vi) Buckling is neglected and loads are applied in the
maximum.
place of bending.
Varies linearly over depth Varies parabolically
Neutral Axis-
DDA JE (Civil) 2023, HPSC Lecturer 2022, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
of beam. over the depth of beam.
Along the length of the beam neutral axis remains Act normal to the cross Act parallel to the cross-
unstressed under bending in other words stress section of beam. section.
generated on this layer is zero.
Shape of bending stress Varies from cross-
Pure bending equation-
variation remains same for section to cross-section.
Bending equation or flexural equation or Euler's
all the cross-section of
bending equation.
beam.
MR E σ
= =
I R y Flexural Rigidity-
It is a measure the bending moment resistance of the
Where, beam.
M = Moment of resistance M E
From bending equation– R = ⇒ EI = M R .R
I = Moment of inertia of the section about neutral I R
axis (N.A.) UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 317 YCT
'EI' of the beam is knows as flexural rigidity. For cantilever Beam of Uniform
• Larger the flexural rigidity, shorter the curvature for Strength-
a given bending moment. 1. If depth is constant b ∝ M
Section modulus- 2. If width is constant d ∝ M
UPMRC AM (Civil) 2023, PPSC JE 2022 Where,
It is the ratio of moment of inertia of section about b = Width of beam,
the neutral axis to the distances of the topmost layer d = Depth of beam,
from the neutral axis i.e, M = Bending moment
I M Composite beams or
Z= =
y max σmax flitched beam-
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022
Beam of uniform strength-
A flitched beam means a beam of the composite
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021 section which is made up of two or more different
If the bending stress of a beam is same at every materials assumes to be rigidly connected together
section along its longitudinal axis is known as beam and act like a single section is known as flitched
of uniform strength. In other words a beam in which beam.
permissible stress at all sections is reached Strength of top and bottom flitched beam = (3-5)
simultaneously under a loading is called a beam of times of side flitched beam.
uniform strength.
Strength of section-
The strength of section means the moment of
resistance offered by the section and moment of
resistance. [M = σ × Z]
Z = Section modulus
Types of σbmax If, b is If, d is
beam constant constant
Cantilever beam 3wl 2 d ∝x b ∝ x2
with UDL bd 2
σ
SSB with point 3wl b ∝x Moment of resistance = ⋅ Ieq
d∝ x Ymax
load at centre bd 2
BD3 mbd 3
I eq = 2× +
12 12
Cantilever beam 6wl
d∝ x b ∝ x2
bd 2
with point load (2BD3 + mbd3 )
M r = σ×
at free end 6D
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 318 YCT
09.
SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS
AND SHEAR CENTRE
Shear Stress- Composite and I section
Shear stress due to shear force is a type of stress.
That acts coplanar with cross section of beam.
Shear stress equation-
V.Ay
Shear stress, τ =
I.b
GPSC AE 2021, GPSC AE 2021, JPSC AE 2021
Where, DSSSB JE 2022, HPSC Lecturer 2022
V = Transverse shear force RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
b = Width of section For I-section-
Ay = First moment of Area
Shear stress in flange , τf Width of Web, b w
y = Distance of CG of section from N.A. =
Shear stress in Web , τ w Width of flange , bf
τmax τmax τ NA
Ratio of , , for different cross section
τavg τ NA τavg V
τ= b (D 2 − d 2 ) + b w (d 2 − 4y 2 )
τ max τ max τ NA 8I.B f
Cross-Section
τ avg. τ NA τ avg. for τ max , y = 0
3/2 1 3/2 T and L section
Rectangular/square
Circular 4/3 1 4/3
Triangle 3/2 9/8 4/3
Diamond 9/8 9/8 1
Shear stress distribution for different
section-
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, MH WRD JE 2022
Haryana PSC AE 2018, HPPSC Poly. Lect. 2016
Rhombus section-
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, DDA JE 2023
MH WRD JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022
2
• For rectangular section, τ = V d − y 2
2I 4
• For circular section, τ = V (r 2 − y 2 )
3I
Note–
τmax = 1.5τavg For rectangular section
4V.y 9V
DDA JE 2023, MH WRD JE 2022 τ= (3d − 4y) τmax =
DSSSB JE 2022, GPSC AE 2022 d4 4d 2
τmax = 1.33τavg – For triangular section APPSC AEE (Civil/Mechanical) 2012
Elastic center-
It is defined as the point at which an applied force
τmax = 1.33τavg – For circular section
produces pure translation is known as elastic center.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 319 YCT
Key Points (iii) The transverse load applied at the shear centre does
■ Shear stress on principal planes is– Zero not lead to the torsion in the thin walled beam.
■ Shear stress is ________ at Neutral axis for Distance of shear centre of some important sections-
rectangular section– Maximum
■ Shear stress in a beam having triangular cross–
section is maximum at– mid depth
■ A beam of triangular cross section is placed with
its based horizontal. The maximum shear stress
intensity in the section will be–
Above the neutral axis
SHEAR CENTRE OR CENTRE OF TWIST
Shear centre is the point of intersection of the 2R 4R
bending axis and the plane of the transverse section. e = 2R (> R) e= =
π/ 2 π
OR
The point about which the applied force is balanced
by the set of shear force obtained by summing the Shear centre of Channel Section-
shear stresses over the section is called shear centre. h 2 b 2 t1 3b
• Shear flow variation in vertical direction is parabolic e= = b = width of Flange
4I xx 6 + Aw / Af
and in horizontal direction is linear.
• In case of unsymmetrical loading if load does not Shear centre of unequal I section-
passes through shear centre, the section will twist
t1h 2 (b 22 − b12 )
however if the load passes through shear centre then e=
the section will have only bending and no twisting. 4I xx
Νοte-
In case of section having two axis of symmetry the
shear centre coincides at the centroid of the section.
Shear centre location is the function of shape of the
cross-section and is independent of loading.
In case of section having one axis of symmetry,
shear centre does not coincides with the centroid but
lie on the axis of symmetry.
Properties of shear center-
GPSC AE 2022
Shear centre is belongs to following properties-
(i) The shear centre lies on the axis of symmetry.
(ii) In case of twice symmetrical section the shear centre
is the point of symmetry axes intersection.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 320 YCT
10.
COLUMN & STRUT
Column- Note : –
A vertical structural member which carries axial Buckling load
Safe load =
compressive loads is known as column. Factor of safety
Strut- CLASSIFICATIONS OF COLUMN-
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
1. Classification based on slenderness ratio
A structural member subjected to axial compressive
S.R Types of column Fails in
force is called strut.
Strut may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical. < 32 Short column Crushing
32-120 Intermediate Combined, crushing and
Radius of gyration-
Kerala PSC AE 2021, CHB JE 2023, HPSC Lecturer 2022
column buckling
>120 Long column Buckling
Imin = Ak min 2
2. On the basis of L/D ratio-
Imin Length Types of Column
k min = Ratio
A Diameter
Where, <8 Short Column/Stocky Struts
k = radius of gyration 8 - 30 Medium Column
I = Area moment of inertia > 30 Long Column
Slenderness Ratio (S.R.)- 3. Column based on end conditions-
CHB JE (Building) 2023, CGPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Effective length of column based on end condition-
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022
End Condition Effective le (As Buckling / Euler
It define the geometrical property of a compression
length per IS load
member. Code)
le π2 EI
Pe =
Effective length l le2
S.R. = = e
Least radius of gyration k min. CSE 1998
Slenderness ratio is also known as buckling factor in One end Fixed 2L 2L π2 EI
and other end
case of strut. Free 4L2
1 Both end Hinged L L π2 EI
λ min ∝
k min L2
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022 Both end Fixed L/2 or 0.65L 4π2 EI
So, if λ is less then load bearing capacity of column 0.5L
L2
will be more.
Buckling load- One end Fixed L 0.8L 2π2 EI
l =
PGCIL DT 2023, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022 and other
e
2 L2
UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022, MH WRD JE 2022 Hinged
or 0.70L
The maximum load at which the column just buckles
is called buckling load, critical load or crippling Key Points
load. ■ Buckling load for a given column depends upon–
Buckling load is low for long columns and high for Length of column, Least lateral dimension
short column. ■ Direct and bending stress occurs due to–
It depends upon the dimension of members and its Eccentric loading
end condition. ■ The effective slenderness is considered to be
Note- greater than actual maximum slenderness ratio to
(i) If applied load < Buckling load → Static account for– Shear deformation effects
equilibrium. ■ The axial load carrying capacity of a long column
MHADA 2022 of a given material, cross–sectional area A and
(ii) If applied load = Buckling load → Neutral length L, is governed by–
equilibrium. Flexural rigidity and slenderness ratio
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 321 YCT
Calculated Load Carrying Capacity of fc × A
PR = 2
Column- f l
Load carrying capacity of column is depends upon 1 + 2c × e
π E k min.
(i). End condition
(ii). Lateral / cross-sectional dimension fc × A f .A
OR PR = = c 2
(iii). Types of material L
2
1 + αλ
There are two method of calculating load carrying 1 + α eff .
k min .
capacity of column
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021
Euler's Theory- Where,
DDA JE (Civil) 2023
Crushing load ,Pc = fc × A
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, PSPCL AE 2012
Pe = Buckling load
Direct stress induced in a long column
PR = Rankin load
It is useful for long column only
fc = Direct compressive stress
Assumptions-
Where,
DDA JE (Civil) 2023
f
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, MH WRD JE 2022 α = Rankine constant = 2c
(i) Material is homogeneous, isotropic and follow πE
Hooke's law. λ = Radius of gyration
APPSC AEE (Civil/Mechanical) 2012
(ii) Axis of the column is perfectly straight and uniform
lateral dimension. Note : –
In case of eccentric loading for long column secant
formula is used.
(iii) Weight of column is neglected. Value of 'fc' and 'a' for different material-
(iv) Flexural rigidity (EI) is uniform Material fc Rankine's Constant α
(v) Pin joint are frictionless and fixed ends are rigid. (N/mm2 ) When both ends are
(vi) Column fails by buckling alone. hinged
(vii) Compressive load is exactly axial and it passes Cast Iron 550 1
through the centroid of the column section. 1600
(viii) Limit of proportionality is not exceeded. Wrought Iron 250 1
Euler's equation- 9000
π2 EI min π2 EA Mild Steel 320 1
Pe / Pb or Pcr = =
2
le λ 2
7500
Timber 40 1
DDA JE 2023, CHB SDE 2023
DSSSB JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 750
Where, Failure Graph-
Pe = Euler, buckling or crippling load It is the Graph between failure stress and slenderness
Imin = Least moment of inertia ratio.
l e = Effective length
E = Young's modulus
Limitation of Euler's formula-
(i) It cannot be used in the case of short column
because the direct stress is considerable and hence
cannot be neglected.
(ii) If, S.R > critical S.R buckling failure occurs.
Rankine formula or Rankine Gordon
formula-
This formula is valid for any column.
1 1 1 Note-
= + To find out the crippling load of columns the
PR Pc Pe
Johnson's parabolic formula and straight line
CSE 1995 formula is also used.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 322 YCT
11.
TORSION
Assumption in the theory of pure
torsion-
UPPCL JE 2022, RSMSSB JE 2022
(i) Material is homogeneous, isotropic and follows
Hooke's law.
(ii) Cross section of the shaft remains plane before and
after twisting.
(iii) Twisting is uniform through the length of the shaft.
(iv) Couple or Torque applied on the shaft in the plane
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.
(v) Radius which are straight before twist remain Important point regarding to pure
straight after twist.
Equation of pure torsion-
torsion-
(i) Torsional Rigidity-
Torsional rigidity is the amount of torque required to
produce unit twist. It is also known as stiffness of
shaft.
T.L
Torsional rigidity G.J =
θ
JSSC JE 2022, APPSC AEE 2016, ESE 2012, 2013
(ii) Torsional Stiffness-
GPSC AE 2022
It is the torque required to produce unit angle of
twist.
TR τ max G.θ T
Torsion equation, = = Torsional stiffness q =
J R L θ
PPSC JE 2022 (iii) Torsional flexibility-
TR - Resisting Torque θ - Angle of twist It is defined as the angle of twist produced by the
R - Radius of shaft τ - Max. shear stress unit torque applied.
L - Length of shaft G - Modulus of rigidity Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017
J - Polar moment of inertia 1 θ
Torsional flexibility = =
Shear Distribution on Shaft- Torsional Stiffness T
PGCIL DT 2023, RSMSSB JE 2022 (iv) Polar/Torsional section modulus-
UPPCL JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022 The ratio of the polar moment of inertia to the radius
T.R of the shaft is called as polar section modulus.
τ= Where, τ ∝ R
J J
ZP =
So it is clear that, R
At the centre of shaft, shear stress = 0 RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021, GPSC AE 2016
At the outermost surface, shear stress = Max. (v) Strength of Solid Shaft-
Hollow shaft will be more economical than solid T .R 16TR
shaft. τmax = R =
J πD3
UPPCL JE 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021, CGPSC AE 2022
(vi) Power transmitted by a shaft-
When a shaft subjected to torque 'T' then power
transmission .
2π.N.T
P = Tω =
60
DSSSB JE 2022, JPSC AE 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 323 YCT
2πNT Important point-
P= H.P
45000 The distribution of torsional shear stress in solid and
Where , Angular velocity of shaft , hollow circular shaft is linear.
2πN In case of solid circular shaft shear stress is
ω=
60 maximum at outer surface and zero at centre.
In case of design purpose TR.max.>25% - 30% of But in case of hollow circular section maximum
TR.avg shear stress at outer surface and minimum at radius
(vii) Torsional Resilience of internal circle .
τ2 Note- τHollow = 1.066 τSolid
U= × volume of shaft for thin hollow shaft
2C
Combined shafts-
τ2 (i) Series connection-
U= × volume of shaft for solid shaft
4C
Strength of Hollow Shaft-
π D4 − d 4
TH = .τH
16 D
Haryana PSC AE 2018
If,
Outer dia.of shaft D
n= =
Inner dia.of shaft d
θAD = θAB + θBC + θCD
Strength of hollow shaft (TH ) n2 +1 D4 − d 4
= or Τ1l1 Τ2l2 Τl
Strength of solid shaft(TS ) n n2 −1 D4 θAD = + + 33
G1J1 G 2 J 2 G 3 J 3
When a shaft is subjected to bending and
(ii) Parallel connection-
torsion-
Bending stress, σ b 32M
πD3
Max. Shear stress, τmax. 16T
πD3
Max. bending stress (σ max. ) 2M
Max. shear stress (τmax. ) T
Max principal stress, σmax. 16
M + M2 + T2
πD3
Min principal stress, σmin. 16 T = T1 + T2 + T3
M − M2 + T2
πD3 θ1 = θ2 = θ3
TL
Max shear stress , τmax 16 θ=
M2 + T2 G1J1 + G 2 J 2
πD3
Equivalent Bending 1 G1J1T
M + M2 + T2 T1 =
moment, Me 2 G1J1 + G 2 J 2
Equivalent Twisting M2 + T2 G 2 J 2T
T2 =
moment , Te G1J1 + G 2 J 2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 324 YCT
12.
SPRING
Introduction- coiled springs the plane containing each turn nearly
Springs are elastic members which distort under at right angles to the axis of helix and the wire is
load and regain their original shape when load is subjected to torsion.
removed. A. Circular section wire springs-
It is used for absorbing the energy due to resilience. Shear stress, τ 16T
(T = W.R)
Springs are used in railway carriage, motor cars, πd3
scooters motorcycles, rickshaws, etc. Deflection, δ 64WR 3
The springs perform the following functions- ×n
(i) To absorb shock or impact loading as in carriage G d4
springs. ESE 2022
(ii) To store energy in clock springs. Stiffness of the W Gd 4
spring, k =
(iii) To apply forces and to control motions in brakes and δ 64R 3 n
clutches. PGCIL DT 2023
(iv) To measure forces as in spring balances. Angle of Twist, 64WR 2 n 32TDn
Various types of springs- θ =
Gd 4 Gd 4
Energy 1 1 64WR 2 n
stored, U = × T × θ = × W.R. ×
2 2 Gd 4
τ2
= × Volume of wire
4G
1
= Wδ
2
Where,
R = Radius of the coil, G = Modulus of rigidity
d = Diameter of the wire of the coil
T = Twisting moment, n = Number of coils or turns
l = Length of wire = 2πR.n
B. Rectangular & square section wire springs-
(i) Shear stress-
T h
Closed Coil Open Coil τ = α. 2 α = 3 + 1.8
bh b
Direct shear
Bending stress Neglected Open-coiled helical springs-
Shear stress Neglected When the helix angle greater than 100 then it is
known as open coiled helical spring. It is subjected
to torsion and bending.
(a) Open-coiled helical springs with 'Axial load'-
3. Torsion springs
4. Circular springs
5. Belleville springs
6. Flat springs
Helical springs-
The helical springs made of a wire coiled in the form
of a helix. It is two types
(i) Closed coiled (ii) Open coiled
The couple applied to the material under the applied
Closed-coiled helical springs- load W will be WR and at each point along the
0
When the helix angle less than or equal to 10 is centre line of wire this couple may be resolved into
known as closed coiled helical springs. In closed two components one of torsion and one of bending
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 325 YCT
Length of wire 2πRnsecα
(l)
Couple WR cosα
producing
Torsion, T
Couple WR sinα Bending stress, σ b 3Wl
producing 2Nbt 2
bending, M CSE 2007
Strain energy M2ℓ Deflection, δ 3Wl 3 σ b .ℓ 2
due to bending or
2EI 8ENbt 3 4ET
Strain energy for T 2ℓ Strain energy, U σb2
Twisting × Volume of spring
2GIp 6E
Deflection (δ) Where,
cos 2α sin 2α
2WR 3nπ sec α + W = applied load, b = width of each plate
GI p EI l = spring span length, E = young modulus
t = thickness of each plate
(b). Open-coiled helical springs with 'Axial thrust'- N = Number of plates in the spring
sin 2 α sin 2 α
Quarter elliptical spring –
Angular Twist, φ = 2πRn.Tsecα + These springs are called cantilever laminated
GI p EI springs.
1 1 6Wl 3Wl 3
Deflection, δ = 2πR2n.Tsinα − Bending stress, σ b = Deflection, δ =
GI EI Nbt 2
ENbt 3
p
Flat spiral springs- Equivalent stiffness of spring-
A flat spiral spring is made by winding a band Springs in series- 1 = 1 + 1 or k = k1k 2
shaped material so that its central line forms a spiral k k2 k2 k1 + k 2
on a plane. It is consists of uniform thin strips and CHB JE 2023, PGCIL DT 2023
supported outer end. It is also known as spiral
torsion clock spring or brush spring.
Angular rotation, θ Tl
EI
Max stress, σ max. 12T
bt 2
Winding torque, T bt .σ max
2
12
Energy stored, U 6T 2l
Ebt 3
Max energy stored, σ2max
U max × Volume of spring Springs in parallel- k = k1 + k 2
24E
Resilience of spring σ 2max Where,
k = Stiffness of composite spring
24E
Note-
Laminated springs or leaf springs- Wahl's correction factor (k) is take care of direct
Leaf springs also known as flat springs. shear stress and curvature of springs.
These springs are called semielliptical, leaf or 4S − 1 0.615
carriage springs and find their use in trucks, trains, kw = +
trolley etc. 4S − 4 S
This consist of a number of leaves of spring steel APPSC (PHE) AE 2012
held together at the centre with clamps. D
S = Spring index =
The plates are provide with curvature initially and d
the ends of the top plate are pin jointed to chassis of d = Dia of spring wire
the vehicle. D = Mean dia of spring.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 326 YCT
13.
PRESSURE VESSELS
Pressure vessels is used for many engineering Thin Sphere Subjected to Internal
application for transporting or storing purpose such
as gases or liquid under high pressure.
Pressure-
(i) Hoop stress-
Ex. Glass ware, autoclaves
Thin shells-
Thickness of pressure vessel (t) 1 1
< to
Internal dia. of vessel (d) 15 20
PTCUL AE 2016
Thickness of pressure vessel (t) is < 7% internal
diameter of vessel.
When thin pressure vessel is subjected to internal pd
fluid pressure then the following stresses are σh = (for seamless shell)
4t
developed-
HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021
(i) Circumferential or hoop stresses (σc or σh)
(ii) Longitudinal stresses (σl) pd
σh = (for built-up shell)
(iii) Radial stresses (σr) 4tη
(i) Hoop /circumferential stresses-
UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022
η = Joint efficiency
Tensile in nature and acts in tangential direction (ii) Longitudinal stress-
Or Parallel to axis. pd
Hoop stress is also known as design stress. σl =
4t
HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021, WBPSC AE 2020
Maximum shear stress in the case of thin
cylinder and thin spherical shell-
(i) Thin Cylinder-
Maximum shear stress in plane,
σ h − σl pd
τmax = or
2 8t
pd
σh = (ii) Thin spherical shell-
2t
σ h − σl
APPSC AEE 2016 Maximum shear stress, τmax = =0
p = Internal pressure, t = Thickness of wall 2
d = Internal dia.
(ii) Longitudinal stress (σl)- ∵ σh = σl in case of spherical shell
The stress which acts along the length and it is Strain in thin cylindrical vessel –
tensile in nature.
Hoop strain, εh pd
pd (2 − µ)
σl = 4tE
4t Longitudinal strain, εl pd
(1 − 2µ)
• σl = 0, if both ends of cylinder is open 4tE
Relation between σh and σl- Volumetric strain, εv pd
σh σ
( 5 − 4µ )
4tE
= 2 and l = 0.50
σl σh Strain in thin spherical vessel-
Hence, hoop stress is the maximum stress developed pd
in the vessel.
ε h = εl = (1 − µ )
4tE
(iii) Radial stress (σr)- DSSSB AE 2021
In case of thin cylinder radial stress are very small
3Pd
hence it is neglected. Volumetric strain ε v = (1 − µ )
It is compressive in natures. 4tE
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 327 YCT
Thick Cylinder- Important points regarding thick cylinders-
In the ratio of the internal diameter to the thickness (i) In case of thick cylinder, magnitude of radial stress
of the vessel is less than 20 is known as thick (σr) is large hence, it can not be neglected.
di (ii) Radial stress varying hyperbolically throughout the
cylinder i.e. < 20 .
t thickness.
Thick cylinder follows Lame's equation- (iii) Hoops stress varies rectangular parabolically
b throughout the thickness.
Radial stress (σ r ) = 2 − a (Compressive)
x (iv) Longitudinal stress is constant.
b (v) In a thick cylinder the hoop stress is maximum at the
Hoop stress (σ h ) = 2 + a (tensile) inner circumference and minimum at the outer
x
a, b are Lame's constant. circumference.
Longitudinal stress– Thick Sphere
PR 2 2b
σℓ = 2 i 2 Radial pressure = 3 − a
R0 − Ri x
b
Hoop stresses = +a
x3
Note-
Thin cylinders are frequently required to operate
under pressure upto 30 MN/m2 and for high pressure
such as 250 MN/m2 or more, thick cylinders are
used.
14.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND
MOMENT OF INERTIA
Centre of Gravity- Centroid-
It is defined as a point through which the entire It is defined as a point through which the entire line,
weight of the body is assumed to be concentrated. area or volume is assumed to be concentrated.
Position of C.G. is depends upon shape of the body. Parallel axis theorem-
DSSSB JE 2022, UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Center of gravity of an any area- The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is
a 1 x1 + a 2 x 2 + a 3 x 3 + − − − equal to the sum of its moment of inertia about
x= parallel axis through its C.G and the product of the
A
area of body and square of the perpendicular
a1 y1 + a 2 y 2 + a 3 y3 + − − − − distance between these two parallel axis.
y=
A IAB = IG + Ah 2
C.G. for remains part after cut out a lamina-
Perpendicular axis theorem-
a 1 x1 − a 2 x 2 a1 y1 − a 2 y 2 The moment of inertia of a plane body about an axis
x= y= perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of its
a1 − a 2 a1 − a 2
moments of inertia about two perpendicular axes
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 328 YCT
concurrent with perpendicular axis and lying in the Zsquare > Zcircular
plane of the body.
Square cross section is more economical and more
Izz = I xx + I yy
stronger than circular section.
Condition for a strongest rectangular beam cut from
a circular log-
Section modulus- D 2
For strongest section a = and h = D
It is the ratio of moment of inertia of section about 3 3
the neutral axis to the distance of outer most layer width (a) 1
from the neutral axis. It is a measure of the strength = ⇒ h = 2a
depth (h) 2
of the section of the body.
Note-
Section modulus ,
In case of symmetrical area the product of inertia
Moment of Inertia I
Z= = about centre of gravity or centroidal axis is zero.
Distance of outer most layer y max
Moment of area is a measure of the distribution of
Note- the area of a shape in relation to an axis. It is also
Section modulus (Z) represent the strength or known as first moment of area.
geometric property of the section. Section having First moment of inertia = Centroid of body × Area
maximum section modulus is more economical and The product of inertia depends upon the orientation
more stronger. of the axis.
Moment of inertia and centre of gravity of different cross section-
Cross-Section C.G. Moment of Inertia Section Modulus
I
Z=
Y
1. Rectangular Section b bd 3 bd 2
x= I xx = Zxx =
2 12 6
d db3 b2d
y= I yy = Z yy =
2 12 6
bd 3
I base =
3
2. Hollow Rectangular Section B BD3 − bd 3 BD3 − bd 3
x=
2 I xx = Zxx =
6D
12
D
y= DB − db3
3
DB − db
3 3
2 I yy = Z yy =
12 6B
3. Square Section a a4 a3
x=y= I xx = I yy = Zxx = Z yy =
2 12 6
a4
I base =
3
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 329 YCT
4. Rhombus a a4 a3
x=y= I NA = I XX = I yy = Zxx = Z yy =
2 12 6 2
5. Triangular section b bh 3 bh 2
x= IG = I xx = Z xx =
3 36 24
h bh 3
y= From base I base =
3 12
2h
y= From top bh 3
3 ITop =
4
6. Solid Circular Section D πD 4 πD3
x=y= I xx = I yy = Zxx = Z yy =
2 64 32
πD 4 πD3
I zz = Zzz =
32 16
5πD 4
I base =
64
7. Hollow Circular Section D π(D 4 − d 4 ) π(D 4 − d 4 )
x=y= I xx = I yy = Zxx = Z yy =
2 64 32D
π(D 4 − d 4 )
I zz =
32 π(D 4 − d 4 )
Zzz =
16D
8. Solid Semi Circular Section D πD 4 πR 4 πD 4
x= or R I yy = Ibase = or Z yy = ZPQ =
2 128 8 64
4R
y= πD 2
3π IXX = or .1098R 4
457
9. Quarter Circular Section 4R I xx = I yy = 0.0549R 4
x=
3π
πD 4
y=
4R ( IG )XX = ( IG )YY = Zxx = Z yy = 0.549R 3
256
3π
10. Trapezoidal Section
h 2a + b h 3 a 2 + b 2 + 4ab IG
y max = y = IG = ZG =
3 a+b 36 a+b y max
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 330 YCT
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 332
2. Structural Fasteners ............................................................................................................. 334
3. Tension Member ................................................................................................................. 343
4. Compression Member ......................................................................................................... 346
5. Beam & Gantry Girder ........................................................................................................ 350
6. Eccentric Connections ......................................................................................................... 353
7. Column Bases...................................................................................................................... 355
8. Plate Girder ......................................................................................................................... 357
9. Plastic Analysis ................................................................................................................... 360
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 331 YCT
01.
INTRODUCTION
Structural Steel (standard quality steel) - The steel is weldable without preheating if
It is used for the manufacture of rolled steel sections. CE < 0.42%
It is classified as mild steel and high tensile steel of High carbon steel is used in transmission lines and
weldable quality (As per IS : 2062) considered for microwave towers.
the design. In steel,
Advantages of steel structures- Carbon content ↑ ∝ Strength↑ ∝ Hardness↑
ESE 2021, APPSC AEE 2012, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2011
1 1
• High strength per unit mass. ∝ ∝
• Suitable for long span. Ductility Toughness
• It can be easily fabricated and produced massively. Types of steel % carbon
• It may be reusable. Low carbon steel <0.15 %
• Long life and high scrap value. Medium carbon steel 0.31% - 0.60%
• Steel members are gas and water tight, because of High carbon steel (hard steel) 0.61% - 1.7%
high density. UPMRC AM 2023, JSSC JE 2022
Physical properties of structural steel - Note:-
JSSC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022 Gauge length of steel specimen as per codal provision
UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022 = 5.65 A o
Yield stress (fy) 220 - 240 N/mm2
Rajasthan JE (Degree) 2016
Ultimate tensile strength 1.2 fy Where,
Density (ρ) 7850 kg/m3 Ao = Cross sectional area of specimen before loading.
Elongation (low carbon steel) 20% All standard I-beams and channels have slope of
Shear Modulus (G) 0.769 × 105 or 0.4 E 2
16 % on the inside face of the flange.
Poisson's Ratio (µ)- 3
(i) Elastic range 0.25 - 0.33 ≃ 0.30 Types of structural steel section-
(ii) Plastic range 1. Rolled steel Section( Beam section)
0.50
It is the most efficient and economical section
Permissible Stresses in steel members-
UKSPC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, Haryana PSC AE 2020 (i) ISJB-Indian standard junior beams(used in purlin)
SJVNL ET 2019, Nagaland PSC (CTSE) 2018 (ii) ISLB - IS light weight beams (used in beam)
Type of Stress Permissible Factor of safety- (iii) ISMB - IS medium weight beams (used in floor
stress (MPa) yield stress (f y ) beams and most appropriate for steel girder.)
(iv) ISWB - IS wide flange beams (used in column.)
Working stress
(v) ISHB - IS heavy beam (used for column)
Axial compressive & 0.6 fy 1.67 HPCL JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
tensile stress 2. Rolled steel channels sections-
Max. bending stress in 0.66 fy 1.515 It consist one web and two flanges.
compression and tension (i) ISJC - IS junior channel
Shear stress (ii) ISLC - IS light channel
τv avg. 0.4 fy 2.5 (iii) ISMC - IS medium weight channel (sloping
τv max. 0.45 fy 2.22 flange)
(iv) ISMCP -IS medium weight channel (Parallel Lange)
Bearing stress (σb) 0.75 fy 1.33 3. Rolled Steel Angle Section-
Stress in slab base 185 - WBPSC AE 2021, UJVNL AE 2012
Note- (i) ISA - Indian standard equal leg angle
Margin factor of safety = Factor of safety – 1 (ii) ISA - Indian standard unequal leg angle
Carbon Equivalent (CE)- (iii) ISBA - IS bulb angle (Mostly used in ship
buildings)
The combined effect of carbon and other alloying
elements on the weldability is given by carbon 4. Rolled Steel T-section-
equivalent. based on Ladel analysis , that is given by It is used to connect the plate with flat strip in a
rectangular tank.
Mn ( %Cr + %Mo + %V ) ( %Ni + %Cu ) (i) ISNT - Indian standard normal T- bar
CE = %C + % + +
6 5 15 (ii) ISLT - IS light T- bar
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 332 YCT
(iii) ISJT - IS junior T - bar It is based on probabilistic approach and suitable for
(iv) ISHT- IS wide flange T- bar indeterminate structure.
(v) ISST - IS long leg T- bar Structure fails at much higher loads (collapse load)
Note:- than the working load.
ISSC - IS special channel. Plastic design for steel structure is not suggested for
ISPG - IS gate channel. statically determinate beam & girders and structure
By ISLB-300, maximum bending stress is resisted with pin connected members.
by flange & maximum shear stress by web. Advantage-
5. Rolled steel tube- Provides simple analysis approach for redundant
It is available in the forms of light, medium and structure and results of smaller sized section.
heavy section. 3. Limit state method (LSM)-
It is used as column, strut or tension member in HARYANA PSC AE 2020
tubular trusses. LSM was developed to take account all conditions
It has equal radius of gyration in all direction. that can make the structure unfit for use, considering
6. Rolled steel bar- actual behaviour of material and structure.
(i) ISRO - Indian standard round bar This method consider most critical limit states of
(ii) ISSQ - Indian standard square bar strength and serviceability.
L.S.M. rectifies W.S.M. by introducing partial safety
Note-
factor for loads.
If dia. of steel bar - φ ≤ 6 mm - called wire. The ultimate stresses are used as design stresses. It is
And if - φ > 6 mm - called bar suitable for all types of structure.
7. Rolled steel flat- Methods of steel connection design-
Flat is used in the design of lacing (in built up
Simple It is based on elastic theory and
members), batten and tension member. It is also
design assumed that no moment is transferred
used as ties.
from one connected member to another.
Width of flat ≤ 400 mm • All joint of beams, girder and trusses
8. Rolled steel plate and sheet are virtually flexible.
Plate - Width ≥ 900 mm • It is uneconomical method.
Sheet - Thickness < 5 mm Semi It prevents the bending moment
Use-Shells, Rectangular and circular steel tank and rigid between flexible and rigid connections.
steel chimneys. design • It is economical than simple design.
Box Section is used in column.
Note- Fully End connections of frame members have
Minimum thickness of main steel member- rigid sufficient rigidity to hold virtually
design unchanged original angles b/w such
(i) ≮ 6 mm in case of normal condition. members they connects.
(ii) ≮ 8 mm in case of exposed to weathering. • It resist both shear and bending
Design Philosophies- moment at the connections.
1. Working stress method (WSM)/yield stress • It is most economical method.
theory- Types of Loads on structure-
WSM method is based on elastic theory. In this UPPSC AE 2020
method a trial section is selected and the stresses are (i) Dead loads (IS : 875-1987 part -I)
calculated in the section for the most unfavorable (ii) Live loads or imposed load (IS : 875-1987 Part - II)
combination of the loads. (iii) Wind load (IS : 875 : 1987 Part -III)
In this method, working stress < permissible stress. RPSC VPITI 2012
If wind or earthquake loads are considered then (iv) Snow load (IS : 475 : 1987 Part -IV)
permissible stressed is increased by (v) Design load (IS 875 : 1987 Part-V) other than
i. 25% for the design of connection earthquake load.
1 (vi) Seismic load (IS : 1893-1984)
ii. 33 % for the design of structural member (vii) Temperature effects
3
2. Plastic/ultimate load method of design- Design wind speed (VZ)-
Steel posses reserve of strength beyond its yield, VZ = Vb K1K 2 K 3
which engineer have tried to utilize in the plastic
method of design. VZ = Design wind speed at a height Z min m/s.
In this method, the design criterion is the ultimate Vb = Basic wind speed as given in code.
strength and hence the behaviour of member beyond K 1 = Probability factor or risk coefficient.
the yield stress is the inelastic or plastic range is K2 = Height and structure size factor
considered. K3 = Topography factor.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 333 YCT
02.
STRUCTURAL FASTENERS
Types of connection-
1. Rivet connection
2. Bolt connection
3. Weld connection
4. Pin connection
RIVET CONNECTION
Rivet-
Rivet is a permanent mechanical fastener made of
short metal pin with flat head that is used to fasten
the metal pieces with each other. Generally rivet is
Snap head rivets are preferred in structures.
made of high tensile steel or wrought iron. Counter shank head rivets are preferred in aircraft or
Rivet size is denoted by diameter of shank. automobile industries.
2. Rivets classified according to the method of
driving-
(i) Hot driven rivet
When the rivets are heated before driving called hot
driven field rivets or hot driven shop rivets
depending upon whether they are placed in the field
or workshop.
Ex. Hand and power driven rivets
• Hot driven field rivet -
Assumptions of riveted joints- Rivets are driven in the site/field.
JPSC AE 2021, JPSC AE 2021
• Hot driven shop rivet -
Mizoram PSC AE (Tourism Deptt.) 2020
Rivets are driven in workshop.
1. Rivets are assumed to be stressed equally.
(ii) Cold driven rivet -
2. The rivet hole is assumed to be filled completely by Rivets driven at room temperature. Strength of cold
the rivet. driven rivets is more than that of hot driven rivets.
3. Friction between the plates is neglected. In cold riveting there is no gripping action but
4. Load and Shear stress is assumed to be uniformly strength is better due to cold working.
distributed over the gross cross-sectional area of the For field rivets the permissible stresses are reduced
rivet. by 10%.
5. Bending moment of rivets are not considered. Range of rivet dia. 12-22 mm.
6. Bearing stress is uniform between plates and rivets. Strength Order-
7. Length of pitch is considered for analysis. Hand driven rivets < Power driven rivets.
Power driven field rivets < power driven shop rivets.
8. Gross dia. of rivet is taken to calculation.
Rivets can be formed manually with an ordinary
Classification of rivet section hammer.
1. According to shape of head In hot riveting, shank of the rivet is subjected to
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UKPSC JE 2022 shear stress and tensile stress.
In cold riveting, shank of the rivet is subjected to
shear stress only.
Permissible stresses in rivets-
UKPSC JE 2022
Max. permissible stresses in rivet and bolts
(property class 4.6 of IS : 1367 - 1967)-
Type of Rivet Axial Shear Beari
tension (MPa) ng
(MPa) (MPa)
1. Power driven
a. Shop rivets 100 100 300
b. Field rivets 90 90 270
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 334 YCT
2. Hand driven rivets 80 80 250 Pitch-
3. Close to clearance 120 100 300 SSC JE 2022, Kerala PSC AE 2021
turned holes UPSC AE (PWD) 2021, WBPSC AE 2021
It is the c/c distance between any two adjacent rivets
4. Bolt in hole 120 80 250
measured parallel to the direction of applied force.
clearance
3. According to place of fastening and use of power
(i) Hand driven rivet
(ii) Power driven field rivet
Rivet is heated and then applied in the field
(iii) Power driven shop rivet
Note-
Shop rivets are stronger than field rivets.
Strength cold driven rivet is higher than hot driven
rivet.
Permissible stress for power driven filed rivet = 90%
of the power driven shop rivets.
Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017, Chandigarh SDE 2017 Staggered/Reeled/Alternate pitch-
IS : 1929-1982 & IS : 2155-1982 as appropriate for It is defined as the distance measured along one rivet
rivets. line from the centre of the rivet on it to the center of
IS : 1149-1982 is related to high tensile steel rivet. adjoining rivet on the adjacent parallel rivet line is
Nominal diameter of rivet (d)- known as staggered pitch.
It is the diameter of the shank of a rivet before Margin or Marginal pitch-
riveting. It is the distance between the center of rivet hole to
For a bolt the nominal diameter is same as the gross the nearest edge of the plate.
diameter.
Important Terminology related to rivet
Effective or gross rivet diameter (d')-
Dia. of rivet or rivet hole after riveting is called
connection-
gross diameter of rivets. Gauge Distance between two adjacent rows
Strength of rivet based on gross diameter. distance of rivets measured to the direction of
D, is slightly more than dia. of nominal rivet. force
For nominal dia ≤ 25 mm- Gauge/ back It is an imaginary parallel line along
line which rivets are placed along the
d' = d + 1.5 mm direction of force.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
Edge Distance between the edge of a
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB), UPSC JWM 2017
distance member or cover plate and the
For nominal dia > 25 mm- centre of the nearest rivet hole
d' = d + 2 mm Edge/end The distance between the center of
GPSC AE 2019, WBPSC AE 2014, TNPSC AE 2012 distance end rivet to the edge of plate in
Formula used for Nominal diameter- perpendicular direction of force is
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, JSSC JE (G.E.) 2022
called end distance.
Unwin's formula
d = 6.05 t mm (i) For hand flame cutting or rough
edge 1.7 d'
d = 1.91 t cm (ii) For machine flame cutting or
French formula smooth edge 1.5 d'
d =1.5t + 4 mm
Note-
German formula If shank area considered then designs will be
d = 50t − 2 mm
economical.
Where, t = Thickness of plate If net area considered then designs will be safe.
Key Points 5
Thickness of cover plate= times of main plate
■ ________are provided for bolted or riveted 8
constructions of plate girder– Angle sections thickness.
■ The steel connections is classified under friction MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
type is– Slip critical connections Type of riveted joints-
■ For multiple riveted connections, a service bolt Lap joint-
shall be provided in every ____ hole– PSTCL AE 2021, DFCCIL Executive 2016
Third or Fourth The joints between two members in which the ends/
■ The bolts are used for light structures under static edge are overlapped together to produced continuous
loads is– Unfinished bolts surface is called lap joint .
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 335 YCT
It is the least efficient joint because the line of action Bearing stress-
of two forces are not same. These forces forms If the load exerted from one surface to another in
couple so additional bending stresses are developed contact then it is termed as bending stress.
in the rivets.
Single cover butt joint undergo single shear.
Types of failure in rivet and plate joint
system-
A. Failure of plate-
1. Shearing 2. Bearing 3. Splitting 4. Tearing
It is due to failure of insufficient end distance
4t thinner 1. Shear failure of plates-
Minimum lap ≮ Cracks are developed parallel to the direction of
40mm applied force direction.
Types of lap joint- It can be avoided by keeping the margin, m=1.5d
BPSC AE 2001
(i) Single riveted lap joint.
(ii) Double riveted lap joint.
Butt Joint-
CGPSC AE 15 Jan 2020
If two members are placed end to end lie in the same 2. Tension /Tearing failure of plates-
plane and joined together by two cover plates then
Tearing failure occurs when the rivets are stronger
this types of joint is called butt joint.
than the plates.
The cracks are developed perpendicular to the
direction of applied force.
3. Splitting of plates-
Types of butt joints- Splitting failure occur due to diagonal tension in the
DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021 plate at the rivet level.
(i) Double cover single riveted joint
(ii) Double cover chain riveted joint
(iii) Double cover zig-zag riveted joint
Difference b/w lap joint and butt joint-
Lap joint Butt Joint
Cover plate is not Cover plate is
required required 4. Bearing failure of plates-
Rivets undergo single Generally two way This type of failure occurs generally due to
shear shear occurs in butt insufficient end plates.
joint.
Shank length is less Shank length is more.
Axis of plates do not lie Load at the joint is
in a line so bending not eccentric
moment developed at the
joint due to eccentricity
Bending stress may be Bending stress are B. Failure of Rivet-
developed. not developed. 1. Shearing 2. Bearing
Note- 1. Shear failure of rivets-
Caulking- In a shearing failure, rivet gets cut into two or more
To make the joint leak proof or fluid tight in pieces.
pressure vessel like steam boilers, air receivers and Single shear occurs in lap joint while double shear in
tanks etc. is known as caulking. butt joint.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 336 YCT
Where,
τvf = Allowable shear stress in rivets
d' = Effective diameter of the rivets
σb = Allowable bearing stress in the rivets
σt = Allowable tensile stress in plate
p = Pitch
t = Thickness of thinner plate
NOTE- As per I.S: 800, for having minimum pitch
η = 60%
Arrangement of rivets-
(i) Chain riveting-
Riveting in which the rivets are arranged in rows
along the seam are set one behind the other is known
as chain riveting.
Rivets in the adjacent rows are opposite to each
other.
2. Bearing failure of rivets-
In a bearing failure, rivet cross section changes from
circular to elliptical.
Rivet is crushed around the half circumference.
(ii) Zig-Zag Riveting-
Note- If the rivets in the adjacent rows are staggered in
Shearing and bearing strength of rivets > Tearing such a way that every rivet is in the middle of the
strength of rivets. two rivets of the opposite row called zig-zag riveted.
In the design of riveted joint shearing and bearing
failure of rivets and tearing failure of plates are
considered.
Failure of plates occurred due to insufficient end
distance.
Strength of Riveted/Bolted joint-
Shearing π 2
strength In single shear- Ps = τvf × × d' (iii) Diamond riveting-
4
In diamond riveting, rivets are arranged in a
π 2 diamond pattern and decrease gradually from the
In double shear- Ps = 2.τvf × × d '
4 inner rows to the outer rows.
All the rivets are arranged symmetrically about the
Bearing strength Pb = n.( d' × t ). σb
centre line of plate.
Tearing of plate Pt = σt.(p – d').t Diamond riveting is more efficient and save the
Rivet value Rv = Min. of (Pb or Ps) material .
Efficiency of Min.strength of joint p − d , Use- Bridge, Trusses
joint η= =
Strength of solid plate p b −d'
Efficiency of joint, ηdiamond =
Number of rivet Force b
n= NBCC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2018, UPPCL AE 2014
Rivet value
Where, b = Width of plate
Strength of solid P = p.d. σt d' = Rivet dia.
plate
Strength of joint Min. of ( Pb, Pt or Ps In figure section 1-1 is the critical section.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 337 YCT
Note-
When fasteners (rivets) are staggered at equal
interval and gauge does not exceed at 75 mm then
spacing or pitches between centers of rivets (point 1,
2 and 3 )may be increased by 50%.
24t
• Pitch in tension ≯ min of
300mm
18t
• Pitch in compression ≯ min of
300mm
Note-
The permissible stress in rivet under wind and
Note- earthquake load condition as per IS : 800 can be
Minimum width of diamond riveted section = 3d' increased by 25%.
For staggered pitch, pitch values in chain system is Punjab PSC SDE 2021
increased by 50%. When thickness of cover plate is not given, then
GPSC AE 2018 tcover plate 5/8 tmain (thinner).
Tack rivets-
It is used to make the sections act in unison, and to BOLT CONNECTION
prevent buckling in compression members where
two or more members are in contact.
Maximum pitch of tacking rivet/bolt in case of-
NBCC JE 2022
(i) Tension member 1000 mm
(ii) Compression member 600 mm
Members are not exposed to weather-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
maximum pitch between any two adjacent rivets
32 t
(including tacking rivets) >/ Min. of
300 mm
Black bolt/Ordinary bolt/Unfinished bolts-
Member are exposed to weather- MH ADA 2022
16 t It is the least expensive bolts, used for light
Min. of structures subjected to static loads and for secondary
200 mm members such as purlins, bracings etc.
• In case of angle if leg size is > 125 mm provide two It is not recommended for connections subjected to
rows of tack rivet/bolting. impact load, vibration and fatigue. '
• In case web of channel > 150 mm provide two rows of The bolts are available from 5 mm to 36 mm in
tack rivet/bolting. diameter and designated as M-5 to M-36.
Minimum pitch for rivet joint- 2.5d M-16 bolt of grade 4.6 it means-
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022
MP VYAPAM Sub. Engg. 2022, PPSC SDE 2021
DSSSB AE 2021, RPSC ACF & FRO 2021 M-16
16 mm size of nominal diameter of bolt.
Maximum pitch of rivet joint in case of-
ESE 2023, GPSC AE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
4.6 means-
(i) Ultimate strength of bolt (fub) = 400 MPa
16 t (ii) Yield strength of bolt (fyb) = 0.6 fub = 240 MPa
1. Tension member ⊁ Min. of
200 mm Nominal dia. of bolt (dn) Dia. of hole (mm)
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021 (mm)
12 t 12 dn + 1
2. Compression member ⊁ Min. of 13
200 mm
16
Punjab PSC SDE 2021, HPPSC Poly. Lect. 2016 dn + 2
20
(100 + 4 t) 24
3. Gauge length (g) Min. of
200 mm. 30
dn + 3
4. When the members are exposed to corrosion, then 36
maximum edge distance (40mm + 4t). Note-
where t = thickness of external thinner plate Bolts are most suitable to carry axial tension.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 338 YCT
Types of failure in bolted connection- Reduction factor for packing plates-
(a) Shear failure βpk = (1 − 0.0125t pk )
(b) Bearing failure
(c) Tension failure Where tpk = thickness of thicker packing plates.
Note-
Type of bolts-
βlg ≯ βlj. Where, βlj = Reduction factor of long joint.
High It is used in structures such as high raised
Strength building, bridges, machines etc. lg ≤ 8d
bolts • Bolt size - 16 to 36 mm. WELD CONNECTION
High The joint using HSFG bolts is called no- Welded joints-
Strength slip connection/slip critical connection or When two structural members are joined by means
Friction friction type connection. of welds the connection is called a welded joint.
Grip • It provides a rigid joint. Temperature range for fusion 1450-1500°C.
(HSFG) • No stress concentration in the bolts and Advantage of welded connection -
therefore, the fatigue strength is more. ESE 2023, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2007
Waisted (Shank dia. < 0.9 times the roof dia. of 1. Welded structure are lighter than riveted structures.
shank bolt shank) 2. Welded connection has a greater strength,
• Preffered when the bolts are subjected sometimes equal to the strength of the parent metal
to cyclic bending. itself.
Ribbed bolts It's more resistance to vibrations as 3. Repairing and further new connections can be done
(fluted bolts) compared to ordinary bolts. more easily than in riveting.
• Permissible stresses for ribbed bolts 4. Welded joints are economical than riveted joints.
are same as that for rivets. 5. Better finish than riveted joints and lesser time
Turned bolts These bolts have high shear and consuming
bearing resistance as compared to Assumption-
unfinished bolts. 1. Welds connecting the various members are
• Specification for turned bolts are given homogenous, isotropic and elastic.
IS : 2591 - 1982. 2. Welded connection is rigid and their deformation is
Interference They can be installed with ordinary neglected.
bolts spud wrenches are use for structures 3. Effect of residual stresses, stress concentration and
like towers masts etc. shape of welds are neglected.
Slip Factor
Coefficient of friction in friction type joint is known
as slip factor.
Proof load
Initial tension in high strength friction grip (HSFG)
bolts is known as proof load of the bolt.
Reduction factor in shear for large grip Metal arc welding-
length (βlg)- The arc is shielded in order to protect molten metal
When the grip length of a bolt increases, the bolt is from air either gas, vapor or slag only.
subjected to a greater bending moment due to shear Types of weld joint-
forces acting on its shank. (A) Fillet Weld-
Shear capacity of the bolt is reduced If, Total UPPSC AE 2022, JPSC AE 2021
thickness > 5 times nominal dia. of bolt GPSC AE (NWR) 2021, WBPSC AE 2021
8d Fillet welding refers to the process of joining to
βlg = Where lg is grip length pieces of metal together when members to be jointed
3d + lg
are in different plane (Perpendicular at an angle)
JKPSC AE 2021
Fillet weld is also termed as concave fillet weld or
Reduction factor in shear for long joint
convex fillet weld or mitre fillet weld depending on
for 0.75 ≤ βlj ≤ 1.0
the weld face in concave or convex or approximately
lj flat.
βlj = 1.075
200d GSSSB AAE 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 339 YCT
a= Nominal design throat thickness
S= Effective design throat thickness
b= Horizontal leg length
c= Vertical leg length
Permissible Stress in welds-
Type of stress Permissible stress
(N/mm2)
It is used when the members to be jointed Tension or compression on section 150
overlapped and each other. through throat of butt weld
Strength of fillet weld ≥ main member jointed Bending stress in tension or 165
Shear stresses are developed in fillet weld joint. compression
The gap between web plates and flange plates for Shear on section through throat of 108
fillet welds 1.5 mm. butt or fillet weld
Full fillet weld is a weld where the size of weld is Plug weld 108
same as the thickness of the thinner object jointed Types of fillet weld-
together.
Design is done only for shear in fillet weld.
Size of deep penetration fillet weld is specified as
minimum ( Leg length + 2.4 mm).
Throat thickness-
PGCIL DT 2023, HPPSC 2016
JPSC Combined AE 2013, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2004
It is the shortest distance from the root of the filled
weld to the face of the hypotenuse.
Throat thickness = k × size of weld
or t = k×s (i) Diagonal Fillet weld-
It is depend upon Its axis of weld is inclined to the direction of the
applied load.
(i) Size of weld
(ii) Angle between fusion faces.
Fillet weld should not be used if the angle between
fusion faces is less than 60° and greater than 120°.
Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017, Rajasthan AE (Nagar Nigam) 2016
Values of 'k' for different angles-
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, GATE 2011, CSE 1995
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Angle b/w 60 -90 91 -100 101 -106 107 -113 114 -120
fusion faces (ii) End/Transverse fillet Weld-
Constant (k) 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 It is defined as the fillet weld placed at the ends of
When the cross-section of fillet weld is 450, member such that it is perpendicular to the direction
isosceles triangle is known as a standard fillet weld. of applied load.
Sizeof fillet The transverse fillet welds are designed for shear
For 45º fillet, = 2 :1 strength.
Throat thickness
(iii) Side fillet weld-
MPPSC AE 2014, RPSC AE 2013
Mizoram PSC AE (Tourism Deptt.) Feb. 2020 Paper-Ist
When the cross-section of the fillet weld is 300 and Fillet weld whose axis is parallel to the direction of
600 triangle, it is known as a special fillet weld. applied load is known as side fillet weld.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 340 YCT
(iv) Intermittent fillet weld/Discontinuous weld/Pitch • Min. Length of end welds-
of welds- L1 ≮ 2s
SSC JE (Civil) 2022
It is used when the length of the smallest size fillet s = size of weld
weld required to transmit stress is less than the Effective length of fillet weld,
continuous length of the joint. le = L – 2.s
It depends upon the size of weld and 4.s
4s
Effective length , le min. of DSSSB JE 2022, JPSC AE 2021
40mm Minimum size-
Clear spacing- Size of fillet welds 3 mm. It depends upon the
≤ 12t or 200mm (for compression) thickness of thicker plate.
If thickness is not given then we assume size of
≤ 16t or 200mm (for tension)
weld, s = 3 mm.
(v) Plug and slot weld- PGCIL DT 2023, ESE 2023
Maharashtra PSC 2019 GPSC AE 2021 (GWSSB)
An addition welds provided when sufficient welding Thickness of thicker Minimum size of weld
length is not available along the edges of the plate (mm) (mm)
members is called plug weld. 0 - 10 3
In plug weld small holes are made in a plate & is 11 - 20 5
kept over another plate to be connected and then 21 - 32 6
entire hole is filled with filler material. 33 - 50 8 first run
Plug and slot welds are designed for shear stress 10 for fillet size
acting at throat,
Maximum size of weld-
In slot weld fillet welding is made along the It depends upon the thickness of thinner plate.
periphery of hole. (i) For square edge- s = (t – 1.5 mm)
3t Punjab PSC SDE 2021, JPSC AE 2021
Minimum width of slot min.of 3
25mm (ii) For rounded edge- s = .t or 0.75t
4
where t = thickness of thinner plate.
Strength of fillet weld-
P = ps × le × t
ps = Permissible stress
le = Effective length
t = Throat thickness (t = k.s.)
Fu
P= LSM
Strength of plug or slot weld = Permissible stress × 3 × 1.25
cross - sectional area at throat (1.25 for shop weld and 1.5 for field weld)
Plug welds are not designed to carry loads. Max. Pitch of weld-
It is provided to prevent buckling or separation of (i) In compression zone, 12 t or 200 mm.
the parts. (ii) In tension zone, 16 t or 200 mm.
Design criteria for fillet weld- Method for inspecting welds-
(i) Magnetic Particle Method.
• Lap length l ≮ 5t1
(ii) Dye Penetration method.
tt = thickness of thinner plate (iii) Ultrasonic method.
• Longitudinal side fillet weld- (iv) Radiography.
(i) Length of longitudinal side fillet weld– (B) Butt welds-
Punjab PSC SDE 2021
L≮d
Size of the butt weld is specified by the effective
(ii) Distance b/w longitudinal side fillet weld–
throat thickness that is the thickness of thinner part
d ≯ 16tt joint for complete penetration of butt weld.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 341 YCT
Butt weld is usually designed for direct tension or Undercut Undercutting defect appears as a
compression. groove in the parent metal directly
Effective throat thickness- along the edges/toe of the weld.
(i) For complete penetration- taken as equal to the Cause-
thickness of thinner plate (t)
Excess welding current, very long arc
(ii) For Incomplete penetration- ⊁ 5/8.t
Cracks Hot cracks occur due to presence of
minimum length - 4.s
i. Hot cracks sulphur, carbon, silicon and hydrogen
Size of a butt weld is specified by effective throat
thickness. in weld metal.
Strength of butt weld- ii. Cold cracks Due to phosphorus and hydrogen
formation of cold cracks.
P = ( l.t ) f t WSM
Key Points
where l = Effective length
■ Filler rods and wires for gas welding shall conform
ft = Permissible tensile stress
to– IS 1278
t = Effective throat thickness (mm)
■ According to IS 800 : 2007, in fillet welding, when
f yw1.L w .t e steel is delivered and painted, the paint shall be
Vdw = LSM
γ mw removed for a distance of at least ________ on
either side of the joint– 50 mm
Reinforcement-
If the thickness of but weld is kept at least 1 mm Note-
more than the thickness of plate is called Partial factor of safety
reinforcement. For shop weld -1.25
Partial safety factor for materials (γm)- For field weld -1.50
Resistance governed by Partial Safety factor Electric arc welding and oxy-acetylene gas welding
yielding (γmy) 1.10 is used to joint the structural member.
buckling (γmb) 1.10 PIN CONNECTION
ultimate stress (γmu) 1.25 Pins are manufactured from mild steel bars with
Resistance of connection Shop Field diameters ranging from 9 to 330 mm. Pin
fabrications fabrications connections are provided when hinged joints are
Bolts-friction type (γmf) 1.25 1.25 required i.e. for the connection where zero moment
Bolts-bearing type (γmb) 1.25 1.25 or free rotation is desired.
Rivets (γmr) 1.25 1.25 When two structural members are connected by
Welds (γmw) 1.25 1.50 means of a cylindrical shaped pin, the connection is
Defects of weld- called a pin connection.
Defect Causes Pin hole surface smooth frictionless.
Incomplete Weld metal does not extend to the Pins are provided in the followings cases :
penetration entire depth into the joint. Tie rod connections in water tanks and elevated
Cause- Low pre-heat, short arc length, pins.
Low amperage etc. Truss bridge girders.
Incomplete Failure of the base metal to get Hinged arches.
fusion completely fused with weld metal.
Caused by rapid welding.
Porosity Due to voids or gas pockets entrapped
in the weld during cooling. It results in
stress concentration and reduced
ductility of the metal.
Slag Cause-
inclusions Due to improper cleaning, weld speed
is too fast, incorrect welding angle.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 342 YCT
03.
TENSION MEMBER
Introduction– stresses resulting from the action of
A structural member subjected to two pulling the wind or earthquake forces.
(tensile) forces applied at its ends is called a tension Members always under tension 400
member. (other than pre-tensioned members)
The best tension member section will be as double Note– S.R. limits specified above are not applicable to
angle section on back to back gusset plate. cables.
Various forms of tension members and their Allowable stress (σac) in axial tension for
use- steel conforming to IS : 226 - 1975-
Tension Use Form Thickness/Diameter σat = 0.6fy
member (MPa)
Wires It is used for hoisting purposes and Plates, angles, T ≤ 20 mm 150
as wires in steel stacks and towers. and I-beams, 20 to 40 mm 144
Cables Cables are used in suspension channels and flats > 40 mm 138
bridges.
Bars It is used in bracing system, as sag Bars (round, ≤ 20 mm 150
rods to support purlins b/w trusses square and > 20 mm 144
and to support girts in industrial hexagonal)
buildings.
Net Sectional Area-
Rods Rods are used in wind bracing
system. A net = A gross − n × sectionalarea of hole
Plates & flats Plates & flat bars are used in Where, n = number of rivet hole
component transmission towers, foot bridges Note-
and columns to keep correct Anet provided > Anet required
position. For rivets connected member, such as section should
Eye bars It is used where flexible end be selected whose total area is about 40 to 50% more
connections are desired. than required net effected area.
Permissible stresses- The total area of the section selected for the weld
Combined axial and bending tensile stresses- connected member should be about 20 to 30% more
than required net effective area.
σat.cal σ btx,cal σ bty.cal
+ + ≤1 Net Area for plate-
0.6f y 0.66f y 0.66f y (i) Chain reverting-
σat.cal = Calculated average axial tensile stress.
σbtx.cal = Calculated bending tensile stress in
extreme fiber when bending is about x-x
axis & y - y axis respectively (MPa).
fy = Yield stress of steel (MPa).
Slenderness Ratio (S.R.) (λ)-
Unsupported length (l )
λ=
Least radius of gyration (r)
Area of cross section 1-1-
Maximum slenderness ratio-
JSSC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022 A net = (b – nd).t
DSSSB JE 2022, MHADA 2022
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Member Maximum Where
S.R. (λ) b = With of plate
A tension member in which a 180 d = Dia. of rivet hole
reversal of direct stress due to loads t = Thickness of plate
other than wind or seismic forces. (ii) Zig- zag or staggered Riveting-
A member normally acting as a tie 350 In case of this riveting system, min. effective width
in a roof truss or a bracing system of plate is calculated by deducting number of rivets
but subjected to possible reversal of of every section.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 343 YCT
Where,
B = Flange width
d = Dia. of rivet
tf = Flange thickness
tw = Web thickness
Note-
The outstanding legs of the pair of angles should be
tacked by rivets at a pitch not exceeding 1 m.
Effective net area-
The modified net area is called effective net area
p2 p2 which is defined by following equation-
A net = b − n × d + 1 + 2 .t
4g1 4g 2 A e.net = k1. k 2 . k 3 . k 4 A net
Where- Where,
P1, P2 = Staggered pitch k1 = Ductility factor
g1, g2 = Gauge distance k2 = Hole forming factor
n = Number of holes in zig-zag lines. k3 = Geometry factor
(ii) For single angle, one leg connected to gusset k4 = Shear lag factor
plate- Factor Value Value related
k1 1.0 For common
structural steel
k2 0.85 For punched holes
1.0 For drilled holes
K3 0.9 - 1.14 -
As per IS: 800-2007 k3 = 1
k4 1.0 For flats and plates
Key Points
3A1 ■ For the top flanges not restrained against rotation
A net = A1 + A 2 k1 , k1 =
3A1 + A 2 and lateral deflection, the effective depth =
_________. Where d is the depth of the web– 2 d
UKPSC AE 2022, BPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2016,
Maharashtra PSC AE 2012 ■ The effective length factor for double angle
Where, discontinuous strut, with angles placed on opposite
sides of gusset plate is– Between 0.7 and 0.85
A1 = (l1 – d – t/2 ) .t , A 2 = (l2 – t/2 ) .t
■ For a single unequal angle tie member, the leg
A1 = Net cross-sectional area of the connected leg. preferred for making connection is the–
A2 = Gross cross-sectional area of unconnected leg. Longer one
(iii) For angle placed back to back- ■ A tension member splice is designed for–
0.3 time the member design capacity
Lug angle-
ESE 2023, UPPSC AE 2022
GPSC AE 2021, TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
A short length of angle used to connect the gusset
and the outstanding leg of main member is known
Lug angle.
If the load is heavy and number of weld/bolts length
required for the joint of connection the size of gusset
5A1 plate required is uneconomical then it is used.
A net = A1 + A 2 k 2 , k 2 =
5A1 + A 2 The purpose of lug angle is to reduce the length of
connection to the gusset plate and to reduce shear
Where,
lag effect.
A1 = 2 L1 − d − × t ,
t Lug angle are not very effective to transfer the given
2 load due to eccentricity of C.G. of rivets.
(iv) for T-section- Lug angles reduces the net area of main members
A1 = (B – 2d)tf , A2 = (D – tf)tw due to the additional bolt holes.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 344 YCT
(b) For plates-
Block shear failure is combined tension shear
failure. It means failure plane includes both tension
(normal to the force) and shear (parallel to the force)
failure planes.
(i) For shear yielding and Tension rupture
A avg f y A tn f u
Tdb1 = + 0.9
3γ mo γ m1
Note- (ii) Tension yielding + Shear rupture
In general, the total area of tension flange can be A tg f y A vn f u
assumed to be about 20% more than the net area Tdb2 = + 0.9
γ mo 3γ m1
obtained after deduction for rivet holes.
CIL MT 2020 Note-
σ bt = 1.2σ bc Possibility of block shear failure increases with the
use of high bearing strength material and high
Strength of tension member- strength bolts, which results in fewer bolts and
1. Net section rupture/ Fracture - smaller connection lengths.
(i) For plates and threaded rods Shear lag effect-
Design rupture strength The non-uniform stress distribution that occurs in a
tension member adjacent to a connection, in which
0.9A n f u some elements of the members are not directly
Tdn =
γ m1 connected, is commonly referred to as the shear lag
effect.
JSSC JE 2022, Rajasthan JEN (Degree) 2016
DSSSB AE 2019, MPPSC AE 2017 Effect of shear lag is less for large length of
(ii) For other tension member– connection.
It occurs when some part of members cross section
Af are not connected.
Tdn = α n u
γ m1 A rectangular plate will not experience any shear lag
effect when connected to a gusset plate.
ESE 2022
When double angle member placed symmetrically to
An = Net effective area gusset plate i.e. placed back to back on opposite side
fu = Ultimate strength of material of gusset plate, no shear lag effect is developed.
γm1 = Partial safety factor in rupture (1.25) As per IS :800-2007, shear lag effect in flanges may
(iii) For Angles- be disregarded when -
(a) For outstand member supported along one edge only-
0.9A nc f u βA gross f y
Tdn = + L
γ ml γ mo bo ≤ 0
20
Where,
(b) For internal member, element supported along both
W b f y the edges-
β = 1.4 – 0.076 s ≤ ( f u γ mo / f y γ m 1 ) ≥ 0.7
t Lc f u L
bi ≤ 0
Anc = Net area of connected leg 10
t = Thickness of leg angle L 0 = Length b/w points of zero moment.
Ago = Gross area of outstanding bo = Width of the outstand flange.
Lc = Length of end connection bi = Width of an internal member.
W = Outstand leg width Width of outstand flange for various
bs = Shear leg width connection-
Agf y (i) Bolted connection- bo = w + g − t
2. Gross section yielding- Tdg = , γmo =1.1
γ mo (ii) Welded connection- b o = w
DSSSB JE 2022, SSC JE 2022, ESE 2022
3. Block Shear Failure-
UPMRC AM 2023
GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
(a) For angles-
Appropriate areas in shear & tension should be
considered for failure but in welded tension
members, it is the gross area only that is involved. (i) (ii)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 345 YCT
04.
COMPRESSION MEMBER
Introduction- Effectively held in position and 1.20 L
JPSC AE 2021 restrained against rotation at one
GPSC AAE (GMC), 2021, UKPSC AE 2012 end, and at the other end
A member which carries an axial compression is restrained against rotation but
known as compression member. Two types of not held in position.
member- (i) Column (ii) Strut
Strut is a compression member used in the roof truss Effectively held in position and 1.50 L
and bracing. restrained against rotation at one
Column, stanchion or post is a vertical compression end and at the other end partially
member supporting floors or girders in a building. restrained against rotation but
Boom is the principal compression member in a not held in position.
crane.
Buckling- Effectively held in position at 2.00 L
Bending to be occurred in compression member due one end but not restrained
to axial load is called buckling. against rotation, and at the other
end restrained against rotation
Effective Length of Columns- but not held in position.
End restraints Effective Figure Effectively held in position and 2.00 L
lengths restrained against rotation at one
Effectively held in position at 1.00 L end, but neither held in position
both ends but not restrained nor restrained against rotation at
against rotation. the other end.
End condition :
• Both rotation and translation or
Effectively held in position at 0.80 L fixed
both ends and restrained against
rotation at one end. • Rotation free and translation fixed
Effectively held in position and 0.65 L • Rotation fixed and translation free
restrained against rotation at
both ends.
• Both rotation and translation are
free
Angle-struts end conditions and effective length-
Types of Section description End connections Effective Permissible Axial
section length (l) comp. stress
Discontinuous Single angle section One rivet or bolt L 0.8σac
Two or more rivet/bolt/weld 0.85L σac
Two angle section back to Two or more 0.7 L to 0.85 L σac
back both side of gusset rivet/bolt/equivalent weld
plate
Two angle section back to Each angle section connected by L 0.8σac
back one side of gusset one rivet/bolt
plate (section tacked) Each angle section connected by 0.85 L σac
two rivet/bolt or equivalent weld
Continuous One or two angle section Connected one or more 0.7 L to L σac
rivet/bolt/weld
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 346 YCT
Key Points Merchant Rankine Formula-
■ The value of imperfection factor for buckling class f cc .f y
A is – 0.21 σac = 0.6 1/ n
■ According to IS 800:2007, the design compressive ( f )n + ( f )n
strength of an axially loaded compression member cc y
is based on the– Perry Robertson formula σac = Permissible stress in axial compression (MPa)
■ At values of load below the buckling load, a long fy = Yield stress of steel, (MPa)
strut will be in– Stable equilibrium
■ When a compression member buckles at the π2 E
Elastic critical stress in compression, f cc =
buckling load, it reaches a state of– λ2
Elastic instability n = A factor assumed as 1.4 (range 1–3)
Slenderness ratio (λ)- Built up column (Plated beams)-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, TNPSC AE 2012/19 Built up columns are widely used in steel
ISRO SE 2015, RRB SSE Secundrabad 2015 construction especially when the effective lengths
It's the ratio of effective length to least radius of are large and the compression force light.
gyration. It load carrying capacity will be less. It is composed of two or more parallel main
le components interconnected by lacing or batten
λ = plates.
rmin
APTRANSCO 2017 TNPSC (CESS) 2021
Maximum Slenderness ratio (λ) for
compression member-
Types of member λ
A strut connected by single rivet at each end 180
A member carrying compressive loads resulting 180
from dead and imposed loads
A member subject to compressive forces 250
resulting only from combination with
wind/earthquake forces, provided the
deformation of such members does not adversely
affect the stress in any part of the structure.
Compression flange of a beam 300
Built up member classified as-
A member normally acting as a tie in roof truss 350
(i) Lacings-
or a bracing system but subjected to possible
Generally, it is a flat which connects two
reversal of stresses resulting from the action of
components of column section obliquely at a
wind or earthquake forces
convenient inclination.
Note- Lacing system should be uniform inclination
Tension members, such as bracings, pre-tensioned to throughout the length of the column.
avoid sag, need not satisfy the maximum slenderness Lacing make the component of column act as a
ratio limits. single unit. If the component of column are very
S.R. Types of section close to each other, then tack rivets are used to make
them acts a single unit.
λ ≤ λP Compact
Properties of Lacings system-
λP < λ ≤ λr Semi compact For laced column, Le= 1.05l or 5% in increased
actual length.
λr < λ Slender
Bending moment in lacing member is zero.
Where,
le 12
λ= Slenderness ratio Max. slenderness ratio λ max = 111
t
λ P = S.R. of upper limit for compact section
UKPSC JE 2022, HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021
λr = S.R. of upper limit for non compact section GPSC AE 2021, LMRC AM 2018
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 347 YCT
Inclination Angle of lacing- Note-
Rivets of bolt 400 to 700 Two rows of tacking rivets are provided, in lacing
Welding 600 to 900 bar, when-
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, UPSC AE (PWD) 2021 • Length >125 mm
ryy>rxx If θ decrease, length of lacing will increase. • Length of web of channel >150 mm
Types of lacing system- Lacing system is designed to resist a transverse
1. Single lacing system- Consecutive triangle are shear force of-
formed in this system V = 2.5% of column load
2. Double lacing system- Lacing bars are cross to each ESE 2023, OPSC AEE (Panchayati Raj) 2021
other in this system GPSC AE 2021, Maharashtra AE 2021
Effective length- V
For single lacing system, F = .
JSSC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 2Sinθ
Types of Lacing Effective Length (le)
V
Single L For Double lacing system, F =
4Sinθ
Double 0.7 L
Maharashtra PSC AE 2012
welded 0.7 L
Battens-
Min. Thickness of lacing bars- It is used to connect the main components of built up
MH WRD JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
column.
UKPSC JE 2022
For battened column le. = 1.10l or 10% of actual
For single lacing le length.
40 UPPSC AE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
For Double lacing MPPSC AE 2021, JPSC AE 2021
le
Minimum number of battens required- 4 ( 2 ends
60
and 2 intermediate batten)
Where, Battened columns are more flexible than solid wall
le = Distance between to consecutive rivet centre columns for the same moment of inertia.
Min. width of lacing bar (bmin) according to Batten plate prevents distortion of built up columns.
Rivet dia.- ryy < rxx
NHPC JE 2022, UK PSC AE, GPSC AAE 2021
• It depends upon the nominal dia. of rivet.
• In case of welding, bmin. = 50 mm
• Generally, bmin= 3.d width of lacing flat
Where d = dia. of rivet.
Nominal dia. of rivet(mm) Min. width (mm)
16 50
18 55
20 60
22 65 s
Spacing of battens- 50or 0.70S.R
To prevent buckling of column component b/w rmin.
lacing connection- Whichever is less
λComponent 50 where s = Spacing of battens
λComponent 0.7 λcolumn Battens are designed to resist-
For tack rivets- Vt .Lo
λComponent 40 Longitudinal shear (Vb) =
nS
λComponent 0.6 λcolumn Vt .Lo
Dia. of tack rivet min. of given value- Moment (M) =
2n
Thickness of member Min. dia. Where,
up to 10 16 n = Number of battens
10-16 20 S = Spacing between battens
>16 22 Lo = Centre to centre distance between battens
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 348 YCT
Effective depth- A splice plate should be located at the point of
contra flexure of the column.
Most suitable location for column splicing is
H H
to from the top and bottom level of floor.
3 4
When the column end are machined then it is
assumed that 50% of load is transferred by direct
bearing action and remaining 50% of the load is
transferred through splice and its connection.
Effective depth should not be less than the distance
between centroid of main component. Flange splice-
de a
It is a joint in the flange element provided to
Effective depth should not be less than twice the increase the length of flange plate.
width of component in plane of batten (flange
width). It is designed for axial force only.
de 2b
a
Thickness of batten (t)- t
50
TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
To prevent local buckling of individual component
between the battens, following conditions are
satisfied.
c c
(i) < 50 (ii) < 0.7 λ column
ryy ryy
For intermediate batten 3 Web splice-
d e > a , d e > 2b GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
4
Web splice is used in the web plate to increase its
For end batten de > a, de > 2b
length.
End tie plates- These are designed to resist the shear and moment at
Laced compression members shall be provided with
the spliced section.
tie plates at the ends of the lacing systems and at
intersections with other members. Splice plates are provided on each sides of the web.
Encased column- If shear force is also acting at a column splice, a web
It is used in basement. splice must be done, both side of the web as shown.
(i) Member should be a symmetrical I-section shape or The rivet in web splice are subjected to double shear
two channels back to back with or without cover and bearing but rivet in flange splice are subjected to
plates. single shear and bearing.
(ii) Minimum width of solid casing is (b0 + 100 m).
(iii) Steel-core encased columns should be machined
accurately at splices.
(iv) Over all dimension of steel column should not
exceed 750 × 450 mm.
Column splice-
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
A column splice is used to increase the length of the
column. It is located just above the floor beam Note-
connection. For torsion resistance the best section is box section.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 349 YCT
05.
BEAM & GANTRY GIRDER
Types of Beam • Restrained against lateral deflection
Laterally unsupported Laterally supported and torsion at the free end. 0.5 L
beam beam Free at the end continuous at support
and-
• In this case compression • In this case
flange of beam is not compression flange of • Unrestrained against torsion at 3L
restrained against lateral the beam is restrained support.
moment. against lateral • Partially restrained against torsion at 2L
• σbc ≤ σbt moment. support.
• Design bending strength is • σbt and σbc ≯ 0.66 fy. • Fully restrained. L
governed by lateral • The design bending is
torsional buckling. governed by yield Permissible bending stress (In
• Compression flanges are stress. compressive σbc or tension σbt) (IS : 226 :
not embedded in concrete. • Compression flanges
are embedded in
1975)-
concrete. Nominal plate Yield stress, σbc = σbt = 0.66fy
MPPGCL JE 2023 thickness (t mm) fy (MPa) (MPa)
Where, Angle, T, I, channel 250 165
σbc = Permissible bending stress in compressionand flat sections ≤ 20
σbt = Permissible bending stress in tension
20 < t ≤ 40 240 158.4
Note-
> 40 230 151.8
All beam design as laterally supported beam and
checked for laterally unsupported beam. Safety against deflection in beam for
Effective length of compression flanges- different conditions-
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, BPSC Asstt. Prof. 2021
End conditions of bracing Effective Maximum permissible Span
length (le) [ W.S.M.]
horizontal and vertical deflection 325
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM-
Maximum permissible deflection
Restrained against torsion and-
of S.S.B, Span
• Unrestrained against lateral bending L (L.S.M.)
• When supported elements are 360
• Partially restrained against lateral 0.85 L
susceptible to cracking Span
bending
• When supported element are not 300
[ L.S.M.]
• Fully restrained against lateral bending 0.7 L
susceptible to cracking is
All members-
• Effective lateral bracing at intervals Distance b/w Web Buckling-
along the length. intersection Maharashtra PSC 2019
of bracing Web buckling occurs due to heavy point load and
with member diagonal compression.
CANTILEVER BEAM- Web buckling occurs between toe of fillet weld.
Built in at the support and- Web buckling is a less critical problem than flange
0.85 L
• Free at the end buckling.
• Restrained against torsion at the end Load dispersion angle- 45o.
0.75 L
by continuous construction Maharashtra AE 2021, BPSC AE 2019
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 350 YCT
Check for buckling- Safety against web buckling-
(i) For low shear-
d
≤ 67ε -No need to check web buckling
tw
d
> 67ε -Check for web buckling
tw
(ii) For high shear-
• Always check for web buckling
2.5d
• Web shell be treated as column of λ = dw tw
tw (i) leff . = (ii) rmin =
2 12
Note-
As per IS : 800-1984 when stiffening arrangement is
not provided for web-
(i) Then concentric load or reaction ≯ σac.tw.B
d
σac = 3 × , d = D – 2h2
tw
(ii) When concentric load or reaction > σac.tw.B
then stiffening arrangement is provided.
Types of Stiffeners provided for different
Where, D = Total depth of section
buckling condition-
d = Net depth of web
h2 = Depth between top fiber to root fillet. Buckling Behavior Types of Stiffener
required
Note-
Diagonal compression due to Vertical stiffener
For the web of channel section to be classified in
shear force
plastic class, the ratio of depth to thickness of web
Longitudinal compression Horizontal stiffener
should be– Less than 42 φ
(Triangular distribution from the
Safety against local buckling- neutral axis) due to bending.
Vertical compression due to Bearing stiffener
concentrated loads ESE 2019
Web crippling-
Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017
Web near the portion of the stress concentration
tends to fold over the flange is called as web
crippling. This phenomenon is occurs in beam when
web is weak under concentrated lead.
Web crippling result in stress concentration and
bearing failure.
If the beam section is safe in crippling, it will also
safe in buckling.
Load dispersion angle from bearing plate -30o
To check web crippling, bearing stress at the root of
b dw f yw
(i) > 16 (ii) > 50 fillet <
tf tw γ mo
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 351 YCT
According to IS : 800-2007, accepted formulae to Crane load Allowable deflection
find crippling of web- limit
f yw Manually operated Span
f w = ( bl + ηc ) t w × 500
γ mo
Electrically operated up to Span
TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
50 tons or 500 kN 750
bl = Stiff bearing length
Electrically operated over Span
f yw = Yield stress of web
50 tons 1000
ηc = Length obtained by dispersion through the Other moving loads such as L
flange to web junction at a slope of 1: 2.5 the charging cars etc. 600
plane at flange.
Lateral deflection limits of the Gantry
ηc = 2.5 tw Girder-
tw = Thickness of web Design load Type of lateral deflection Limit
Note- Crane + Absolute Span
Local flange buckling is due to bending wind load 400
compression. Relative displacement b/w 10 mm
Web buckling is due to diagonal compression. rails supporting crane
Web crippling is due to bearing stress. Additional loads for structures subjected to
GANTRY GIRDERS impact loads-
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021 Paper-I Type of load Additional loads
It is travelling overhead cranes that is commonly (a) Vertical forces transferred to the rails-
used in factories and workshops to lift heavy i. For electric operated 25% of max. static wheel
materials and assembled parts from one point to (EOT) cranes. load.
other. ii. For hand operated 10% of max. static wheel
It is designed to resist lateral, longitudinal and (MOT) cranes. load.
vertical loads. (b) Horizontal forces transverse to rails-
BPSC AE 2022, JKPSC AE 2021, GPSC AE 2019 i. For electric operated 10% of the weight of the
It can be designed as a laterally supported or (EOT) cranes. crab and crane capacity.
laterally unsupported beam and also design by I- ii. For hand operated 5% of the weight of the
section. (MOT) cranes. crab and crane capacity.
A gantry girder section is subjected to vertical loads (c) Horizontal forces along the rails- 5% of the
and horizontal thrust simultaneously, therefore, the static wheel load.
allowable stress are increased by 10%. Preliminary choice of section for different
Channel section is provided to increase the lateral condition-
stability of gantry girder subjected to lateral load. Section Use
Note- I- section For MOT crane
Vertical or lateral deflection of a member shall be I-section with plates/ For span up to 8 m and for
calculated without considering the impact factor or channels 150 kN cranes.
dynamic effect of the loads on the deflection. Plate girder For large or moderate span
Maximum wheel load obtained when crane crab is with heavy cranes.
closed to gantry girder. Box section For large span with heavy
As per IS 800 : 2007, clause 5.6.1 Table 6 cranes.
allowable vertical deflection under dead and Girt-
imposed load shall not exceed for Gantry It is a horizontal beam spanning the wall column of
Girder with crane load- industrial building to support wall coverage.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 352 YCT
06.
ECCENTRIC CONNECTIONS
Introduction- (iii) Resultant force-
• If the applied forces do not pass through the C.G. of Fr = F12 + F22 + 2 × F1.F2 .cos θ
joint, it causes an additional moment about the C.G.
and these types of connections are called eccentric Note-
connections. Fr should be less than capacity of bolt/ rivet.
• The stresses induced due to these eccentric This analysis is called elastic analysis.
connections are known as secondary stresses In this case bolts are subjected to torsion due to
because they arise due to geometric dissimilarity of eccentricity in loading.
structure.
Outermost rivet/bolt will be subjected to maximum
Connections subjected to eccentric shear-
shear.
(i) Seat connection
For rivet to be safe Fr < Rv
(ii) Bracket connections
(iii) Framed connections 2. Out of plane eccentricity-
Analysis of eccentric connection- Line of action of the eccentric load is in the plane
1. In plane eccentricity- perpendicular to the plane of group of bolts.
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
Line of action of eccentric load is in the plane of
group of bolts.
(i) Shear force due to Axial load (P) on each rivet-
Due to direct load (P) all bolt are subjects to
shearing and bearing, due to BM on bolt above
neutral axis are subjected to torsion but bolt below
Direct shear force- neutral axis useless in resisting compression.
P The governing criteria to prevent failure is-
F1 =
n Interaction equation between Ps and PT-
P = direct load 2 2
PT,calculated Ps, calculated
n = Total number of rivets + ≤ 1.0
PT Ps
(ii) Shear force due to twisting moment on rivet-
M.ri (P.e).ri Where,
F2 = =
∑ ri 2 ∑ ri 2 PT cal. = Calculated factored tensile force in the bolt
PT = Tension capacity of bolt.
M = Twisting moment
PS cal. = Calculated factored S.F. in the bolt
ri = Radial distance of the rivet from the C. G of the
rivet group. PS = Shear capacity of bolt.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 353 YCT
Interaction curve for Ps and PT - f1 = Normal stress
LSM WSM t = Thickness of weld throat
d = Length of weld
M
(ii) Horizontal shear stress, f2 = ×y
I xx
Ixx = Moment of inertia of weld area
(iii) Equivalent Stress-
fu
Peq = f12 + 3f 22 ≤ =
3.γ m
4. In plane eccentricity in weld-
Ps cal. PT cal. PT cal. Ps cal.
≯ 1.0 ≯ 1.0 + ≤ 1.40
Ps PT PT Ps
Calculation of rivets in various case-
(i) Eccentric load lying in plane of rivets-
6× M
No. of rivets, n =
m× Rv × b
(ii) Eccentric load not lying in plane of rivets-
6× M Side View
No. of rivets, n = 0.8 ×
m× Rv × b
Note-
(i) Direct shear stress at weld-
Due to load P, direct shear stress develops in bolts &
BM is generated due to eccentricity of load. P P
f1 = =
Due to BM generated, bolts will be subjected to Weld area l × t
flexural shear. l = Length of weld
If bolts are of same diameter the most critically (ii) Torsional shear stress due to moment, at any point
stressed bolt is one for which (r) is maximum and in the weld.
(θ) is minimum.
T
3. Out of plane eccentrically in weld- f2 = ×r
J
T = Torsional moment (P × e)
r = Distance of the point from CG of weld section.
J = Polar moment of inertia of the weld area
(iii) Resultant stress f r = f12 + f 22 + 2f1 × f 2 × cos θ ≤ fs
Stresses due to bending at extreme fiber-
6M
(i) Tensile/compressive stress, Pb =
t × d2
6P × e
(i) Direct shear stress at weld, (ii) Horizontal shear stress, Pb =
2 × t × d2
P P Eccentricity for a stiffened seat connection is
f1 = =
Weld area 2t × d greater than that for an unstiffened seat connection.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 354 YCT
07.
COLUMN BASES
Introduction-
Column bases are used in the design of steel
structures to transfer the column load to the
footing.
Column base is a base plate used to reduce the
bearing pressure on the concrete footing. Column
base distributes the load over a large surface area.
Design criteria-
It is depend upon the grade of concrete used.
Thickness of the base plate, tb = t – tgusset
Gusset Base-
A gusseted base consist of a base of reduced
thickness and two gusseted plates are attached one
Types of Column Base Use to each flange of column.
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
1. Slab bases If the column load is
50% loads are transferred by fasteners.
less
Haryana PSC AE 2010
2. Gusset base If the column load is Critical section for bending moment is at the toe of
more/heavy gusset plate.
3. Grillage foundation If bearing capacity of Gusset Plate-
soil is less RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Slab base- Gusset plate is a thick steel sheet used for joining
two or more than two adjacent structural member
Slab bases are most suitable and economical for
intersecting each other.
loaded columns only.
It is a plate for connecting beams and girders to
Permissible tensile stress of bolt used in column
column.
base is 120 MPa.
It may be fastened to a permanent member by
It consists, base plate and cleat angle. The critical
bolts, welding or rivets or combination of these
moment will be at the edge of column.
three.
It is designed in case of axial loaded column.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 355 YCT
(a) When only axial load is acting-
Note- Thickness of slab base (mm),
The machine column end transfers the load to the
3W 2 b 2
slab base by direct bearing. No gusset plates are t= a − (WSM)
required for connecting the slab base. σ bs 4
Anchor plate- TSPSC Deputy Engineer 2015, MH PSC AE 2012
2.5W ( a 2 − 0.3b 2 )
It is a steel plate attached to or embedded in a
support & used as an anchor for supporting cables. t= (LSM)
f y / γ mo
Base plate-
UJVNL AE 2021, UPPSC AE 2020, GPSC AE 2019
P
It is used to connect a column with a RCC W= (WSM)
B2
foundation & they are installed below the steel
column on RCC foundation. 1.5P
W= (LSM)
It dispersed the load over a larger area & after that it Area
is transferred to concrete foundation.
Where,
Grillage foundation- P f ck
CGPSC AE 2022, CGPSC AE 2020 B2 > , σc =
Mizoram PSC (Ins.) 2010
σc 4
It is suitable for soil with low bearing capacity. W = Factored upward pressure on base plate
It is a lighter and low cost choice. (N/mm2) ≯ 0.6 fck [as per IS : 800 : 2007]
It transferred heavy loads over large area. a = Greater projection of plate beyond column
The minimum clearance kept between adjacent b = Lesser projection of plate beyond column
flanges of beam in grillage foundation is 80 mm (8 σbs = Permissible bending stress in slab bases
cm). = 165 MPa for flanged beam
RPSC AE 2013
= 185 MPa for solid beam
In grillage foundation permissible bending stress in
(b) Square slab base under solid round column-
1
increased by 33 % .
3
P P
M max = ( L − a ) and S.Fmax = (L − a )
8 2L
90 W B
t = 10
16 σ bs B − d o
NMDC JOT 2022
B ≮ 1.5 (do + 75) mm
B = Width of the side of the base plate
W = Total axial load (kN)
do = Diameter of the reduced end.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 356 YCT
08.
PLATE GIRDER
Introduction- Width of outstand flange-
A plate girder is usually defined as flexural • In tension zone, b ≯ 20 tf
member whose cross-section is composed of plate • In compression zone, (i) b ≯ 16 tf (ii) b ≯
elements, flange plate, angle and web equivalent. 256t f
It is defined as structural members that resist loads
fy
primarily in bending and shear.
It is widely used to carry heavy loads on relatively
long span.
A plate girder is a steel beam that is widely used in
bridge construction.
Component of plate girder-
1. Web plate-
UPRVUNL AE 2022
The deep central vertical plate is called as web in
plate girder. It separates the two flange plates by a
required distance. It is responsible to resist shear
Key Points
developed in the plate girder.
■ The wind load on a steel truss for an industrial
Tripura PSC 2013
building will depend upon–
Web equivalent- Location, shape and height of the structure
• In compression zone, ■ The bottom chord of an N–truss, subjected to
Area of web a w gravity loads is always subjected to– Axial
Web equivalent = or tension
6 6
■ In roof truss, slope is defined as–
UPPSC State Eng. AE 2007(I), ESE 2002, ESE 2004
Ratio of rise and half span of the truss
aw
• In tension zone, web equivalent = Economical Depth of Girder-
8
2. Flanges- It is corresponding to minimum weight not
TNPSC AE 2022 minimum cost. This economical depth is obtained
The load is transferred from flange plate to web by minimizing the cross sectional area of plate
plate through flange only. girder
Web equivalent is the web area embedded between The depth between the outer surfaces of the flanges
two flange angle. is termed as overall depth or depth of the plate
In plate girder top flange is subjected bending girder.
moment and bottom flange is subjected to tensile In general, depth of the plate girder is kept 1/10th to
force. 1/12th of the span.
A UKPSC AE 2007
Size of flange angle = F
3 Type of plate girder Depth
Shallow plate girder < 750 mm
Deep plate girder > 750 mm
M
(i) For riveted plate girder- d = 1.1
σ bc × t w
OPSC AEE (Panchayati Raj) 2021
OPSC AEE 2019, UK PSC AE 2013
M
(ii) For welded plate girder- d = 5.3
σ bc .t w
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 357 YCT
Where, Rivets connecting flange angles to cover plates in a
tw = Web plate thickness plate girder are subjected to horizontal shear only.
σbc = Permissible bearing stress Leff = 0.7Lactual
M = Max. bending moment
The distance between vertical legs of flanges at the
Self weight of plate girder- top and at the bottom is known as clear of plate
W girder.
w= kN / m (WSM) In case of plate girder mid rising of beam =
300
1
1.5W × span .
w= kN / m (LSM) 480
300
3. Stiffener-
Optimum depth of plate girder- CHB JE (Building) 2023, TNPSC AE 2019
0.33 Stiffener is used when web of the plate girder is not
M K
de = z sufficient enough to carry the loads. It is used to
f y make plate girder stiff or rigid.
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, MH PSC 2017 It is provided to safeguard the web against local
AP TRANSCO AE 2017, TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017 buckling failure.
Where,
Mz = Moment resistance by flanges
K = Slenderness ratio of web = d/tw
Optimum thickness for the web-
0.33
M
tw = 2 z
K f y
Web stiffeners-
IS : 800 - 1984 recommends the provision of web
stiffeners as follows-
PSTCL AE 02.08.2021
816 1344
(i)
d
If, 1 ≤ lesser of OR OR 85
τ f As per IS:800:2007 various types of
tw va, cal y
stiffener are used-
Then, No stiffener is required
Stiffener Function
d 3200
(ii) If, 2 ≤ lesser of f OR 200 Horizontal To prevent web buckling against
tw y compressive force due to
stiffener
Then, vertical stiffeners are provided. bending.
APPSC AEE 2012
Bearing To transfer tensile forces from
4000
d
(iii) If, 2 ≤ lesser of OR 250 stiffener flange to web.
tw f y • To prevent local crushing of the
Vertical stiffeners and one horizontal stiffener at a web due to concentrated loads or
distance 2/5 of the distance from the compression reaction.
flange to the neutral axis are provided. Tension To transfer tensile forces from
stiffener flange to web.
d2 6400 OR 400
(iv) If, ≤ lesser of
f Torsional To restrain girder against
tw y
stiffener torsional effects at supports.
Then, Requirement is the same as in (iii) plus a
horizontal stiffener at the neutral axis. • To provide lateral restraint to
beams and girders at supports.
Note-
After providing all the stiffeners, lesser clear Load • To prevent web buckling due to
dimension of web panel should not exceed 180 tw. carrying any concentrated load.
Greater clear dimension of web panel ≯ 270 tw stiffener
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 358 YCT
Diagonal Strengthen to web under d Vertical stiffener
85 ε < < 200 ε
stiffener combination of bending and tw provided.
shear.
d Vertical stiffeners along
• Diagonal stiffener should be 250 ε < < 345 ε
tw with two longitudinal
designed to carry a portion of stiffeners at 0.2d and 0.5d
applied shear and bearing that respectively may be
increases the web capacity. provided.
Intermediate To improve the buckling strength d End bearing stiffeners ,
& of a slender web due to shear. < 400 ε
tw intermediate transverse
longitudinal • To prevent web buckling due to stiffeners, longitudinal
stiffener ε = modification
bending. stiffeners at 0.2 d from
factor compression face and at
Vertical and To prevent web buckling due to
neutral axis are needed.
intermediate shear.
transverse 250
stiffeners Where, ε =
fy
Key Points
Design of end bearing stiffness-
■ According to IS–800, In designing of purlin,
permissible deflection is– Span/200
■ Purlins are placed in which direction in a Trussed
Roof– In the direction of Ridge
■ The pitch of a gable roof is–
The angle of the roof in relation to the ground
Condition for provide stiffener-
d1 Web buckling due to shear will not
≤ 85
tw happen, so stiffener are not provided.
• The web will be un-stiffened.
d1 Vertical stiffeners are provided to
> 85
tw prevent buckling of web due to
diagonal compression which is Ag = 4 × outstand leg area + web area
developed due to shear force. Ag = [4 × outstand leg area] + [ 40tw × tw]
Spacing = 0.33d to 1.5d Note-
GPSC AE 2012
If flat used the cross section area is taken as-
WBPSC AE 2021
Ag = [2 × flat area + 40 tw × tw)
d1 Horizontal stiffeners are provided
> 200 If the bearing end of the column and base plate are
tw above NA at a distance of 0.2dw as machined (smoothened) for complete bearing, then
they prevent buckling of web due to entire load is transferred to the base plate by direct
bending compression stress. bearing action only.
d1 One additional horizontal stiffeners The purpose of welding is only to hold the column
> 250 in position but it is assumed that 50% of the load is
tw provided at NA.
transferred by direct bearing action and remaining
d1 Section must be redesigned. 50% is transferred through welds.
> 400
tw In case of flats the outstanding leg ≯ 12t.
In case of angle section the outstanding leg ≯
d Unstiffened girder can be 256t
< 67 ε
tw designed i.e. no. girder Minimum of f y
required.
16t
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 359 YCT
09.
PLASTIC ANALYSIS
Introduction- Plastic moment of resistance (Mp)-
Plastic analysis is used in the design of steel GPSC AE 2022
structures composed of various elements such as The moment at which the entire cross section has
beam, frames, girders, arches etc. reached its yield stress known as plastic moment of
resistance.
It is applied for determining the load carrying
capacity or limiting load at which the structures Plastic moment, Mp = σy. Zp
collapse. Load factor-
Assumptions in plastic analysis- It is the ratio of ultimate collapse load to the
Stress-strain curve is idealized bi-linear. working load that can be applied on the structure.
As a factor of safety at the member largely depends
Material is homogenous, isotropic and follows
upon the nature of loading, support conditions and
hook's law. mode of failure.
Plane section before bending remains plane after
bending. Ultimate collapse load
Load factor =
Effects of temperature, fatigue , shear, and axial Working load
force are neglected. JPSC AE 2021, NLC (GET) 2020
The value of upper & lower ultimate stress and Mizoram PSC AE 2020
modulus of elasticity is equal in tension & Mp σ y Zp
= = .
compression M σ Ze
Members cross section is symmetrical about the
= Factor of safety× Shape factor
axis at right angle to the axis of bending.
Plastic section of modulus(ZP)-
Methods of analysis of plastic theory- JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
1. Upper bound theorem/kinematic method- Plastic section modulus assumes that the entire
It is based upon mechanism conditions. The load section yields.
obtained must be either greater than or equal to the
collapse load.
True collapse load (Wu) ≤ Applied load (W)
2. Static/Lower bound theorem (determinate
method)-
It is based upon yield condition.
Moment due to Mp-
True collapse load (Wu) ≥ applied load.
Conditions of plastic analysis-
A1.σy.yc + A2.σy.yt = Mp
A
(i) Mechanism condition-
Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021
Mp = σy . ( yc + y t ) and
2
At the collapse state, sufficient number of plastic
A
hinges must be developed as to transform a part or Zp = ( yc + y t )
the whole of the structure into a mechanism 2
(ii) Equilibrium condition- Behaviour of material in plastic analysis-
NLC (GET) 2020, GATE 1995
This condition is to satisfied both in elastic and
plastic analysis.
Resultant of all forces on the structural member
shall be equal to zero,
∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ∑Mxy = 0
(iii) Plastic moment / yield condition-
The bending moment at any section in the structure
should not be more than the fully plastic moment of
the section.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 360 YCT
Shape factor- Plastic Hinge-
It represent reserve strength beyond yielding. Plastic hinge is a yielding zone in an structural
Higher the shape factor, more is ductile section that elements which generally develops at the point of
gives a greater deflection at collapse.
maximum bending moment, support etc.
UPMRC AM 2023, NBCC JE 2022
MH WRD JE 2022, HPCL JE 2022 A plastic hinge is formed at the maximum stressed
Shape factor, location.
Plastic section modulus Plastic moment When the elasto-plastic capacity of the material
= =
Elastic section modulus Elastic moment exhausted then section becomes fully plastic.
OPSC AEE 2019
A
ZP M P σ y ZP 2 ( c+ t )
y y
= = = =
Ze M e σ y Ze I max/ y max
UKPSC AE 2012
Shape factor for different section-
UJVNL AE 2021, PTCUL AE 2016
Section shape factor Types of mechanism-
I-Section Beam mechanism All the loaded spans behave
(a) About strong axis 1.22 as beam mechanism
(b) About weak axis 1.55 Sway It is formed due to lateral
T-Section 1.90 -1.95 Mechanism loads
Rectangular, square, H-section 1.5
Joint Mechanism Formed due to action of
Solid circular section 16/3π or 1.7
moment
Triangular section
Vertex upward 2.34 Gable mechanism It is exhibited in gable
Vertex downward 2.00 frames
Hollow circular section 1 − k3 Note
k =Ratio of inner dia.to outer dia. 1.7 4 Any of the two independent mechanism may by
1− k
coupled to form a combined mechanism.
(a) diamond section rhombus 2.0
Number of Mechanism = k – j
(b) Thin hollow rhombus 1.50
Thin circular ring solid 1.27 where, j=Number of indeterminacy
Factor of safety- k= Number of independent mechanism
For brittle material- Location of plastic hinge-
Ultimate stress It is likely to be formed
F.O.S. =
Working stress (i) At the point of application of load
(ii) At the fixed end
For ductile material-
(iii) At the point of zero shear
Yield stress
F.O.S. = (iv) At the section of sudden change in geometry
Working stress
(v) When two section with different Mp meet, hinges
Margin factor safety = Factor of safety − 1 shall be formed at the section having smaller MP
Collapse Load For Various Types of Structure-
Types of structure Plastic hinge condition Collapse load
Point load at centre in simply supported beam 4M p
l
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 361 YCT
U.D.L. over simply supported beam 8M p
l2
Eccentric load at propped cantilever beam 6M p
l
U.D.L. at propped cantilever beam 11.65M p
l2
l
Point load at centre in fixed beam 8M p
l
U.D.L. over fixed beam 16M p
l2
Point load at variable section of fixed beam 15M p
l
Point load at variable section of cantilever beam 2M p
l
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 362 YCT
1. Determinacy and Indeterminacy ......................................................................................... 364
2. Truss .................................................................................................................................... 367
3. Influence Line Diagram (ILD) ............................................................................................ 369
4. Suspension Bridge, Cables and Arches ............................................................................... 373
5. Method of Structural Analysis ............................................................................................ 379
6. Matrix Method .................................................................................................................... 383
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 363 YCT
01.
DETERMINACY & INDETERMINACY
Structure- 2. Continuous Beam-
A system of connected parts used to support the A beam, supported on more than two supports.
loads is called structure. Tie rod, columns, beams
are the structural elements.
3. Overhanging Beam-
Linear forms structure Curvilinear forms structure
If one end or both the ends of the beam projects
These are assembled It is as single entities that beyond the supports.
with parts consisting mostly occupy space.
of linear elements
It is also known as It is called surface 4. Fixed Beam-
skeletal structure. structure. Beam is one that is fixed on both end of the beam
Ex.- Frame, Bridge Ex. Shells, Arches, with support.
deck, plate, truss, Cables, Dome,
high rise structure. cylindrical members.
Note- 5. Simply Supported Beam-
Surface structure is made of material having very Beam supported on the end which are free to rotate
small thickness compared to other dimension. and have no moment resistance.
Types of Support and Reaction -
Types of support No. of External No. of External
react. in 2D react. in 3D
1. Roller support 1 (Ry) 1 (Ry)
2. Hinged support 2 (Rx, Ry) 3 (Rx, Ry, Rz)
3. Fixed support 3 (Rx, Ry, Mz) 6 (Rx, Ry, Rz) Determinate Structure Indeterminate structure
HPSC AE 2020 (Mx, My, Mz)
TNPSC AE 2015 Condition of equilibrium Condition of equilibrium
are sufficient to analyze are insufficient to analyze
the structure. By this the structure .In such cases
analysis, the unknown we need to obtain extra
4. Guided roller 2 (Rx, Mz) 2 (Rx, Mz) reactions are found for equations (compatibility
the further determination equations) in addition to
of stresses. equilibrium equations.
CGPSC AE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
ESE 2021, APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020
Condition- Ds = 0, R = e Condition- Ds≠0, R > e
B.M & S.F is B.M and S.F depends
independent from the upon the cross-sectional
Types of Beam- cross-sectional area and area and flexural rigidity
1. Cantilever Beam- flexural rigidity of the of the member.
A beam whose one end is fixed and the other end members.
free. No stresses are caused Stresses are caused due to
due to lack of fit or temperature variations
differential settlement or and due to lack of fit or
temperature change. differential settlement.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 364 YCT
Ex.-Simply supported Ex.– Fixed beam, It deals with internal forces only (i.e. Axial force,
beam, Cantilever beam, Continuous beam, Two Shear force and Bending moment).
3-Hinged arch, Single & hinged arch, Fixed arch, Types of Internal Static Indeterminacy
double over hanging Propped cantilever. Structure
beam. Beam Dsi = 0
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 Because there is no internal
NHPC JE 2022, DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022 indeterminacy for beam.
Note- •If we know the support reaction, we
A support is said to be non-yielding, if it holds the can find all internal force.
beam firmly. UPPCL JE 2022
STATIC INDETERMINACY (Ds)- Truss Dsi = m − (2 j − 3) for 2D
If available equilibrium for a structure is less than DDA JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022
the unknown forces then this types of structure is
called static indeterminacy. It deals with the Dsi = m − (3j − 6) for 3D
unknown forces. UKPSC AE 2022, DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022
In this types of structure reactions cannot be Frame Dsi = 3C − R r for 2D
evaluated by the application of static equilibrium
equation alone. Dsi = 6C − R r for 3D
Ds = Dse + Dsi WBPSC AE 2020, OPSC AEE 2019
GPSC GES Pre 2021 Where,
If m = Number of member
• Ds = 0 structure is determinate J = Number of joint in structure
• Ds > 0 structure is indeterminate C = Number of cuts required to open rigid closed
loops or Number of closed loop.
1. External Static Indeterminacy [Dse]-
TNPSC AE 2022
Rr = Number of released reaction
It deals with external support system or arrangement • For simple truss Dsi = 0
of reaction only. Static indeterminacy formula-
Number of reaction in excess of equilibrium Types of Static Indeterminacy
equation. Structure
It is calculated by formula for Beam, Truss, Frame- Beam D = r−e
s
Ds e = r − e , GPSC AAE (GMC) Class-3, 2021
CIL MT 2020, KPSC AE 2020 Arunachal Pradesh Poly. Tech. Lect. 2019
Where, Truss Ds = m + r − 2j For 2D
r = Number of unknown forces or support HARYANA PSC AE 2020
reaction
Ds = m + r − 3j For 3D
e = Total number of equilibrium equation required
to determine support reaction. Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
Note- Frame Ds = 3m + r − 3j For 2D
Each internal hinge contributes to one additional MH WRD JE 2022
equilibrium i.e, ∑m = 0 Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021
Dse = 0 Externally determinate structure
Ds = 6m + r − 6j For 3D
Dse = Externally indeterminate
Dse = r − 3 for truss and frame If Rr is given then
Ds = 3m + r − 3j − R r 2D
Types of structure No. of
equilibrium (e) JPSC AE 2021
2D truss jointed plane frame 3 R r = Σ (n − 1) R r = Σ3(n − 1)
CGPSC AE 2022
Ds = 6m + r − 6 j − R r 3D
3D truss pin jointed space frame 6
UPMRC AM 2023 Where,
2D frame rigid jointed frame 3 n = Number of member connected to internal
3D frame rigid jointed space 6 hinge.
frame r = Number of support (External) reaction.
APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020, OPSC AEE 2019 Note-
2. Internal Static Indeterminacy [Dsi]- Cut the frame such that each part of the frame looks
It refers to the geometric stability of the structure. like a stable cantilever frame
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 365 YCT
Ds = 3C - R'
Ds = 6C - R' For space frame
R' = Structure restrains added to make support as
fixed are to make all joints rigid.
1. External stability-
Open structure or tree type structures has zero static
For any plane structure to be stable externally, the
indeterminacy.
minimum number of required reaction is three and
KINEMATIC INDETERMINACY (Dk)- that reaction are neither concurrent nor parallel.
If the displacement components of the joint of a For space structure that reaction should be non-
structure can not determined by compatibility concurrent, non-parallel and non-coplanar.
equations alone then it is called kinematic Note-
indeterminate structure. Stability does not depend upon loading.
Number of unknown displacement > Number of If rigid body translation and rotation does not take
compatibility equation. place, then the structure is external stable.
The minimum number of reactions required for a
Dk is the sum of degree of freedom in rotation and
structure to be externally stable is three.
translation.
2. Internal Stability-
Degree of freedom = Dk When a part of the structure moves appreciably with
Types of Kinematic Indeterminacy respect to the other part within the structure, then the
Structure structure is said to be internally unstable.
Beam • When extensible D = 3J − r Ex. Instability due to internal hinge.
k
In rigid structure, internal stability may occur due to
• When inextensible- formation of mechanism (i.e. three consecutive
D k = 3J − R − Number of independent hinges).
displacement presented If reactions are parallel, then framed structure is
unstable.
Truss D k = 2J − R for2D In a truss if -
JKSSB JE 2022
for extensible
D k = 3J − R for3D m < 2J − 3 Unstable for 2D truss
PPSC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
m < 3J − 6 Unstable for 3D truss
OPSC AEE 2019, TANGEDCO AE 2018
Frame Note-
D k = 3J − R − 2D If above condition is satisfied then triangle also
For inextensible formed at each part of truss to ensure internal
D k = 6J − R − 3D
stability.
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022 Overall stability-
Note- External stability is compulsory for overall stability.
If nothing is mentioned in the questions, then
assume that all member are extensible.
If members are inextensible then axial deformation
of each member in its longitudinal direction is not
possible. Frames-
For inextensible, subtract number of independent Types of frame Members are subjected to
displacement prevented from kinematic Pin jointed frame Axial forces only.
indeterminacy. Rigid jointed Axial forces, shear forces and
Degree of freedom of various structure- plane frame bending moments.
Types of joints Degree of freedom Rigid, jointed Axial forces, shear forces,
Pin jointed (plane structure) 2 (∆x, ∆y) space frame bending moments and twisting
Pin jointed space structure 3 (∆x, ∆y, ∆z,) moments.
Note-
Pin jointed plane frame 3 (∆x, ∆y, θ)
Released component Provision provided
structure
1. Axial force Horizontal guided roller
Rigid jointed space frame 6 (∆x, ∆y, ∆y, θx, θy,
2. Bending moment Hinged joint
structure θz)
APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020 3. Shear force Vertical guided roller
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 366 YCT
02.
TRUSS
Introduction- A basic triangle truss unit is the form of a simple
CGPSC AE 2022 truss.
A truss is a structure composed of slender member
joined together at their end points. Economical
L L
spacing of the trusses - to
4 5
It is a structure that consists of members into
connected triangles so that the overall assembly
behaves as a single object.
Degree of static indeterminacy of truss- (ii) Compound truss-
Ds = m + r − 2j Haryana PSC AE 2018
It is a structure composed of two or more simple
Ds < 0 Truss is unstable trusses connected to form a single rigid body.
Ds > 0 Statically Indeterminate or redundant
Ds = 0 Statically Determinate truss
m = 2j – 3 Perfect, simple or statically
determinate stable truss
MPPGCL JE 29.04.2023 Shift-II
m < 2j – 3 Deficient or unstable truss (iii) Complex truss-
m > 2j – 3 Redundant or indeterminate truss A truss that cannot be categorized as a simple truss
Where, or a compound truss is considered as complex truss.
m = Number of members There are no join where only two bars meet.
r = Number of support reaction
j = Number of joints
Space frame truss (3D)-
It is a three dimensional truss structure composed of
linear axial members arranged in geometric pattern
and joined at pin connections.
Assumptions of Truss-
DDA JE 2023, MH WRD JE 2022
GPSC DEE (GMC) Cl-2 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021 Concept of zero force in Member-
All members are connected at their ends by the MPPGCL JE 2023, DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
frictionless or smooth pins. Member that supports no loading but aid in the
Members are straight and subjected only to axial stability of the truss is called zero force member.
forces. It is a member in a truss which, given a specific load
Self weight of the members are negligible.
is at rest neither in tension nor in compression.
Deformation of members under loads are negligible.
(i) If three members are meeting at a joint and two
All loads are applied only at the joints.
members are collinear (i.e. line of action of force is
Moment should not developed in any condition.
same) then the force in third member is zero.
Types of truss (ii) If panel shear force is zero in any panel, then force
Based on Geometry (Planer truss 2D)-
in the inclined member in that panel will be always
(i) Simplest truss or plane truss-
zero.
The simplest truss is two dimensional and includes
(iii) It is used to increase stability and rigidity of the truss
three axial members arranged in a triangle form and
connected at three joints. and to support various loading conditions.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 367 YCT
∂U
(v) Minimize the strain energy by = 0 , Where
∂X
F2 dX
U=Σ
2AE
PKL
n −1
−Σ
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, GPSC AE Class-2 (NWR) 2021 (vi) So, X = AE
n −1 2
Statically determinate truss- K L
Σ
1. Method of Joint- AE
OPSC AEE 2019, TNPSC AE 2012 2. Castigliano's Method-
Equilibrium conditions of joint is considered in this MPPGCL JE 2023
method. PL2
∂U PKL
Joint analysis should be starts at the joint where at U=Σ Then, δ= =Σ
2AE ∂W AE
least one known and no more than two unknown
forces is available. Where, P = P1, P2, P3 ..... force in all member due to
Apply equilibrium condition at particular joint (∑Fx applied load W.
= 0, ∑Fy =0) and find force. L = L1, L2...... length of all member
This method is most suitable when force to be find K = K1, K2, K3 ......
in all members. K = Force in all member due to unit load applied at
2. Method of section- the point where we want to find displacement.
MPPGCL JE 2023 In any statically determinate structure, due to
Equilibrium conditions of the section of a truss is temperature change or sinking and yielding of
considered. support, fabrication errors stress are not developed
• Find the support reaction anywhere in the structure while In a statically
• Cut the member under considering by a section and indeterminate structure these are developed in the
consider equilibrium ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0 structure or some part of structure due to temperature
Note- change.
For method of section- Lack of fit in truss-
It is most suitable when forces in only few members Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021, WBPSC AE 2020
to be determine not in each member. Lack of fit is an occurrence in trusses in which there
Section line must not cut more than 3 member is a difference between the length of a member and
(because we do not have more than 3 equilibrium the distance between nodes it is supposed to fit.
equation). Internal forces develop in a redundant frame due to
Cut the member such that all member do not meet at lack of fit.
one joint, if they meet at one joint one equation is It is occurs due to incorrect length of members.
useless (i.e. ΣM = 0) It is cause of extra force on the truss member.
3. Graphical method or Tension factor method-
∂U Q2 L
Method of joint is used as the basis for a graphical =∆ Where, U = ∑
analysis of trusses ∂X 2AE
Willot Mohr's method is a graphical method which Q = Force induce in the member which is '∆' too short
is used for calculation of deflection of truss. or '∆' too long is pulled by force 'X'.
Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Truss- Note-
1. Maxwell unit load method- Sag tie is used to reduced deflection and moment
This method is extensively used in the calculation of generally.
deflection of beams frames and trusses. Method of Tension coefficient -
Procedure- This method is developed by R.V. south well in 1920.
(i) Choose redundant such that its removal does not
For this method analyze the problem of plane and
make structure unstable.
space truss.
(ii) Then remove redundant and find out member forces
It is defined as the tension per unit length of the
due to external loading.
member. This method is based or methods of joints
(iii) Remove external loading and apply the unit force
and equilibrium.
(equal and opposite) at joint and connecting the
removal member to calculate the member force (K). T T = Tension or pull force
Tension coefficient, t =
(iv) Net member force F = P + KX l l = length of member
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 368 YCT
03.
INFLUENCE LINE DIAGRAM
Introduction- (L − z)
It is a graph that represents the function like, at, x = z, SC =
L
reaction at support, shear force and B.M at the
4. ILD for moment, Mc at point, C
section of structure for various positions of a unit
load on the span of structure. x
(i) If x < z M C = R B (L − z) = (L − z)
"ILD shows the influence or effect of loads or L
reaction on the span." L−z
CGPSC AE 2022, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021 at, x = z M C = z.
For statically determinate structure- L
Influence line is composed of straight line. at x = 0, M C = 0
For statically indeterminate structure- (ii) If x > z
Influence line is curvilinear. L−z
Use of ILD- MC = RA.z = .z
L
PGCIL DT 2023
(i) Position of load for maximum possible value of L−z
at x = z, M C = z.
stress function can be determined and designed the L
component of structure (reaction, shear or moment)
for this maximum value.
(ii) For a concentrated load acting on a beam the value
of function is determined by multiplying the force
(F) with the ordinate of ILD at the location of F.
(iii) For a UDL (w) acting on a beam the value of stress
function is determined by multiplying the area under
ILD within UDL range and the intensity of UDL.
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM (SSB)-
ILD for S.S.B. in case of unit load -
1. ILD for reaction, RA due to unit load-
L−x x x
RA = P = 1. 1 − = 1 − , (If P = 1)
L L L
At x,= 0 RA = 1
x = L, RA = 0
2. ILD for reaction , RB -
x
RB =
L
At, x = 0 RB = 0
x = L , RB = 1
3. ILD for S.F at point C- DDA JE 2023, BPSC AE 2022, CGPSC AE 2020
x Max. S.F and B.M at a section due to moving
(i) If x < z SC = −R B = − point load and U.D.L
L
1. Max. + ve shear Force-
z It occurs when load is just right to the section (c).
at x = z SC = −
L
L−z
Where, SC = Shear force, (S.F.) (i) Due to point load - SP = P
L
(ii) If x > z
(ii) Due to U. D. L. (for span of (L – z)
L−x
SC = RA = w.(L − z) 2
L Su =
at x = L, SC = 0 2L
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 369 YCT
2. Max. –ve shear force- y + y2
Max.–ve S.F occurs when load is left side to the ∴ Max. +ve S.F.= 1 w ×l
2
section (c).
Max. B.M.-
z
(i) Due to point load- SP = P × x l
L • Calculate, x from relations =
b L
w.z 2
(ii) Due to UDL (whole span of z) Su = • Calculate y2 and y1 From property of similar
2L
triangle.
3. Max. Bending moment-
y + y2 y1 + y 2
It will be max. when load is symmetrically on its • Then, M max = 1 .w.x + w × (l − x )
section. 2 2
(L − z) Note-
(i) Due to point load M P = P.z y1,y2, a/L, b/L, are the ordinate of the ILD.
L
In B.M. graph x may be also taken from left end side
W.z(L − z) of section
(ii) Due to UDL M u =
2
x d
then, =
a L
Note-
Bending moment at a section is maximum when the
load is so placed that the section divides the load in
same ratio (symmetrically) as it divides the span.
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH
OVERHANG-
GPSC AE Class-2 (NWR) 2021
Special case-
From property of similarity of triangle
∆ADE & ACF
z −l a
= Calculate ordinate, y1
y1 CF(y 2 ) Note-
Trick to draw ILD for overhanging beam-
y + y2 Up to support (A & B) ILD for shear, reaction and
Now, Max. –ve, S.F. 1 w.l
2 B.M is same as SSB. To get ILD for overhanging
When load is left to the section beam draw and proceeded an inclined line from the
Calculate y1 From triangle of similarity support till overhanging end.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 370 YCT
CANTILEVER BEAM- Without removing the support at A&B, assume an
imaginary hinge unit rotation at (C), the hinge, must
ab
be lifted by an amount of then the deflected
l
shape of the beam shows the ILD for BM at C.
(a) ILD for reaction at A
(b) ILD for SF at B
(c)
ILD for moment reaction at B ab a
θA = , θB =
Note- l l
The ordinate of ILD for reaction and shear force is Note-
dimensionless whereas ordinate of BM has Units for ILD coefficient for bending moment are in
dimension of length. meter.
TNPSC AE 2022, DSSSB AE 2019, BPSC AE 2012 CHB SDE (Building) 2023
Muller Breslau Principle- Train of concentrated load-
ODISHA PSC 2021, UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021, (a) If more than 2 point load are moving, then to get
Punjab SDO 2021, MPSC (ASCE) 2021, NLC (GET) 2020 maximum BM at C, keep the loads such that.
It states that "The ILD for any stress function in a
Average load on AC = Averageload on CB ≤ 0
structure is represented by its deflected shape
obtained by removing the restrain offered by that Note-
stress function and introducing a directly unit First time from which change in value from
displacement in the direction of that stress function." ≤
> 0 to 0 taken into consideration.
Muller Breslau's principle is applicable to statically
determinate and indeterminate structure which are (b) When a series of wheel load are moving on a SSB
linearly elastic. This principal is the straight then to get maximum bending moment under a
application of Maxwell reciprocal theorem. select load and resultant of load system are at equal
From Muller Breslau's principle ILD of different distance from centre then maximum bending
condition- moment under the select load. (But not at centre).
1. ILD for reaction at any support- (i) In this if the section of beam is not specified so, we
Remove the support and apply unit displacement, have to choose the location of maximum BM.
then corresponding to deflected shape of the Beam (ii) To locate the resultant, use Varignon’s theorem
itself is the ILD for reaction at that support. (moment of a force about any point = moment
summation of its component about the same point).
Note-
(a) Coefficient of ILD for reaction has no unit. I.L.D. for Cantilever Beam (from Muller)-
(b) UDL can be treated as infinite numbers of load.
VA = Intensity of UDL × Area of ILD under UDL
2. I.L.D. for shear force-
From Muller’s , at any section without removing the
support at A&B, cut the beam at C and lift the beam
1
such that, θ A = θ B =
L
Then deflected shape of the beam shows I.L.D. for
S.F. at C. I.L.D. for statically indeterminate structure-
For propped cantilever beam-
3. ILD for BM at any section-
GPSC AE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 371 YCT
− x 3 + 3x 2l Moving/ Rolling load on Three Hinged
y=
2l 3 Arch-
y = Ordinate for propped cantilever beam A. Maximum B.M due to single moving point load
From Muller- (i) For +ve B.Mmax x = 0.211L
ILD for reaction- UPPSC Poly. Lect. 22.12.2021, BPSC AE 2019 Section-I
To draw I.L.D. for reaction at any support, remove Kerala PSC AE 28.10.2021
the support and apply unit displacement, then the
deflected shape of the beam itself is the I.L.D. for • B.M max = + 0.096WL It is a 3° polynomial.
reaction at that support as show in fig.
L
(ii) For absolute –ve B.Mmax x = OR 0.25L
4
wL
• B.M max = − OR − 0.0625 WL It is a 2°
2l + x − 3x l
3 3 2 16
y=
2l 3 polynomial
I.L.D. for shear force- For U.D.L live load-
Without removing the support at (B) and for fixed x = 0.234L and B.Mmax = ± 0.01883wL2
end moment at A, remove the support and apply unit
displacement. ILD for three hinged arch-
I.L.D. for MA-
Without removing the support at (B) assume an
imaginary hinge at (A) and apply unit load,
deflected shape of the beam is I.L.D. for MA
Maximum bending moment for three
hinged parabolic arch for travelling
point load-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 372 YCT
04.
SUSPENSION BRIDGE,
CABLES & ARCHES
SUSPENSION BRIDGE- Analysis of cable under UDLs
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
It is designed to carry road and rail traffic , often
over great distances in a single span, to connect
communities, where the span of a bridge is more
than 200 m.
It carries vertical loads through curved cables in
tension.
Deflection theory is used in the design of suspension
bridges to calculate how the horizontal deck and
curved cables work together to carry loads. 1. Horizontal Reaction-
Elements of suspension bridge- Pl 2
Cable, Suspenders,Decking including the stiffening H= ,d = dip of cable
8d
girder, Supporting tower, Anchorage.
RSMSSB JEn (Degree) 2020
2. Expression for Cable if tension at its end-
ESE 2022, GATE 2010
• TA = VA + H 2 2
TB = VB + H 2
2
2 2
PL PL
2
PL L2
• TA = TB = T = + or 1+
2 8d 2 16d 2
Note- • Tmin . = H
Sequence of force transmission for a suspension
2
bridge-
Tmax = H 1+
PL/2
Deck → Suspender cables → Main cable → Bridge • H
tower.
Force transmission for the cable stayed bridge- H L
• Inclination (α ), of T with vertical, tanα = =
Deck → Stay cable → Bridge tower → Foundation. V 4d
CABLE- (3) Shape of cable-
GPSC AE Class-2 (NWR) 2021
4dx
Cable is a flexible tension member used as support y = 2 (L − x)
and transmission of loads from one member to the L
others. (4) Length of cable
Cables do not take compression and bending i. If both end at the same level-
moment i.e. B.M. is zero everywhere in the cable. 8 d2
Tension developed in cable- Totallength (S) = L +
TNSPC AE 2019
3L
• Maximum- At higher point BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021
• Minimum- At lowest point. ii. When ends at different level-
Note-
If cable sags due to its own weight along its curve
length, then it takes the shape of catenary.
If it is subjected to horizontal UDL then takes the
shape of parabola.
GPSC AE Class-2 (NWR) 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 373 YCT
Total length of cable (Curved Length)- ARCH
l = l1 + l2 PPSC Building Inspector 2022
Arches are the structural member spanning between
4 d12 openings and piers, which is predominantly
l1 = 2L1 +
3 L1 subjected to axial compression.
Beams curved in elevation behaves as arch only if
4 d 22 movement of supports is restricted.
l2 = 2L 2 +
3 L2 Comprises of small wedge-shaped units.
Property of arches-
2 d2 d2 (i) Load carrying capacity is high.
l = L+ 1 + 2
3 L1 L 2 (ii) Large size of spacing
(iii) Better aesthetic view and cultural representation.
Anchor cable- Note-
Anchorage pull the cable outward and downwards. Arches reduced bending moment in long span
1. Cable passed over guided pulley at support- structure, receives loads mainly in compression and
Tension in the cable at the ends is- acts as inverted cable.
T = Va2 + H 2
(a) Total vertical load (Va)-
Va = T[cosβ1 + cosβ 2 ]
(b) Horizontal force at the top of pier-
H = T[sinβ1 − sinβ 2 ]
β1 = Inclination of suspension cable with vertical 1. Linear arch (Theoretical arch)-
GPSC AE (GMB) Class-2 2021, Vizag steel MT 2017
β2 = Inclination of Anchor Cable with vertical. The arch which follows funicular polygon structure
(c) Maximum Bending moment for pier - of a two hinged arch or three hinged arch after
BM max = Net horizontal force × Height application of series of loads are called as linear
at the top of pier arch.
It is assumed to be pin jointed at the point of action
2. Cable clamped on smooth roller on the top of of the load.
pier- It is a compression member in which the shear force
and bending moment is zero throughout the span and
it is subjected to normal thrust only.
Note-
The circular arch is easiest to construct, the catenary
arch is the most efficient.
Funicular arch-
In this case T1 ≠ T2
If the arch is parabolic in shape and subjected to
When, H = 0 uniformly horizontally distributed load then only
(a). T1sinβ1 = T2sinβ 2 = H compressive force will be resisted by the arch. This
types of arch is called funicular arch because no
(b). Vertical pressure on the top of pier
bending moment and shear force occurs within arch.
VP = T1cosβ1 + T2 cosβ 2 Eddy’s Theorem-
Temperature stress in cable (Suspension)- It states that ‘‘The bending moment at any section of
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022 an arch is equal to the vertical intercept b/w the
• Due to Increase in Temperature- linear arch and the centre line of actual arch.’’
δd 3 L2
= αt
d 16 d 2
• Due to Decrease in Temperature-
δd 3 L2
=− αt
d 16 d 2
Where, L = Length of the cable
( M xx )arch ∝ △ y
α = Change in the length due to change in temp
δd = Corresponding change in dip y = Distance b/w given arch and actual arch.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 374 YCT
The ordinate between the linear and actual arch
gives the bending moment.
If the arch is provided as the funicular shape then the
bending moment for such type of arch will be zero.
Three Hinged arch-
UPPSC AE 2022, GPSC AE 2022
A three Hinged arch is a statically determinate
structure, having a hinge at each abutment (or) (b) Three Hinged Circular arch-
springing and also at the crown.
y = R[cosβ − cosθ]
Normal Thrust & Radial Shear in Three Hinge arch-
(c) 3-Hinged Semi-circular arch with UDL over
whole span-
wR
• H=
2
UKPSC AE 2022, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
2
wR
• MX = - (sinθ − sin 2θ) B.M at x-x section
2
wR 2
• M max = − [at θ = 30°] (Hogging)
• Normal thrust, N T = Vsinθ + Hcosθ 8
TNPSC AE 2019 • M C = 0 (at θ = 90° i.e at the crown)
• Radial shear, SR = +Vcosθ − Hsinθ • Point of maximum bending moment from the centre
HPPSC Lecturer 2021
R 3
Note- of semicircle- OE =
If a three hinge parabolic arch is subjected to UDL 2
throughout its length, then SR and B.M = 0 R
everywhere in the beam but NT ≠ 0 • Distance from left support- x = (2 − 3)
2
(a) Three Hinged Parabolic arch-
Where R = Radius of semicircle
Three hinged parabolic arch subjected to UDL on
entire span is free from B.M
Parabolic shape for three hinged arch is a funicular
shape.
BPSC AE 2022
wl 2
Horizontal thrust, H=
8h
wl (d) Parabolic Arch having abutment at diff. levels-
Reaction at support, V=
2 (i) When it is subjected to UDL over whole span-
4h l h1 l h2
y= .x.[l − x] l1 = l2 =
l2 h1 + h 2 h1 + h 2
Karnataka PWD AE 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 375 YCT
wl 2 Influence line for radial shear and normal thrust -
HA = HB = 2
[Mc = 0]
2 h1 + h 2
Temperature effect on three Hinge arch-
(ii) When subjected to concentrated load W at • There is decrease in horizontal thrust due to
crown- temperature rise
GPSC AM (GMDC) Class-2 2020
wl
H= 2 • Due to only temperature change there is no
h1 + h 2 stresses produce in 3-hinges arch.
l 2 + 4h 2
(i) ∆h = α T
4h
1
(ii) H ∝
h
δh
(iii) % decrease in horizontal thrust =×100
h
Where, ∆h = Free rise in crown height
(iii) Three hinged semicircular arch carrying h = Rise of arch
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion
concentrated load (W) at crown.
T = Rise in temperature in °C.
W Note-
H = VA = VB =
2 Unloaded determinate structure (Ds = 0) always free
from thermal stress.
TWO HINGED ARCH-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 376 YCT
Horizontal thrust (H) in two Hinged arch when there 4. Two Hinged symmetrical Parabolic arch carries
is no temperature change, no rib shortening and no UDL of w on entire span-
yielding of support then
This type of arch is subjected to normal thrust only.
To Simplify Integration-
I = IC secθ (Ds = 1) wl 2
HA = HB =
IC = M.O.I. of c/s at crown. 8h
I = M.O.I. at any section x – x. Kerala PSC AE2021, GPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2016
2 GPSC R&B AE 2016, MH PSC AE (Mains) 2012
dy dy
I = IC 1+ = tanθ
dx dx
If there is rib shortening, temperature increase in
temperature (t°C) and yielding of support-
UKPSC AE 2022
M x y.dx
∫ EIC
+ α Tl
H=
y 2 dx l
∫ EIC + AE + K
Where,
αTl is due to temperature increased
l
AE is due to rib shortening. Note-
K = yielding of support/unit horizontal thrust. In case of parabolic symmetrical arch under UDL -
Note-
In a Statically indeterminate parabolic arch if wl 2
In this condition H 2hinged = H 3hinged =
temperature increases then horizontal thrust increases. 8
If the effect of rib shortening and yielding of support
Only compressive force will be resisted by this arch.
are considered then horizontal thrust decreases.
1. Semicircular arch of Radius ‘R’ carrying load W In this condition there is no bending and shear forces
at a section, makes an angle β with horizontal. occurs in the arch so this shape of arch is called
funicular arch.
When half of the parabolic arch is loaded by UDL,
then horizontal thrust at support
wl 2
H=
16h
W 2 W
HA = HB = sin β At crown β = 90°, H =
π π
UKPSC AE 2022, WBPSC Poly Lect. 2019
MH PSC (Mains) 2019, TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
W
H= = 0.318W (At crown due to point load W)
π
2. Semicircular Arch with UDL over whole span-
4 wR
HA = H B =
3 π
When two hinged parabolic arch is subjected to
3. Two hinged semicircular arch with Uniformly
varying UVL, from zero to w then,
Varying Load-
2 wR wl 2
HA = ΗB = Horizontal thrust H=
3 π 16h
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 377 YCT
(e) I.L.D. for radial shear (Np)-
Reaction locus for 2 hinged arch-
It is the line which gives the point of intersection of
A two hinged parabolic arch is under a concentrated the two reaction for any position for an isolated load.
load W at the crown. (a) Parabolic arch-
hf = ordinate of reaction locus of any point (P).
25 Wl
H= 1.6h
128 h hf =
LMRC AM 2019, UPPSC A.E. 2008, J&K PSC AE 2006
1 + α − α2
(b) For semi-circular arch-
Moving Loads on two hinged arch-
(a) General arch figure-
(b) I.L.D. for horizontal trust (H)-
πR
hf =
2
Karnataka PWD AE 2021
Here hf does not depends upon loading position.
(c) I.L.D. for bending moment (Mp)- • Locus of reaction of a two hinged semi-circular arch
is a straight line.
Temperature effect on two-hinged arch-
lαT
H= 2
l y ds
∫o EI
(d) I.L.D. for normal thrust (Fp)-
4EIαT
(i) H =
πR 2
TNPSC AE 2022, Rajasthan VP ITI 2018
PTCUL AE 2016, APPSC AEE 2012
15 EIo αT
(ii) H = I0 = M.O.I of the arch at crown.
8 h2
H = horizontal thrust
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 378 YCT
05.
METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Method of Indeterminate Structural Various Force Methods-
Analysis- Unit load method -
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, JPSC AE 2021, GPSC AE (GMB) Cl-2 2021
It is based on the conservation of energy.
"Total internal strain energy stored is equal to the total
external work done."
Derived from Castigliano's theorem
According to this method deflection
Difference b/w Force and Displacement Method- L MM1
(1) Force/Compatibility/ (2) Displacement/Stiffness ∆=∫ .dx
Flexibility Method /Equilibrium Method
o EI
(i) In this method static (i) In this method kinematic
or ∆ = ∫ σ ' ε.dv
indeterminacy of structure is indeterminacy of structure is
considered. (DK > DS) considered. (DS > DK)
Where σ' = Stress in the element due to the unit load
(ii) Compatibility equation (ii) Equilibrium equations are
are the main governing the main governing equations
ε = Strain in an element due to given load system.
equations for structural for structural analysis Real work method/Strain energy method -
analysis. The work done by the actual loads are considered.
(iii) Force-displacement (iii) Force- displacement n 1
relations are represented in relation are represented in the Real work done by loads = u = ∑ 0 P.∆
the flexibility matrix. stiffness matrix. 2
(iv) Different forces (iv) Displacement and slopes 1. Consistent Deformation Methods-
(reaction, S.F., B.M.) are are considered to be unknown. (i) Find the degree of redundancy.
considered to be unknown. (ii) Primary structure that is obtained by removing the
(v) The number of (v) The number of equilibrium redundancy and loading the resulting beam with
compatibility equation equation needed is equal to
external loading only.
needed is equal to degree of degree of kinematic
static indeterminacy indeterminacy (iii) Secondary structure that contains loading of
redundant reaction only.
Types of Force Method– (iv) Redundant are found out by writing the
Assam PSC AE (I.W. T.) 2021, MPSC (ASCE) 2021
UPPSC AE 2007, 2011, 2016 compatibility conditions.
(i) Unit load method (virtual work method) 2. Maxwell’s Reciprocal Theorem-
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, GPSC AE 2022
(ii) Strain energy method (Real work method)
(i) The deflection at (A) due to unit force at (B) is equal
(iii) Column analogy method
to deflection at (B) due to unit force at (A)
(iv) Clapeyron's theorem (3- moment method)
(v) Flexibility matrix method Thus δ AB = δ BA
(vi) Castigliano’s Method
(vii) Maxwell- Mohr equation.
(viii) Elastic centre method
Types of Displacement Method– (ii) The slope at (A) due to unit couple at (B) is equal to
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021, JPSC AE 2021 the slope at (B) due to unit couple (A)
(i) Moment distribution method (MDM)
(ii) Kani’s method θ AB = θ BA
(iii) Slope-deflection method
(v) Stiffness matrix method/ Equilibrium method
(vi) Minimum potential energy method
Fundamental Assumption– (3) The slope at (A) due to unit load at (B) is equal to
Principal of Superposition– deflection at (B) due to unit couple at (A)
APPSC AEE 2016
θ AB = δ BA
Total loading (or) displacement is equal the external
load acting separately.
(i) Hook’s law is valid
(ii) Small displacement
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 379 YCT
(iii) Betti’s Theorem- iii. If far end is free i.e. for overhang portions of a beam
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022 we can not write slope deflection equation because
It is Generalized Maxwell Theorem: there is no support at free end.
It states that displacement at a point due to point iv. The effect of axial force and axial deformation are
load at another point is equal to the displacement at neglected in slope deflection method.
another point due to the load at the first point. v. For continuous beam-
This theorem is only valid for a stable structure
under the elastic limit 2EI 3δ
M AB = M FAB + 2θ A + θ B −
Betti's theorem relates the series of point loads with L l
the deformation at other points while maxwell's 2EI 3δ
theorem can only be used for two points. M BA = M FBA + 2θ Β + θ A −
Betti's theorem is used when loading conditions are L l
different. vi. No. of equation required in Slope deflection method
PA δ'A + PBδ'B = P'A δ'A + PB'δ B to find unknown is equal to degree of kinematic
indeterminacy (DK).
PA, δΑ - First group of forces & displacement. Fixed End Moment-
PB, δΒ - Second group of forces & displacement, Loading Diagram MAB MBA
In Betti's Theorem- 1.
The symbols (M) and (θ) can also denote couple and
rotation respectively.
PL PL
M A θ 'A + M Bθ B = M A 'θ A + M B'θ B - +
8 8
Thus according to Betti’s law we have general
equation, 2.
ΣP.δ '+ ΣM.θ = ΣP 'δ + ΣM '.θ
4. Castigliano's Theorem- wl 2 wl 2
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021 - +
12 12
First Theorem-
BPSC AE 2022, Assam PSC AE (IWT) 2021 GPSC AE 2022
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021, OPSC AEE 2019 Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
The partial derivative of the total strain energy in a 3.
structure with respect to the displacement at any one
of the load points gives the value of corresponding
Pab 2 Pa 2 b
load acting on the body in the direction of - +
displacement" ,i.e. l2 l2
∂U ∂U
=P =M
∂δ ∂θ
wl 2 wl 2
-
30 20
Second Theorem- 4.
In any linear elastic structure partial derivative of the DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
strain energy w.r.t. load at a point is equal to the 5.
deflection of the point where load is acting , i.e.
5 5
∂U ∂U − wl 2 + wl 2
=δ =θ 96 96
∂P ∂M
5. Theorem of Least Work-
For any statically indeterminate structure, the
redundant should be such that to make the total 6.
energy within the structure as minimum. It is a
nd − 11 wl 2 5
wl 2
special case of Castiglione's 2 theorem. 192 192
Displacement Method-
Slope deflection method: [Developed by G.A.
Maney (1915)]
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020 7.
Important point- 7 23 2
i. To find slope deflection relationship, method of − wl 2 + wl
superposition is used. 960 96
ii. Maney used the concept of stiffness factor or carry
over moment to develop slope deflection equation.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 380 YCT
8. Condition Stiffness factor Relative
stiffness
MP MP Far end is fixed 4EI I
− +
4 4 L L
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, AP Poly. Tech. Lect. 2019
9. Far end is hinged 3EI 3 I
M p b(3a − ℓ ) M p a(3b − l )
− L 4L
ℓ2 l2
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, MPSC (ASCE) 2021
TNPSC (CESE) 2021, OPSC AEE 2019
Cantilever beam ΕI 0
10.
L
6EIδ 6EIδ
Guided roller support ΕI 1 I
− + 2 L 4L
l2 l
Far end is free 0
Distribution factor (D.F.)-
It is the ratio in which the applied moment (M) is
distributed to various member meeting at rigid joint.
0 3EIδ
(At hinged) + Member stiffness K
L2 D.F. =
Joint stiffness ΣK
KPSC AE 2021, MPSC (ASCE) 2021
TNPSC (CESE) 2021, BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021
Moment Distribution Method- ∑K = Sum of member stiffness
DDA JE 2023, UPRVNL JE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022 Note-
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, Punjab PSC SDE 2021
Joint stiffness = ∑ member stiffness
It is a structural analysis method for statically
indeterminate continuous beams and plane frames ∑ D.F. = 1 Always
developed by Hardy cross (relaxation method). HPCL JE 2022
Axial force and corresponding axial deformation are If far end is free, the its stiffness factor, relative
neglected in M.D.M. stiffness (Z) and distribution factor (D.F.) = 0
Carry Over Moment (COM) - DF is the property of rigid joint
It is moment developed at one end due to applied Portal frame -
moment at other ends.
If a joint moves vertically then it is called sinking. If
It is defined only when one side is subjected to a it is moves horizontally then it is called sway.
moment (M). 1. Sinking of support-
All COM are reacting moment but all reacting (i) Beams fixed at both ends
moment are not carry over moment.
6EIδ 6EIδ
Carry Over Factor (COF)- MA = 2 MB = 2
It is the ratio of COM and applied moment. L L
Karnataka PWD AE 2021
M/2
i.e. for fixed end = = 1/2 12EIδ 12EIδ
M VA = VB =
L3 L3
Far end Condition COM COF
Far end is fixed M/2 1/2
Far end is hinged 0 0
For cantilever beam –M –1
For guided roller support –M –1
UPSSSC JE 2022, GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021 (ii) Fixed at one end freely supported at other-
Stiffness Factors (K)-
It is the moment or force required to produce unit
M P
rotation or deflection K = OR
θ δ
Relative Stiffness
It is the relative value of stiffness factor (k) and 3EIδ 3EIδ 3EIδ
MA = MB = 0 VA = 3
VB = 3
defined to simplify calculation. L2 L L
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 381 YCT
2. Portal frame with side sway- Case - 2
OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018 If any frame sway due to a load acting at a joint
Cause of side sway- only, then it is called pure sway
(i) Eccentric or unsymmetrical loading Case -3
(ii) Unsymmetrical outline of portal frame. If the load is symmetrical and structure is not
(iii) Different end connection of the column symmetrical the frame sway towards weak column
(iv) Non-uniform section members of the frame. side [i.e. column having less stiffness factor.
(v) Horizontal loading on the column of the frame.
(vi) Settlement of support of the frame.
(vii) A combination of the above.
RATIO OF SWAY MOMENT AT COLUMN
HEADS- BHEL ET 2019
Case-1: Both end Hinged- Case- 2: Both end Fixed- Case - 4
If the frame is symmetrical and loading is not
symmetrical then cut the frame at centre and checks
deflection of cantilever frame in the same direction
frame also sways.
COLUMN ANALOGY METHOD (CAM)-
This method is most suitable for the analysis of beam
and curved member with two fixed support, rigid frame
upto degree of redundancy = 3
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021
M BA I1 /L21 M BA I1 L 2
2
Standard Result-
= =
M CD I 2 /L22 M CD I 2 L1 1
Width of analogue column
EI
Case- 3 For Inclined Members- BPSC AE Aug. 2019, UPPSC A.E. 2008
One end fixed and other Case-1 Both end Hinges L
end hinged Area of analogoue column
EI
L3
Moment of inertia
12EI
It is developed by Hardy Cross in 1930
It is ideally suited for computing stiffness and
carryover factor in beams and frames having
variable cross-section
Kani's Method-
2 2Iδ I1δ1 I2 δ 2 It involves distributing the unknown fixed end
M BA 2I1 L 2 M BC : M BA : M CD = : :
= L2 L21 L22
I 2 L1
moments of structural member to adjacent joints in
M CD order to satisfy the conditions of continuity of slopes
and displacements. It is also known as rotation
Case-2 Both end fixed Case-3 One end fixed and contribution method.
other is hinged CGPSC AE 2022, KPSC AE 2020
Three Moment method-
DDA JE 2023, MH WRD JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
It is used to expresses the relation between bending
moments at three successive supports of a
continuous beam, subjected to a loading an a two
adjacent span with or without settlement of the
support.
Castigliano’s first theorem –
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
M BC : M BA : M CD
Iδ I δ I δ
:: 2 : 1 21 : 2 22 M BC : M BA : M CD
2Iδ 2I δ I δ
:: 2 : 1 2 1 : 2 22 Used in structural analysis for finding deflection of
L L1 L2 L L1 L2 an elastic structure based on strain energy of the
structure.
DIRECTION OF SWAY-
It is applied when the supports of the structure are
Case - 1 unyielding and the temperature of the structure is
If the structures and loading condition are symmetrical, constant
then the frame will not sway in any direction. CGPSC AE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 382 YCT
06.
MATRIX METHOD
Introduction- Properties of stiffness matrix method-
Matrix method is a method used for the analysis of All the properties of flexibility matrix also same as
determinate and indeterminate structure. stiffness matrix except-
Types of matrix method- Elements of stiffness matrix will be forces.
(i) Flexibility matrix method- Order of stiffness matrix will be kinematic
This method is suitable when static indeterminacy is indeterminacy.
less than kinematic indeterminacy. Steps to solve matrix method-
Flexibility (f)- 1. Calculate kinematic indeterminacy
Displacement is produce due to unit force is known 2. Fixed end moment
as flexibility. 3. Element of stiffness matrix
4. Find out displacement with relation
δ θ
f= = P + k.D = 0
P M
UPMRC AM 2023 5. Find moment by using slope deflection method
(ii) Stiffness matrix method- 6. Draw B.M.D.
DSSSB AE 2021 Type of Stiffness-
In this method displacements at the joints are taken
as unknown.
It is suitable when kinematic indeterminacy is
greater than static indeterminacy. Co-ordinate number are given to all possible
Stiffness (k)- displacement.
Load required to produce unit displacement is 1. Elongation
known as stiffness. 2. Deflection
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, BPSC AE Aug. 2019 3. Slope
1 P M 4. Angle of twist-
k= k= =
f δ θ
Note-
Flexibility and stiffness method analyze large
structures like multistory buildings, railway bridges kxy → force required at x for unit displacement.
and other large structures. Types of displacement Flexibilit Stiffnes
Element of of matrix is based on flexibility or y s
stiffness coefficients. 1. Axial displacement L AE
Properties of stiffness matrix method- AE L
HPCL JE 2022 (1)
L, A, E, I
It is a symmetric matrix.
The sum of a elements in any column must be equal ESE 2018
to Zero. 2. Transverse Displacement
The joint displacement are treated as basic (a) With far end fixed L3 12EI
unknowns 12EI L3
Number of displacement involved equal to number
of degree of freedom of structure.
The method is generalization of the slope deflection
method.
Deflection and rotation are the quantity taken as (b) With far end hinged L3 3EI
redundant. 3EI L3
The same procedure is used for both determinate and
indeterminate structure.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 383 YCT
3. Torsional displacement L GI P θ must be measured from +ve axis and in anticlock
GI P L wise direction only.
4. Flexural displacement
(a) With far end fixed L 4EI
4EI L
(b) With far end hinged L 3EI
3EI L
2. Force in any member (AB) is given by-
AE
FAB = − (∆A x − ∆ Bx ) (cosθ AB + (∆.A y − ∆ By )sinθ AB
Characteristic of Stiffness Matrix- l
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, PPSC SDE 2021Where,
MH PSC (Main) 2021, GOA PSC Asst. Prof. 2020∆Ax, ∆Ay → x, and y displacement of joint (A)
(i) To get first column apply unit displacement (δ or θ) ∆Bx, ∆By → x, and y displacement of joint (B)
coordinate (1) and find forces developed at all θAB = Angle of inclination of member AB, measured
coordinate similarly do for second column etc. in anti-clock wise direction.
(ii) It is square matrix (because of Maxwell reciprocal Note-
deflection theorem) i.e. special case of Betti’s law. If FAB is (+ ve), then it means that force in the
w × δ12 = w × δ21 member is tensile. If FAB is (– ve), then it means it is
1 1 a compressive force.
w× = ×w
k12 k 21 Characteristic of Flexibility Matrix-
BPSC AE 2022, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
k 21 = k12 MH PSC (Main) 2021, JPSC AE 2021
OPSC AEE 2019 Paper–I , MH PSC Mains 2018 Paper-1 Flexibility matrix is symmetric and square.
Diagonal matrix is non-negative and non-zero
st
(i) To get 1 column of flexibility matrix, apply unit
force at co-ordinate (1) and find displacement at all
co-ordinate in the released structure.
In this method, co-ordinate number are given to
redundant forces then we get a released structure
(iii) Diagonal is always +ve due to Castigliano's first
(or) determinate structure. Similarly for other
theorem. column.
(iv) Order of stiffness matrix will be degree of kinematic (ii) It is also a square matrix-
indeterminacy. BPSC AE 2022, OPSC AEE 2019
(v) If displacement at any coordinate is impossible then δ11 δ12 δ13
stiffness matrix for that co-ordinate system will not ∂U
[δ] = δ 21 δ 22 δ 23 δ =
exist. ∂W
Analysis of Indeterminate trusses by stiffness matrix δ31 δ32 δ33
method- δ12 = Displacement at (1) due to unit force at (2)
1. Stiffness matrix [k] at a truss joint- δ21 = Displacement at (2) due to unit force at (1)
AE 2
k11 = Σ cos θ from Maxwell theory δ12 = δ 21
L
AE 2 (iv) After releasing the redundant forces structure must
k 22 = Σ sin θ be stable otherwise flexibility matrix do not exist.
L
(v) Order of matrix is decided by static indeterminacy
AE (DS).
k12 = k 21 = Σ cosθ.sinθ
L UKPSC AE 2022
Note- (vi) All the element of flexibility matrix are
Coordinate (1) and (2) must be along displacement δ.
(vii) It is conclusion of Maxwell reciprocal theorem.
+ ve x & + ve y axis only.
(viii) It is calculated only for stable structure.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 384 YCT
1. Properties of Fluids ............................................................................................................. 386
2. Pressure and its Measurement ............................................................................................. 390
3. Hydrostatic force on surface ............................................................................................... 393
4. Buoyancy and Floatation..................................................................................................... 394
5. Kinematics of Flow ............................................................................................................. 396
6. Fluid Dynamics ................................................................................................................... 401
7. Orifices and Mouthpieces ................................................................................................... 404
8. Notches and Weirs .............................................................................................................. 406
9. Viscous Flow....................................................................................................................... 409
10. Turbulent flow................................................................................................................... 410
11. Flow Through Pipes .......................................................................................................... 412
12. Dimensional and Model Analysis ..................................................................................... 414
13. Boundary Layer Theory .................................................................................................... 416
14. Open Channel Flow........................................................................................................... 420
15. Impact of Jets and Jet Propulsion ...................................................................................... 426
16. Turbine and Pumps ........................................................................................................... 428
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 385 YCT
01.
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Fluid mechanics- Where, V = volume of fluid
It is defined as the physical science dealing with the m = mass of fluid
action of fluids and gases at rest or in motion, and 3. Specific weight or weight density- It is the weight
application of devices in engineering using fluids. per unit volume of the fluid i.e.
It is applicable in diverse field such as aeronautics, Weight of fluid W mg
chemical, civil and mechanical engineering, naval w= = = = ρ.g
architecture and oceanography. Volume of Fluid V V
Fluid- W = Fluid mass × Acceleration due to gravity.
A substance, as a liquid or gas, that is capable of Weight of water = 1000 × 9.81 N/m3
flowing and that changes its shape at a steady rate Unit , S.I. - N/m3
when acted upon by a force is called fluid. M.K.S. - kg/m2-s2
Fluid dynamics- C.G.S. - gm/cm2 - sec2
Study of fluid in motion with or without considering Dimensional formula- M1L–2T–2
force is known as fluid dynamics. 4. Specific Gravity or relative density-
It is two type- RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021
1. Fluid Kinetics- It is defined as the ratio of the density or weight
It is study of fluid in motion with considering density of a fluid to the density or weight density of
pressure forces. a standard fluid.
2. Fluid Kinematics- Standard fluid-
The study of fluid in motion without considering NBCC JE 2022
pressure forces. (i) For liquid is water at 40C
Fluid Static- (ii) For gas is air
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Density or weight density of liquid
It is Study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. S.G liq =
Properties of Fluid- Density or weight density of water at 4 C
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022 Maximum density of water is at 40C and equal to 1
1. Density or mass density- It is the ratio of mass of gm/cm3
fluid to the volume of fluid i.e. From above relation-
NWDA JE (Civil) 2021
Density of liquid = (S.G)Liq.× Density of water at 4°C
Mass of fluid m = (S.G)Liq × 1000 kg/m3
ρ= =
Volume of fluid V Weight density of a liquid
UPPCL AE 2022, CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 = (S.G)Liq× weight density of water.
Unit - Kg/m3 = (S.G)Liq × 1000 × 9.81 N/m3
ρwater = 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3 5. Viscosity-
ρSea water = 1025 kg/m3 It is the property of a fluid that is measure of fluid's
ρmercury = 13600 kg/m3 or 13.6×103 kg/m3 resistance to flow.
= 13.6 × ρwater NHPC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
ρAir = 1.225 kg/m 3 Viscosity of liquid is due to cohesion (inter
The density of water is maximum at 4 C. 0 molecular attraction force) only but for gas it is due
For gases density increases with pressure increase to molecular momentum transfer between gas
and decreases with increase in temperature. molecules.
Liquid density considered constant at pressure It is an internal friction of a moving fluid of one
variation and decreases with increases the layer over another adjacent layer. Viscosity of fluid
temperature. is measured by viscometer instrument. It is measure
2. Specific Volume- only on flow condition.
UPPCL AE (Civil) 2022 Viscosity of liquid in varying condition is measured
It is defined as the ratio of volume of fluid to the by Rheometer.
mass of fluid, i.e. It is classified in two types.
V 1 1 (i) Dynamic/absolute viscosity-
Specific Volume, ν = or = τ τ
m m/V ρ Viscosity, µ = =
3
Unit = m /kg du/dy dθ / dy
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 386 YCT
Where,
τ = shear stress
dθ/dy = Rate of shear strain or rate of shear
deformation
du
= velocity gradient
dy
Unit-
NBCC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2021
du dθ
A PSC AE (PHE) 2020, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2020
2
τ ∝ or
S.I. - N-s/m , kg/m-s, Pa-s. dy dt
C.G.S - Dyne-s/cm2 or poise APPSC AEE (Civil/Mechanical) 2019
MPPSC AE 2021, UPPCL AE 2021 du dθ
M.K.S.- kg/m-s τ=µ or µ
dy dt
Note- 1 N-s/m2 = 10 poise = 1 Pa-s
UPPCL AE (Civil) 2022 dθ
1 poise = 100 centi poise Where, = Rate of shear deformation or rate of
dt
µwater = 1 centi poise = 0.01 poise at 20°C angular deformation.
µ water = 55 µ Air at 200C du
= velocity gradient
Dynamic viscosity is measured by Reynold dy
viscometer. Haryana PSC AE 2020
A fluid which obey's the Newton's law of viscosity
Where, 1 - RN = 6.89476 × 106 centi poise
is called Newtonian fluid.
Note- A fluid which does not obey's Newton's law of
For liquid T↑ µ↓ viscosity is called Non-Newtonian fluid.
P ↑ µ = constant n
du
For gases T↑ µ↑ τ = A + B
P ↑ µ = constant dy
T = temperature, P = Pressure. DSSSB AE 2021, GSSSB AAE 2021
(ii) Kinematic viscosity- Classification of Real Fluids-
DSSSB JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022 Real fluids are classified in two types-
The ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of fluid 1. Non-Newtonian Fluid.
is called kinematic viscosity (ν) i.e. 2. Newtonian Fluid
Viscosity of fluid µ
ν= =
Density of fluid ρ
DDA JE (Civil) 2023
Unit-
NBCC JE 2022, Haryana PSC AE 2020
TNPSC AE 2019, ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018
M.K.S. & S.I. - m2/sec.
C.G.S. - cm2/sec or stokes
1 stokes = 10-4 m2/sec, or 1 m2/sec = 104 stokes Types of fluid-
1 centi stokes = 10–2 stokes 1. Ideal/Perfect Fluid-
Note- UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, HPCL JE 2022
UPPCL AE 2022, GPSC AE 2019
For liquid T↑ ν↓ A fluid which is incompressible and have no
P ↑ ν constant viscosity is known as ideal fluid.
For gases T↑ ν↑ No fluid is ideal in nature.
Non-colloidal liquids are Ideal fluids.
P↑ ν↓
Ideal fluid does not have surface tension.
νair = 15.2 νwater at 20°C Bulk modulus of ideals fluid is infinite.
Kinematic viscosity is measured by Saybolt, Engler It flow is steady; velocity is constant.
and redwood viscometer. Which based on petroleum Bernoulli equation is applicable that means total
head of energy constant.
based liquid.
No intermolecular force, no intermolecular resisting
Newton's law of viscosity- force, no friction force.
UPPCL AE (Civil) 2022
2. Real fluid-
According to Newton's law of viscosity shear stress RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021
on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to A fluid which possess both viscosity and
the rate of shear strain i.e. compressibility is known as real fluid.
RSMSSB JEn (Degree) 2020 In general practice all fluid are real fluids.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 387 YCT
3. Newtonian fluid- B≠0 du
n
UPPCL JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 τ = A + B
In this types of fluid, shear stress is directly dy
proportional to the rate of shear strain or velocity Ex.- Tooth paste, Sewage sludge,
gradient. Drilling mud, Gel, Cream
Newtonian fluid does not change with viscosity or B. Time dependent
with the rate of shear deformation or shear strain. Thixotropic The viscosity decreases with application
Ex.- Water, Petrol, Benzene, Kerosene, Air, Fluids of shear stress.
Mercury, Ethanol etc. n<1 Ex.- Lipstick, Ketchup, Printer inks,
DDA JE (Civil) 2023
B≠0 Enamels paint, Jelly
4. Non-Newtonian fluid-
A real fluid in which shear stress is not proportional Rheopectic Viscosity increases with application of
fluids shear stress.
to the rate of shear strain.
n>1 Ex.-Gypsum paste, Bentonite slurry
It obey's power's law of viscosity.
Study of Non-Newtonian fluid is called Rheology. B≠0
5. Ideal Plastic Fluid (Bingham Plastic)- Bulk modulus-
CSE 2000 MH WRD JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022
A fluid in which shear stress is more than the yield It is the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric
value and shear stress is proportional to the rate of strain.
shear strain. Increase of pressure ∆P
They behave like a rigid body under low stress. K= =
Volumetric strain ∆V
−
V
2
S.I unit of of Bulk modulus (K) is N/m
Compressibility (β)-
RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021
It is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity.
It is the ratio of volumetric strain to compressive
stress.
Compressibility of air is greater than of water.
β Air = 7.65 × 10–10 m2/N
2
S.I unit of compressibility (β) is m /N.
βWater = 5.1 × 10 m /N
–1 2
1
β=
K
Volumetric strain −∆V / V
Compressibility, β = =
Increase of pressure ∆p
DDA JE 2023, NHPC JE 2022
NLC (GET) 24.11.2020, Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020
Type of process compressibility (β)
A. Time independent
CSE 1996, 1997 Adiabatic 1
Pseudo-plastic These are shear thinning fluids. PVγ = constant γp
n<1 • Apparent viscosity decreases with
B=0 increase in velocity gradient. Isothermal 1
n
du T = constant ρRT
τ = A
dy Surface Tension-
Ex.- Blood, Milk, Polymer solutions, SSC JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022, UPPSC AE 2022
Syrup, Rubber solution, Gelatine, Nail It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface
paint, Paper pulp etc. of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface
between two immiscible liquids such that the contact
Dilatant • These are Shear thickening fluid.
surface behaves like a membrane under tension.
Fluids n
du
n>1 τ = A Surface tension, σ =
Force
=
F
and
B=0 dy Length L
Ex.- Quick sand, Saturation solution of
RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021
sugar, Rice starch, Butter
Bingham It has some initial strength beyond Work done
σ=
plastic fluids which deformation starts. Increase in area
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 388 YCT
It is due to cohesion force between liquid molecules. If Hg (Mercury) poured on a horizontal surface it
It is expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m. becomes in the form of droplet because cohesive
For liquid - Surface tension decreases with increase force is greater than adhesive force.
in temperature. Capillary rise- Adhesive force > cohesive force, θ <
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
At critical point surface tension becomes zero. 900, wetting surface.
Surface tension is measured by tensiometer and Capillary fall- Cohesive force > Adhesive force, θ
stalagmometer. > 900, Non wetting surface.
Surface tension of a liquid can be changed by adding SSC JE (Civil) 2022
impurities. With impurities (salt, sugar) soluble in Capillary action is due to both cohesion and
water increases surface tension, if impurities (soap, adhesion.
detergent) are not soluble in water, they decrease the Capillary rise or fall of liquid in-
surface tension. UPPSC AE 2022
4σ cos θ 4σ cos θ
Capillary tube, h = =
ρgd wd
HPCL JE 2022, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
2σ cos θ
Parallel plate, h=
ρgt
Excess pressure- Where,
Condition Pressure t = Distance b/w plates
• Pressure inside droplet 4σ 2σ w = Specific weight of liquid
p= or
(Solid as sphere) d R σ = Surface tension
• Pressure inside bubble or 8σ 4σ θ = 00 for pure water and glass tube
p= or
Hallow bubble d R θ = 80 for water and glass tube
(Like soap bubble) θ = 1280, For mercury and glass tube
• Pressure inside liquid jet 2σ σ
p= or θ = 260, for kerosene and glass tube
d = dia of bubble d R Capillarity is expressed in terms of cm or mm of
σ = Surface tension
liquid.
Capillarity- Dia. of capillary tube should be less than 6 mm.
DDA JE 2023, HPSC Lecturer 2022
TNPSC AE 2018, Rajasthan JE (Degree) 2016 Vapour pressure-
The phenomenon observed in liquid due to UPPCL JE 2022
molecular attraction at the liquid boundary, as the It is a measure of the tendency of a material to
rise or fall of liquid surface in a narrow tube is change into the gaseous or Vapuor state and it
called capillary action. increases with temperature. The temperature at
Adhesion- It is the tendency of two or more
which the Vapour pressure at the surface of a liquid
different molecule to bond with each other.
becomes equal to the pressure exerted by the
Cohesion- It is due to force of attraction b/w the
same molecules. surroundings is called the boiling point of the liquid.
UPPSC AE 2022 Psaturation = PVapour
Boiling is bulk phenomena.
Evaporation is slow process. It is surface
phenomena.
Cavitation-
UK PSC AE 2022
Cavitation will take place if pressure of the flowing
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
fluid at any point is less than Vapour pressure of the
Mercury does not wet the glass tube because
fluid. If pressure of the flowing fluid at any point is
cohesive force within the liquid are stronger than the
adhesive force b/w the liquid and glass. greater than Vapour pressure of the fluid then
Only mercury is a metal that is in liquid state at the rupture of bubble started. These bubble collapse and
room temperature. can generate shock waves.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 389 YCT
02.
PRESSURE & ITS MEASUREMENT
Pressure- Hydrostatic Law-
APPSC (PHE) AE 2012
It is defined as the normal force exerted by a fluid It states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical
per unit area. direction is equal to weight density or specific
W mg A × h × ρ× g weight of fluid at that downward direction i.e.
P= = = = ρgh = wh ∂p
A A A = ρ×g ⇒ w P = ρgz
Where, h = Pressure head, w = specific weight ∂z
Units of pressure- Hydrostatic law is quantitative aspect but Pascal law
is qualitative aspect.
1kgf 9.81× 10 4 N / m 2 Types of Pressure-
cm 2 Arunachal Pradesh Poly. Tech. Lect. 2019
2 Atmospheric Atmospheric pressure is the normal
1 Pa 1N/m pressure, (Patm) pressure exerted at the earth
1 atm 101325 Pa surface by the column of air above
1.01325 Bar it.
760 mm Hg •It is described by meteorologists.
• The atmospheric pressure at sea
14.3 Psi level is 1 atm.
1 Bar 105 Pa or 105 N/m2 • It is measured by Barometer.
1 Psi 6894.76 Pa • Barograph is used for continuous
recording of atmospheric pressure.
1 Torr 133.3 Pa
Gauge pressure, It is measured above the
1 mmHg (Pgauge) atmospheric pressure.
From P = ρgh, pressure does not depend upon the • In gauge pressure measurement
shape and size of container. atmospheric pressure assumed as
datum or zero.
Its only depends on height of liquid surface or
• It may be +ve and –ve.
pressure head. Vacuum/Negative Pressure measured below the
gauge/Suction atmospheric pressure is known as
pressure, vacuum pressure.
(Pvacuum) Pvaccum = P atm − P abs
Absolute The pressure measured with
pressure, reference to the absolute zero
(Pabs) pressure or complete vacuum
Pascal's Law- pressure is called absolute
UPPCL AE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022 pressure.
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021 • It is also known as actual
It is given by Blaise Pascal, it states that intensity of pressure at a given point.
pressure or pressure at a point in a static fluid is • It can be zero but never be –ve.
equal in all direction. • Measured with aneroid
barometer.
Ex- Hydraulic crane, Hydraulic lift, Hydraulic jack,
Hydraulic brake system. P abs = P atm + P gauge Patm at sea
level - 101.3 kN/m2 (15oC).
i.e. at a point A". p x = p y = p z
Hydrostatic Pressure-
It is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at
equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to
the force of gravity.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 390 YCT
Pressure measurement Devices-
1. Manometers- It is the simplest form of manometer in which its one
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023, GPSC AE 2021 end connected to the measuring point and other is
Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020, ODISA PSC AE 2020 open to atmosphere.
Manometer are based on the principal of balancing It is used for measuring small and moderate
the column of liquid by the same or other column of Positive, Laboratory, gauge pressure.
liquid. Not suitable for measuring high pressure because at
It is measure +ve and –ve both pressure. high pressure manometric height will be very large
It is a device which is used to measuring low, that is difficult to handle.
medium and high pressure. It measures only liquid pressure not used for gases.
Diameter of manometer tube should be ≥ 6 mm. It is not measure negative pressure.
It is used for liquids and gas. b. U-Tube manometer-
Mercury is an ideal fluid because of- It is used to measure liquid and gas pressure, high
UP RVNL AE 2016
pressure.
(i) Higher density It measured both +ve and –ve pressure.
(ii) Immiscible with other fluid
It is very sensitive to temperature changes so liquid
(iii) Low Vapour pressure. should have small thermal coefficient and also low
(iv) High specific gravity. Vapour pressure.
(v) High surface tension and high cohesion. U-Tube is filled with liquid whose specific gravity is
(vi) Shinning in nature. higher than the liquid whose pressure is to be
A. Simple manometer- measured is known as manometric fluid.
It consists of a glass tube having one of its end U-Tube manometer measure absolute pressure at a
connected to point where pressure is to be measured point.
and other end remains to atmosphere.
a. Piezometer-
The pressure at point A is given by,
p = ρgh = ωh
p
∴h= = Piezometric head
ρg
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021
(i) Gauge pressure-
Pg = ρ2 h 2g − ρ1h1g
ρ1 = Density of light liquid = 1000 × S1
S1 = Specific gravity of light liquid
S2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid
ρ2 = Density of heavy liquid
(ii) Vacuum pressure-
GOA PSC Assistant Prof. 2020 P = −ρ2 h 2 g − ρ1h1g = −(ρ2 h 2 g + ρ1h1g)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 391 YCT
c. Sensitive/single column manometer- Compound Bourdon tube used for measuring
It is the modified form of U-tube manometer in pressures both above and below atmospheric
which a reservoir having large cross-sectional area is pressure.
connected to one of the limbs. Double bourdon tube used where vibration are
It is used to precise measurement of small pressure encountered.
in low velocity gas flow. (c) Dead weight pressure gauge-
Sensitivity can be increased by inclining the tube of It generates very precise pressures by means of
1 calibrated weights placed on top of a hydraulic
input limb thus the reading increased by piston.
sin θ
It can measure the pressure exerted by gas or liquid.
times. It can be used to calibrate a wide range of pressure
Sensitivity of micro manometer is 100 times more measuring devices.
than sensitivity of simple U-tube manometer. Note-
When the pressure difference is high then the The accuracy of the dead weight tester is affected
sensitivity of manometer is decreased by inclining due to the friction between the piston and cylinder,
output limb. Sensitivity decreased by sinθ times. and due to the uncertainty of the value of
B. Differential manometer- gravitational constant 'g'.
UPSSSC JE 2022 (d) Bellows Pressure Gauge
A differential manometer is a device which measure It is used to measure absolute and differential
pressure difference between two points in a pipe or pressure.
two different pipes. It is mostly used in low-pressure measurements.
JSSC JE 2022
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Various types of manometer and
Inverted U-tube differential manometer- pressure measured-
Used to measure small pressure difference for liquid. Type of Types of pressure Types of fluid
In this manometer is containing a light liquid. Manometer measured
PC − PD = ( S1 − S2 ) γ w h Piezometer For small and moderate only liquid
+ve gauge pressure
U-Tube Positive and negative For liquid and
manometer both (gauge and high gas both
pressure)
Inclined tube +ve and –ve both Very low gas
manometer pressure
Differential Pressure difference b/w For liquid and
manometer two points gas both
Bourdon Pressure at a point (high For liquid and
pressure gauge & low pressure) gas both
Important note point-
Micrometer Differential manometer- Mercury gives less height of column for high
Used for the measurement of the very small pressure pressure.
difference with high precision. Aneroid barometers or diapharm tube are used for
2. Mechanical Gauge- local atmospheric pressure.
Mechanical gauge are used for measuring high Hydrostatic law is the basic principle applied in
pressure values which does not requires high manometer.
precision. In a Bourdon tube the deflection is proportional to
It is based on the principle of balancing the column pressure difference.
of fluid by the spring or dead weight. Sensitivity can be also increased or decreased by
UPRVUNL JE 2022 changing the area of the manometer.
(a) Diaphragm Pressure Gauge- In a differential manometer, the use of mercury is
Diaphragm or Disc is used for actuating the advantageous when the pressure difference is large
indicating device. mercury is used in manometer.
(b) Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge- The atmospheric pressure with rise in altitude
UPPSC AE 2022, KA PSC AE (WRD) 2021 decreases rapidly initially then slowly.
It is used for measuring high as well as low pressure. The maximum vacuum created at the summit of a
It is generally made of bronze or nickel steel. siphon is 7.4 m of water.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 392 YCT
03.
HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON SURFACES
Hydrostatic force- Various geometric properties of some important
The hydrostatic force is the resultant of a linear plane surface-
distributed force formed by the liquid pressure AP TRANSCO AEE 2017, APTRANSCO 2017
acting perpendicular to the surface. Plane Surface C.G. from Depth of centre
When the fluid is at rest the shear stress is zero. the top of pressure
surface x from top
surface (h)
Rectangle d 2d
x= h=
2 3
Centre of pressure (hcp)-
SSC JE 2022, AP Poly. Tech. Lect. 2019
Centre of pressure is defined as the point from
which total hydrostatic pressure is supposed to be
acting. Triangle 3h
h=
Centre of pressure always will be below the centre 2h 4
x=
of gravity of the vertical surface because of pressure 3
intensity will be more below the centre of gravity.
IG
For vertically immersed surface h cp = +x
Ax
Inverted Triangle h
I sin 2 θ h=
For Inclined immersed surface. h cp = G +x h 2
Ax x=
3
Where, x = distance of C.G. from free surface
IG = M.O.I about C.G., A = Area of body
For plate under the infinite depth centre of gravity
and centre of pressure both are at same point. Circle 5d
The depth of immersion of a vertical plane surface h=
d 8
increased the location of centre of pressure falls x=
closer to the centre of gravity of the area. 2
The centre of pressure for a plane vertical surface
lies at a depth of two-third the height of the
immersed surface.
a + 3b h
x = a + 2b h
Total pressure- Trapezium h=
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2020 a + b 3 a + 2b 2
It is defined as the force exerted by the static fluid
on a plane or curved surface where the fluid comes
in contact with the surface.
Total pressure always acts normal to the surface.
Total pressure and centre of pressure on submerged
Half circle 4r 2D 3πr 3πD
surface in different condition- x = or h = or
3π 3π 16 32
Surface Total Pressure Center of Pressure
Position (hcp)
Horizontal F = ρgAx hcp = x
Position = wAx Note-
Vertical F = ρgAx IG For lock gate, the reaction between the two gates,
Position h cp = x +
= wAx Ax F
Inclined F = ρgAx P=
IGSin 2 θ 2sin θ
Position h cp = x +
= wAx Ax Where, F = Resultant water pressure on the lock
Curved FH = ρg ∫ h.dA sin θ , Fv = ρg ∫ h.dA cos θ gate.
Surface θ = Inclination of the gate with the normal to the
FR = FH2 + Fv2 , = ωAx side of the gate.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 393 YCT
04.
BUOYANCY AND FLOATATION
Buoyancy force- It is the distance between metacentre of the floating
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022 body and the centre of gravity of that body.
Buoyant force is an upward force exerted by the Metacentric height G.M. = B.M. − B.G.
static fluid on a floating or submerged body and this
phenomenon is called buoyancy. I min
G.M. = − B.G.
Buoyant force always acts vertically upward. Vimmersed
Condition of body w.r.t weight of body and
Where,
buoyant force FB
Imin = Least moment of inertia of floating body.
FB < W Body will sink
V = Volume of submerged body in water or
FB > W Body will lift
FB = W Body in rest condition Volume of the body submerged in fluid. It is equal
to volume of water displaced by the submerged
Centre of Buoyancy (B)-
body.
UPMRC AM 2023, UPPCL AE 2022
ODISA PSC AE 2020, TNPSC AE 2019 B.G. = Distance b/w C.G. and centre of buoyancy
It is defined as the point in displaced fluid through Note-
which the buoyant force is supposed to be act. Metacentric height for rolling condition will be less
Centre of buoyancy is at the centre of displaced than pitching condition.
volume. Larger metacentric height gives greater stability to
Archimedes Principal- the body.
JSSC JE 2022
If any body submerged in a fluid then the upward Stability of a submerged and floating
vertical force (normal) acting on the body is equal to body-
the weight of liquid displaced. 1. Stable Equilibrium-
Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the body that UKPSC JE 2022
is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by the If the body displaced from its original position with
submerged portion of body. a small angle then if it tends to come back to its
Buoyancy Force = Weight of fluid displaced original position.
Centre of gravity (G)- 2. Unstable Equilibrium-
TNPSC (CESS) 2021, GWSSB AAE 2015
When a body is displaced from its original position
For a body in which the point through which the then it continue to move away from its original
total weight of the body assumed to be act is known
position. This phenomenon is called unstable
as centre of gravity.
equilibrium of the body.
Metacentre (M)- 3. Neutral Equilibrium-
It is a point about which a submerged body starts to
In this condition of the body, it remains constant in
oscillate when it is tilted by a small angle.
new position if the body displaced from its original
It is also defined as the point at which normal axis of
position.
the body and line of action of the buoyant force are
meets. Equilibrium condition for a fully
submerged and floating body-
DSSSB AE 2021, JKPSC AE 2021, Punjab SDO 2021
Fully submerged Equilibrium
Floating body
body condition
B is above G M is above G Stable
BM > BG, GM = +ve
B is below G M is below G Unstable
B.M.< BG ,GM = –ve
Metacentric Height-
GPSC AE 2021, ISRO SE 2019 B and G coincide M and G coincide Neutral
HESCOM AE 2017, KPTCL AE 2016, PPSC SDE BM = BG, GM = 0
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 394 YCT
Key Points
■ When a body is totally or partially submerged
immersed in the fluid, it is _______ up– Buoyed
■ Horizontal component of force of buoyancy is–
Zero
■ If the weight of a body immersed in a fluid More is the metacentric height less is the period of
exceeds the buoyant force, then the body will– oscillation.
Tend to move downward and it may finally sink
Comfort will increase if time of oscillation increases
Submerged body i.e. more time of oscillation gives more stability.
As G.M. increase, time period of oscillation (T)
decrease and comfort decreases.
Rotation axis of a floating body in different condition.
If a ship is safe in rolling, it will be safe in pitching.
UPMRC AM 2023
Stable Unstable Neutral
Equilibrium Equilibrium Equilibrium
Floating body-
Y-Y → Transverse axis (pitching)
X-X → Longitudinal axis (rolling)
Z-Z → Vertical axis (yawing motion)
Pitching Oscillation of the body about transverse
axis.
Rolling Oscillation of the boat or any body about
longitudinal axis is known as rolling.
Oscillation Time period- Yawing Oscillation of the boat about vertical axis.
Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017, OPSC 2011
Sway Linear side to side motion of the boat.
A ship or a body can be considered as a pendulum
Surge Linear longitudinal bow and stern motion
with centre of rotation about metacentre.
or backward and forward slipping motion
Time period of oscillation for a body-
of the ship.
I MK 2 K2 Heaving Vertically up and down motion of a ship.
T = 2π = 2π = 2π
G.M × W G.M × W G.M × g
Metacentric Height for various ships-
Where, W = Mg Types of ship Metacentric height
K = Radius of gyration about rolling or pitching
Merchant ship < 1.0 m
G.M. = Metacentric height
Sailing ship < 1.50 m
I = Moment of inertia of the body
Battle ship < 2.0 m
If K is constant, then
River boat < 3.50 m
1
T∝ G.Mcargo ship > G.Mpassenger ship So cargo ship is less
G.M comfortable.
For cone distance of C.G from the ends of point When a ship moving on sea water enters a river and
3 moves in land, it is expected to sink a little because
= h
4 the density of sea water is more than of river.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 395 YCT
05.
KINEMATICS OF FLOW
It is branch of the science that deals with the study ∂V
of motion of particles without considering the force For non-uniform flow- ≠ 0
causing motion. ∂S t is constant
Method of fluid motion analysis- Where,
(1) Lagrangian method- ∂V = Change in velocity
JSSC JE 2022 ∂S = Length of flow in the direction S.
In this method each single fluid particle is studied Flow at constant rate through a tapering pipe is
for its motion characteristics density, acceleration steady and non uniform flow.
etc. It is time taking and most accurate method. Flow through long pipe at constant rate is called
(2) Eulerian method- steady uniform flow.
GPSC AE Class 2017 Gradually varied flow is steady non-uniform flow.
In this method, the velocity, acceleration, density Laminar flow-
etc. are described at a point or certain section in the UPPCL AE 2022, HPSC Lecturer 2022, NLC (GET) 2020
flow field. Types of flow in which fluid particles moves in
Control volume through which fluid flows is layer form and one layer smoothly slides over the
considered and instead of tracking the individual adjacent layers is known as laminar flow.
fluid particle, fluid properties are described with Laminar flow is also known as viscous flow or
respect to space and time. stream line flow and this flow occurs at a low
Type of fluid flow- velocity.
1. Steady and unsteady flow. In this flow, fluid particle moves along well defined
2. Uniform and non-uniform flow. paths or all stream line are straight and parallel.
3. Laminar and Turbulent flow Turbulent flow-
4. Compressible and incompressible flow In a turbulent flow, fluid particles move in a zig-zag
5. Rotational and irrotational flow. motion it occurs at high velocity.
6. One, Two and three dimensional flow. Compressible and Incompressible flow-
APPSC AEE (CIVIL/MECH.) 2019, RRB SSE 2015
Steady and un-steady flow-
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, KA PSC AE (WRD) 2021 Type of flow in which density of fluid changes from
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, APSC AE (IRR.) 2021 point to point or density is not constant, is known as
Steady flow is a type of flow in which the fluid compressible flow otherwise incompressible flow.
properties like density, velocity; pressure etc. does Compressible flow, ρ ≠ constant (Gas)
not change with respect to time at any section i.e. JKSSB JE 2022
SSC JE 2022 Incompressible flow, ρ = constant (Liquids)
∂v ∂p ∂ρ Rotational and Irrotational flow-
= 0, = 0, =0 UKPSC JE 2022
∂t ∂t ∂t In a rotational flow fluid particles rotate about their
In case of un-steady flow above properties changes own axis with flowing along the stream lines.
with respect to time, i.e. When fluid particles flowing along stream lines does
∂v ∂p ∂ρ not rotate about their own axis then it is termed as
≠ 0, ≠ 0, ≠0 irrotational flow.
∂t ∂t ∂t
Irrotational flow occurs in non-Newtonian fluid.
Path line, stream line and streak line are same in One Dimensional Flow-
steady flow. All the flow parameters may be expressed as
Uniform and Non-uniform flow- function of time and one-space co-ordinate only.
UPMRC AM 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022, HPSC AE 2020
The single space co-ordinates is usually the distance
Uniform flow is defined as the flow in which along measured along the centre line in which the fluid is
the length velocity remains constant at different flowing.
cross sections for any given time with respect to Two dimensional flow-
space and if its not constant then this phenomenon is All the flow parameters are function of time and two
called non-uniform flow i.e.- space co-ordinates.
∂V Ex.- Flow in parallel plates of infinite extent.
For uniform flow- = 0
∂S t is constant Stream line of a 2-D flow is represented by a curve.
UKPSC JE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 396 YCT
Three Dimensional flow- (iii) Streak/Filament Line-
The hydrodynamic parameters are function of three DSSSB JE 2022, HPSC Lecturer 2022
space co-ordinates and time. Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020
Fluid flow is three-dimensional in nature. It is locus of various fluid particles passing through
Ex.- Flow in a converging and diverging pipes. a same fixed point.
Basic Principles of flow- In a steady flow as stream line are fixed and path
(i) Principle of conservation of mass in flow. line, stream line and streak lines are same.
(ii) Principle of conservation of energy. For unsteady flow streak line at any instant of flow
(iii) Principle of conservation of momentum. is the locus of end pint of path line.
Types of flow Line-
JSSC JE 2022
(i). Path Line-
Its a path travelled by a single fluid particle at the
different instant of time.
Path line represents the direction of motion of a
single fluid particle at a given time.
Path line can intersect itself and follows lagrangian
approach.
Shape of path line for the one dimensional flow is
straight line. Continuity Equation-
Path lines are actual line and are not imaginary. CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, HPCL JE 2022
UPRVUNL JE 2022
Path lines can cross each other.
Continuity equation is based on principle of
conservation of mass.
According to this equation for steady flow, the
(ii) Stream Line-
TNPSC (CESS) 2021, GPSC AE (NWR) 2021
volume of fluid entering a tube at one end per unit of
It is an imaginary line or curve drawn through a time must be equal to the volume of fluid leaving the
flowing fluid in such a way that the tangent to it at other end per unit time.
any point gives the direction of instantaneous According to law of conservation of mass.
velocity of flow at that point.
In a stream line flow each fluid particle has definite
path and the paths of individual particles do not
cross each other.
Stream lines represent the direction of motion of
many particle.
The stream line flow intersect at a stagnation point.
Rate of flow at section (1) = Rate of flow at section
Between two stream line represents discharge of
(2)
flow at that point.
The best instrument for measuring the velocity of a ∴ ρ1A1V1 = ρ2 A 2 V2
stream flow is Price's current meter. (This equation is valid for both compressible and
incompressible flow)
If flow is incompressible, ρ1 = ρ2 ⇒ ρ
∴ A1V1 = A 2 V2 = constant
General continuity equation
∂ρ ∂ ∂ ∂
Equation of stream line- + ( ρu ) + (ρν) + (ρw) = 0
dy dx ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
ν= and u =
dt dt Above equation is valid for all types of flow (steady,
dy dx unsteady, uniform, nonuniform etc.)
or = dt and = dt
ν u (i) If flow is incompressible, ρ = constant
dx dy ∂u ∂v ∂w
= for 2 − D + + =0 3-D equation
u ν ∂x ∂y ∂z
dx dy dz ∂u ∂v
= = for 3 − D + =0 2-D equation
u ν w ∂x ∂y
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 397 YCT
∂ ∂
ρ Local Acceleration-
(ii) For steady flow, =0 The rate of change of velocity with respect to time at
t
a given point in a flow field is known as local
∂ ∂ ∂
( ρu ) + ( ρv ) + (ρw) = 0 3D equation ∂u ∂v ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z acceleration , and
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂ ∂ Local acceleration is zero in steady flow.
( ρu ) + ( ρv ) = 0 2D equation
∂x ∂y Convective Acceleration-
It is the rate of change of velocity due to the change
Circulation-
of position of fluid particle in a fluid flow.
It is a microscopic measure of rotation for finite area
If the direction of flow velocity changes then the
of the fluid it is a scalar quantity.
It is defined mathematically as the line internal of flow has normal acceleration.
the tangential velocity about a closed path. Convective acceleration is zero in uniform flow.
If the fluid moves in curved path and if its velocity
C = ∫ v cos θ.ds C = ε.A change in magnitude, then in this situation tangential
Where, acceleration occurs.
v = velocity in the flow field Types of Local or Convective Total or
θ = Angle b/w (v) and tangent to the path. flow Temporal or max.
Vorticity acceleration Advective acceleration
Vorticity is a measure of rotation of a pair of fluid acceleration
particles. Steady and 0 0 0
If is defined as the circulation per unit of enclosed uniform flow
Area. Steady and 0 Convective
C Non-uniform
ε= ε = 2ωz flow
A
Where, unsteady and 0 Local
ωz = Angular velocity of fluid particle in z-direction uniform flow
unsteady and Local +
1 ∂v ∂u ∂v ∂u
ωz = − ε= − non-uniform convective
2 ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y flow
Stokes theorem- Velocity potential function (φ)-
In two direction (2D) flow circulation along the
It is the scalar function of space and time such that
closed curve is equal to the total vorticity enclosed
its negative derivative w.r.t any direction gives the
within it. "vorticity can also be defined as circulation
fluid velocity in that direction.
per unit area".
Velocity and Acceleration of fluid- Velocity potential, for steady flow φ = f(x, y, z)
If u, v, w are the components of resultant velocity in ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
• u=− • v=− • w=−
x, y and z direction, then ∂x ∂y ∂z
Resultant Velocity, for above after applying continuity equation,
v = uiˆ + vjˆ + wkˆ = u 2 + v 2 + w 2 ∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Total acceleration = convective acceleration + local
acceleration ∂ 2 φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2 φ
+ + = 0 Laplace's equation in 3D
Let ax, ay, and az are the total acceleration in x, y and ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
z direction, then.
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂ 2 φ ∂ 2φ
ax = u + v + w + + = 0 Laplace's equation in 2D
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t ∂x 2 ∂y 2
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v If for certain value of φ, Laplace's equation = 0 then
ay = u + v + w +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t flow is possible otherwise not.
If velocity potential exists the flow should be
irrotational.
If φ satisfied the Laplace equation then there is
possible steady incompressible irrotational flow.
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 398 YCT
Stream function (Ψ) Properties of flow net-
It is a scalar function of time and space, such that its Head loss through each successive equipotential line
partial derivative w.r.t any direction gives the is equal.
velocity component at right angle in anticlockwise Discharge through each flow channel is constant.
direction. It defined only for 2-D flow i.e. In flow net all flow fields are elementary squares
∂Ψ ∂Ψ (linear or curvilinear).
u=− and v = Equipotential Line-
∂y ∂x
UKPSC JE 2022, NLC (GET) 2020
∂ Ψ ∂ Ψ
2 2 It is a line along which the velocity function is
Laplace equation for Ψ , + 2 =0 constant.
∂x 2 ∂y
Equipotential lines are orthogonal to the stream line
If stream function Ψ exists, fluid flow may be at intersection points.
rotational or irrotational.
dy u
Difference b/w two stream function provide Slope of equipotential line =−
discharge per unit width. dx v
If the flow is continuous, the flow around any path Vortex flow-
in the fluid is zero. Flow of fluid along the curve path or rotation of a
The rate of change of Ψ with distance in arbitrary cylindrical vessel containing liquid about its own
direction is proportional to the component of axis is known as vortex flow of fluid. It is two type.
velocity normal to that direction. 1. Forced vortex flow
Cauchy Reiman equation- 2. Free vortex flow
Forced vortex flow-
∂ψ ∂φ ∂ψ ∂φ
u=− =− v= =− If the fluid particle are moving around a curve path
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y with the help of some external torque the flow called
Flownet- Forced vortex flow
JSSC JE 2022 v
= ω , v = rω or v ∝ r ,
A grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential r
and stream lines are known as a flow net. Where,
A graphical representation of equipotential line and v = Tangential velocity
stream line in an irrotational flow is known as flow r = Radius of fluid particle
net. ω = Angular velocity
Methods of drawing flownet- Bernoulli's equation is not valid for this flow
1. Electrical analogy method- because of there is continuous expenditure of
This method is a practical method of drawing a energy.
flownet for a particular set of boundaries. In forced vortex flow, pressure is directly
2. Graphical Method- proportional to square of radius.
This method consumes lot of time and requires lot of Surface profile of a forced vortex flow is parabolic.
erasing to get the proper shape of a flow net. v2 ω2 r 2
3. Analytical method (Mathematical analysis)- Height of paraboloid formed, Z = ⇒
2g 2g
This method can be applied to problems with simple
and ideal boundary conditions. 2πn
Where, ω=
4. Hydraulic models- 60
Stream lines can be traced by injecting a dye in a
seepage model or Heleshaw apparatus, then by
drawing equipotential lines the flow net is
Completed.
Use of flownets-
To determine the stream lines and equipotential
lines.
To determine the design of the outlets for their
streamlining.
To determine quantity of seepage and upward lift
pressure below hydraulic structure.
To determine the velocity and pressure distribution
for given boundaries of flow.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 399 YCT
Volume of paraboloid formed, A radially symmetrical flow field directed outward
πr Z
2 from a common point is known as source flow.
V=
2
Example of forced vortex flow-
(i) Flow of liquid passing through impeller of a
centrifugal pump.
(ii) Flow of liquid through the runner of turbine.
(iii) Rotation of water in a washing machine.
Free vortex flow-
GPSC AE 2022
If there is no external torque required to rotate fluid
mass about its own axis then this type of flow is
called free vortex flow.
Bernoulli's equation is valid in free vortex flow,
flow is irrotational. Strength of sources is defined as the volume flow
In free vortex flow pressure is directly proportional rate per unit depth.
to radius. The central common point is the line source
Change in angular momentum is zero if there is no described as "A line is a line from which fluid
torque. appears and flows away on planes perpendicular to
MH WRD JE 2022 the line".
Rate of linear momentum = constant As the fluid flows outward, the area of flow
(m.v).r = c increases.
V.r = constant Sink flow-
1 CGPSC AE 2017
v∝ Sink flow is the opposite of source flow.
r
The streamlines are radial, directed inwards to the
HPCL JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
line source.
Doublet/Dipole/Double source-
Example of free vortex flow- It is the combination of source and sink flow.
(i) A Whirlpool in a river
(ii) Flow through kitchen sink
(iii) Flow through a hole provided at the bottom of
container.
(iv) Liquid flow around a circular bend in a pipe.
(v) Flow of fluid in centrifugal pump casing.
Note-
The movement of air mass in the case of tornado can
be described as forced vortex at the core and free
vortex outside.
Source flow-
NLC (GET) 2020
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 400 YCT
06.
FLUID DYNAMICS
Fluid dynamics is defined as the study of fluid in Bernoulli's Equation-
motion where pressure, force are considered. ESE 2023, JKSSB JE 2022
In this fluid is assumed to be incompressible and UKPSC JE 2022, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
viscous. It is based on the principle of conservation of
Equation of motion- energy.
Bernoulli's equation is obtained from integrating the
Dynamic behavior of the fluid is analyzed by the
Euler's equation.
Newton's 2nd law of motion i.e.
UPPCL JE 2022
F = Ma Each term represent energy per unit weight.
Newton's F = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft + Fc + Fσ P v2
+ + Z = Constant Bernoulli's equation
equation
Forces present in fluid flow ρg 2g
of motion
• Pressure head P
Reynolds F = Fg + Fp + Fv + Ft
equation ρg
of motion • Dynamic head/velocity v2
Navier Stoke's F = Fg + Fp + Fv head/kinetic head 2g
equation
• Potential/Datum head Z
Euler's Equation F = Fg + Fp
of motion • Piezometric Head P
+z
Where, ρg
Fg = Gravity force
• Stagnation Head P v2
Fp = Pressure force +
ρg 2g
Fv = Force due to viscosity
Ft = Force due to turbulence in fluid Bernoulli's Theorem-
Fc = Compressibility force JSSC JE 2022, TNPSC AE 2018, DDA JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022
Fσ = Force due to surface tension Bernoulli's principle states that the sum of total
energy per unit volume of an incompressible, non-
Euler's equation- viscous steady flow in a streamlined, irrotational and
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
continuous flow remains constant along a streamline
Euler's equation for motion of liquids is based on the i.e.
assumption that the flow is homogeneous and
1
incompressible. P + ρv 2 + ρgh = constant
2
dp
+ g.dz + v.dv = 0 Assumptions of Bernoulli's theorem-
ρ GPSC AE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
Assumptions of Euler's equation- i. Flow should be irrotational
UKPSC JE 2022 ii. Flow is incompressible
i. The fluid is non-viscous (i.e.friction losses are zero). iii. Flow is continuous
ii. The flow is continuous, steady and along the iv. Flow is steady
streamline. v. Friction losses are negligible
iii. The velocity of the flow is uniform. vi. Fluid is ideal i.e. viscosity is zero
iv. No energy or force is involved in the flow . vii. Flow is in steamline
vi. Linear momentum conservation considered. viii. Flow is one dimensional
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 401 YCT
Bernoulli's equation for Real fluid- 1. Venturimeter
APPSC AEE (Civil/Mechanical) 2012 2. Orificemeter
2 2
P1 v P v 3. Pitot-tube
+ + Z1 = 2 +
1
+ Z2 + h L
2
ρg 2g ρg 2g 1. Venturimeter-
Where, hL = Head loss Venturimeter is a rate of flow or discharge
measurement device of the large diameter containing
Kinetic energy correction factor (α)-
three section as.
It is defined as the ratio of kinetic energy of flow per
second based on actual velocity across a section to (i) Convergent cone
the kinetic energy of flow per second based on (ii) Throat
average velocity across the same section. (iii) Divergent cone
Mathematically, It is most accurate discharge measuring device based
Actual kinetic energy on Euler's equation.
α=
K.E. calculated from average velocity Head loss in Venturimeter is so small.
Least possible value of kinetic energy correction is Coefficient of Discharge 0.94 - 0.98
one (1). RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, APSC AE (IWT) 2021
In energy equation, velocity assumed uniform while APSC AE (Irrigation) 2021
it is parabolic. A venturimeter has a differential mercury water
manometer connected to its inlet and throat for a
∫ v dA
3
v.dA
α= 3
Vavg = ∫ given discharge in the pipe is independent of the
AVavg A
orientation of venturimeter.
Where, v = actual velocity Section detail-
Vavg = average velocity Length of converging section - 2.5 (D – d)
Momentum correction factor (β)- Angle of convergence - 210±10
The ratio of momentum of the flow per second Length of diverging section- 7.5 (D – d)
based on actual velocity to the momentum of the
Angle of divergence - 50 - 70
flow per second based on average velocity across a
section. 1 1
Dia. of throat = to (D)
Mathematically, 2 3
Momentum per second based on actual velocity D = inlet & outlet diameter
β=
Momentum per second based on average velocity d = diameter of throat
Length of throat is equal to the diameter of the
1
2 ∫
β= v 2 dA throat.
Avavg
Pressure at the throat should be more than fluid
UK PSC AE 2022
Vapour pressure.
When the velocity distribution is uniform over cross
section the momentum correction factor is 1. To avoid separation of flow divergence cone angle
Value of α and β in different flow condition- should be less that convergent cone angle.
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 Actual discharge is less than theoretical discharge.
Flow condition α β Actual discharge,
Laminar flow in pipe 2 1.33 C d × a1a 2
Q act = 2gh
Turbulent flow in pipe 1.33 1.2 a12 − a 22
Laminar flow b/w parallel plates. 1.543 1.2
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
Application of Bernoulli's theorem- Pressure head in case of horizontal venturimeter-
SSC JE (Civil) 2022
Bernoulli's theorem applied to the following V 2 − V12
Venturimeter head = 2 .
measuring device. 2g
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 402 YCT
3. Pitot tube-
DDA JE 2023, MPPGCL JE 2023,
JSSC JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
Pitot tube is used to measure flow velocity at a point
in an open channel or closed pipe. It is based on the
principle that if the velocity of flow at any point in
becomes zero (At stagnation point), there is increase
in pressure due to the conversion of kinetic energy
to pressure energy.
Key Points
It consist a glass tube bent at right angle lower end
■ In a venturimeter, the divergent cone is kept–
that is bend at 900 directed in the upstream side.
Longer than convergent one
Velocity is determined by measuring the rise of
■ Fluid motion is described by the–
liquid in the tube in a fluid flow system the velocity
Eulerian method becomes zero, it is known as stagnation point.
Piezometeric head (h) calculation
For Differential Piezometer h=x
For u-Tube manometer S
(when standard liquid h = x h − 1
S
0
heavier than flowing liquid)
Sh = S.G. of heavier liquid
So = S.G. of flowing liquid
For inverted u-Tube S
manometer (when standard h = x 1 − ℓ
So
liquid lighter than flowing
Sl = S.G. of lighter liquid
liquid)
2. Orifice meter or orifice plate-
P −P
Orifice meter is also used for measuring discharge or C v = 2g 1 2
rate of flow of the fluid flowing through pipe. It ρg
consist of a flat plate which has a circular sharp edge
Vact = C v 2gh Vth = 2gh
hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe.
Orifice dia. kept 0.4-0.85 times of the pipe dia. Cv = Coefficient of velocity
Coefficient of discharge 0.61 - 0.65. P1 P
Stagnation head = Static head = 2
MH WRD JE 2022 ρg ρg
Flow is laminar between plates.
Summary-
C d × a1a 2
Q act = 2gh Instrument Accuracy Head loss Cost
a12 − a 22
Venturimeter High Low High
Orifice meter Low High Low
Flow Nozzle Medium Medium Medium
Flow through orifice, experimental determination of
Coefficient.
Vact = C v 2gH
Where,
x
Cv = , x and y are point on the parabolic
2 H.y
Orifice meter stream of water flowing out of orifice.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 403 YCT
07.
ORIFICES AND MOUTHPIECES
ORIFICE Coefficient
Cr =
Loss in actual kinetic energy
A small opening on the side or at the bottom of a of Actual Kinetic energy
any cross section through which a fluid is flowing Resistance Loss of head in orifice
known as orifice. or,
Head of water
Orifice and mouthpiece are used to measure the rate
of flow of fluid. • C r = 0.061 - 0.63 ≃ 0.062
The orifice diameter is generally kept half of the Relation between C d, C c and C v-
Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021, HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021
diameter of the pipe. AP TRANSCO AEE 2017, APTRANSCO 2017
Vena contracta-
C d = Cc × C v
It is defined as the point in a fluid stream where the
diameter of stream is minimum and fluid velocity is Classification of Orifice
maximum. In a orifice it is generally kept at a 1. Based upon the size and head
distance of half the dia. of orifice (d/2) from the Small orifice H ≥ 5D
orifice. Large orifice H < 5D
Vena contracta is a region formed just after sudden
contraction after which flow again becomes laminar Where,
(straight line). At vena contracta area, of the flow jet H = Liquid head from centre of the orifice
is minimum and velocity of the flow is maximum D = size of an orifice
pressure is minimum. 2. On the basis of cross sectional area-
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021 (a) Rectangular orifice
Theoretical velocity of jet at vena-contracta
v th = 2g.H
vth > vact
H 2
< 5D Q = Cd × B 2g H 3/2 2 − H13/ 2
3
Hydraulic Co-efficient- H > 5D Q = Cd × a 2gh
Coefficient Actual velocity of jet at vena contracta
Cν =
of velocity Theoretical Velocity Where, H1 = Liquid height above top edge of orifice
H2 = Liquid height above the bottom edge
B = Breadth of orifice
v act v
Cv = = (b) Circular orifice
v th 2gH (c) Triangular orifice
• Cν = 0.95 - 0.99 ≃ 0.97 (d) Square orifice
• For sharp edge orifice Cv = 0.98 3. According to shape of edge-
Coefficient Area of jet at vena - contracta a c (a) Sharpe edge orifice (It is used as standard orifice)
of Cc = = (b) Square edge orifice
Area of orifice a
contraction (c) Bell mouthed/Rounded edge orifice
• Cc = 0.61- 0.69 ≃ 0.64
4. According to Nature of discharge-
Coefficient Actual discharge Q Q act (a) Free discharging orifice
of Cd = = act =
Theoretical discharge Qth a 2gH (b) Drowned or submerged orifice.
discharge
Submerged orifice requires head measurement both
• Cd = 0.61 - 0.65 ≃ 0.62
side of upstream and downstream.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 404 YCT
A submerged orifice and the same orifice Classification of Mouthpieces-
discharging freely have nearly the same coefficient (A) On the basis of their position
of discharge. External • For it coefficient of discharge depends
It is also classified into two parts. Mouthpiece upon length of mouth piece.
(i) Fully submerged orifice- (It is fitted • Absolute pressure head for an external
externally) mouthpiece at vena-contracta
Discharge, Q = Cd B ( H 2 − H1 ) 2gH
H c = H a - 0.89H
Where,
B = Breadth of orifice Internal • It is also known as Re-entrant or
mouthpiece Borda's mouthpiece.
(It is fitted • Internal mouthpiece also classified
internally) into two types.
(i) Running full (Liquid jet comes out
with touching its side).
(ii) Running free (Liquid jet comes out
from mouthpiece without touching its
sides).
Value of Cv, Cd, and Cc for various types of
(ii) Partially Submerged orifice- mouthpiece-
Discharge, Mouthpiece type Cv Cd Cc
2 1. External mouthpiece-
Q = Cd B ( H 2 − H ) 2gH + Cd B 2g H 2 − H1
3/ 2 3/ 2
3 (a) Cylindrical mouthpiece 0.855 0.855 1.0
(b) Convergent mouthpiece 0.98 0.98 1.0
(c) Convergent divergent 0.99 0.99 1.0
mouthpiece
2. Internal mouthpiece-
(a) Running full 0.707 0.707 1.0
(b) Running free 1.0 0.50 0.50
Note-
Convergent and divergent mouthpiece is having the
Time taken to empty tank through the maximum coefficient of discharge & coefficient of
velocity.
orifice at its bottom-
B. According to shape of mouthpiece-
Shape of H2 ≠ 0 H2 = 0 (i) Cylindrical mouthpiece
tank (ii) Convergent mouthpiece
Rectangular 2A H1 − H 2 2A H1 (iii) Convergent divergent mouthpiece
T= T =
/ square Cd .a. 2g Cd .a. 2g These are external mouthpiece.
Hemispheri T = π 4 R ( H3/ 2 − H3/ 2 ) T = π × For a convergent divergent mouthpiece, area ratio at
cal tank Cd .a. 2g 3 1 2
Cd .a. 2g outlet (a) and at vena contracta (Cc) is given
− ( H − H 5/2 2 )
2 5/ 2 4 2
RH13/ 2 − H15/ 2 a H − Hc
5 1 3 5
as = 1+ a
ac H
Circular 4L 4L
T= ( 2R − H 2 )3/ 2 T= × Where,
horizontal 3Cd .a. 2g 3Cd .a. 2g
Ha = Atmospheric pressure head
( 2R )3/ 2 − ( 2R − H1 )3/ 2
tank − ( 2R − H1 )
3/ 2
Hc = Absolute pressure head at vena-contracta
L = Length of H = Height of liquid above mouthpiece.
horizontal tank and Discharge, Q = a c 2gH
Note-
C. According to depending upon the nature of
H2 = 0, it means completely empty tank. discharge at the outlet of mouthpiece-
MOUTHPIECE (i) Mouthpieces running free
A mouthpiece is a short length of a pipe that is two (ii) Mouthpieces running full
or three times to its diameter in length, fitted in a Important points-
tank or vessels containing the liquid. In an orifice discharging under a head (H) the head
It is used to measure discharge or rate of flow of loss is H (1 − C2v )
liquid and the discharge through orifice increase. RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 405 YCT
08.
NOTCHES & WEIRS
Introduction- Nappe or vein-
A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of The sheet of liquid flowing through a notch or over a
flow of a liquid through a small tank or channel. It is weir is known as nappe or vein.
defined as an opening in the side of the tank in such Pressure below the depressed nappe is negative.
a way that the liquid surface in the tank is below the Pressure below the free nappe is atmospheric.
top edge of the opening. In clinging nappe, no air gap remains so no pressure
A weir is defined as a concrete or masonry structure, remains because water falls from the weir as a clutch
placed in an open channel over which the flow with wall.
occurs. Velocity of approach-
Comparison between notches and weir- The velocity at which the water reaches near the
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, UJVNL AE 2016 notches or weir before it flows over it is termed as
Notches Weir velocity of approach.
• Structure is small in size • Large structure Discharge over notch
Approach velocity =
• Made in metallic • Made of concrete or Area of channel
structure Brick in open stream
over which the flow
takes place.
• It measures small flow • Measure large flow
rate rate.
Crest/Sill-
The bottom edge of notch or a top of a weir over
which water flows is known as sill or crest. BPSC AE 2016
Discharge formula for notch and weir-
Type of notch Diagram Discharge/flow rate
1. Rectangular 2
Q = Cd L 2g.H 3/ 2
3
If velocity of approach = Va then,
Va2
H = H + Ha = H +
Qg
2
Q = Cd L 2g ( H + H a ) − H a3/ 2
3/ 2
and
3
2. Triangular 8
A= Cd 2g tan θ / 2.H 5 / 2
15
= 1.417. H5/2 (If θ = 900)
(for right angle triangle)
3. Trapezoidal Q = Q Rectangular + Q triangular
2 8
= Cd 2gH 3/ 2 × L + Cd 2g tan θ / 2.H 5 / 2
3 15
2 4 θ
= Cd 2g H 3/ 2 L + H.tan
3 5 2
4. Stepped Q = Q1 + Q2
2 2
= Cd L1 2g H13/ 2 + Cd L 2 2g ( H 2 ) − ( H1 )
3/ 2 3/ 2
3 3
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 406 YCT
Empirical Formula for- Triangular Notch/weir-
NWDA JE 2021
Rectangular weir-
(i) According to Francis It is also known as V notch
It is most accurate structure for a small discharge.
2
Q = Cd 2g × [ L − 0.1n H ] H 3/ 2 It requires only one reading as, H to measure
3 discharge.
Ventilation is not necessary.
or Q = 1.84 [ L − 0.1n.H ] H 3/ 2 Discharge equation are very simple for a V notch
with velocity approach, Cipolletti weir-
UPPCL JE 2022
Q = 1.84 [ L − 0.1n.H ] H
3/ 2
−h 3/ 2
a Cipolletti weir have trapezoidal section with side
n = Number of contraction end (n = 1 for each sides) slope of 1 : 4 (H:V) purpose of this slope is to
H = Head at the crest of weir, Cd = 0.623 obtained an increased discharge through the
(ii) According to Bazin's triangular portion of the weir, otherwise discharge
HPCL JE 2022 have been decreased due to end contraction in case
Q = m.L 2g H 3/ 2 of rectangular weirs.
Discharge equation, for Cipolletti weir.
2 0.003
Where, m = Cd = 0.405 +
3 H
If Approach velocity = Va , then
Q = m.L. 2g [ H + H a ]
3/ 2
(iii) According to Rehbock's formula- 2
Q = Cd L 2g H 3/ 2
2 3
Q = C 2g L.H 3/ 2 Francis formula for Cipolletti weir-
3
Η 0.001 Q = 1.84L.H 3/ 2
C = 0.605 + 0.08 +
Z H If velocity of approach = Va , then
Z = Crest height, H = Head 2
Q = Cd L 2g H13/ 2 − H 3/a 2
Note Point- 3
On the experiment basis, Francis established that the
For Cipolletti weir, tanθ = 1/4 or θ = 1402'
and contraction decreases effective length of the
A weir which so compensated to make up for the
crest of weir while means discharge decreases.
less of discharging capacity due to end contraction is
End contraction at each end of weir expressed as,
called Cipolletti weir.
0.1nH, So actual length of weir = (L – 0.2H) for
both ends. Weir with end contraction (L < B)-
In this types of weir the length of the weir is less
Some weirs and their other name-
than the width of approaching stream, then there is
Weir Other Name
contraction for each ends, that is equal to the 0.1nH.
1. Rectangular suppressed Rehbock weir
weir
2. Rectangular side Francis weir
contracted weir
3. Linear proportional weir Sutro weir/ proportional
weir
4. Special trapezoidal weir Cipolletti weir
Weir without end contraction/Suppressed
with side slope (1:4) (L = B)-
Effect of discharge to error in measurement of If the length of the weir is exactly equal to the width
head- of the approaching stream, there will not be any
contraction, such types of weir is known as
For dQ 3 dH dH
rectangular = or 1.5 × suppressed weir or weir without end contraction.
Q 2 H H
notch or weir
For triangular dQ 5 dH dH
notch or weir Q = 2 H or 2.5 × H
%Error in discharge = n × % error in measurement of head
Where, n = 1.5 for rectangular weir
n = 2.5 for Triangular weir, n = 1 for proportional weir
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 407 YCT
Sharp crested weir- Ogee weir generally used as a spillway of a storage
In a sharp crested weir the water does not comes in dam.
contact of the crest of the weir. Crest of the ogee weir is slightly rises and falls into
The water rises up from the sharp crested and then parabolic form.
drops. Francis formula is used to measure the discharge
It's like a rectangular weir where discharge. over ogee weir.
The portion of water between U/S and D/S water
surface may be termed as free water.
Flow over ogee weir is similar to flow over
rectangular weir and cippoletti weir.
Discharge over a rectangular weir and cippoletti
weir, narrow crested weir and ogee weir.
2
Q = Cd L 2g H 3/ 2
3
Sharp crested weir is more susceptible to
2
submergence than a broad crested weir. Q = Cd .L 2gH 3 / 2
Broad Crested weir- 3
Submerged weir-
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2017
If the downstream water level is above the crest
level of the weir such the type of weir known as
submerged weir.
Classification of weir based on the relation of
B and H-
Crest thickness > 0.47H Thin shaped weir B < 0.625H
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022
Discharge, Q = Cd L.h 2g(H − h) Narrow crested weir 0.625H ≤ B < 2.5H
For Max. Discharge-
UKPSC JE 2022 Broad crested weir 2.5H ≤ B ≤ 10H
2 Type of weirs Characteristics
h= H
3 Vertical drop Suitable for any type of crest gate,
So, Q max. = 1.705C d .L.H 3/ 2 weir cut of piles, launching apron, graded
filter provided.
It is constructed only in rectangular shape. Suitable for soft sandy foundation,
Sloping weir
Suitable for larger flows. hydraulic jump is formed.
Head loss is small in broad crested weir.
Parabolic weir Similar to spillway section of dam,
H < 2L should be. cistern is provided at D/S.
The weir with thick crest is known as broad crested Dry stone Body wall, downstream and
weir. sloping weir upstream dry stone are laid in the
Narrow crested weir- form of glacis with some intervening
It is similar to rectangular weir with narrow shaped core wall.
crest at the top. Linear It achieves a linear discharge head
H > 2L should be. proportional relationship.
Discharge over it is also similar to rectangular weir. weirs or sutro
Q = b h + s
2
Ogee-Shaped weir- weir
3
If the water flowing over the crest is made to glide
smoothly over the curved profile of spillway then it b = w.k.s1/2, k = 2.Cd. 2g ,
is known as ogee shaped weir. Cd = 0.62, b = constant
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 408 YCT
09.
VISCOUS FLOW
Viscous flow Head loss P1 − P2 32µu avg .L
In it each layer slides over the adjacent layer and (Loss of = hL =
fluid also flow in layers when velocity is low. pressure ρg ρgD 2
Couette Flow- head) P1 − P2 128µQ Q
In such condition one plate is in moving state and ⇒ = ∵ u avg =
δg π× ρgD 4 A
other is at rest.
Couette flow is frequently used to illustrate shear (Hagen poiseuille formula)
driven fluid motion. 2
4f 'Lu avg
Laminar flow through pipes (Steady hL = (Darcy Weisbach formula)
2gD
uniform flow)-
UKPSC JE 2022, Kerala PSC AE 2015 u max
Note :- = 2.0
u avg
Laminar flow through the parallel plate-
Velocity 1. Shear stress distribution
1 ∂P
distribution u = − (R 2 − r2 ) ∂p t
4µ ∂x • τ = − − y At y = 0, τ = τmax
∂x 2
1 ∂P 2 2. Velocity distribution (at a distance of y from
∵ u∝r
2
u max = − R
4µ ∂x boundary layer)-
1 ∂p 1 ∂p
• So velocity distribution across • u = − ( ty − y 2 ) • u max = − t 2
2µ ∂x 8µ ∂x
the section of pipe is parabolic.
Average u max 3
1 ∂P 2 • = at y = t/2 ⇒ u = umax
velocity u avg = − .R u avg 2
8µ ∂x
3. Discharge-
at
1 ∂p 3
R • Q= − t
r= or 0.707R, u = u avg ] 12µ ∂x
2
4. Head Loss-
u Q
u avg. = max or 12µu avg .L
2 πR 2 • hf = = P1 − P2
Shear stress • Shear stress τ ∝ r across the section ρgt 2
Distribution GPSC AE 2022
hence shear stress distribution across
Note Point-
the section is linear.
Max. boundary layer thickness = R or D/2
∂P r D = Dia. of pipe
τ = − .
∂x 2 Navier stokes law For Laminar and viscous flow
at, r = 0, τ = 0 Hagen poiseuille law for laminar flow in pipes
r = R, τ = maximum Stoke's law Useful for setting of fine
Discharge particles
π ∂P 4
Q= − .R Hele Shaw flow or For laminar flow between
128µ ∂x Stokes flow parallel plate
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 409 YCT
10.
TURBULENT FLOW
Introduction- 2. Reynolds Shear stress, τ = ρu 'v '
In turbulent flow fluid layers mix macroscopically Theory
u' = Fluctuating velocity in x- direction
and the velocity/temperature/mass concentration at
'v' = Fluctuating velocity in y- direction
any point, is found to vary over a time period.
u', v' are the Reynolds stresses
Turbulent flow decreases kinetic energy as some
part of the energy is converted into thermal and 3. Prandtl's Prandtl mixing length is that length in
sound energy. mixing transverse direction where in fluid,
If a long range order time interval considered then Length particles after colliding looses excess
theory momentum and reach the same
the turbulent flow can be consider as steady.
momentum as local environment.
Velocity profile in case of turbulent flow is much
2
2 du
flatter. The profile becomes more flat at higher
Reynolds. τ = ρ ℓ
dy
In this flow intermixing of streamlines takes place
and due to this, formation of eddies and whirls takes Near the wall, τ = τo
place.
τ0 du
The theory of turbulent flow is largely based on = ℓ.
experiments inter mixing of particles of two ρ dy
different types of matter on their own is called Prandtl's assumed, ℓ = 0.4y by using this
diffusion.
and integrating we get velocity
Turbulent flow is always unsteady flow.
equation.
In the turbulent flow there is a continuous mixing of
fluid particles and hence the velocity fluctuate with Shear Velocity-
respect to time and position. τ
In case of turbulent flow head loss is u* = 0 or
ρ
hf ∝ v n
f
(i) For rough Surface- u* = u '
8
h L ∝ v2 τ = Wall shear stress
o
(ii) For smooth surface- u* = shear Velocity
u' = Avg. Velocity
h L ∝ v1.75
f = Friction factor
Shear stress in turbulent flow- 1. Smooth Boundary-
UK PSC AE 2022 Laminar Sub-layer is greater than roughness, i.e.
Due to turbulent Fluctuation, there is an additional δ' > k
shear stress between fluid layers to determine this
additional shear stress, there are some theory given.
Theory Description
1.Boussinesq's µdu du
Theory Shear stress, τ = τu + τt = +η
dy dy
Where, 2. Rough Boundary-
µ = Viscosity (fluid characteristic) Laminar sub-layer is less than roughness, i.e. δ' < k
η = eddy viscosity (flow characteristic)
• Eddy viscosity is not present in
Laminar flow.
• It is difficult to find eddy viscosity so
this equation is not used in practice.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 410 YCT
3. Transitional boundary- Common mean velocity distribution in terms of avg.
Laminar sub-layer nearly covers roughness, i.e. velocity-
δ' ≃ k. u − u avg. y
= 5.75 log10 + 3.75 Valid for both rough
u* R
and smooth pipe.
Velocity distribution for turbulent flow in smooth
pipe by Power Law–
Where,
He expressed the velocity distribution in exponential
k = Average height of irregularities projecting from
form as
the surface of the boundary.
1/ n
δ' = Thickness of sub-layer u y
As per Nikuradze, =
Boundary classification u max R
1. Based on Nikuradze's Experiment- In a turbulent flow, velocity distribution follows
k Smooth boundary logarithmic law or 1/7th power law.
< 0.25 Velocity distribution for turbulent flow is
δ '
logarithmic in nature.
k Transition boundary
0.25 < ' < 6.0 Variation of Coefficient of friction-
δ
MH WRD JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2016
k Rough boundary (i)
> 6.0
δ '
Flow Coefficient of Darcy Friction
u .k Friction (f') Factor (f)
2. In terms of roughness Reynolds number *
v Laminar flow 16 64
u* .x Smooth boundary RN RN
<5
v Turbulent flow in 0.0791 0.316
u* .k Transition boundary Smooth pipes R1/N 4 R1/N 4
5< < 70
v 0.221
(ii) F = 0.0032 + (5 × 104 < R N < 4 × 107 )
u* .k Rough boundary (R N )0.237
> 70
v 1
Where, (iii) − 2log10 (R N f ) − 0.8 (5 × 104 < R N < 4 × 107 )
K
uavg. = Average shear velocity
For smooth commercial pipe-
v = Kinematic viscosity
k = Average roughness/Protrusion 1 R R/F
= 2log10 = 1.74 − 2 log10 1 + 18.7
Velocity distribution- F F R N F
1. For turbulent flow- For rough pipe-
u uy 1 R
= 5.75 log10 * + 5.55 for smooth pipe = 2log10 = 1.74 (Karman-Prandtl equation)
u* v F f '
u Where, R = Radius of pipe
= 5.75 log10 ( y / k ) + 8.5 for rough pipe K = Average roughness/Protrusion
u*
R
Where, = Relative smoothness
K
u = Velocity at any point, u* = Shear velocity Method of Coefficient of viscosity
y = Distance from pipe wall, k = Roughness factor measurement-
2. In terms of average velocity- 1. Capillary tube method (Hagen poiseuille law is used
u avg. u ×R for calculating viscosity).
= 5.75 log10 * + 1.75 for smooth pipe 2. Falling sphere resistance method (based on stokes
u* v
law)
u avg. 3. Rotating cylinder method
= 5.75 log10 ( R / k ) + 4.75 for rough pipe 4. By orifice type viscometer.
u*
(Ex. Saybolt, Redwood and Engler viscometer)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 411 YCT
11.
FLOW THROUGH PIPES
Loss of energy in pipes- Note :
MPPSC AE 2022 Due to sudden enlargement of pipe fitting the flow
A. Major losses (It is mainly due to friction) (80-90%) separates from the boundary and turbulent eddies are
Darcy- formed.
fLv 2
Weisbach hf = ] K depends upon-
2gD 1. Angle of bend
formula
4f 'Lv 2 2. Pipe diameter
= (Fanning equation) 3. Type of pipe fitting
2gd
4. Radius of Curvature of bend
Chezy's f P Energy lines-
formula hf = × × L × V2
ρg A Hydraulic grade line (H.G.L.)/Piezometric
8g 1 head line-
V= C mi , C = ⇒ .R 1/ 6 It is the summation of pressure head and datum
f n head, i.e.
f = friction factor
where, P
H.G.L = +Z
P = Wetted Perimeter of pipe ρg
V = Mean velocity of flow UKPSC JE 2022, CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
L = Length of pipe GPSC AE 2017, GPSC AE 2017
A = Area of cross- section of pipe HGL always remains parallel to total energy line.
hf = Loss of head due to friction Vertical gap between H.G.L. and T.E.L. is equal to
Reynold's Number v2
ρvD kinetic head
RN = 2g
µ CHB JE (Building) 2023
v = Flow velocity H.G.L. always remains below the total energy line
µ = Dynamic viscosity and sloping downward in the direction of flow.
B. Minor losses (10 - 20%)- Total energy line (T.E.L.)/Total head
UPPCL JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 line/Energy grade line-
It is due to local disturbance with pipe fittings. UK PSC AE 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
Sudden 2 It is the sum of pressure head, kinetic head and
v − v2 datum head i.e.
enlargement h EL = 1
of pipe 2g P V2
2 2 T.E.L. = + +Z
v A1
2
v A2 2
ρg 2g
= 1
1 − = − 1
2
2g A 2 2g A1 RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021, UKPSC AE 2007
Sudden 2
T.E.L. always drops in the direction of flow due to
v loss of head.
Contraction h c = 0.5
2g
Inlet loss v2
h i = 0.5
2g
Exit loss v2
h EX =
2g
Loss of head due V2
to an obstruction h1 =
in pipe 2g
Loss due to pipe v2 Pipe Junction-
fitting and bend hF / B = K RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
2g At junction point total energy line and hydraulic
for 45°elbow,K = 0.4 grade line is same.
Only piezometric head is exist at junction.
for 90° bend,K = 1.2 Junction point is also known as stagnation point.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 412 YCT
Pipe Network- It is an imaginary pipe in which discharge and head
In pipe network two rules must be satisfied : loss is equivalent to the head loss and discharge of
The algebraic sum of the piezometric head drops real pipe system.
around each elementary circuit is zero, i.e. there It is used for-
cannot be any discontinuity in piezometric heads. • The loss of head caused by a given flow of water
The flow entering a junction (or node) must be equal through the pipes connected in series, is additives.
to the flow leaving the same junction, i.e. the law of • The quantity of discharge flowing through the
continuity must be satisfied. different pipes connected in parallel will be such as
Pipe connection- to cause equal head loss through each pipe.
1. Pipe in series connection- For maximum power transmission-
When pipes of different lengths and different
H
diameters are connected end to end, pipes are called hf = Where, H = Total head at inlet
in series or compound pipes. 3
Hardy Cross Method- hf = Loss of head due to friction
ESE Pre 2023 Maximum efficiency of power transmission-
In the analysis of water distribution for the UKPSC AE 2022, Rajasthan AE 2016
arrangement of long and narrow pipe (forming
H − hf
closed loops) hardy cross method is most suitable. Power transmission efficiency, η =
This method is based on continuity and energy H
equation or closed loop method or head balanced For ηmax. , h f = H / 3
method. Punjab SDO 2021, Rajasthan JE (Degree) 2016
It is also known as equivalent pipe method.
∴ ηmax. = 2 / 3 or 66.7%
In this method pipes of complex system is replaced
by the single hydraulically equivalent pipe. Water Hammer-
Hydraulically equivalent pipe means discharge and MH WRD JE 2022
head loss will have same. When the liquid flowing through a long pipe is
UPPCL JE 2022 suddenly brought to rest by closing the value at the
Ex. For two pipes to be equivalent. end of a pipe then the pressure wave of high
h f1 = h f2 and Q1 = Q 2 intensity is produced behind the value. This pressure
wave of high intensity has the effect of hammering
According to hardy cross method the algebraic sum action on the wall of the pipe. This phenomenon is
of the pressure drops around a closed loop must be called water hammer.
zero.
n Water hammer in pipes occurs due to sudden change
Then, head loss in pipes, hf = K.Q in the velocity of flowing fluid.
Where, n = 1.85- For Hazen William formula
n = 2.0 For Darcy-weisbach formula
Factors affecting water hammer-
GPSC AE 2021, GPSC AE 2019
Leq L1 L 2 L3 1. The speed at which the value is closed
5
= + + Dupit's equation 2. Length of pipeline
deq d15 d 52 d 53
3. Elastic property of pipe material
In the series connection of pipe, discharge is same in 4. Elastic property of flowing fluid
each pipe i.e. Q1 = Q2 = Q3 Case of water hammer-
Total loss in series connection of various pipe is
Case of Water hammer Pressure head
equal to summation of local loss and head loss in
Gradual closure of valve p L.v
every pipe.
(t = thickness of pipe) =
2. Pipe in parallel connection- w gt
5/ 2
d eq d 5/ 2
d 5/ 2
d 5/ 2 Sudden closure of valve in rigid p vC v k
= 11/ 2 + 1/2 2 + 53 / 2 pipe = =
1/ 2
Leq L1 L2 L3 w g g ρ
In a parallel pipe problem head loss is same in each Sudden closure of valve in elastic p V
=
pipe and discharge is increase in main pipes. pipe w 1 D
t = time of closing valve in sec. ρg 2 +
The rate of flow in the main pipe is equal to the sum K xE
of flow through branch pipes. x = thickness of pipe
Q = Q1 + Q2
Closure of valve will be gradual 2L
Note-
if T>
Equivalent pipe connection- C
Closure of valve will be
DDA JE 2023, GPSC AE 2021 2L
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Instantaneous if T<
It is a method of reducing a combination of pipes (T = time of closing of valve in C
into a simple pipe for easier analysis of a pipe sec.)
network.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 413 YCT
12.
DIMENSIONAL & MODEL ANALYSIS
Method of Dimensional analysis- It is the two type-
Relation between variables can be determined by 1. Undistorted model-
two methods that are. If the models are geometrically similar to its
1. Rayleigh method- prototype the models are known as undistorted
Functional relationship between variables is model.
expressed in the form of an exponential relation 2. Distorted Model-
which must be dimensionally homogeneous. If the models are not geometrically similar to its
If y is a function of independent variables as, prototype, the models are known as distorted model.
x1, x2, x3 ......................xn then For distorted model different scale ratio for
y = f(x1, x2, x3, ............xn) horizontal and vertical direction are used.
In exponential form- Ex.- Model of river, Harbours, Dam across wide
rivers, Estuaries etc.
y = C x1a , x b2 , x 3c ,..........x nz
For this model horizontal dimensions are large.
Where, C = Dimensionless constant
• Area ratio, A r = ( L r )H . ( L r ) v
a, b, c .....z are arbitrary exponents.
This methods is adopted when a number of variable • Velocity ratio, Vr = ( L r ) v
or parameters is three or four only and it is more
laborious. • Discharge ratio, Q r = ( L r )H ( L r ) v
3/ 2
2. Buckingham's π-Theorem
It state's that "If there are k variables are • Time ratio, t r = L r
dimensionally homogeneous and if these variables
UPPSC AE 2022, UJVNL AE 2016
contains, γ fundamental dimensions (M, L, T) then
Where,
the variables are arranged into (k–γ) dimensionless
parameter mathematically. ( Lr )H - Scale ratio for horizontal dimension
x = f (x1 , x 2 , x 3 ........x k ) = 0 ( Lr )v - Scale ratio for vertical dimension
or Similitude-Types of similarities-
x1 = f (x 2 , x 3 ............x k ) A model should be similar to the prototype and the
Can be reduced to model can be considered similar when it has
π1 = c (π2 , π3 ..........πk −γ = 0) ( π − Term or group) following three similarities.
1. Geometric similarity-
Suitable where k ≥ 4
For to be geometric similarity, the ratio of all
Not applicable if (k – γ) = 0
corresponding linear dimensions of the model and
It is best method to establish the relation between
prototype should be equal.
the variables if the number of variables are more.
For geometric similarity between model and
Dimensional analysis is used for
prototype.
1. Model Testing
Lp bp Dp
2. To check dimensional homogeneity of equations. Lr = = =
Lm bm Dm
Model Analysis-
The study of models of actual machines is called 2. Kinematic Similarity-
model analysis for finding solution complex flow Kinematic similarity between model and prototype
problems while prototype is the actual structure means the similarity of motion between model and
machine. prototype.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 414 YCT
Ratio of velocity as well as acceleration must be Note-
same in direction and magnitude. 1
Newton's number =
Kinematics parameters are velocity, acceleration and Euler 's Number
discharge. Nusselt number,
Convectional heat transfer strength
v p1 v p2 a p1 a p2 =
= = vr , = = ar Conduction heat transfer strength
v m1 v m2 a m1 a m2 h.Lc
Nusselt number N =
k
3. Dynamic Similarity-
It means the similarity of forces between the model Classification of flow based on mach number-
and prototype or Dynamic similarity between model Mach Types of flow
Number
and prototypes, identical type of forces must be
parallel and must be the same ratio at all =1 Sonic flow
corresponding sets of points. <1 Sub-sonic flow
Force and power are dynamic parameters. >1 Super sonic flow
>6 Hyper sonic flow
( Fi )p ( Fv )p ( Fg )p
= = = Fr
( Fi )m ( Fv )m ( Fg )m Model laws and its application-
Models Applications
Types of forces acting in moving fluid-
Reynolds • Submarines completely under water.
ISRO SE 2019, UPPCL AE 2019, GPSC AE 2019 model law • For fully immersed bodies.
1. Inertia force, Fi 2. Gravity force, Fg
• Motion of air-planes
3. Pressure force, Fp
• Flow through venturimeter, orifice
4. Elastic force, Fe meter
5. Viscous force, Fv • Flow through small sized pipes.
6. Surface tension force, Fs Mach model • Aerodynamic testing
Dimensionless Number- law • Underwater testing of torpedoes
Number Definition Equation • Water-hammer problem.
Froude model • Open channels.
Reynolds Inertia force Fi ρVL vL
= = law • Free surface flow such as flow over
Number Viscous force Fv µ ν
spillways, weirs, sluices.
Mach Inertia force Fi V
= =
V • Flow of jet from an orifice or nozzle.
Number Elastic force Fe C K/ρ • Flow of different density fluids one
Froude above the other.
Inertia force Fi V
= Weber model • Flow over weir for small heads
Number Gravity force Fg Lg
law • Capillary flows
Weber Inertia force Fi V
= • Flow of very thin sheet of liquid over
Number Surface tension Fs σ / ρL a surface.
Euler's Euler's model • Turbulent flow in pipeline where
Inertia force Fi V
= law viscous force and surface tensile
Number Pressure force Fp P/ρ
forces are entirely absent.
Cauchy Inertia force V2 • Where the phenomenon of
Number Elastic force C2 cavitations occurs.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 415 YCT
13.
BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY
Introduction- The thickness of boundary layer increases as the
distance travelled from the leading edge in the
A boundary layer is a thin layer of viscous fluid
direction of flow and this phenomena is known as
close to the solid surface of a wall in contact with a
growth of boundary.
moving stream in which the flow velocity varies
from zero at the wall (when they sticks to the wall Boundary layer classification based on
due to its viscosity) up to at the boundary which Reynolds's number-
approximately corresponds to the free stream Boundary layer Reynold's number
velocity.
Laminar RN < 5 × 105
Fundamental concept of boundary layer was
Turbulent RN > 5 × 105
suggested by L. Prandtl's in 1905.
Transition RN = 5 × 105
In boundary layer condition, fluid is subjected to
shearing force and viscosity. Laminar Boundary layer-
Boundary layer is formed in real fluid not in ideal Near the leading edge to the surface of plate where
fluid. thickness is small the flow in the boundary layer is
laminar through the main flow is turbulent.
In case of boundary layer condition flow of fluid is,
unsteady, compressible and rotational. Laminar boundary layer - δ ∝ x1/2
When a real fluid flow through a solid body, the Turbulent boundary layer-
fluid particle at the surface of the body flow with the BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021, TSPSC AEE 2017
same velocity as that of the surface to satisfy no slip A turbulent boundary layer form only at larger
condition. So the relative velocity of the fluid Reynolds number.
particles at the surface of solid body is zero. Turbulent boundary layer - δ ∝ x4/5
UK PSC AE 2022
Laminar Sub-layer-
This is the region in turbulent boundary layer zone
adjacent to the solid surface. Velocity variation is
influenced only by viscous effects in this zone.
If plate is smooth, then even in the region of
turbulent layer, there is a very thin layer adjacent to
the boundary where flow is laminar. This flow is
called laminar sub-layer.
Boundary layer thickness
Laminar sub-layer thickness decreases with increase
Note- in Reynolds's number.
Flow occurs laminar in U/S and turbulent in D/S in a Laminar sub-layer exists in turbulent boundary layer
boundary layer flow. region.
Viscosity is the main factor to affect the boundary Where,
11.6ν
layer. δ' =
vx δ' = Laminar sub-layer thickness
Flow in boundary layer region is viscous in nature.
vx = Friction velocity
As viscosity increases, boundary layer thickness
ν = Kinematic viscosity
decreases.
More negative pressure gradient reduced boundary ∂u u ∂u u
τ0 = µ = µ ∵ for linear variation, =
∂
y=0
y y ∂y y
layer thickness.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 416 YCT
Boundary Layer thickness (δ)- Note point-
RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021 δ > δ* > δ** > θ
It is basically defined as the perpendicular distance
Loss of energy due to boundary layer formation
from the surface of the solid body up to a point
1 3 **
where the velocity of flow is 99% of the free stream = ρU δ
2
velocity of the fluid or at y = δ, u = 0.99U, at y = 0
or at leading edge, δ = 0 Drag Force-
MPPSC AE 2022
D
δmax for pipe = R or Drag force is defined as the force applied by the
2
fluid over the body in the direction of motion.
Displacement thickness (δ*)-
1
It is perpendicular distance measured to the Drag force, FD = Cd ρAU 2
2
boundary of the solid body by which the boundary
should be displaced to compensate for the reduction Where, As = Projected area of body
in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation. Cd = Coefficient of drag
δ
Total drag force exerted by flowing fluid over the
u
Displacement thickness, δ* = ∫ 1 − dy body = Form/pressure/profile drag + shear drag.
0
U Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020
Where, Von Karman's momentum integral
u = velocity of fluid at elemental strip/flow velocity equation-
U = Free stream velocity at y distance from dθ τ
= 02 Where, τ0 = wall shear stress
boundary dx ρU
Momentum thickness (θ)- 1
The distance measured perpendicular to the τ 0 = C d ρU 2
2
boundary of the solid body by which the boundary
It is used for laminar, turbulent and transitional
should be displaced to compensate for the reduction
boundary layer.
in momentum of the flowing fluid on account of
Preston tube is used to measure boundary shear
boundary layer formation is known as momentum
stress.
thickness.
Local skin friction drag is larger at the leading edge.
δ
u u
Momentum thickness, θ = ∫ 1 − dy
Note point-
U U
0
Drag force of sphere, Fd = 3πµ.u.D
**
Energy Thickness (δ )- Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020
It is basically defined as the perpendicular distance 2R
At distance from the boundary layer, τ0 = 3.τ
measured to the boundary of the solid body by 3
which the boundary should be displaced to τ = Turbulent shear
compensate for the reduction in kinetic energy of the Lift force-
flowing fluid on account of boundary layer
The force excreted on the body in the perpendicular
formation.
direction to the direction of motion is termed as lift
δ
u u2 force.
Energy thickness- δ** = ∫ 1 − 2 dy
0
U U
Shape factor-
In boundary layer, shape factor is the ratio of
displacement thickness to momentum thickness i.e.
δ* m + 2
H= = 1 < H < 2.2
θ m
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 417 YCT
1 The point on solid body and which the boundary
Lift force, FL = C L ρAV 2 layer is on the verge of separation from surface is
2
known as point of separation.
CL = coefficient of lift dp
Effect of pressure gradient on
Resultant, FR = Fd2 + FL2 dx
boundary layer Separation-
Where, V = Flow velocity relative to the object GPSC AE 2018, CSE 1999
In region PQR of the curved surface, the area of
Boundary condition for the velocity profile-
flow decreases and hence the velocity increases i.e.
du flow gets accelerated in this region. Due to increase
At, y = 0, u = 0 and has some finite value
dy of velocity pressure decreases in the direction of
flow hence pressure gradient is negative in this
At, y = δ, u = U region.
du Condition of separation of flow-
At, y = δ, =0
dy TSPSC AEE 2017
Stalling- du Then it is known as separation point
=0 flow is on the verge of separation.
Sudden decreased in the lift force due to boundary dy y =0
layer separation the phenomena is known as stalling. du Attached flow
>0
Important Relations (Blasius Results) : dy y =0
Characteristics For For du
<0 Flow has separated
Laminar Turbulent dy y =0
Boundary boundary In region RST-
layer layer Area of flow decreases towards RST so velocity
Boundary layer thickness 5x 0.377x decreases and pressure increase in flow direction. So
in this region pressure gradient is increases or
(δx) R ex (R e x )1/ 5
dp
(δ x ∝ x1/ 2 ) (δ x ∝ x 4 / 5 ) positive
dx
> 0 .
Local skin friction 0.664 0.059 dp
Positive pressure gradient > 0 is responsible
( R ex )
1/ 5
coefficient (Cfx) R ex dx
for boundary layer separation.
Average skin friction 1.328 5
Cfx or After separation, the flow takes place in reverse
coefficient or drag R ex 4 direction and velocity gradient becomes negative.
coefficient (Cfa or Cd) 0.074 Separation of flow occurs when pressure gradient
( R ex )
1/ 5
changes abruptly.
MPSC 2015, UPPCL AE 2014
Displacement thickness (δ) 1.72x 0.048x
( R ex )
1/ 5
R ex
Momentum Thickness (θ) 0.669x 0.037x
( R ex )
1/ 5
R ex
Separation of boundary layer-
Boundary layer separation is the detachment of
boundary layer from the surface into a border wake.
It occurs when the portion of the boundary layer
closest to the wall or leading edge reverses in flow
direction. Pressure gradient
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 418 YCT
dp/dx < 0, pressure gradient is "Favorable"
dp/dx > 0, pressure gradient is "Adverse or uphill"
Rapid growth of boundary layer causes "Flow
separation"
Wake- Boundary layer in such bodies must be attached to
GPSC DEE 2022
the surface of the body for a long time thus behind
It is a region of recalculating flow immediately
the streamline body wake formation zone will be
behind the moving or stationary blunt body, caused
very small and consequently pressure drag will be
by viscosity which may be accompanied by flow
very small.
separation and turbulence.
So total drag on the streamlined body will be due to
Wakes always occurs after the boundary layer
friction (shear) only.
separation.
A streamline body is a shape that decreases the
Wake region is a low pressure region that create a
drag against the flow of fluid. friction drag between fluid and an object passing
through that fluid.
Large turbulent eddies are formed at down stream of
the point of separation this region is known as An airfoil is a streamline body.
turbulent wake. For streamlined body separation occurs in the
Pressure drag is results of the occurrence of wake. downstream part of the body.
Boundary layer separation occurs in the Streamline body as compared to bluff body have less
following cases – pressure drag and more friction drag.
(i) Diffusers (ii) Turbine blades Bluff body-
(iii) Fans (iv) Open channel transitions HPSC Lecturer 2022
(v) Aerofoil (vi) Pumps A bluff body is defined as the body whose surface
Methods of preventing the separation of does not coincide with the streamline when placed in
a flow. Then the flow is separated from the surface
boundary layer-
of the body much ahead of its trailing edge with the
Stream lining the body suction of fluid from
result of a very large wake of formation zone.
boundary layer
Then the drag due to pressure will be very large as
Providing a bypass in the slotted wing
compared to the drag due to friction on the body.
Rotating small divergence in flow direction.
By guide blades in a bend.
Sucking the retarded flow.
Injecting high velocity fluid in the boundary layer
Guidance of flow in a confined passage
Providing a rotating cylinder near the loading edge.
HPPSC Lect. 2021
Magnus effect-
Streamline Body-
The phenomenon of generation of lift by rotating an
It is defined as the body whose surface coincide with
object placed in a free stream.
the stream lines when the body place in a flow, flow
separation takes place only at the trailing edge in The Conoda effect is the tendency of a fluid jet to
such cases. stay attached to a convex surface.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 419 YCT
14.
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Introduction-
Open channel flow means a flow through channel
that is open to the atmosphere and has a free surface.
A free surface is a surface having constant pressure.
This flow is produced because of gravity that is
obtained by providing a bed slope.
Hydraulic gradient line coincide with free surface in
open channel flow.
In open channel flow pressure head takes place but
not velocity head. Velocity distribution in open
channel flow is logarithmic.
Max. velocity occurs just below the free surface. 1. Rapid Varying flow (RVF) –
GPSC AE 2021 UPPCL AE 2022
In this case depth of flow rapidly changes over a
smaller length of the channel and it rises up
suddenly for a short length and settles back.
2. Gradually varying flow (GVF)-
SSC JE 2022
In this type of flow, depth of flow changes gradually
over a longer length of the channel.
Flow is steady, prismatic channel and pressure
distribution is hydrostatic.
It is steady and non-uniform type of flow.
Types of channel-
Following types of channel is defined as-
(i) Prismatic or non prismatic channel-
If cross-section shape, size and bed slope remain
constant in the direction of flow known as prismatic
channel. Ex.- Man made channel 3. Laminar flow and Turbulent flow-
Channel generally varying cross section are known It is defined based on the Reynolds number (Re)
as non-prismatic channel. Ex.-Natural channel.
ρVD
(ii) Mobile boundary channel and rigid boundary Reynolds Number, R e =
channel- µ
Rigid boundary channel are non-deformable, no D = Hydraulic mean depth = A/T
silting or scouring takes place but with respect to µ = Viscosity of fluid
time only depth of flow is change it is having only V = Mean velocity of fluid
one degree of freedom. 4. Sub-critical, Critical and Super critical flow-
In case of mobile boundary channel, it is deformable It is based on Froude number as given below.
due to erosion and deposition of flow, it is four V
degree of freedom which is depth of flow bed width, Fr =
bed slope and alignment of flow. g.D
In OCF only rigid boundary channel are considered. Wetted area
Hydraulic depth of channel ( D ) =
Types of flow in open channels- Top width of channel
Properties of uniform flow- For determining the type of flow by producing small
BPSC AE 2022 disturbance on the flow surface by throwing a small
Bed slope (So ) = Energy line slope (Sf ) object-
(i) Disturbance travels both upstream and down stream
Depth of flow = constant it is known as sub critical flow.
In case of uniform slope So and Sf will be same and (ii) If disturbance travel only in down stream direction
total energy line will be parallel to bed slope (So) then flow is supercritical flow.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 420 YCT
Nature of flow according to Reynolds number for different condition–
MH WRD JE 2022, Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021, TNPSC AE 2019, RPSC AE 2018
Reynolds No, Re = ρVD/µ
Flow b/w
Nature of flow Pipe Flow Open channel parallel plates Flow through Soil
flow
Laminar flow Re < 2000 Re < 500 Re < 1000 Re < 1
Transitional flow 2000 < Re < 4000 500 < Re < 2000 1000 < Re < 1< Re < 2
2000
Turbulent flow Re > 4000 Re > 2000 Re > 2000 Re > 2
Lower critical flow Re = 2000 Re = 500 Re = 1000 Re = 1
point
Higher critical Re = 4000 Re = 2000 Re = 2000 Re = 2
flow point
Type of flow Depth of flow (yc) Velocity of flow (vc) Froude Number (Fr)
Subcritical/Tranquil streaming y > yc v < vc Fr<1
or Tangential flow
Critical flow (At this flow specific y = yc v = vc Fr = 1
energy is min)
Supercritical/Torrential/Rapid y < yc v > vc Fr > 1
or shooting flow
Where,
y = Depth of water, yc = Critical depth vc = Critical Velocity
Celerity can be more than the velocity of flow in sub critical flow.
The velocity of the surge relative to the initial flow velocity in the canal is k/a the celerity of the surge (Cs).
Celerity (Cs) = Lc .g
Hydraulic Radius/Hydraulic mean depth ■ Hydraulic jump occurs when–
(m/R)- Super critical flows meets
Hydraulic Radius = Area of flow/Wetted perimeter with sub-critical flow
of the channel ■ External force driving the Open channel flow is–
NBCC JE 2022, UK PSC AE 2022 Gravity Force
Discharge calculation through open
channel-
Chezy's
Q = A × v = A.C m.i
formula
Area of flow = B × y
v = C m.i
Wetted perimeter = B + 2y
Hydraulic mean depth-
A B× y
R= = m=
Area
=
A
P B + 2y Wetted Perimeter P
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
i = Hydraulic gradient
Note-
Dimension of C = M0L1/2T–1
In an open channel flow hydraulic radius is used to
defined the Reynold's number. Manning's 1
Q = A × v = A m 2 / 3 .i1/ 2
Formula n
Key Points 1
■ While deriving the equation for Gradually Varying v = m 2 / 3 .i1/ 2
n
Flow, the bed slope of the channel is assumed to
be– Small Dimension of n = M 0 L−1/ 3T1
■ If the velocity distribution is rectangular, the For open channel flow this is mostly
Kinetic energy correction factor is–Equal to unity used.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 421 YCT
Empirical formula for the value of Chezy's b + 2nd
width d 1 + n 2 =
Constant- 2
Bazin Formula 157.6 • m = R = d/2
C= • θ = 600
k
1.81 + • A circle of radius (d)
m
should be inscribed in
k = Bazin's constant trapezoidal section.
m = Hydraulic radius • Semi circle touch the three
Kutter's Formula 0.00155 1 sides of trapezoidal section
23 + + (P, Q,R)
C= i N
0.00155 N • Trapezoidal channel
1 + 23 + section will be most
i m economical when top
N = Kutter's constant or width is twice the length
Roughness Co-efficient of slanting side (T = 2L)
i = Bed Slope, Triangular Channel d
• m or R =
m = Hydraulic radius 2 2
Relation between manning's and Chezy's • Side slope = 1 :1
formula- • θ= 45°
1 1/ 6 • Most economical section
C= m
n of a triangular channel is
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021, UKPSC JE 2022 right angle triangle with
Note point- equal side.
Value of C depends upon – surface roughness, shape Circular Section For Max. discharge-
of channel, Frictional factor, Reynolds number and
d
hydraulic radius. = 0.95
D
In an open channel, a moving wave front which
2θ = 308°
brings about and abrupt change in depth of flow is
known as surge. m = 0.30D
If it is producing an increasing in depth is called For Max. velocity-
positive surge. d
= 0.81
The surge causing a decrease in depth is called D
negative surge. • 2θ = 257°27'
Surge Analysis- m = 0.30D
Rapidly varied flow • Area of flow,
(Friction role neglected) sin 2θ
Unsteady flow hence equivalent steady flow formed A = R2 θ −
2
by considering flow with respect to surge/wave
itself. Critical/Potential depth(yc) –
Most Economical Section of Channels- Critical depth is defined as the depth of flow of
Rectangular Channel Width of channel, b = 2d water at which the specific energy is minimum.
Depth of flow, d = b/2 1/ 3
q2
Hydraulic radius, (R) or Critical depth, y c =
Hydraulic mean depth, g
m = d/2 UK PSC AE 2022, LMRC AM 2018
Where,
Trapezoidal Section • Length of sloping side Q
q = Discharge per unit width of channel =
equal to half of the top B
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 422 YCT
v c2 Hydraulic jump is defined as the rise of water level
Value of Ac, vc, yc, Es(min.) - which takes place due to transformation of unstable
2g shooting flow (super-critical) to the stable streaming
Shape of Ac vc yc Es(min.) Kinetic
channel head flow (sub critical).
UK PSC AE 2022
vc2
When hydraulic jump occurs, a loss of energy due to
2g eddy formation and turbulence flow occurs.
Rectangular B.yc 1/ 3 3 1 Hydraulic jump usually acts as the energy dissipator.
g.yc Q2 × yc × yc
2 2 2 It clears the surplus energy of water.
g.B It is a rapid varied steady flow
Parabolic 1/ 3 4 1
2 2 3 Q2 × yc × yc Shooting flow is an unstable type of flow and does
× B.yc g.yc
3 3 3 not continue towards D/S side.
3 2 g.B2
Hydraulic jump observed in open channel flow.
Triangular 1/ 3 5 1
1 1 Q2 × yc × yc Critical depth meter is used to measure hydraulic
× B.yc g.yc 2 ×
2 2 4 4 jump.
2 g.B
Assumption of hydraulic jump-
i. Depth of flow before and after jump is uniform and
Critical velocity, (Vc) -
pressure distribution is hydrostatic.
The velocity of flow from the wide rectangular
channel at critical depth is known as critical ii. Length of jump is so small that frictional resistance
velocity. can be neglected.
iii. Before and after the jump flow is one dimensional.
Critical Velocity, Vc = ( q.g ) = g.yc
1/ 3
iv. The slope of the channel is very small, so the
Minimum Specific energy– corresponding weight component in the direction of
flow is negligible.
v2 Q2
E min = yc + = yc + 2 Equation used in hydraulic jump analysis
2g A 2g
Critical flow- Continuity Equation Momentum Equation
If the critical state of flow exists throughout the
entire length of the channel, the flow in the channel Application of hydraulic jump-
is called critical flow. i. It is used to increase the depth of level of water.
Condition for critical flow- ii. It is also used de-salination of water.
(i) Specific energy and specific force is minimum for a iii. Mixing chemical in water supply system.
given discharge. iv. Energy dissipaters
(ii) For a given specific energy, the discharge is maximum.
Alternate Two depth having same specific energy
(iii) Froude number is unity. for a given discharge are known as
depth
(iv) Velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in alternate depth.
a channel of small slope.
(v) Flow at the critical state is unstable. Conjugate The depth before and after the hydraulic
Note point- depth jump is known as conjugate depth or
Uniform flow is occurred in critical flow condition. sequent depth.
2 3 • Two depth having same specific force.
Q A
For critical flow- = Critical Depth at minimum specific energy.
g T
depth
CGPSC AE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
Where, T = Top width of channel Normal depth-
A = Cross sectional area It is the depth in case of uniform flow.
Hydraulic jump or standing/shock wave-
MH WRD JE 2022, MESCOM AE 2017
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 423 YCT
Note point - y2
Where, = Sequent depth ratio (SDR)
Fluid speed before the hydraulic jump is y1
supercritical/shooting speed and after the hydraulic
y2 = Post jump
jump subcritical/streaming speed.
y1 = Pre-jump
Height of fluid before the jump is low.
The ratio of sequent depth may be computed
Loss of energy due to hydraulic jump-
assuming-
( y 2 − y1 )
3
• Hydrostatic pressure distribution.
EL =
4.y1 y 2 • Uniform velocity distribution.
Where, y1 = Depth of flow at section 1-1 • Time averaged quantities.
y2 = Depth of flow at section 2-2 Instrument and their measuring
Note point- parameter-
MH WRD JE 2022, Kerala PSC AE 2015
2q 2
= y1 y 2 ( y1 + y 2 ) Instrument Measuring parameter
g
Venturimeter Discharge or flow rate
UK PSC AE 2022, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
Standard terms related to jump- Orificemeter Discharge or flow rate
Height of jump y2 – y1 Flow nozzle Discharge or flow rate
Relative height of jump y −y Elbow meter Discharge in vertical segment or flow
2 1
E1 rate
Nozzle meter Discharge or flow rate
Length of jump 5 to 7 times of height
of jump. Pitot tube Velocity of fluid flow
Efficiency of jump Prandtl tube Velocity of fluid flow
E2
(Boundary
E1 layer theory)
Classification of jump and water surface based on Current meter Velocity in open channel
Froude number- Weirs Discharge in open channel
BPSC Asst. Prof. 21.09.2021
Rotameter Flow rate or discharge in vertical
Froude Ratio of Types of Water Surface segment
number alternate jump
(Fr) height Hot-wire For measuring the gas or air velocity
Anemometer
1 - 1.7 1-2 Undular/ Undulating
Unsteady Pyrometer High temperature
1.7 - 2.5 2 - 3.1 Weak Small Rollers form Hydrometer Specific gravity
2.5 - 4.5 3.1 - 5.9 Oscillating Water moving in Hygrometer Humidity
random manner Channel transition-
4.5 - 9 5.9 - 12 Steady Roller and jump action A transition in an open channel flow structure whose
(Best purpose is to change the shape or cross sectional
jump) area of the flow.
≥9 > 12 Strong or Very rough and Purpose-
choppy choppy To avoid excessive energy losses, minimize surface
Relation b/w pre jump, post jump and waves and other turbulence.
Froude number – It is defined as two types.
BPSC AE Pre 2018 (i) Vertical transition-
y2 1
(
= −1 + 1 + 8Fr12
y1 2
) Vertical transition achieved by providing hump. The
flow is frictionless and channel is horizontal so there
will loss of energy-
y1 1
(
= −1 + 1 + 8Fr22
y2 2
) As per Bernoulli's equation –
v12 v2
Z1 + y1 + = Z2 + y 2 + 2 ( Z1 = Z2 )
Q2T 2g 2g
Fr =
gA 3 E1 = E 2 + Z ∆Z = E1 – E 2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 424 YCT
Specific energy is decrease by an amount of rise of dy So − Sf
Then, =
dx (1 − Fr2 )
hump. If height of hump is further increases above
∆Zmax then for this given discharge flow will not
possible. JPSC Combined AE 2013
∆Zmax = E – E min Different conditions-
(i) Uniform flow-
(ii) Horizontal Transition-
It is achieved by contraction width. The bed slope is dy
= 0 , it means water surface will be parallel to
not changing. Channel is frictionless and horizontal dx
so total energy will remains same at both the section.
the channel bottom So = Sf
v2 v2
y1 + 1 = y 2 + 2 dy
2g 2g (ii) If > 0 The shape of water surface to the back
dx
E1 = E2
side of dam this surface is known as 'Back water
1/ 3
q2 Q 2 surface' (Curve).
From, y c = , y3c =
g g.B2max dy
(iii) < 0 , The profile of surface is known a draw
dx
Q
Where, q = and Bmax = Max. contracted width. surface (curve).
Bmax
dy
For rectangular channels. (iv) = So Flow is uniform
dx
3 27Q 2
E min = y c and Bmax = Length of back water curve,
2 8g.E 3min
E 2 − E1
(l ) =
Equation of gradually varies flow- So − Sf
• Slope of total energy line with respect to horizontal
Analysis of depth of flow with the slope
dH
Sf = of channel-
dx
The water surface profile is a measure of how the
• Slope of channel bottom with respect to horizontal flow depth changes longitudinally. The profiles are
dz classified based on the relationship between the
So = actual water depth (y), the normal depth (yn) and
dx
critical depth (yc).
v2 Channel slope Profile Flow depth Froude
Total head ( H ) = z + y +
2g number
Then, H = z+ E Mild (M) M1 y > yn > yc fr < 1
(yn > yc) M2 yc < y < yn fr < 1
• Differentiation with respect to horizontal
dH dz M3 y < yc < yn fr > 1
= −Sf , = −So
dx dx Steep (S) (yc > yn) S1 y > yc > yn fr < 1
dH dz dE dE S2 yn < y < yc fr > 1
= + = So − Sf S3 y < yn < yc fr > 1
dx dx dx dx
Critical (C) C1 y > yc fr < 1
Dynamic equation of non-uniform flow-
yn = yc C3 y < yc fr > 1
If channel section having cross sectional area 'A' and
perimeter 'P' and total energy head is 'H' Horizontal (H) H2 y > yc fr < 1
v 2 So = 0 H3 y < yc fr > 1
Then total energy head (H) = z + y +
2g Adverse (A) A2 y > yc fr < 1
Differentiation with respect to x- So < 0 A3 y > yc fr > 1
dH dz dy d Q 2 Total number of profile exist in gradually varied
= + +
dx dx dx dx 2gA 2 flow is 12.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 425 YCT
15.
IMPACT OF JETS & JET PROPULSION
Introduction-
Impact of jet means the force exerted by jet on a fixed or on a moving plate. Plate may be flat or curved.
The jet is a stream of liquid coming out from nozzle with a high velocity under constant pressure.
Liquid jet from the nozzle exposed to atmosphere move along parabolic path.
Force on plate exerted by jet are two types-
1. Force on a stationary plate-
Plate is vertical to the jet Fx = ρAV2
Plate inclined to the jet Fn = ρAV2sinθ
Fx = ρAV2sin2θ
Fy = ρAV2sinθ cosθ
ρAv 2 sin 2θ
Fy =
2
Plate is curve Fx = ρAV2 (1 + cosθ)
IRCON AE 2017
Where,
V = Velocity of the jet
A = Area of cross-section of the jet
In case of inclined stationary plate
Q1 1 + cos θ
Ratio of discharge, =
Q 2 1 − cos θ
Angle of swing about hinged plate,
ρAV 2
sin θ =
W
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 426 YCT
Force exerted on a series of perpendicular vanes-
• Force excreted Fx = ρAV(V–u)
• Power/work done P = ρAV(V–u)u
• Kinetic energy 1/2ρAV3
• Efficiency 2u(V − u)
V2
• For max. efficiency V
u= ηmax. = 50%
2
Where, V = Velocity of jet
u = Tangential velocity of vane.
Note point-
The principle of jet propulsion is used in driving the ships and aeroplane.
Jet propulsion works on the principle of Newton's third law.
The undershoot wheels are those in which the wheels runs entirely by the impulse of water.
The breast water wheels are those in which the wheels runs partly by the weight of water and partly by the
impulse of water.
The overshoot water wheels are those in which the wheel runs entirely by the weight of water.
Force exerted by the plate on the jet is in the negative X-axis direction.
2. Force on moving plate-
Case Diagram Force exerted work done per
and its second by the jet
components on the plate
Plate is Fn = ρA(V–u)2 W = Fnu =
vertical to ρA(V–u)2 × u
the jet
Plate is Fn = ρA(V – u)2 W = Fxu =
inclined sinθ ρA(V – u)2 u sin2θ
to the jet Fx = ρA(V – u)2
sin2θ
Fy = ρA(V – u)2
sinθ.cosθ
Plate is Fx = ρA(V–u)2 (1 W = Fxu =
curved + cosθ) ρA(V – u)2 u (1 +
(jet cosθ)
striking
on a
symmetri
cal
moving
curved
plate at
the
center)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 427 YCT
16.
TURBINE AND PUMPS
Introduction- • In Kaplan turbine Moody spreading
The device which extract energy from the fluid is draft tube is mostly use.
called turbine. Forebay Storage reservoir at the head of penstock
Turbine, is defined as the hydraulic machine that is forebay.
convert the hydraulic energy into mechanical Types of head-
energy. Gross head-
Principles mainly behind the generation of It is inlet to the power plant and defined as a
hydroelectric power is conversion of gravitational difference between head race and tail race level
potential energy into electrical energy. when water is not flowing.
Layout of Hydroelectric Power Plant- H g = Head race – Tail race
UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
Net head or Effective head (H)-
It is the head under which turbine is working and it
is defined as the difference between gross head and
all the losses.
H effective = H g − h f
Types of efficiency-
1. Hydraulic efficiency-
NHPC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
Power delivered to runner R.P.
ηH = =
Power supplied at inlet W.P
Max. Hydraulic efficiency of an impulse Turbine-
1 + cos φ
ηmax =
2
Surge tank Surge tank is a tank provided in
DDA JE 2023, DSSSB AE 2021
high or medium head hydroelectric power
plant at sufficient height connected to long φ = Angle of blade tip at outlet
penstock to control the pressure variation 2. Mechanical Efficiency-
and eliminate the effect of water hammer. NHPC JE 2022, Kerala PSC AE 2015
Penstock It is a large diameters pipe that carries Power at the shaft of turbine S.P
ηm = =
water under pressure from source of water Power delivered by water to runner R.P
to turbine under sudden change of internal
pressure in penstock is a cause of water 3. Volumetric efficiency-
hammer. The flow in the penstock is a Volume of water actually strike the runner
viscous flow. ηv =
Volume of water supplied to turbine
Tail Race Tail race is controlling tail water
channel that carries water away from a 4. Overall Efficiency-
hydroelectric plant. Power available at the shaft S.P
ηo = =
Head Race It is the water surface in the storage Power supplied at the inlet W.P
reservoir.
Relation b/w efficiencies-
Draft tube This is the pipe of gradually increasing
area that connects the outlet of runner to ηo = ηm × ηH
the tail race.
ηH = ηnozzle × ηrunner
• It converts kinetic energy to pressure
energy. ηo = ηnozzle × ηrunner × ηm
• It is only used in reaction turbine to
increase the effective head of water. Note:–
If nozzle efficiency (ηnozzle) = 100% then water
• It permits a negative or suction head.
power = kinetic energy.
• In Francis turbine conical draft tube is
mostly use. W.P. = K.E. > R.P. > S.P.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 428 YCT
If nozzle efficiency (ηnozzle) ≠ 100%, then water Francis Turbine 0.6 - 0.9 88%
power ≠ kinetic energy. Kaplan, Propeller 1.4 - 2.0 88.35% ≃ 90%
W.P. > R.P. > S.P. Turbine
Efficiency of turbine- Note-
Efficiency of turbine is greater than pump according (a) Pelton (Impulse)-
to viscous losses JSSC JE 2022
1 Head race → Penstock → Surge tank → Bucket
Viscous losses ∝ (blads)→ Runner → Tail race.
size of device
(b) Reaction turbine (Kaplan and Francis)-
Since size of turbine are larger than the pump
Head race → Penstock → Surge tank → Casing →
therefore viscous losses are less in turbine.
Guide vanes → Moving vanes → Runner → Draft
Classification of turbine according to tube → Tail race.
the- Key Points
1. Type of energy at inlet-
■ For the Francis Turbines flow ratio, ratio varies
Type of Energy Example from– 0.15 to 0.30
Turbine available at ■ The hydropower plants which utilise the minimum
inlet flow in a river having no appreciable poundage on
Impulse Only Kinetic Pelton Turbine, Turgo Cross its upstream are called as– Run–off river plants
Turbine Energy flow Turbine ■ Immediately above the pump _____ valve is
Reaction Both Kinetic Francis, Kaplan, Girard, placed to reduce back surge of water hammer–
Turbine and pressure Fourneyron propeller Reflux
Energy ■ When centrifugal pump is used to lift water, the
2. Direction of flow through runner- direction of flowing water is changed by– 90º
Type of Turbine Example ■ The degree of reaction for a Parson's reaction
Tangential flow Pelton Turbine turbine is– 50%
Radial flow Francis Turbine ■ In Sardar Sarovar dam, around 80% of the total
power is generated using– Gravity Turbine
Axial flow Kaplan, Propeller Turbine
Mixed flow Modern Francis Turbine Degree of Reaction-
3. Head available and discharge- Pressure head contribution at runner
D.O.R. =
Types of Discharge Head Example Total head at runner
Turbine (m3/s) (m) Type of Turbine D.O.R.
High Head Low > 300 Pelton Turbine Pelton Wheel Turbine 0
Francis Turbine 0 - 1/2
Medium Medium 60-300 Francis Turbine
Kaplan Turbine 1/2 - 1
Head
Pelton turbine-
Low Head High < 60 Kaplan & Propeller
Turbine
4. Specific speed (Ns)-
Specific speed (Ns) Suitable Turbine
M.K.S. Unit S.I. Unit
10-35 8.5-30 Pelton wheel with single jet
35-60 30-51 Pelton wheel with two or
multi jet
60-300 51-225 Francis Turbine
300-1000 225-860 Kaplan or Propeller Turbine
5. Type of Turbine-
Type of Turbine Velocity Overall DDA JE 2023
Ratio efficiency ηo For Tangential flow πDN
turbine u1= u2 =
Pelton wheel 60
(Single jet) u = tangential speed of
0.43 - 0.48 85%-90% ≃ 86%
Pelton wheel bucket
(Double jet) D = Dia of the runner
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 429 YCT
Co-efficient of v1 It is axial flow turbine.
velocity Cv = , Runner Power 0
2gH M v w1 u1
Cv ⇒ (0.98 - 0.99) Speed Ratio (S.R.) u1
Speed ratio (S.R.) u1 = (1.4 − 2.0 )
= , 2gH
2gH
Flow Ratio, (kf) Vf1
(S.R. = 0.43 - 0.48) = (0.35 − 0.70)
Jet ratio (m) Dia of runner (D) 2gH
= Breadth Ratio B1
Jet dia (d) = ( 0.1 − 0.3)
= (12 for most cases) D1
Range of jet ratio 11 to 16. No. of Blades 4-8
Number of buckets = 18 to 25 m for Zmin Peripheral velocity at πDo N
(z) = 18 (Tygon formula inlet and outlet u1 = u 2 =
60
D
= 15 + ) Note-
2d ηkaplan > ηpropeller
Number of jets (n) Q
= Cavitation-
q MH WRD JE 2022, JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022
= 2 for horizontal shaft. Cavitation is formation of Vapour bubbles in the
= 6 for vertical shaft. liquid flowing through any hydraulic turbine.
Max. Number of jets 6 Cavitation occurs when the static pressure of the
Min. Dia. of Braking = 0.6 × d liquid falls below its Vapour pressure. Cavitation is
most likely to occur near the fast moving blades of
jet
the turbines and the exit region of turbine.
Width of Bucket = 5d Effects of cavitation-
Depth of Bucket = 1.2d The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to
Length of bucket, L = 2.5d cavitation.
Angle of deflections, = 160°-170° (Avg. α = 165°) The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are
formed on the surfaces.
(α)
Method to prevent cavitation-
Vane Angle at outlet, = 10°- 20° (Avg. φ = 15°)
Pressure should be control in such a away that it
(φ) should not fall below the vapour pressure for Ex.-
No. of Blades on = 16 - 24 installation of turbine below the tale race.
Pelton Provide highly polished blades to the runner.
For maximum efficiency the speed ratio is taken As a factor of safety stainless steel or aluminum
0.5 bronze coating is provided.
Kaplan turbine- Thomas's Cavitation factor (σ) (reaction
turbine)-
(H a − H v ) − H s
σ=
H net
Where,
Ha = Atmospheric pressure head
Hv = Vapour pressure head
Hs = Suction head
Pabs − Pv
Cavitation Number =
ρv 2
2
In Kaplan turbine the vanes fixed to the hub are Pabs = Absolute pressure, Pv = Vapour pressure
adjustable. Model Relationship for Turbine-
In case of propeller the vanes attached to the hub are Specific N P
fitted. Speed Ns = , M1/2 L-1/4T -5/2
JSSC JE 2022 H5 / 4
This turbine is suitable where a large quantity of Shape N P/ρ
water at low head is available. Number S=
( gH )
5/ 4
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 430 YCT
Unit Speed N Centrifugal pump-
Nu = DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022
H
It is commonly used for pumping water, solvents,
Unit Power P organics oils, acids, bases and any thin liquids in
Pu =
H3/ 2 both industrial, agricultural and domestic
Unit Q applications. It is use for high discharge, high speed
Qu = and low head.
Discharge H MPPGCL JE 2023, DSSSB AE 2019
Discharge Through a Turbine- The principle of centrifugal pump is based on the
forced vortex flow.
Type of Turbine Discharge The centrifugal pump acts as a reversed of an inward
Pelton wheel π 2 radial flow reaction turbine.
Q= d .C v 2gH
4 Its efficiency is 75 - 88%.
UKPSC JE 2022
Francis Q = πD1B1 × Vf1
Main part of centrifugal pump-
Kaplan π 2 (a) Impeller
Q=
4
( Do − Db2 ) .Vf1 (b) Casing
(c) Suction pipe with a foot valve and strainer
Model Law of Turbine- (d) Delivery pipe.
H H
2 2 = 2 2
D N m D N P
Q Q
3 = 3
D N m D N P
P P
5 3 = 5 3
D N m D N P
PUMP
Pump is a mechanical device that is used for lifting
the liquid from ground surface to the upper top
surface. Pump increase the pressure energy of liquid.
Pump operates at higher speed therefore results in
high shear stresses and frictional losses.
It is convert mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy.
Classification of Pumps-
SSC JE 2022, GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022
Centrifugal pump
Types of casing-
(i) Volute casing (without guide vanes)-
Volute casing without guide vanes which results in
formation of eddies due to which losses occur and
efficiency reduces. Its efficiency is 60%.
(ii) Vortex casing-
Vortex casing is a casing in which circular chamber
is provided between the casing and the impeller
vortex casing is helpful to increase pump efficiency
by reducing eddies formation to a considerable
extent.
(iii) Casing with guide vane-
Roto-dynamic pump- It is also known as diffusing type casing the function
The energy is supplied to the fluid by rotating of diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy into
blades. pressure energy therefore it produces large head.
Positive displacement pump- It is use for high heads and multistaging.
DDA JE 2023 It has the highest efficiency.
Energy supplied to the fluid by the movement of the Note-
boundary of control volume or closed volume
coursing the volume to expand or contract. ηcasing with guide vanes > ηvortex casing > ηvolute casing (without guide vane)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 431 YCT
Classification of centrifugal pump- Manometric/ Manometric efficiency = Manometric head
(i) On the basis of working head- Hydraulic Impeller head
efficiency Hm
Pumps Head (m) vane
ηmanometric = 0
Low head < 15 m No guide vane I.P./ M g
Medium head 15 - 40 m Guide vane Note-
High head > 40 m Multistaging Impeller head = Manometric head +
pumps Hydraulic losses
(ii) On the basis of casing- Mechanical Mechanical efficiency = Power at the impeller
Volute casing efficiency Power at the shaft
0
Vortex casing I.P./ M g I.P.
Casing with guide vane ηmechanical = 0
=
S.P./ M g S.P.
(iii) On the basis of number of shaft-
Single stage - each shaft has one impeller. Overall Power output
efficiency Overall efficiency =
Multi stage - each shaft has two or more impeller. Power input
(iv) On the basis of flow- Hm
Radial flow ηoverall = 0
= ηmanometric × ηmechanical
Mixed flow S.P. / M g
Axial flow Priming-
(v) On the basis of specific speed Pump priming is the process of removing air from
Type of pump Specific speed the pump and suction line. In this process, the pump
has been filled with the liquid being pumped and
Slow speed radial flow 10-30 rpm
this liquid forces all the air, gas or vapour contained
Medium speed radial flow 30-50 rpm in the passage ways of pump to escape out.
High speed radial flow 50-80 rpm How to avoid the problem of priming-
Mixed flow (or screw type) 80-160 rpm The pump is installed below the suction water level.
Axial flow (or propeller type) 160-500 rpm The pump is equipped with self priming device.
Cavitation in centrifugal pumps –
UPRVUNL AE 2015
Geodetic/ Total head (H) = (hs) + (hd)
Cavitation beings to appear in centrifugal pumps
Static head
when the pressure at the suction falls below the
Suction head It is the term used to describe liquid vapour pressure of the liquid. It can be noted by
(hs) pressure at pump suction in terms of sudden drop in efficiency, head and power
height of liquid column. requirement.
Delivery head The vertical distance between the Thoma’s cavitation factor –
(hd) centre line of the pump and the water H a − H s − H v H sv
surface in the tank to which water is σ= =
H H
delivered is known as delivery head.
Where,
Manometric It is the head against which Ha = Atmospheric pressure
head (hm) pump has to work.
V2
v2 Hs = Total suction head = h s + h fs + s
H m = h s + h ls + h d + h ld + 2g
2g
Hv = Vapour pressure
Where,
Hsv = Net positive suction head (NPSH)
hls = Losses in suction pipe
H = Manometric head.
hld = Losses in delivery pipe
Multistaging of centrifugal pump-
Efficiency of pump- These pump have the unique ability to produce
S.P. I.P. higher pressures. Flow range always remains
0
> 0
> Hm constant for a given rpm.
Mg Mg (i) Pumps in series- to increase water head.
Where, S.P. = Shaft power H T = n.H m
I.P. = Impeller power (ii) Pumps in parallel connection-
0
M = Mass flow rate To increases discharge.
Hm = Manametric head Q T = n.Q
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 432 YCT
Minimum speed for starting the centrifugal Note-
pumps- Dimensionless specific speed called shape number.
If the pressure rise in the impeller is more than or Reciprocating pump-
equal to manometric head the centrifugal pump will GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022, Nagaland PSC 2017
start delivering water, otherwise the pump will not If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic
discharge any water, through the impeller is rotating. energy (or pressure energy) by sucking the liquid
into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating
120.D 2 ηmanometric .Vw 2
N min . = (moving backwards and forwards), which exerts the
π ( D 22 − D12 ) thrust on the liquid and increases in hydraulic energy
(pressure energy), the pump is known as
Maximum suction lift or suction head- reciprocating pump.
The suction head in a pumping system is the vertical Efficiency of reciprocating pump is 50 - 90%.
dimension measured between the surface of the It is used where a precise amount of fluid is required
suction tank and the axis of the pump. to be delivered, also where the delivery pressure
Theoretically the maximum suction lift possible at required is higher than can be achieved with other
sea level is the atmospheric head which is 10.3 m of types the fluid is moved by the means of a piston
water but in actual the suction lift reduces to about that travels in a cylinder.
4.5 m of water because of the several factor. These are low speed pumps and suitable for high
The pump can not produce a pressure below the head, low discharge and low viscous fluid like pure
vapour pressure of the liquid then limiting available water.
head = Hatm– Hvapour Kerala PSC AE 2021, DMRC AM 2020
The pump is not always installed at the sea level. APPSC AEE 2019, GPSC AE 2019
Head loss due to friction and fittings. They are use in oil drilling operations, pneumatic
pressure system and light oil pumping.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)-
JSSC JE 2022, LMRC AM 2019
Total head required to make the liquid flow through
the suction pipe to the pump impeller.
Absolute pressure head at inlet – Vapour pressure
head + Velocity head
P1 Pv Vs2
NPSH = − +
ρg ρg 2g
APPSC AEE 2019
In order to avoid the cavitations-
(NPSH)available > (NPSH)required
Note-
In order to avoid the cavitations and to lift the water
NPSH > 0.
The suction pipe diameter > delivery pipe diameter
because-
(i) To reduce the velocity of the given discharge Reciprocating Pump
(ii) To increase the static head show that NPSH should Classification of reciprocating pump-
be maximum.
Model Relationship for Pumps-
Dimensional Parameter Dimensionless Parameter
H gH
CH = 2 2 CH = 2 2
ND ωD
Q Q
CQ = CQ =
ND3 ωD3
P It is classified on the basis of water being in contact
P
Cp = 3 5 Cp = 3 5 with side of the piston.
ND ρω D
1. Single acting-
N Q ω Q It is defined as, discharge on either the forward or
N s = 3/ 4 Ns =
H (gH)3/ 4 return stroke of the piston or plunger. It has only one
suction stroke and one delivery stroke for one
[ L3 / 4 T −3 / 2 ] complete revolution of the crank.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 433 YCT
Where,
Qth = Theoretical discharge
Qact = Actual discharge
Q th − Qact
% of slip = ×100 = (1 − Cd ) ×100
Q th
For Reciprocating pump-
To make uniform- Operate at high rpm.
To make continuous-
Use double acting reciprocating pump.
Air Vessels-
Mizoram PSC (ASE) 2021, JPPSC AE 2019
UPRVUNL JE 2022 These are fitted to the suction pipe and delivery pipe
The theoretical discharge or average rate of flow is close to the cylinder of the pump.
given by- The vessels are used for the following purpose-
L.A.N. (i) To get a continuous supply of liquid at a uniform
Q th =
60 rate.
Maharashtra PSC 2018, IRCON AE 2017 (ii) To save the power required to drive the pump.
Where, (iii) Acceleration and friction heads are reduced. Thus
A.L = Volume delivered the work is also reduced.
N = Number of revolution in 60 sec. Comparison between centrifugal pump and
Work saved in a single acting reciprocation reciprocating pumps-
pump- 84.8%. Centrifugal Pumps Reciprocating Pumps
2. Double acting- 1. The discharge is 1. The discharge is
In double acting pumps, liquid is discharged on both continuous and smooth. fluctuating and pulsating
the forward and return stroke of the piston.
2. Efficiency is high 2. Efficiency is low
Two suction stroke and two delivery stroke are
completed in complete revolution of the crank. 3. It can handle large 3. It handles small quantity
quantity of liquid of liquid only
4. Large discharge 4. Small discharge through
through smaller heads high heads
5. Installation cost is low 5. Installation cost is high
Head v/s Discharge-
Theoretical discharge or overage rate flow
2.L.A.N.
Q th =
60 Power v/s Discharge-
UPPCL JE 2022, TNPSC (CESS) 2021
Where,
2A.L = Volume delivered
Work saved in double acting reciprocating pump-
39.2%.
Slip and co-efficient discharge-
For good condition percentage of slips is less than
2%.
Slip = Q th – Q act
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 434 YCT
1. Irrigation Technique and quality of irrigation water ......................................................... 436
2. Water requirement of crops ............................................................................................... 439
3. Canal irrigation System ..................................................................................................... 443
4. Design of Irrigation Channel ............................................................................................. 446
5. Construction and Maintenance of Canals.......................................................................... 449
6. Diversion Headworks ........................................................................................................ 452
7. River Training Works ....................................................................................................... 455
8. Cross Drainage work ......................................................................................................... 458
9. Design and construction of gravity dam ........................................................................... 460
10. Water Logging and Drainage .......................................................................................... 467
11. Ground Water .................................................................................................................. 469
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 435 YCT
01.
IRRIGATION TECHNIQUE &
QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER
Introduction- (b) Storage/Tank Irrigation-
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022 Types of structure in which crop is irrigated by
Science deals with the artificial application of water means of dam constructed across the river (for
to the land/field according to requirements of crop water storage during monsoon) so as to use in dry
throughout the crop period for its nourishment is period is called storage irrigation.
called irrigation. Ex.- Ram Ganga Dam project
Classification of irrigation- (ii) Inundation/Uncontrolled/ flood irrigation-
SSC JE Civil 2022, DSSSBJE 2022 GPSC AE (GMB) 2021
In this method soil is submerged and throughout
flooded with water so as to cause saturation of the
land.
Moisture soaked by the soil is used by the crops
over the crop period for growth.
Silting in the canal bed is main problem in this
method.
B. Sub-Surface Irrigation-
Water is applied to the root zone of crops by
underground pipe network in which water flows
underground and nourishes the plant roots by
A. Surface Irrigation-
capillarity.
Water is applied over the surface and irrigation
field remains in wet condition. It is suitable for slightly permeable soil not for
It is suitable for low to moderate infiltration rates impermeable.
and leveled or 2 - 3% sloppy land. Water application efficiency is maximum so it is
1. Flow Irrigation- the best method of irrigation but initial cost is
DSSSBJE Tier-I 28.06.2022 Shift-I higher.
Water is available at higher level so that water Water distribution technique-
supplied over the surface under gravity. It comes under the control flooding (surface
2. Lift Irrigation- irrigation) also.
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
JSSE JE (Civil) 2022, Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020
1. Free/wild or ordinary flooding-
ESE (Civil) 2023, UKPSCJE (Civil) 2022
If the water is lifted by some mechanical means i.e.
MP Vyapam Sub Engineer 2022
pump, etc, and then supplied for irrigation then this
system is called lift irrigation Ex.-Wells. Entire land is divided in to small strips by a number
of field channels known as laterals.
When the water supply is at too low a level to run
by gravitation of the land, known as lift irrigation. This method is used over rolling land where
(i) Perennial or controlled irrigation- borders, checks, basins and furrows are not
RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021 feasible.
Constant and continuous water supply is assured to Water application efficiency is low and most
the crop throughout the crop period. suitable for close growing crops.
This system is mostly practiced in India. Negligible
silting take place in canal bed.
(a) Direct Irrigation-
Irrigation is done by diverting the river runoff into
the main canal by using diversion structure across
the river is called direct irrigation.
Ex.-Ganga canal system
It is simplest and most economical perennial
irrigation which is done by diverting the river
runoff in to the main canal.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 436 YCT
2. Border Flooding-
RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
In this method land is divided into number of long
parallel strips separated by low levees/borders.
Uniform gentle slope required in the direction of
Furrow Irrigation
irrigation. Border Flooding
Strip dimension-
UPPCl AE (Civil) 2021
Width- 10 - 20 m
Length- 100 - 400 m
Time required to covered the given land area.
y Q Check Flooding Basin Flooding
t = 2.3 log10
f Q − f.A 6. Contour method-
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022, IRCON AE 2017
Where, Contour method is used where area is mountainous
Q = Discharge through supply ditch/irrigation or land slope is very steep.
stream (cumec) 7. Sprinkler irrigation-
y = Depth of water flowing over border strip ESE Pre. (Civil) 2023, NHPC JE 2022
DSSSB JE 2022, PPSC SDE 2021
f = Rate of infiltration of soil (cm/hr.)
It is the artificial rain in which water is applied to
A = Area of irrigated land the soil/crop in the form of spray with the help of
Q 2 spray nozzle.
Max. irrigated area A max = m It is the best technique of irrigation.
f
Irrigation efficiency ≃ 80%.
3. Check flooding- Optimum quantity of water is used.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, JSSC JE 2022
Adoption condition-
It is similar to free flooding except that the water is SSC JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
controlled by surrounding the check area low and CG Vyapan Sub Engg. 2022, GPSC AE(Civil) 2022
flat levees. (i) Land gradient is steep and soil is easily erodible.
For check flooding the entire field is divided into (ii) Shallow root crops.
number of leveled plots surrounded by levees. (iii) Water table is high i.e. deficiency of water.
Levees are constructed along the contours with (iv) Irregular topography.
vertical intervals of 5 - 10 cm and plant area varies (v) Excessively permeable (Like sand) and high
0.2 - 0.8 hectare. impermeable soil.
Suitable for both less or more permeable soil. (vi) Crops required high and quick irrigation.
4. Basin flooding- Advantage-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 (i) Seepage losses completely eliminated.
UKPSC AE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022 (ii) Cropped area increased by 16% due to removing ditches.
It is the special types of check flooding specially (iii) Prevents water logging, salinity and leaches down salt etc.
adopted for garden and orchard. (iv) Minimum loss of irrigated water.
5. Furrow irrigation-
NHPC JE 2022, UPSC AE (PWD) 2021
Method of growing crops on running sides of water
ditches used in certain agriculture is called furrow
irrigation. Furrow is excavated between row of
plants to carry water.
The maximum recommended furrow slope is 0.5% Sprinkler Irrigation Drip Irrigation
to avoid soil erosion. 8. Drip/trickle irrigation-
JKSSB JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
1 1 DSSSB AE 2021, NWDA JE (Civil) 2021
Wetted area = to of total area.
5 2 It is the latest irrigation technique in which water is
Furrows vary from 8 to 30cm deep and 400m long. directly supplied to the root zone of plants.
In furrow irrigation less evaporation occurs, less Irrigation efficiency- 90%.
pudding of soil. It helps in optimum utilization of irrigation water
by minimizing the losses by evaporation and
For row crops deep furrow is widely used.
percolation.
Small shallow furrows are suitable for close Crops can be grown successfully over the saline
growing crops and irregular topography. land also.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 437 YCT
Drip nozzle or emitters or valve interval- 0.5-1.0 m. Very high > 2250 Not suitable for irrigation
Water flow rate- 2 - 10 l/hrs. saline water,
ESE Pre (Civil) 2023 C4
It is efficient and economical use for fertilizer 2. Proportion of sodium ion concentration-
through fertigation. The percent of sodium ion is < 5% of the total
It is useful when leaching is required to remove exchangeable cations.
salts from the soil profile. If Na+ ion ≥ 10% of total exchangeable cations,
Its higher water application and distribution efficiency. then the aggregation of soil grains breakdown and
Note- hence soil becomes less permeable and of poor tilt
Sub surface drip- Water applied through small proportion of sodium ion concentration available in
emitter openings below the soil surface. soil measured by sodium absorption ratio (S.A.R.).
SAR represents the sodium hazards of water.
[ Na + ]
S.A.R. =
Ca ++ + Mg ++
2
UPCL AE 2021, Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
Classification of water on the basis of SAR-
Type of water SAR Use in irrigation
value
Low sodium water, S1 0 - 10 Can be used for all
soil and crops.
Quality of irrigation water- Medium sodium water 10 - 18 Coarse grained or
1. Total concentration of soluble salt- S organic soil with good
Concentration of soluble salts in irrigation water is 2 permeability.
classified in terms of electrical conductivity.
High sodium water, S3 18 - 26 Harmful on all the
Excessive salt reduces osmotic activities and prevent
adequate aeration causing injuries to plant growth. soils and required
good drainage high
Bad effects of salts depends upon the salt
concentration left in the soil. leaching etc. for
proper irrigation.
Salinity concentration of the soil solution,
Very high sodium > 26 Not suitable for
C.Q water, S irrigation.
Cs = mg/l 4
Q − ( Cu − R e ) ESE 2023, Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
Note-
Where, S.A.R value can be reduced by adding gypsum to
C = Salt concentration Q = Applied Qty. of water water/soil.
Cu = Consumptive use of water by crops 3. pH Concentration-
Re = Effective/useful rainfall pH range of water for irrigation purpose is 6.5 - 8.4.
Cu – Re = Used up irrigation water UPRVUNL AE 2022, Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
Note- Classification of saline and Alkaline soil-
If Cs > 700 ppm - Harmful for some plants Soil classification E.C. E.S.P. pH
Cs > 2000 ppm - Harmful to all crops. (µMho/cm) Value
Concentration of salt- Saline soil or white > 4000 < 15 ≤ 8.5
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
alkali
Classification Electrical Use in irrigation Alkaline soil or non < 4000 > 15 8.5 - 10
conductivity saline alkali/sodic
(µMho/cm) soil/black alkali
Low saline 100 - 250 For all crops Saline alkali soil > 4000 > 15 < 8.5
water, C1
EC- Electrical conductivity, ESP- Exchangeable
Medium 250 - 750 Can be used if a moderate sodium percentage.
saline water, amount of leaching Boron content-
C2 occurs.
It is an essential micronutrient for plant growth.
High saline 750 - 2250 Normal salt tolerant Safe limit of boron content-
water, C3 plants can be grown
without much salinity Quality rating Boron (ppm)
control. Only high salt Normal <3
tolerant plants can be Low 3-4
grown with special Medium 4-5
precaution and measure. Very High 5 - 10
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 438 YCT
02.
WATER REQUIREMENT OF CROPS
Soil water classification- Where,
dw = Depth of waters stored in root zone
n = Porosity
G = Specific gravity
F.C. is the upper limit of the capillary water.
Soil moisture tension at field capacity-
1 1
- atmosphere.
10 3
2. Saturation capacity (S.C.)-
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
1. Gravitational water- It is the total water content of the soil when total
The water that can drains out freely from pores soil pores are filled with water or the amount of
under the influence of gravity is called free or water required to fill up the pore space in soil
gravitational water. particles by replacing all air held in pore spaces, is
This water is not held by soil. called saturation capacity.
2. Capillary water- S.C. is also known as maximum water holding
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022 capacity of soil.
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021 3. Permanent wilting point (P.W.P.)-
It is an useful soil moisture for plant growth ESE 2021, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
retained in soil after the drained off the Water content at which plant can no longer extract
gravitational water. sufficient water from the soil for its growth is
Capillary water is held in soil pores due to surface called permanent wilting point.
tension or molecular attraction. Soil moisture tension at P.W.P. ranges between 7
It is available water that held in soil against the to 32 atmosphere.
gravity force.
3. Hygroscopic water-
It is not available for the plant and can't be easily
removed from soil particle.
Soil contains only this water below permanent
wilting point.
Soil water-
Water held's in the pore of soil is called soil water.
Soil moisture constants-
1. Field capacity, F.C-
RPSC ACF & FRD 2021
Maximum amount of moisture held by a soil Note-
against gravity is called field capacity. 15 - 31 bar - Unavailable water for plant.
It removes most of the gravitational water after free 0.33 - 15 bar - Available water for plant.
drainage. 4. Available moisture-
Soil is not saturated but still a very wet condition. It is stored in the soil in the form of capillary water.
Field capacity, Available moisture for the plant = F.C. − φ
Weight of water retained in unit area of soil
F.C. = × 100 Available moisture depth to plant-
Weight of dry soil of same volume
γ d .d
dw = × F.C.
γ .d n γw
F.C. = w w =
γ d .d G UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 439 YCT
Readily available moisture depth to plant, ■ The field capacity of a soil is equal to–
γ .d 1.8 to 2.0 times of P.W.P.
d 'w = d [ F.C. − P.W.P ] ■ Water requirement for the crops is equal to–
γw
Consumptive use + Application loss + Special
γ d .d needs for land preparation, transplantation
d 'w = [ F.C. − mo ] d 'w = S.d ( F.C. − mo )
γw IRRIGATION EFFICIENCIES
S = Specific gravity (i) Water Conveyance Efficiency
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Wf
Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020 ηc = × 100
φ = Permanent wilting point (P.W.P.) Wr
UPMRC AM (Civil) 2023, UPPCL AE 2015
Where Wf = Water delivered to the field.
Wr = Water delivered from the reservoir
(ii) Water Application Efficiency-
(Max. for sub-surface irrigation)
Ws
ηa = ×100
Wf
RPSC Lect. (Tech Edu.) 2022
UKPSC AE 2022, UPPSC AE 2022
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, JKPSC AE 2021
5. Readily available moisture-
Where Ws = Water stored in the root zone
Moisture which plants can extract it very easily.
75-80% of the available moisture is usually readily (iii) Water Use Efficiency
available moisture. W
ηu = u × 100
Wf
Where Wu = Water use consumptively
(iv) Water Storage Efficiency
JSSC JE 2022
Ws '
ηs = ×100
Wη
Where Ws' = Actual water stored in the root
zone.
Wη = Water needed to store to bring the
water content up to field capacity.
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021 (v) Water Distribution Efficiency/Uniformity
6. Ultimate wilting point- Coefficient
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
y
Point after which plant is not able to extract any ηd = 1 − × 100
water from the soil and gets completely wilted and d
dies. U.K. Combined AE 2012
7. Soil moisture deficiency- Where,
It is defined as water required to bring the soil
y = Avg. of the absolute values of deviation from
moisture content of a given soil to its field
capacity. the mean
Key Points d1 − d + d 2 − d + d 3 − d + ........
=
■ Consumptive Irrigation Requirement is calculated n
using the– Consumptive use, Effective rainfall d = Average depth during irrigation
■ The soils requires a frequent irrigation is– Sand
■ The combined use surface water and ground water d1 + d 2 + d 3 + .........
=
to raise a crop is called–Conjunctive use of water n
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 440 YCT
When water has penetrated uniformly throughout Crop season duration-
the field, mean depth is zero and water UPMRC AM (Civil) 2023, UPRVNL JE (Civil) 2022
distribution efficiency is equal to one. MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
(vi) Consumptive Use Efficiency DSSSB AE 2022, NWDA JE (Civil) 2021
Wcu Kharif June - September
ηcu = × 100 (Mansoon crops)
Wd
Rabi October - March
UKPSC AE 2022, Punjab PSC SDE 2021
Where Wcu =Water used by plant consumptively. Zaid April - June
Wd = Net amount of water depleted from Kharif crops– Rice, Bajra, Jowor, Maize, Cotton,
root zone Tobacco and Groundnut etc.
• Frequency of irrigation, Rabi crops– Wheat, Barley, Gram, Linseed, Mustard &
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022 Potatoes etc.
Cash crop - Cotton (8 month), Coffee, Tea, sugarcane,
Available or readily available moisture depth d 'w
= Rubber, Tobacco, spices.
Consumptive use Cu
Perennial crop - (Time taken 1 year) - Sugarcane
• Water interval, TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO IRRIGATION-
Depth of water lost so as to start next watering Temporary It is the phenomena that the soil
=
Daily consumptive use wilting point water content at which the plant wilts
at day time, but recovers during night
Note-
or when water is added to soil.
Optimum water depth-
UK PSC AE (Civil) 2022 Crop period The total time period that elapses
Quantity of water at which the yield is maximum from the instant of its showing to the
called the optimum water depth. instant of its harvesting.
IRRIGATION REQUIREMENT OF CROPS Base period Time between the first watering of a
Consumptive use (CU)- Total amount of water used by (B) crop at the time of its sowing to its
the plant in transpiration and evaporation from last watering before harvesting.
adjacent soils in any specified time. Note- Base period < crop period
(1) Consumptive Irrigation requirement - Paleo • It is the watering done prior to the
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022 Irrigation sowing of a crop.
GPSC AE (CLASS 1 & 2) 2019
• It is done to prepare the land
CIR = Cu – Re
for sowing and to add enough
Cu = Total consumptive use moisture to the soil.
Re = Effective rainfall
• It is the first watering given to
(2). Net Irrigation requirement - the filed.
UPMRC AM (Civil) 2023
N.I.R. = C.I.R.+ Lr
Kore • It is the first watering after the
watering plants have grown a few
= Cu – Re + Lr
centimeter high.
Lr = Leaching requirement
• It is the first watering after
(3). Field Irrigation requirement -
sowing the crops.
JKSSBJE (Civil) 2021
• Kore watering required max.
N.I.R
F.I.R. = [F.I.R. = N.I.R. + Runoff loss] discharge in limited time.
ηa
Kore depth Depth of water applied during kore
(4). Gross Irrigation requirement- watering.
F.I.R. N.I.R Outlet factor It is the duty of canal water at the
G.I.R. = =
ηc ηa .ηc outlet.
Crop Ratio Irrigated area of Kharif season
Note- =
Irrigated area of Rabi seasons
GIR > FIR > NIR > CIR
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 441 YCT
Ploughing Process of turn up the earth with a Duty of water at various places-
plough especially before sowing. RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021, HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021
Rotation Time interval between two
Period consecutive watering of plants.
Method of increasing fertility of soil-
NHPCJE 2022
1. Crop rotation
2. Providing rest to land
3. By using manures and fertilizers
4. Mixed cropping
5. By controlling weeds, soil erosion.
Kore depth of various crop-
Rice - 19 cm
Wheat - 13.5 cm
Sugarcane - 16 cm
UKPSC AE 2022
Duty (D)- The number of hectares of land irrigated for
full growth of a given crop by supply of 1 m3/sec GPSC AE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
of water continuously during the entire base CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, JSSC JE 2022
RPSC (Lect.) 2021, BHEL ET 2019
period (B) of that crop.
Max. duty- At the field
PPSCJE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
TNPSC AE 2022, DSSSB JE 2021 Minimum duty- Head of water course
MPPSC AE 2022
Factors affecting duty-
ESE 2023, SSC JE 2022 • Head of minor < Head of water course.
1. Climate and season • Head of distributary < Head of minor
2. Types of crop • Head of branch canal < Head of distributary
3. Type of soil • Head of main canal < Head of branch canal.
4. Efficiency of cultivation method Outlet Discharge-
DSSSB JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
5. Useful rainfall
UK Combined AE 2012, BPSC AE 2012
Delta (∆)-It is total depth of water (in cm) required for a The duty at the head of water course (at the outlet
crop during the entire period of the crop's. point of minor) is called outlet discharge.
Relation b/w Duty and Delta- Area
UKPSC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 Outlet discharge =
Outlet factor
GPSC AE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
UPPCL JE 2022, UPPSC AE 2020 Mulching-
8.64B Process includes spreading of an external material
∆= m on the soils to increase infiltration and reduce
D
evaporation.
B = base period in days
D = Duty in hectares/cumec
OR
864B
∆= cm
D
Crop Delta (cm) Duty (ha/m3/s.)
Rice 120 775
Wheat/Rabi 40 1800
Sugarcane 120 730
Tobacco 75 -
UKPSC AE 2022, WBPSC AE 2020
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 442 YCT
03.
CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM
According to alignment- Ridge or watershed canal
Canal alignment should done such that- 2. Contour/single bank canal-
SSCJE (Civil) 2022, UKPSC AE 2022
(a) It can irrigate maximum area.
DSSSB AE 2021
(b) To ensure minimum number of cross drainage It irrigate only one side of canal.
works.
Does not required bank on higher side.
1. Water shed or ridge canal-
CG Wyapam Sub Engg. 2022, NHPCJE 2022
Cross drainage work required.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
This types of canals are designed along the
watershed line.
It can irrigate both side of canal under gravity flow.
Water shed canal is not designed in case of-
• When water shed from a sharp loop.
• Canal has taken off from the river.
• Towns and villages are located on the water shed
line i.e. densely populated.
Contour canal
3. Side slope canal-
GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
RSMSSB JEn (Degree) 2020, RSMSSB-JE 2020
It is aligned at right angle (90°) of the contours and
runs parallel to natural drainage.
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, JSSC JE 2022
Cross drainage works are completely eliminated.
More number of canal falls required that is used for
hydro electric production.
It has very steep bed slope.
According to supply-
1. Perennial channel-
DSSSB JE 2022, SSC JE (Civil) 2022
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 443 YCT
Canal designed for irrigation throughout the year. (b) Branch canal-
Uttarakhand Combined State AE 2007 It takes discharge from main canals. It supply the
water to major and minor distributary.
Discharge- < 30 m3/sec.
2. Secondary distribution system
(a) Major distributary-
Supply water to minor distributaries and field
channel.
Discharge capacity- < 30 m3/sec.
(b) Minor distributaries-
It supply the water to filed channel
2. Inundation canals- Discharge capacity- < 2.5 m3/sec.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, OPSC 20193. Tertiary distribution system
Water available only during the flood periods. It is (a) Field channel/water course-
directly taken from rivers to control the water It is excavated by cultivators of its own expenses.
levels in river during flood. Sequence of canal system-
Note-
Escape canal-
UPRVNL JE (Civil) 2022, GPSC AE (Civil) 2022
According to their function- SSC JE 2022, UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
1. Feeder canal- It is a side canal constructed to remove surplus
water from an irrigation canal.
The canal constructed to feed two or more other
canals or branch canals is called feeder canal. It is not used for irrigation but it is work like as
safety valve.
Ex.- Indira Gandhi canal
2. Carrier canal-
Warabandi-
It is a multifunction canal which serve as the Rotation of water supply according to a fixed
schedule is known as warabandi or water
purpose of both irrigation and feeder canal.
distribution system.
3. Navigation canal- It is divided two tier operation managed by two
A canal which is constructed especially for separate agencies.
navigation purpose is known as navigation
channel. Key Points
■ If the ground water table is higher than the bed
Note-
level of the canal, linings usually provided–
According to IS : 5968 - 1987, Main canals should
Porous lining
be aligned as contour canals while branch and
■ Jawaharlal Nehru Lift Irrigation Scheme is located
distributaries as watershed canals.
in– Haryana
Based on financial aspect- ■ In border strips flooding irrigation, the time of
(i) Productive canal- ponding is estimated on the basis of–
Produce enough revenue for its maintenance and Advance curve and recession curve
running costs.
Terminology-
(ii) Protective canal-
Command area-
Constructed to protect a particular area from the
Area served by a canal system through supply of
shortage of water. water for irrigation and other purpose is called as
It is used for famine relief work. command area.
Based on discharge- Types of command area-
1. Primary distributary system- (i) Gross command area (GCA)-
(a) Main canal- RSM SSB JE (Degree) 2022, NHPC JE 2022
Main canal takes of direct from reservoir. It feeds It is the total area, bounded within the irrigation
the branch and distributary canals. Direct irrigation boundary.
is not done from it due to high discharge. G.C.A. = Culturable area + Unculturable area
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 444 YCT
(ii) Culturable command area (C.C.A)- Capacity factor-
DSSSB JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022 UPPCL JE 2022, UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021
It includes all land of G.C.A. over which It is the ratio of mean supply discharge to the full
cultivation is actually done. supply discharge.
C.C.A = G.C.A. − Unculturable area Mean discharge
• Cv =
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021 Design discharge
CCA ≃ 80% of G.C.A.
• For Rabi season- Cv = 0.60 - 0.70
(iii) Intensity of irrigation (I.O.I)- • For Kharif season- Cv = 0.90 - 0.95
It is the percentage of CCA proposed to be
Full supply coefficient/duty on capacity-
irrigated annually.
Annual intensity is usually in the range of 40 - 60% Area estimated to be irrigated during base period
but it is desired upto 100 - 180% by cultivating Design full supply discharge at the head of canal
larger parts of CCA with more than one crop in a Nominal duty-
year. i.e.
Actually irrigated area
IOI for Kharif - 30%
Annual IOI - 30 + 35 = 65% Mean supply discharge
IOI for Rabi - 35%
Mean supply discharge =
(iv) Net and gross sown or cropped area (GSA)- Q.B Rate of supply (cumec) × Days for water supply
ESE Pre. (Civil) 2023, GPSC AE 2018
=
D Crop period
G.S.A. = Net cropped area + Area sown more than
once during same year. Intensity of cropping-
(v) Net and gross irrigated area- Gross cropped area
NHPC JE 2022 I=
Net cultivated/cropped area
GIA = Net irrigated area + Area irrigated more
than once during same year. Losses of water in canals-
Area to be irrigated, ESE 2021
AI = CCA × Irrigation intensity
(vi) Net command area-
It is defined the CCA obtained after the deduction
of canal networks supply ditches etc. constructed in
the field.
NCA = CCA – Area occupied by canals, networks
and ditches.
(i) Evaporation losses- It is 2 - 3% of total losses
(ii) Seepage losses- (a) Percolation (b) Absorption
(iii) Transpiration losses, Absorption losses
Empirical formula for canal losses-
1
( B + y ) (Use in Uttar Pradesh)
2/3
(a) ∆Q =
200
(b) ∆Q = 1.9Q1/ 6 (Use in Punjab)
∆Q = Canal losses in cumec/km. length of canal
Where, B = Bed width of canal
y = Depth of water
∆Q = Canal losses in cumec/million square meter
of wetted perimeter of canal.
Types of irrigation project-
Time factor- CG Vyapam Sub. Engg. 2022, JKSSB JE (Civil) 2022
MH WRDJE 2022 DSSSB JE 2022, NWDA JE 2021
It is the ratio of number of days the canal has Project Irrigation Cost
actually run to the number of days or irrigation project CC.A
period. Small < 2000 ha 0.25 - 0.5 cr.
Actual operating period of distributary Medium 2000 - 10000 ha 0. 5 - 5 cr
Time factor =
Crop period Major > 10000 ha > 5 cr.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 445 YCT
04.
DESIGN OF IRRIGATION CHANNEL
Most economical section- Critical velocity-
Channel section which obtains maximum discharge Velocity of water flow in canal where is neither
at minimum cost of construction is called most silting nor scouring occurs is called critical
economical section. velocity.
Most efficient channel section is semi circular. Critical velocity ratio (m)-
Regime channel- m=
Actual average velocity v
=
OPSC AE 2019, Nagaland PSC CTSE 2017 Critical velocity v0
A channel is said to be in a stage of regime if there GPSC AE (CLASS 1 & 2) 2019
is neither silting nor scouring in the channel. If, m > 1 Scouring occurs (Coarse grain soil)
There is three stage of regime- m < 1 Silting occurs (Fine grain soil)
A. Initial regime- m = 1 Not silting nor scouring
Maharashtra PSC 2018
1. Kennedy's silt theory-
It is the first stage of stability attainment by
NHPC JE 2022, Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020
channel in which-
Kennedy observed that the upper Bari Doab canal
(a) Bed slope of channel varies due to silting. was not silting for a larger period.
(b)Cross section or wetted perimeter remains Kennedy's Assumption-
unaffected.
(i) Flowing water has to counteract some amount of
B. Final regime- friction against the side and bed of canal. Due to
If there is no resistance from the sides and all the friction vertical eddies are generated from the
variable such as perimeter, depth, slope are free to bottom and rising up towards surface.
vary and finally get adjusted according to UPPCL JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
discharge and silt grade. (ii) These eddies are responsible for keeping most of
C. True regime- the silt and move forward along with water.
UJVNL AE 2021, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
(iii) Some eddies may start from sides but these are for
ESE 2021, Rajasthan AE Nagar Nigam, 2016
most of its parts horizontal and so do not have any
According to Lacey, the channel should satisfy the
silt supporting power.
following conditions to be in true regime
(iv) Silt supporting power or rate of silt transportation
condition-
proportional to bed width of canal and water
Canal discharge should be constant.
velocity.
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, UKPSC JE 2022
Silt charge, which is the minimum transported load (v) Velocity at which, this state occur is critical
should be constant. velocity. vo = 0.55 D0.64
Silt grade should be constant. (Valid for only upper bari doab region)
Channel should flow through incoherent alluvium MPPGCL JE 2023, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
soil. UKPSC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
Sediment load- Limitation of Kennedy theory-
It is the burden of sediment carried by the flowing (i) Kennedy did not give any equation for the slope of
water in a canal. canal. It is taken according to slope of available
Design of regime channel- ground.
1. Kennedy's silt theory. (ii) Kennedy made use of Chezy's equation to find
2. Lacey's silt theory mean velocity (v), with C value calculated from
3 Garret graph Kutter's equation.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 446 YCT
Design procedure- (iv) Lacey's gave three regime constant- Initial regime,
Final regime, True regime.
(i) Critical velocity, v0 = 0.55my0.64
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
Where, y = Trial depth, m = Critical velocity ratio Note-
Lacey's silt theory is not applicable if canal lined
(ii) Area, A = (B + ny)y and manning's formula is used for lined canal.
Regime theory is applicable to final regime
Q condition.
Where, A = , Q = Discharge (m3/sec.)
vo Such a channel assume semi-elliptical cross section
instead of trapezoidal section assumed by
(iii) Perimeter, P = B + 2y n 2 +1 Kennedy.
HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021
A
(iv) Hydraulic mean depth R = Finer the silt attains semi-circular geometry.
P
Dia. of silt ↑ width ↑ and depth ↓ (section
GPSC AE Class (1&2) 2 2017 becomes flatten) i.e, coarser the silt, flatter, wider
(v) Actual velocity, v = C R × s s = canal bed slope and less depth section formed.
Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021
0.0015s 1
23 + +
(a) Kutter's equation, C = s N
0.0015s N
1 + 23 +
s R
Draw back of Lacey's theory-
1 1
(b) Slope, ≤s≤ (i) True regime condition can't be achieved
3500 5000 practically.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
(vi) If v ≃ vo then O.K.
(ii) He define silt factor but not perfectly define the silt
Value of C and m- grade and silt charge.
RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 12.09.2021 GPSC AE 2018
Type of silt grade C m (iii) Characteristics of regime of channel may not be
Coarse silt 0.7 1.3 same for all cases.
Sandy loam silt 0.65 1.2 Key Points
Coarse light sandy silt 0.59 1.1 ■ If the critical shear stress of a channel is Tc then
the average value of shear stress required to move
Light sandy silt 0.53 1.0
the gain on the bank is– 0.75 Tc
2. Lacey's silt Theory (IS : 1772)- ■ In lined canal, seepage loss can be reduced upto–
Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
2% to 5%
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, MPSC (ASCE 2021
■ The range of Manning's value for cement plastered
Lacey's theory is applicable to flow in alluvial river
masonry lined canal is– 0.012–0.015
sandy stable canal.
Applicable for irrigation channel and river both. Design steps-
1/ 6
Assumption- Qf 2
(i) Silt supporting eddies due to roughness of section (i) Velocity, v =
140
are generated from bottom and side both
Lacey's regime velocity equation,
(ii) Silt is kept in suspension by the vertical
components of eddies generated at all points for v = 10.8R 2 / 3s1/ 3
forces normal to the wetted perimeter. DSSSB JE 2022
Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021
(iii) Velocity of water depends upon hydraulic mean
depth not the depth. Where, Q = Discharge in cumec (m3/sec)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 447 YCT
(a) Silt factor, f = 1.76 d mm Where dmm = dia (mm) Considered channel section is Semi-elliptical section
trapezoidal.
MPGCL JE 2023, NHPC JE 2022
There can be many section for Only one regime section
UKPSC JE 2022, BPSC AE 2022
Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021, WBPSC AE 2020 the given discharge. for given discharge and
silt factor.
5 v2
(ii) R= . Hydraulic mean depth Used critical velocity ratio Established silt factor
2 f
(m) to account for silt that is that is depends upon
UPPCL JE 2022
depends upon silt charge and avg. size of particle.
(iii) P = 4.75 Q Wetted perimeter perimeter.
JKSSB JE 2022, HPSC Lecturer 2022 Recommended the use of Gave is own flow
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, JSSC JE 2022 Kutter's equation. equation.
P = B + 2y n 2 + 1 Note
A channel designed by Lacey's theory is wider and
Q
(iv) A= A = (B + ny)y Where, A = area shallow compared to Kennedy's theory.
v
3. Garret graph-
5/3 RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, UKPSC AE 2022
f
(v) s= GPSC AE (GWSSB).2021, JPSC AE.2021
3340.Q1/ 6 GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
UKPSC JE 2022, BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021 It is the graphical representation of the design of
Where, s = Bed slope of channel canal dimensional based on Kennedy's and Kutters
1/ 3 equation theory.
q2
(vi) Lacey normal scour depth = 1.35 (for any river) UKPSC JE 2022, Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021
f
Garret diagram is applicable only for the side slope
CGPSC AE (Civil) 2022
1
UKPSC JE 2022, UPPSC AE 2022 of the canal of : 1 and curve roughness factor, N
2
1/ 3
Q = 0.0225.
Lacey normal regime scour depth = 0.48
f The discharge lines are curved and the bed width
(for alluvial river) lines are shown dashed.
MHWRD JE 2022, Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021 The diagram contains discharge plotted on the x-
MH PSC Mains 2018, OPSC AEE 2015 axis, slope on the primary y-axis while water depth
Different between Lacey's and Kennedy's theory- in the channel and critical velocity vo on the
UPRVUNL JE (Civil) 2022, ESE 2017 secondary y-axis.
Kennedy's theory Lacey's theory Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020
Silt is kept in suspension due Silt is kept in Lindley's theory-
to eddies from bottom. suspension due to eddies
v = 0.567.y0.57 v = 0.274.B0.355
form both bottom and
side. and B = 7.76y1.61
Design is tedious and based Simple and based on Ideal shape of channel-
on trial and error procedure. direct procedure. UPPCL JE 2022, WBPSC AE 2020
Not given any equation for Given for bed slope. UPPSC AE 2020, OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018
bed slope. For lined canal Trapezoidal
Applicable for irrigation Both for channel and Unlined canal alluvial soil Semi - circular
channel only. rivers. Best section of canal Partially cutting and filling
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 448 YCT
05.
CONSTRUCTION &
MAINTENANCE OF CANALS
Cross section of canals- For irrigation purpose, FSL of canal is 30 cm
(i) Lined canal section higher than normal level of area.
3. Side slope-
• Best cross section is semicircular
UPRVUNL AE 2016
(ii) Alluvial canal section It depends on types of soil and type of lining.
• Best cross section is trapezoidal More stable the soil material, the steeper the slope
Types of cross section- of the sides.
1. Canal fully in cutting- 1
(i) In filling- 1 :1 - 2 : 1 (H : V)
2
1
(ii) In cutting- 1 : 1 or :1 in case of silting
2
Side slope various type of soil-
DSSSB JE 2022, U.K. Combined AE 2012
Type of soil Side slope
2. Partially in cutting and partially in filling-
Stiff earth or clay, stone 1:1
It is the best and economical cross section. lining, cement block
Ordinary earth, soft clay, 1.5 : 1
loam, gravel
Light sand 3:1
Black cotton soil 1.5 : 1 to 2.5 : 1 (cutting)
2.5 : 1 to 3.5 : 1
3. Canal fully in filling- (embankment)
More seepage losses occurs in this case. 4. Berms-
JPSC AE 2021, MPSC (ASCE) 2021
A narrow horizontal strip of the land left at the
ground level between inner toe of the bank and top
edge of cutting is called berms. Berms are provided
if canal is partially cutting and partially filling.
It help the channel to attain regime conditions and
Important parts of canal- protect the banks from erosion due to wave action
and also provided for future widening of channel.
1. Bed width-
Width of berm-
For Uttar Pradesh canal-
(i) Fully in cutting- B = F.S.D., height = 0.5 m of FSL
(i) Discharge upto 15 cumec D = 0.5 B (ii) Fully in filling- B = 2 × F.S.D.
(ii) Discharge > 15 cumec, then (iii) Partially cutting and filling- B = (2 - 3) times of
F.S.D.
Discharge (cumec) 15 30 50 75 150 300
Free board = F.S.D. – Full supply depth
Depth (m) 1.7 1.85 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.0 5. Free board-
2. Full supply level- GPSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020, ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018
It is the elevation of water surface Net free board is difference b/w top of dam and
If F.S.L. is much higher then it is cause of more mean water level.
seepage and water logged. F.B. = 0.20 + 0.15Q1/ 3 Lacey's recommendation
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 449 YCT
(i) For unlined canal- Main purpose of counter berm is not to allow the
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 seepage line expose on the outer slope of the bank.
It is the vertical distance between full supply level Dowla/dowel-
to the top of bank. RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, OPSC AE 2019
F.S.L. - Top of bank BPSC AE 2019
(ii) For lined canal- Dowla is provided on the service road side between
channel and service road. It acts as a kerb on
Vertical distance between full supply level to the
roadway side towards channel.
top of lining.
Top width of dowel = 0.3 to 0.6 m, Height above
As per I.S. 7112 - 1973 Min. free board for channel
road level = 0.3 m and side slope = 1.5 : 1 to 2 : 1.
carrying discharge-
Bank-
(i) < 10 cumec - 0.50 m
JPSC AE 2021
Primary purpose to retain water. It prevents
(ii) > 10 cumec - 0.75 m spreading of water beyond specific limit. It should
be enough wider so that minimum cover of 0.50 m
Min. free board as per discharge carrying capacity-
should be available above the saturation line.
OPSC AE 2019
Spoil bank-
Types of channel Discharge Freeboard
Additional surplus amount of excavated earth is
m3/sec. (m)
used to make spoil bank.
Main and branch channel > 10 0.75
The banks constructed from surplus excavated
Branch channel and major 5 - 10 0.60 earth on the side cutting parallel to the road
distributaries alignment in trapezoidal form is called spoil bank.
Major distributaries 1-5 0.50 The aim of canal excavation is that the amount of
Minor distributaries <1 0.30 earthwork in cutting is equal to the amount in the
Water course < 0.06 0.10 - 0.15 embankment at a given location.
Borrow pit-
Main channel 30 - 150 0.90
BPSC AE 2019
Note-
Earthwork in filling exceeds the earthwork in
In case of navigable rivers minimum appropriate cutting, the soil has to be brought from somewhere
free board 2.4 m - 3.0 m provided. by digging pits, these pits are known as borrow
pits.
It is a pits excavated for bringing earth.
It located either inside or outside of the channel.
Min. space between two consecutive pits is the half
length of pits (l/2).
Depth of pits ≤ 1 m for temporary acquisition land
≯ 45 cm for permanent acquisition land up to 1 cm
Counter/back berm- 1
Width < × width of canal
A counter berm is a horizontal benching provided 2
on the outside slope of banks. It is required only in Distance of pits from the toe of canal
case of high banks and very permeable soil. (i) For small channels- 5 m
If saturation gradient line cut the downstream end (ii) For large channels- 10 m
of the bank then it is covered by counter berm. Balancing depth or economical depth-
Saturation gradient for normal soil 6 : 1. TNPSC AE 2022
Saturation gradient line is kept covered at 0.5 m A canal section is called of balancing depth if, in
with help of counter berm. canal section-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 450 YCT
"Quantity of earth cutting = Quantity of earth
filling"
Cement concrete lining-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
It is more waterproof, durable lining uses for
It is only possible when section is partially in
important canals because of high initial cost.
cutting and partially in filling.
1
Lining of irrigation canals- Stable side slopes of the order of 1.5 : 1 or 1 :1
4
Lining-
should be adopted.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, JSSC JE 2022
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021, NWDA JE 2021
Maintenance cost is less.
It is an impervious layer provided for the beds and Minimum thickness- 5 - 15 cm
sides of canal to improve life and discharge • 7.5 cm (used in India)
capacity of canal. Concrete grade- Generally- M - 15 or M - 10
Benefit cost ratio justify the necessity of lining. Thickness of C.C. lining according to discharge-
For project justification, the benefit cost ratio > 1. Discharge M - 15 (cm) M - 10 (cm)
Thickness- 6.5 - 15 cm < 15 cumec 6.5 7.5
UPPSC Civil Eng. AE 2013 2004
15 - 50 cumec 9 10
Advantage-
50 - 100 cumec 10 12.5
UPRVUNL JE (Civil) 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 > 100 cumec 10 15
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021, NPCC AE 2017 Shotcrete lining-
1. Seepage control It is done with the help of cement gun with mortar
2. Prevention of water logging ratio 1 : 4 (cement : sand).
3. Increase in channel capacity Max. size of sand - 0.5 cm
4. Increase in commanded area. Useful for small works as repair works and
5. Reduce maintenance cost rehabilitation of old canals.
6. Elimination of flood dangers. Very useful for irregular cross section
7. Less vegetation growth safety against flood. Thickness- 3 - 5 cm
Most economical section for lined canal- Asphalt lining-
(i) Triangular with circular bottom (for small Punjab PSC SDE 2021
discharge). It is flexible and readily confirms to the sub-grade.
(ii) Trapezoidal with rounded bottom (for high It permits certain type of weed growth.
discharge). It does not decrease the roughocity coefficient.
Permissible velocity for lined canal– Boulder lining-
UPRVUNL JE (Civil) 2022, UPPCL JE 2022 RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 It is used to prevent soil erosion.
Types of lining Permissible velocity Compacted earth lining-
(m/s) Thickness - 30 to 90 cm
Cement concrete lining 2 - 2.5 Soil cement lining-
Burnt clay tile lining 1.8 Portland cement up to extent of 2 to 8% is added to
Boulder lining 1.5 soil (fines).
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 451 YCT
06.
DIVERSION HEADWORKS
Introduction-
The permanent structure constructed at the head of
canal in order to divert the river water towards the
canal is known as diversion head works or canal
head works.
UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021 , OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018
Most suitable location of canal head works is
trough stage of the river.
It is constructed normal to the river flow.
Purpose-
JPSC AE 2021, DMRC AM 2017
OPSC AEE 2015, UPPCL AE 2014
(i) To raise the water level on its U/S side.
(ii) To control the entry of silt into canal. 1. Divide wall-
(iii) To regulate the water supply into canal. SSC JE Civil 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
(iv) Provides same storage of water for a short periods CGPSC AE (Civil) 2022, OPSC AE 2020, MPSC-2017
etc. It is a wall constructed at right angle to the axis of
(v) It prevents the river flood from entering the canal. weir/Barrage.
It is constructed for the purpose of creating still
Weir or Barrage-
NHPC JE 2022, SSC JE Civil 2022
pond.
UPRVUNL JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 It is divides the river width into weir portion and
A structure constructed across the river to raise under sluice pocket.
water level and divert the water into canal is called Function of divide wall-
weir. (i) It gives a silt pockets in front of canal head so that
Length of weir is normal to the stream flow. silt gets deposited in it and clean water enters in
Barrage is same as weir except is consist of large canal.
gate that can be open or closed to control the (ii) Divert the main stream of river toward canal head.
amount of water. (iii) Keeps the cross current away from the weir.
Surplus weir- 2. Under sluiced/scouring sluices-
It is used to discharge excess water from the MPSC 2015
reservoir and acts as a safety device. The openings provided on the same side as the off
It is classified as based on the foundation and U/S, taking canal is called under sluice.
D/S, ground surface- Crest of under sluice is less than crest of weir and
Type A Masonry weir with vertical drop. is higher than 1 - 1.5 m.
Type B Rock fill weir with a sloping apron. Sill of under sluice from crest of canal head- below
Type C Masonry weir with a sloping apron. the 0.9 - 1.8 m.
While in case of silt excluder- 1.8 m.
Type D Masonry weir with stepped apron.
Function of under sluice-
Note-
(i) To control silt entry into canal.
Afflux-
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, TNPSC AE 2018
(ii) To scour the silt deposited in the river bed above
Rise in the maximum flood level upstream of the the approach canal.
weir caused due to construction of the weir across (iii) To pass normal discharge without operating the
the river is known as afflux. shutter gate of the weir.
3. Fish Ladder-
GPSC AE 2021, UJVNL AE 2021
APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020, U.K. Combined AE 2012
A structure constructed just the side of divide wall
Components of diversion head works- which enables the fish to move freely and safely in
NWDA JE 2021, NPCC AE 2017, WBPSC AE 2003 the river.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 452 YCT
Fish ladders are the Baffle walls that provides Key Points
smooth flow of water by dissipating flow energy. ■ Canal drops are required to–
Mostly pool type and channel type fish ladder is Dissipate excess land slope
used. ■ The slopping floor below and in continuation of
Note- the raised crest of a weir is known as– Glacis
Canal head work has nothing to do with a safety ■ The type of weir is the excess energy of
ladder. overflowing water dissipated by means of a
Head regulator of canals are constructed at off take hydraulic jump– Concrete weirs with glacis
point. ■ Gauge wells (or chambers) are provided in–
Radial gates- Meter flumes
It is used to regulate the water level and flow ■ In a Sarda type fall, the rectangular crest is used
discharge in irrigation canals. for discharge upto– 14 cumecs
Lock gates- ■ The recommended range of the velocity of the
It is used for changing the water level in a canal or drainage water in the siphon barrels is– 2-3 m/sec
a river for navigations. ■ For a barrage the exit gradient is independent of–
4. Canal head regulator/head sluice- The depth of upstream cut–off
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, Maharastra PSC 2021 ■ Velocity of flow in case of fish ladder is
It is provided at the head of the off taking canal (99 approximately– 3 m/sec
- 110°) for the following purpose.
Theory of seepage-
(i) To control silt entry in canal.
Bligh's theory of seepage flow-
(ii) To prevents the river flood from entering the canal.
It is associated with design of hydraulic structure
(iii) Regulate the water supply entering the canal.
on permeable state.
FSL of canal at its head with respect to parent
(i) Loss of head, HL ∝ Length of creep
channel is kept 15 cm lower.
(ii) Equal weightage no distinction between horizontal
5. Silt prevention work-
and vertical creep.
This types of works are constructed at the bed of
(iii) Length of path travelled by percolating water is
canal and at a location after the head regulator
called creep length.
respectively.
(iv) Percolating water follows the outline of the base of
It is two types-
the foundation of hydraulic structure.
(i) Silt excluders-
PPSC JE 2022, GUJRAT PSC AE 2017
Hydraulic gradient, i = H L / L ,
It is constructed on the river bed, upstream side of Reciprocal of hydraulic gradient is called Bligh's
the head regulator. The object is to remove silt that coefficient of creep.
has entered in the stilling basin through scouring Design Criteria-
basin. Design of impervious floor sub surface flow, the
(ii) Silt ejector- hydraulic gradient is constant throughout the
UKPSC JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022 impervious length of the apron.
UKPSC AE 2022, UPPSC AE 12016 UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
It is constructed on canal bed at a little distance (i) Safety against piping or undermining-
down stream from the head regulator. This device
Safe creep length, L = C.H L
extract the silt from the canal water after the silted
water has travelled a certain distance in the off-take C = Bligh's coefficient of creep
canal. H 1
To prevent piping failure, ≤
Efficiency of excluders and ejectors- L C
I u − Id (ii) Safety against uplift pressure-
η= × 100
Iu h
Floor thickness, t ≥
Iu = Silt intensity in canal upstream of the ejector G −1
Id = Silt intensity in canal down stream of the Where, h = Ordinate of the H.G.L. above the top of
ejector. floor.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 453 YCT
h 3. Khosla's theory-
t = 1.33 UKPSC JE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022
G −1 Kerala PSC AE 2015, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2011
4 (i) Seepage water does not creep along the bottom
't' is increased by or 33% as factor of safety.
3 contour of pucca floor but follows the flow path.
Note- (ii) Piping of the floor is started from the tail end
In hydraulic structure, uplift pressure on upstream i exist ≥ i e piping failure
floor determined by Bligh's theory as compared to
(iii) Intermediate sheet piles is smaller in height than
Khosla's theory is same. the outer ones is found to be in effective in causing
Types of soil Creep co-efficient head loss.
Sand mixed with boulder, 5-9 (iv) Outer face of end sheet pile is much more effective
gravel, loam soil than the inner face of the horizontal length of floor.
Coarse grained sand 12 H 1
(southern and central India) Exit gradient, G E = ×
d π λ
Coarse grained sand 15
ESE 2018
(Northern India)
Light sand and mud 18 1 + 1 + α2
where, x = and α = b/d
1. Limitation of Bligh's theory- 2
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, JPSC Combined AE 2013 From above equation
(i) Bligh's observed no difference between horizontal If d = 0, GE is infinite
& vertical length of creep and efficiency of outer Exit gradient depend on-
and inner face of sheet pile and short & long (i) b/d ratio (ii) H/d ratio
intermediate sheet pile wall.
Khosla's theory of dependent variables is used to
(ii) As per Bligh's head loss is proportional to creep design of weirs & barrages, cross regulators and
length but it is not the case in actual. head regulators.
(iii) He did not indicate any significance of Exit gradient in the absence of down stream cut-off
exit/hydraulic gradient at the exit of the floor. is infinity.
(iv) Bligh's did not indicate the significance of As per Khosla's, to keep the structure safe against
providing a cut off at down stream side of the piping, exit gradient to be provided should lie b/w
hydraulic structure. 0.15 and 0.20
2. Lane's weighted creep theory- CGPSC AE 2022, Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021
Lane's observed that vertical creep length is more Correction adopted in Khosla's theory-
effective in causing head loss in comparison to
1. For mutual interface of piles-
horizontal length of the creep.
Assumption D d + D
C = 19
Slope steeper than 45° are taken as vertical (d). b ' b
slope less than 45° are taken as horizontal (l). Where,
Therefore he suggested the weighted factor of b' = Distance b/w two pile lines.
1 b = Total floor length
for horizontal creep and 1.0 for vertical creep.
3 d = Depth of the pile on which the effect is
1 considered
Thus, Lane's creep length, Ll = 1.L v + .L H D = Depth of the pile line
3
2. For the slope of floor-
As per Lane's theory-
(+ve for down slope and –ve for up slope)
(i) To prevent piping failure-
3. For the floor thickness-
H 1 Note-
≤ Where, C1 = Lane's creep coefficient
Ll C1 As per Khosla's theory, the undermining of the
(ii) To prevent uplift failure- floor starts from the tail end because at the tail end
head loss is maximum.
h
t≥ t = Floor thickness It is essential to have a deep vertical cut off at the
G −1 downstream end to prevent undermining.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 454 YCT
07.
RIVER TRAINING WORKS
Introduction- It develops after local deposition of coarse
material.
River training works are provided to confine the
flow of water in a given cross section and in a Types of river on the basis of flood hydrograph-
particular alignment. (i) Virgin river-
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB) River that completely dries up before joining
Chief aim of river training is to achieve ultimate another river is known as virgin river.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
stability of river with the aid of river training
(ii) Flashy river-
measures.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Rivers in which there is sudden rise and fall of the
water level is known as flashy river.
It is establish near the weir site to ensure smooth
WBPSC AE (Irrigation) 1998
and axial flow of water.
River training is usually done when river is under
Meanders-
CGPSC AE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022
the meander condition. Vizag steel MT 2017, Punjab MCP SDO 2015
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022
When a river deviates from its original axial path
Classification of rivers in flood plains- and a curvature of reverse order or S-curve is
DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2022 formed ,this phenomenon is called meandering of
(i) Aggrading/Accreting river- rivers.
GPSC AE 2018, LMRC AE 2017 Meandering of river is due to erosion of the bed
Rajasthan AE Nagar Nigam, 2016, LMRC AM 2015 and bank of stream.
Accumulation of silt in a river over the time due to UPPSC AE 2016
deposition by the river whose velocity decreases Inside part of curvature - silting.
aggradations and this types of river is called Outside part of curvature- scouring.
aggrading river.
Final bed slope > Initial bed slope.
It occurs due to excess quantity of silt available in
flowing canal.
(ii) Degrading river-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018
It occurs due to scouring to reduce and dissipate
available excess land slope (cutting)
Final bed slope < Initial bed slope.
Its velocity increases.
Causes of meandering-
GPSC AE 2017, WBPSC AE 2007, ESE 1998
Main cause of meandering is due to the extra
turbulence generated by the excess of river
sediment during floods.
Size and grade of sediment.
Slope of valley.
Side slope & bed slop of channel.
Meandering parameter-
(iii) Stable river-
(i) Meander length (ML)-
River which does not change its, slope, alignment
ESE 2022
and its regime is called stable river.
Tangential distance between the corresponding
(iv) Braided river- points of a meander.
When any river flows in two or more channels
around alluvial island then it is called braided river. M L = 65.8 Q dominant (Flood plain)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 455 YCT
(ii) Meander belt (MB)- Angle of swing-
Distance between outer edge of clockwise and
Chord
anticlockwise loop of meander. θ = 180° + 2 vers −1
2 × Radius
(iii) Meander ratio-
CGPSC AE 2014 Methods of river training-
Meander belt M UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
MR = = B UKPSC AE 2022, Vizag steel MT 2017
Meander length M L
1. Marginal embankments or levees
Turtuosity -
2. Guide banks
GPSC AE 2019, ESE 2017
U.K. Combined AE 2012, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2003 3. Groynes
It is the ratio of the length along the channel to the 4. Artificial cut-offs
direct axial length of the river reach. 5. Pitching of banks
Turtuosity value always > 1 6. Pitched islands
Note- Guide bank or Bell's bund-
Cut off reduces river length while meander
increases.
Cutoff ratio– The ratio of the length of the bed to
that of chord. cutoff ratio varies - 1.7 to 3.0 or
more.
Sinuosity-
It is used to define the degree of meandering of
river bed which is used to establish
geomorphologic river types.
Actual channel or thalweg length
Sinuosity =
Displacement b/w two points (valley length)
Thalweg-
It represents the natural direction of river.
Dominant Discharge-
Guide banks is a hydraulic structure across an
The discharge which determines MB and ML is
alluvial river to prevents the outflanking of the
called dominant discharge.
structure by the changing course of stream.
1 1 It is used to guiding and confining the flow in a
Q Dominant = to of Q max
2 3 reasonable waterways at the river i.e. it is provided
Generally- to channelize the flow of river.
9 Length of guide bank-
Q Dominant = Q max
16 (i) Towards U/S - ≥ 1.1 L
Classification of river training- (ii) Towards D/S - 0.1 L - 0.2 L
Type of river Training for Example L = Length of structure constructed over river (m).
training Side slope-
Low Depth Navigation 2 : 1 - 3 : 1 ( H : V)
Medium Velocity/ Silt control Top width- ≥ 4 m
suspended Mutual distance between both sides of guide bank-
load
19
High Discharge Flood control B= Q
4
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 456 YCT
Launching apron– Normal groyne-
UKPSC JE 2022, UK Combined AE 2012 Groyne along the perpendicular to the bank line.
UPPSC State Eng. AE 2011, 2008, 2003
Provided for protection of face of guide bank at the
river bed level, a thick cover is laid on the bed.
When the scour undermines the river bed the apron
comes down or launches to cover the face of the
scour, then it is called launching apron (stone
dumping).
Width- 1.5 times the depth of scour.
Thickness- 1.25-1.90 times the thickness of
Repelling groyne-
pitching at slope.
UKPSC JE 2022, MPPSC AE 2022
here, at normal scour depth UK Combined State AE 2007, WBPSC AE (Irr.) 1998
1/ 3 Inclined towards upstream (u/s) side and repelling
Q
R = 0.47 the flow away from it.
f
Inclination angle- 20 - 40°.
1/ 3
q2
= 1.35
f
f = Silt factor
q = Discharge per unit width (cumec/m)
Q = Design flood discharge (cumec)
Groynes and spurs-
UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022, OPSC AE 2019
GPSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2011
It is the embankment type structure constructed
normal to the river flow or parallel to the bank,
which is extend from the bank towards river.
Attracting groyne-
It is used to protect the river bank from erosion and Inclined towards down stream side and attracting
silting by deflecting by current away from the flow toward it.
bank. Inclination angle- 60º-80º.
Temporary groyne is called spur. Groyne is also
known as transverse dyke.
Spacing- (2 - 2.5) times of the length of groynes
Object of groyne-
WBPSC AE (Irrigation) 1998
(i) Train the flow along a certain course.
(ii) For contracting the wider span.
(iii) To controlling over meandering tendency of river.
Deflecting groyne-
(iv) To protect river bank by keeping rapid flow away
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
from it. Uttarakhand Combined State AE 2007
Changes the direction of flow without repelling it
is constructed perpendicular to the bank.
Hockey groyne-
Groyne with a curved head is known as hockey
groyne.
It increases the attracting tendency of groyne but
does not protect the bank.
ESE 2019
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 457 YCT
Important Terminology-
Attracting Spurs : Spurs meant for attracting the river flow towards the bank on which they are
located and having their axes pointing towards the downstream.
Repelling Spurs : Spurs that are provided on a bank to divert the flow away from the bank to which
they are attached.
Bank Protection : To save the bank from erosion due to the current of water flowing along the bank.
Deflecting Spurs : Spurs usually of short length, which change only the direction of flow without
repelling it, are known as deflecting spurs.
Flood Protection : Providing safety to the population and cities or structures situated along the banks
of a river.
Guiding the Flow : A feature necessary to provide against outflanking of canal headwork's bridges
and other communication structure.
Levees : Levees (also termed as bonds, disks, or dykes) are embankments constructed
parallel, or nearly to the river, to protect the area on one side of it from flooding.
It flood protection by controlling the river not by training the river.
Navigation : Transportation of men and materials over water flowing in rivers and canals.
Pitched Islands : They are formed in a river to concentrate the flow towards themselves thereby
protecting hydraulic structures from the effects of floods.
Sediment Control : Regulating the flow of sediments past the hydraulic structure of river channel to
make more effective use of the structure or river channel for purpose of
navigation.
08.
CROSS DRAINAGE WORK
Cross Drainage (C.D.) Work- (i) Aqueduct, FSL > CBL > HFL-
A cross drainage work is a structure which is UPPCL JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
constructed at the intersection of canal and a JPSC AE 2021, OPSC AE 2019
natural drains, so as to dispose the drainage water
HFL of drain is sufficiently below the bottom/bed
without intercepting the continuous canal supply.
of the canal.
Alignment of canal should be kept along the
watershed because of less cross drainage work The maximum uplift pressure due to seepage
required. occurs when the canal is running full but there is
At watershed line less number of natural drainage no water flowing in the drain.
available.
Note-
As soon as possible C.D. work should be passes
from the drains at 90° to be economical.
Types of cross drainage work-
MPSC 2015
1. Canal passing over the natural drainage.
Ex.- (i) Aqueduct
(ii) Syphon aqueduct
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 458 YCT
(ii) Syphon aqueduct, FSL > HFL > CBL- 3. Canal water and drainage water intermingle
UK PSC AE 2022, GPSC AE (Civil) 2022 with each other-
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
Ex.- (i) Level crossing
HFL of drains is higher than canal bed and water
passes through aqueduct barrels under syphonic (ii) Inlet & outlet.
action. It is more inferior to superpassage and aqueduct.
Water surface level of flood is depressed when it (i) Level crossing-
passes under the canal trough; the bed of the DSSSB JE 2022, SSC JE 2022, TNPSC AE 2022
drainage is also lowered. Generally provided when a large canal and huge
CBL = Canal Bed Level drainage (such as a stream or river) approach each
2. Canal passing below the natural drainage. other practically at the same level.
Ex.-(i) Super passage or trough (ii) Canal syphon
(ii) Inlet and outlet-
(i) Superpassage, HFL > DBL > FSL-
A canal inlet is constructed when CD flow is small
UPRVUNL JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
UPPCL JE 2022, UPSC AE (PWD) 2021 and its water may be absorbed into the canal
• FSL of canal is sufficiently below the bottom of without causing appreciable rise. However, if the
the drain trough. canal is small, an outlet may be constructed
• Canal water flows freely under gravity. to pass out the additional discharge which has
entered into the canal.
Fluming of canal–
The contraction in the waterway of the canal is
term as fluming of canal.
It will be reduce the length of barrels or width of
the aqueduct.
Methods used for designing the channel transition-
(ii) Canal Syphon or syphon, HFL > FSL> DBL- 1. Mitra's method-
DSSSB JE 2022 Suitable if water depth remains constant-
Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021, GPSC Assistant Prof. 2016
Bn .Bf .L f
• FSL of canal is sufficiently above the bed level of Bx =
Lf .Bn − ( Bn − Bf ) .x
drainage trough so that canal flows under syphonic
action under the trough or canal bed is below the Where,
drain. Bn = Bed width of normal channel section
• Barrel acts as a inverted syphon through which Bf = Bed width of flumed channel section
canal water flows under gravity.
Bx = Bed width at any distance x from flumed
• In this case canal bed is depressed and a ramp is section.
provided at exit to minimize silting phenomenon.
Lf = Length of transition
2. Chaturvedi's method-
Suitable if water depth remains constant.
Lf .B3n / 2 Bf
3/ 2
x= 1 −
B3n / 2 − Bf3 / 2 Bx
3. Hind's method-
Suitable if water depth may or may not vary.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 459 YCT
09.
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
OF GRAVITY DAM
Gravity Dam- Uplift pressure is controlled by constructing steel
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, BPSC AE 2019 pile wall or cut off valves under the upstream face.
Rajasthan AE (Nagar Nigam) 2016, UKPSC AE 2013 By providing drainage gallery it reduced at all level
Structure which is designed in such a way that its below the upstream water level.
own weigh resist all the external force is termed as
(a) Without drainage gallery-
gravity dam. It may be constructed of masonry or
concrete.
Force acting or gravity dam-
BPSC AE 2019, BPSC AE 2016 TNPSC AE 2015
1. Water pressure force-
1
P= γ w .H 2 (Act at H/3 from base)
2
SSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
UK PSC AE 2022, MPPSC AE 2021
(b) With drainage gallery-
2. Self weight–
ESE 2023, UKPSC JE 2022
UPPCL JE 2022, Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021
GPSC AM (GMDC) 2020
Total weight of dam acts vertically downward
direction and passes through its C.G.
Major resisting force for a gravity dam is self
weight of the dam.
W = γc V
Where, γc = Unit weight of concrete
V = Volume of dam body per unit length
Note- Uplift pressure at the face of drainage gallery
Vertical component of the earthquake wave which 1
produces adverse effects on the stability of a dam = γ w H '+ ( γ w .H − γ w .H ')
3
when in acting in downward direction.
3. Uplift pressure- 4. Earthquake force-
Chandigarh SDE 2017 MPPSC AE 2017, UK Combined AE 2012
Uplift pressure is considered in the analysis of Horizontal acceleration-
gravity dams in all situations varying water in the
α h = k h .g = (0.1to 0.2)g
reservoirs.
Uplift matter suggested by U.S.B.R. Vertical acceleration-
It is assumed that the uplift pressure does not α v = k v .g = 0.75α h
affected by earthquake force.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 460 YCT
Seismic coefficient- 5. Silt pressure-
α = β.I.α o h
Act at from base
3
Where,
1
β = Soil foundation system factor Psilt = γ sub .h 2 .k a
I = Importance factor 2
αo = Basic seismic coefficient h = Height of silt from base.
Body force- 1 − sin φ
Active earth pressure coefficient- k a =
W 1 + sin φ
Fg = (g ± α v )
g As per U.S.B.R-
(A) Effect of vertical acceleration- Total horizontal force = 1.8h2 kN/m run.
Total force on a dam in vertical direction, Vertical force = 4.6h2 kN/m run.
Fv = W (1 ± k v ) 6. Wave pressure-
Wave pressure depend upon wave height.
(B) Effect of horizontal acceleration- TSPSC AEE 2017
(a) Horizontal inertial, force-
W
FH = α h or FH = W.k h
g
(b) Hydrodynamic pressure-
Gujarat PSC AE 2017, UPPSC AE 2016
Resultant wave pressure-
h
Acts at w from still water level-
8
Maximum pressure intensity Pw = 2.4 γ w h w
Total wave force-
3h w
Acts at from still water surface-
8
(i) According to von-Karman, due to earthquake the WBPSC Poly Lect. 2019, Vizag steel MT 2017
hydrodynamic pressure variation curve is taken to UKPSC AE (Urban) 2011, UPPSC A.E. 2007, 2003
be parabolic.
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022, UKPSC JE 2022 Fw = 2 γ w h 2w
Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021, GPSC AM (GMDC) 2020
Where,
4H
Hydrodynamic force act at distance or 0.424H h w = 0.032 v × F + 0.763 − 0.271( F )
3/ 4
If F<32 km.
3π
from base.
h w = 0.032 v × F When F > 32 km.
Pe = 0.555k h γ w H 2 [kh = 0.1 or 0.2]
WBPSC AE (Irrigation) 1998
4H Where, F = Length of reservoir in km
Moment, M e = Pe . = 0.424Pe .H hw = Height of wave in meter
3π
v = Wind velocity in km/hr.
(ii) As per Zanger, due to earthquake the
hydrodynamic pressure variation curve is elliptical 7. Ice pressure–
cum parabolic. Dam face resist the thrust exerted by the expanding
ice.
Pe = 0.726C m k h γ w H 2 The magnitude of ice force varies from 250 to
Cm = Maximum value of pressure coefficient for a 1500 kN/m2 depending upon temperature
given constant slope. variations.
Me = 0.412 Pe.H 500 kN/m2 allowed under ordinary condition.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 461 YCT
Key Points µ ∑ FV ∑ FH
Fs = = Sliding factor
■ The cut–off in the earthen dams and the rockfill ∑ FH ∑ FV
dams is provided to–
Prevent sub–surface erosion by piping action FS = Factor of safety against sliding.
■ The central core of the zoned embankment type µ
Fs = >1
earth dam– Check the seepage sliding factor
■ The Indian standard code provides guidance for
Case:
“subsurface exploration for earth and rock fill
dams”– IS 6955–2008 If shear resistance is also accounted then factor of
safety is called shear frictional factor (S.F.F.)
■ When the reservoir is full, the maximum
compressive force in a gravity dam is produced– µ ∑ Fv + q(B ×1)
S.F.F. = µ = 0.65 to 0.75
At the toe ∑ FH
Modes of failure & criteria for S.F.F > 3 Where, B = Width of dam (m)
structural stability of gravity dams- (iii) Failure due to compression or crushing-
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, GUJRAT PSC AE 2017
UPRVUNL AE 2022, BPSC AE 2016, UKPSC AE 2013
(i) Failure by overturning about toe-
MR
Fs = > 1.5
Mo
Gujarat PSC AE 2017, MPSC-2017
Where,
Fs = Factor of safety
MR = Restoring moment about toe (due to ∑FV) ∑ Fv 6e
When toe failure occurs σ max = 1+
Mo = Overturning moment about toe (due to ∑FH) (B ×1) B
FR = FH2 + FV2 ∑ FV 6e
When heel failure occurs σ min = 1−
Where, FR = Resultant force, e = Eccentricity (B ×1) B
B For no failure, σ max ≤ FC
e= −x
2
Where, FC = Crushing strength
x = Distance of resultant force from toe. Case-1
(ii) Failure due to sliding/Shear failure- (I) When shear stress also acts on horizontal plane.
When net horizontal force at the base of dam
exceeds the frictional resistance developed at that
level.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 462 YCT
σ1 = σ v sec 2 β − σ 2 tan 2 β 1
Horizontal inertial force, ∑ FH = PH = γ w H2
2
∑ FV 6e
σ v = σ max = 1+
(B × 1) B
Uplift pressure (Due to force of buoyancy)-
1
Where, α = Angle of d/s surface with vertical Pu = Cγ w H.B
2
For no failure, σ1 ≤ FC
Where C = Uplift pressure coefficient.
τ = ( σ v − σ 2 ) tan β Weight of dam body for unit length,
Where, 1
FC = Crushing strength of concrete. W= Gγ w .BH
2
τ = Magnitude of shear stress
on horizontal plane near the toe. Minimum base width required for no tension
σv = Vertical direct stress. criteria,
σ2 = Intensity of water pressure H
Case-2 B=
G −C
When earthquake force considered then
UKPSC AE 2013
σ1 = σ v sec 2 β − ( σ 2 − pe ) tan 2 β
Minimum base width for no sliding criteria,
τ = [ σ v − (σ 2 − pe ] tan β H
B' >
Where, Pe = Earthquake Pressure µ (G − C)
B SSC JE 2022, UPPSC AE 2007
(iv) Tension Failure- σ min ≥ 0 → e ≤
6 G = Sp. gravity of concrete, i.e., that of the
UKPSC JE 2022, APPSC AE 2016 material of the dam.
Rajasthan AE Nagar Nigam, 2016, UKPSC AE 2013
Note- For no uplift pressure, B ≥ H or B > H
f µ×G G
Height of gravity dam, h =
W(ρ + 1) UPPCL JE 2022, CGPSC AE 2022
Maximum permissible tensile stress for high Limiting height for on elementary gravity dam
concrete gravity dams, under worst leading may be profile.
500 kN/m2. (i) In a uplift condition-
Key Points
f
■ A dam reservoir, not provided with gate controls Hs =
on its spillway and other sluices is called– γ w (G − C + 1)
Retarding basin
■ For the upstream face of an earthen dam the most (ii) Without uplift condition- H = f
adverse condition or the stability of slope is–
v
( G + 1) γ w
Sudden drawdown
(iii) Shear stress (τ0) = γ w H G − C
Elementary Profile of Gravity Dam-
KPSC AE 2016, Kerala PSC AE 2015, APPSC AEE 2012 Where, C = Constant
Note-
UK Combined AE 2012, UKPSC AE 2007
It is the theoretical shape of gravity dam cross section
when it is subjected to self weight, water pressure
and uplift pressure.
Most suitable section for the theoretical profile is
right angle triangle.
Base width of an elementary profile for no tension
2
criteria for neglecting uplift pressure is % = 65%
3
of dam height.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 463 YCT
Key Points
■ A minimum factor of safety against piping due to
seepage through soil is usually taken in the design
of the hydraulic structure as– 6
■ The degree of freedom in an alluvial man made
channel is– Four
■ In the empty condition of reservoir and with the
elementary profile of a dam, the vertical stress at
heel and toe respectively are given by–2w/B and 0
■ The cut off trench in earthen dam is provided–
To reduce the seepage through the foundation
2. Chute/Trough or open channel spillway-
EARTHEN DAM-
UK PSC AE 2022, BPSC AE 2019 It is suitable when the width of the weir valley is
UKPSC AE 2013, UK Combined AE 2012 very narrow.
It is a cheaper and non rigid dam constructed
where the foundation are weak to support the
masonry dam.
Earthen dam failures are due to (40%) hydraulic
failures, 33% of due to seepage failure, 25% due to
structure failure.
Cause of failure-
1. Hydraulic failure-
This type failure occurs due to wave erosion, toe
erosion over topping and gullying.
2. Seepage failure-
UK PSC AE 2022
It occurs due to sloughing and piping failure.
3. Structural failure
It occurs due to formation slide and slide in
embankment.
Seepage control in earth dam-
UKPSC JE 2022, GPSC AM (GMDC) 2020, UPPSC AE 2007
Head loss due to friction,
1. By toe filter 2. Horizontal blanket/filter
3. Chimney filter 4. By drainage trenches n 2 .V 2 .L
h f = Sf × L =
SPILLWAYS- R4/3
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, TNPSC AE 2012, UKPSC AE 2007
n = Manning's coefficient
It is a special outlet constructed for disposing of
the surplus water from upstream to down stream. R = Hydraulic mean depth
Crest of the spillway is kept at the full supply level Sf = Mean energy slope between two points
of reservoir. L = Length of channel
Spillway is also known as safety valve of dam or 3. Straight drop spillway/Overfall spillway -
overflow dam.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
It is suitable for small bunds or thin arch dams.
Types of spillway-
1. Ogee or overflow spillway-
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
It is controlled weir having an S- shaped crest
profile.
Discharge over ogee spillway-
Q = Cd L e H 3 / 2
i.e. Q ∝ H1.5
Where, Le = Length of crest
H = Total head above the crest
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 464 YCT
4. Shaft spillway- 7. Labyrinth spillway-
UK PSC AE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022, MH PSC 2018 It is constructed in a zig-zag manner in order to
In case of non availability of space due to increase the effective length of the weir crest with
topography it is the most suitable spillway. respect to the channel width.
Note-
MPSC-2017
Rock fill dam is an example of non-rigid dam.
Gravity dam does not fails suddenly.
RESERVOIR
NPCC AE 2017
Barrier is constructed across some river in the form
of a dam, water gets stored on the upstream side of
5. Syphon spillway- the barrier, forming a pool of water called dam
UKPSC AE 2022, GPSC AE 2021
reservoir or river reservoir.
Syphon installed over an overflow spillway will Inflow outflow curve- used to calculated reservoir
capacity.
increase its effectiveness.
Capacity-inflow ratio curve- To determine trap
Discharge, Q = Cd A 2gH1 Cd = 0.9 efficiency of reservoir.
UK PSC AE 2022
H1 = Effective head
Increase in reservoir storage = Inflow − outflow
For linear reservoir storage is proportional to
outflow discharge.
Peak lag-
CGPSC AE 2017
It is define as the time difference between to peaks
flow.
Lag = Peak outflow time - Peak inflow time
Storage capacity
Capacity of storage reservoir is determined based on
the inflow to the reservoir.
6. Side channel spillway- Mass curve method is most commonly used to
determine capacity of reservoir.
Water flowing over a crest enters a side channel
Flood absorption capacity of reservoir the storage
which is nearly parallel to the crest.
between FSL and MWL.
Out flow-
It depends demand of the consumers or yield of the
reservoir.
Key Points
■ The ratio of the rate of change of discharge in an
irrigation outlet to the rate of change of discharge
of the distributory is known as– Flexibility
■ The blanket in earth dam is provided–
At the ground level on up stream side
■ Hasdeo Bango Irrigation project of the
chhattisgarh state comes under–Major irrigation
project
■ For wave action in dams, the maximum height of
the free board is generally taken as: (Where hw is
the height of wave)– 1.50 hw
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 465 YCT
Important terminology related to (vii) Maximum pool/full reservoir level-
TNPSC AE 2015
reservoir-
During high flood water is discharged over the
spillway & water level rise to the reservoir above
the normal pool level.
or
Maximum level to which the water rises during the
worst design flood id known as maximum pool
level.
(viii)Valley storage-
UK PSC AE 2022, UK Combined State AE 2007
Volume of water stored by the natural river channel
(i) Minimum pool level- in its valley up to the top of its bank before
Lowest water surface elevation which has to be constructing of a reservoir is called valley storage.
kept under normal operating conditions in a It depends upon the cross section of the river.
reservoir is called minimum pool level. Effective storage = Useful storage + Surcharge storage − Valley storage
Water can't be used in any purpose below this Rajasthan VP ITI 2018, LMRC AE 2017
level. CGPSC AE 2014, RPSC AE 2013
(ii) Normal pool/maximum conservation level- Capacity of service reservoir-
It is the maximum level to which the reservoir Water distribution reservoir absorbs variation or
water surface will rise during normal operating fluctuation b/w demand and supply.
conditions or when the design flood passes over the Service reservoir capacity = Balancing storage + Fire storage + Break down storage
spillway. Balancing capacity storage = P + Q
(iii) Useful/live storage- Where, P = Maximum deficit, Q = Maximum surplus
GPSC AE (GMB) 2021
Volume of water stored in reservoir between
minimum and normal pool level.
Useful storage is sub-divided in conservation
storage and flood mitigation storage in
multipurpose reservoir.
(iv) Dead storage-
ESE 2019, UJVNL AE 2016, TSGENCO 2015
UPPCL AE 2015, TNPSC AE 2015
Water stored below the minimum pool level is Note-
known as dead storage. Water in this region can't Purpose of providing a balancing reservoir in a water
used for any purpose. supply distribution system is to address the frequent
It is provided to accommodate the sill trapped in the fluctuations in the rate of consumption.
reservoir. Firm/safe yield-
WBPSC AE 2016, WBPSC AE 2003
Maximum quantity of water supply from the
Dead storage is 20 - 25% of total storage. reservoir during the worst dry period is known as
(v) Surcharge/Flood storage- firm yield.
Volume of water between normal and maximum
Secondary yield-
pool level is called surcharge storage.
When quantity of water more than safe yield during
It is uncontrolled storage and can't be retained for the period of high flood is known secondary yield.
later used.
It is used to generate extra hydroelectric power or
(vi) Bank storage- irrigation purpose.
MPSC (ASCE) 2021, MPSC 2017, U.K. Combined AE 2012 Note-
When reservoir is filled-up, certain amount of Mean of firm and secondary yield over a long period
water seeps into permeable reservoir banks. This of time is known as average yield.
water comes out as soon as the reservoir gets Margin between the maximum reservoir level and top
depleted. This volume of water is known as bank of the dam is known as free board.
storage. A reservoir with uncontrolled outlets is known as
It is increases the computed reservoir capacity. retarding basin.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 466 YCT
10.
WATER LOGGING AND DRAINAGE
Introduction- Nomenclature Depth of water
When the soil of root zone becomes unproductive table
and unsuitable due to excessive moisture and Water logged <2m
anaerobic condition then this phenomenon of Potential area of water 2-3m
agricultural land is called water logging. logging
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021, KPSC AE 2018 Safe <3m
Water logging leads to salinity which reduced crop
Method of land conservation-
yield.
(i) Land reclamation
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Water logging occurs when the water table is up to (ii) Regulated use of chemical fertilizers.
root zone of crops. (iii) Checks on overgrazing
Cause of water logging- Note-
ESE Pre 2023, UKPSC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022 Causes of overgrazing is land degradation and
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, RPSC ACF 2011 desertification.
(i) Over and intensive irrigation. Land reclamation-
(ii) Frequent irrigation. Process of improving lands to make them suitable
(iii) High water table. for cultivation.
(iv) Seepage from unlined canal. It is a process by which an uncultivable land is
(v) Impervious obstruction. made fit for cultivation.
(vi) Inadequate natural drainage and surface drainage. Method of Reclamation -
UPPCL JE 2022, LMRC AE 2017
(vii) Excessive rains.
1. Leaching, addition of gypsum, crop rotation
(viii) Irregular or flat topography. providing sub-surface drainage.
(ix) Submergence due to flood. 2. By applying excess water to soil surface.
Controlling over water logging- 3. Best method of reclamation of acidic soil is
LMRC AM 2015 done by limestone amendment.
(i) By reducing irrigation intensity. 4. Best method of reclamation of alkaline soil is
(ii) Lining of canal and water courses. done by gypsum amendment.
(iii) Using crop rotation. Alkaline soil-
(iv) By providing intercepting drains. GPSC AE 2017, ESE 2002
(v) By improving natural drainage of the area. It is due to presence of, Na2CO3, Nacl, and Na2CO3
(vi) Adopting consumptive use of surface and (Black alkali).
subsurface of water. Top soil of water logged field becomes more
(vii) Provision of an efficient drainage system. alkaline and more infertile if pH > 11.
Effects of water logging- Note-
ESE Pre 2023, SSC JE 2022, Vizag steel MT 2017 Na2CO3 is the most harmful.
(i) Falls in soil temperature. NaCl is the least harmful.
(ii) Rise of harmful salt in surface layer Saline soil-
(iii) Plant disease The soil which contains excess concentration of
(iv) Reduction in aerobic bacteria. salts in the root zone of plants is called saline soil.
(v) Difficulty in cultivation operation. pH value of saline soil- < 8.5
(vi) Growth of water weeds and wild aquatic plants. In this condition land is affected by efflorescence
(vii) It harmful for health. salty water around the root reduces the osmotic
activity of the plants.
Water table to specify water logging-
UK PSC AE 2022, SJVNL ET 2019 Saline soil found in semi arid zones.
UPPSC AE 2016 Sodic soil contains sodium > 15%.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 467 YCT
Reclamation of saline soil- (v) It permit deep root development by lowering water
TNPSC AE 2015 table.
• Flooding/leaching Depth and spacing-
• Frequent irrigation of the field. Depth of water table- 1 - 1.5 m
• Use of farm yard manure (FYM) Spacing between drains-
Leaching-
4.k ( 2
UPCL AE 2021, WBPSC Poly Lect. 2019 S= b − a2 ) m
JPSC Combined AE 2013, ESE 2003 q
Leaching is the applying adequate depth of water UKPSC AE 2022
over the land which helps to wash out salts below RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
the root zone by percolating. Rajasthan JEN (Degree) 2016
If CO2 is present in water then it enhances the Where,
leaching process.
0.01P P.S.
Note- q= .S = cum/m length of
24 × 3600 8.64 ×106
When Na2CO3 is present in saline soil, gypsum
(CaSO4) is generally added to the soil before drains.
leaching and thoroughly mixed with water. C1 = Depth of impervious stratum from center of
Leaching requirement- drain.
In the form of electrical conductivity (E.C.) a = Depth of impervious strata below the drain.
D d D i − C u Ci b = Max. Height of water table above the
L.R. = = = impervious layer.
Di Di Cd
k = Co-efficient of permeability.
E.Ci E.Ci q = Total discharge per unit length (m3/s/m)
L.R. = =
E.Cd 2.ECe
Where,
Dd = Depth of water drained out per unit area
Di = Depth of water applied per unit area.
Di = C u + Dd , Cu = Consumptive use.
Ci = Salt content of irrigation water
Cd = Salt content of drainage or leached water
ECi = Electrical conductivity of irrigation water.
ECd = E.C. of drained water
E.Ce = E.C. of the saturation soil extract.
Tile Drainage-
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022 Where, D = Depth of tile drains
Tile drainage is a form of agricultural drainage
system that removes excess sub-surface water from
fields to allow sufficient air space within the soil.
It helps in increasing crop yields, volume of soil by
drainage the water or by lowering the water table.
Note-
Mathematical expression commonly used for
spacing design of tile drainage system is called
Hooghoudt equation.
Advantage-
(i) Increase air circulation and reduce soil erosion. Drainage coefficient (D.C.)-
(ii) Removes the free gravity water that is not directly It is defend as the rate at which the water is
available to the plants. removed by a drains in 24 hours.
(iii) Increase bacterial activity in the soil. Unit- Cm/day.
(iv) Reduce and removes toxic substances like Na+ and
Total volume of water removed = D.C.× Area × time (day)
other soluble salt.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 468 YCT
11.
GROUND WATER
Geological formation- (iv) Leaky aquifer-
1. Aquifer- These are overlain or underlain by semi permeable
ESE 2019 strata.
Pervious layers of water which yields sufficient 2. Aquitard-
quantity of water is known as aquifer. An aquifer It is a layer through which only seepage is possible
easily transmits the water due to its high and thus the yield is insignificant.
permeability. It is partially permeable like sandy clay. Ex.- Silty
It is a saturated area below the water table. Ex.- clay soil.
Fine sand, coarse silt. 3. Aquiclude-
Types of aquifer- APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020
(i) Confined/artesian aquifers- It is a geological formation which essentially
WBPSC AE 2003 impermeable for water flow.
It is one that is confined on its upper and lower or
surfaces by impervious rocks formation or An aquiclude is a solid impermeable layer under
aquiclude. laying or overlaying an aquifer. Ex.-Clay
Surface obtained by connecting static water levels 4. Aquifuge-
is called as piezometric surface. HPCL JE 2022
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022
There is neither porous nor permeable formation
Isopiestic lines are the contour drawn to represent and no interconnected openings hence it can't
piezometric surface. transmit water. Ex.-Solid granite rocks.
UPPCL AE 2022
Pressure is greater than hydrostatic static pressure. Geological formation Porosity Permeability
(ii) Unconfined or non-artesian aquifers- Aquifer More More
It is the topmost water bearing strata with no Aquitard More Less
confined impermeable overburden (aquiclude) Aquiclude Less Impermeable
laying over it. Aquifuge Zero Impermeable
Hydraulic pressure head at any point within it, is Note-
equal to depth of the point from water table. Aquifer in which the water table services as the
It is also known as water table aquifer or phreatic upper surface of the zone of saturation is known as
aquifer. phreatic aquifer.
(iii) Perched aquifer- Zone of saturation-
If within a zone of saturation, an impervious Portion of soil through which lateral movement
deposit below a pervious deposit is found to take place is called zone of saturation.
support a body of saturated material, then this body
is called perched aquifer.
UK PSC AE 2022
Upper surface of the water held in perched aquifer,
called perched water table.
It is in the shape of inverted lense or cup.
Wells-
Vertical structure which is dug in ground for
purpose of bringing ground water to the earth's
surface known as wells.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 469 YCT
Key Points (ii) Strainer type tube well-
■ The element that worries about the proliferation of It is unsuitable for fine sandy strata due to the
weeds is– Submergence due to Floods choking problem of the strainer.
■ In a one–dimensional flow in an unconfined Abyssinian tube well is a special type of strainer
aquifer, between two water bodies during well in which the diameter of the well is 38 mm.
recharge, the water table profile is– Part of ellipse
■ The line joining the static water level in several
wells excavated through a confined aquifer, is
known as– Piezometric surface
Classification of wells
1. Open wells (Dug wells)-
Open wells which have comparatively large
diameters but low yields or discharge.
Dia. = 1 - 5 m, Penetration depth = 4 - 6 m.
Open well classification-
(i) Shallow open wells-
These wells resting on the water bearing strata or
does not rest on a mota formation/impervious
layer.
(ii) Deep wells-
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
These wells resting on the impervious layer or
(iii) Slotted/gravel pack type tube well-
mota layer.
A deep well has more discharge than a shallow These tube well used at such places where
well. sufficient depth of water bearing stratum is not
Note- available.
Main advantage of a mota/impervious layer is that Shrouding is the mixture of gravel and coarse sand
it gives structural support to the open wells resting which is placed around the slotted type tube well.
on its surface.
2. Tube wells-
When a long pipe sunk in ground intercepting one
or more water bearing strata is known as tube
wells.
Water obtained from tube well is known as sub
surface water.
Main reason for the depletion of ground water level
is due to tube wells and hand pumps.
For least effect on water table only one tube well
dug in every 1.5 km2.
Classification of tube wells based on supply system-
(i) Cavity type tube well- Note-
These tube well consists of a pipe sunk into the Most widely used type of deep state tube wells in
ground and resting on the bottom of a strong clay India is strainer tube well.
layer. Yield of a strainer tube well as compared to yield
of slotted tube well is more.
3. Artesian/flowing wells-
When water is confined under pressure below
layers of relatively impermeable rock, known as
artesian well.
Water level is below the G.L. but above the local
water table.
Artesian wells have highest specific yield of water.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 470 YCT
Yield of well- B = Thickness of confined aquifer
(a) When steady flow in a confined aquifer- k = Permeability
R = Radius of influence
r1, r2 = Radial distance of test wells.
h1, h2 = Water levels
Spherical flow in wells-
q = 2π.k.r.S
(i) Thiem's equation
2πkB(h 2 − h1 )
q= , h1 + S1 = h2 + S2
r
2.303.log10 2
r1
(ii) Dupit's equation-
2π.k.B(H − h)
q= ,S=H–h
R
2.303.log10
r Radial flow-
S = Draw down 1
(b) Steady unconfined aquifer- q= × q radial
30
(i) Thiem's equation-
Infiltration wells-
πk(h 22 − h12 ) When vertical wells provided along the banks of a
q=
r river to draw ground water in dry season are called
2.303.log10 2
r1 as infiltration wells.
(ii) Dupits equation When various infiltration wells connected by
porous pipes to a sump well called as jack well.
πk(H 2 − h 2 )
q= , R = 3000 × S k Important terminology related to wells-
R
2.303.log10 (i) Specific capacity-
r UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
Rajasthan AM (Dairy) 2021, Gujarat PSC AE 2017
Wells yield per unit draw down is known as
specific capacity.
It depends upon, dia. of wells, aquifer thickness
and duration of pumping.
Discharge of well
Specific capacity =
Draw down
Q 1
C Q + C Q2 = C +C Q
1 2 1 2
(ii) Radius of influence-
Distance from the center of a pumped well to the
point, where drawdown is zero areal the or distance
of the cone of depression is called area of influence
Where, q = Discharge or yield of well and its radial distance is radius of influence.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 471 YCT
logarithmic drawdown curve at the well face, but
also drawdown cause by flow through well screen
and axial movement within the well. The later
drawdown is called well loss.
(ix) Recuperation of well-
after stopping pumping accumulation of water in
influence zone started and this phenomena is
known as recuperation or recovery of well.
Ground water recharge-
It is a technique by which infiltrate water passes
(iii) Circle of influence-
through the unsaturated region of ground water and
Circle, draw from radius of influence is known as joint the water table.
circle of influence.
Rainwater can be used to recharge the ground
When an circle of influence is overlap with another
water which is known as water harvesting.
circle the yield of well decreases.
Rain water harvesting is collection and storage of
Distance between two wells- 75 - 180 m.
rain water that runs off from roof tops, parks,
roads, open grounds etc.
Bawris is used in olden times for rainwater
harvesting.
It depends upon the soil type, geomorphology,
geophysical & climate (rainfall, temperature
humidity etc.) and characteristics of the region.
Methods of ground water recharge -
(i) By construction of check dams.
(ii) By recharging dry and abandoned wells and ponds.
(iii) By afforestation.
(iv) By switching to canal irrigation.
(iv) Safe yield-
(v) By checking concreting of open areas in cities.
Maximum rate at which the withdrawn of ground
water in a basin can be carried without producing (vi) By adopting rain water harvesting in built up areas.
undesirable results is termed safe yield. (vii) By construction of new ponds in villages.
(v) Specific yield (Sy)- (viii) By controlling water consumption and recycling of
SSC JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022 waste water.
UPPCL JE 2022 Ground water recharge in urban areas-
Actual volume of water that can be extracted by (i) Recharge pits.
the force of gravity from a unit volume of aquifer (ii) Recharge pits with shaft.
material is known as specific yield.
(iii) Recharge dug wells.
(vi) Specific retention or field capacity (Sr)-
(iv) Recharge ponds.
Fraction of water held back in the aquifer is known
Note-
as specific retention or field capacity.
Bandhara is a water storage structure and can be
Porosity, n = Sr + Sy used for ground water recharge.
(vii) Cone of depression- Tube wells and hand pumps are used for irrigation
If the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic and is the main reason for the depletion of ground
water table is assumes a conical shape, called cone water levels.
of depression. Infiltration galleries are used to trap ground water
In a unconfined aquifer it represents the drawdown in sandy river.
water table but in confined layer it represents the Ground water table may be lowered by
pressure drop around the well. following method-
Base of cone of depression is called draw down. (i) Electro-osmosis method (fine grain soil).
(viii) Well loss- (ii) Vacuum method.
When water is pumped out of a well, the total (iii) Well point system.
drawdown caused includes not only that of the (iv) Shallow and deep well system.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 472 YCT
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 474
2. Precipitation ...................................................................................................................... 476
3. Abstraction from precipitation & Stream Flow Measurement .......................................... 482
4. Runoff and Hydrograph .................................................................................................... 486
5. Floods and Flood Routing ................................................................................................. 489
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 473 YCT
01.
INTRODUCTION
Introduction- HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE (WATER CYCLE)-
The science that is deals with the occurrence, MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
distribution, circulation and movement of water on Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020, MHPSC 2012
the earth including that in the atmosphere and below The various aspects of water related to the earth can
the surface of the earth. be explained in terms of a cycle known as the
UPMRC AM (Civil) 2023, HPCL JE 2022
SSC JE (Civil) 2022, TSPSC AEE 2017 hydrological cycle.
Components of Hydrological Cycle- Transpiration will be more rapid in high temperature
1. Evaporation- region and measured by phytometer.
BPSC AE 2022, JPSC AE 2021
SJVNL ET 2019, CSE 1995
Evaporation is the process in which water is 3. Precipitation SSC JE 2022, RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021
converted into vapour from the water surface like A process under which water reaches to the earth
River, Ocean, Lake. After evaporation water vapour surface from the atmosphere. It may of two types
carried by the air in the form of cloud into i. Liquid precipitation- Ex. Rainfall
atmosphere and condensed there. ii. Frozen precipitation- Ex. Snow , Hail, Sleet and
Evaporation depends upon temperature, pressure, Freezing rain.
humidity, surface area of water body, salt 4. Runoff-
concentration etc. Water flow over the earth surface under gravity
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 action is called Runoff. It is the portion of
2. Transpiration- precipitation that is not evaporated.
ESE 2022, Nagaland PSC 2017, TNPSC AE 2015
It is depend upon the topography of Region &
It is process by which the plants expels/lost the permeability of the soil.
water/moisture from its leaves through stomata 5. Interception-
(Microscopic Pores) into the atmosphere. JPSC AE (Pre) 2019, Karnataka PSC AE 2015
Transpiration is of three types- During rainfall some part of rainfall water gets
(i) Stomatal transpiration stopped by some obstacle (on the leaves of Plants,
(ii) Lenticular transpiration on the building roofs), this process is called
(iii) Cuticular transpiration interception. Interception is a loss.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 474 YCT
6. Infiltration- Inflow > outflow = Storage↑
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021, Haryana PSC AE 2020 Inflow < outflow = Storage↓
The process of water going down through the pores Where-
of the soil is called infiltration.
P = Total precipitation,
7. Percolation-
R = Surface runoff (R2 – R1)
The process of moving water from a soil zone to a
deeper soil strata is called percolation. R 2 = Surface runoff outflow
Note- R 1 = Surface runoff inflow
The Input of the energy into the hydrological cycle E = Total evaporation
is– Sun T = Total transpiration
The entire collection of water over the earth as well G = Net ground water flow
as inside the earth is called– Hydrosphere ∆S = Change in storage
Hydrologic cycle equation- b). For water body
Precipitation = Evaporation + Runoff or P = E + R P + I − G − E − O = ∆S
SSC JE 2022, CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
c). For surface flow
Catchment area/Water shed area/Basin area- P + I + IG − O − E − T − IN = ∆S
Area of land draining into a stream or a water course d). For Underground flow
of a given location is known as catchment area. It is
IG + IN − OG − OS − T = ∆S
also known as drainage area or drainage basin.
It is separated form its neighboring areas by a ridge e). For Precipitation and Runoff
called divide or watershed. Runoff, R = P − E
Catchment area is measured by planimeter.
OS = Surface water storage , OG = Ground water storage
I = Inflow , O = Outflow
IG = Ground water Come to Surface , IN = Infiltration
Volume of water in a Phase
Residence time =
Average flow rate in that phase
Various types of instruments and their
use in hydrology engineering
Used to Measure Instruments
Relative humidity Psychrometer
Humidity Hygrometer
Temperature & Humidity Thermohygrometer
Capillary Potential Tensiometer
Availability of water on the Earth–
UKPSC AE 2022 Wind Velocity Anemometer
Rainfall depth Ombromter/ Plulviometer
Evapotranspiration Lysimeter
Evaporation Atmometer
Transpiration Phytometer
Hydraulic Conductivity Permeameter
Infiltration Capacity Rainfall simulator
Rainfall = Evaporation + Transpiration + Runoff + Interception + Name The line joining the point of equal-
Infiltration +Other losses Isobar Pressure
DSSSB AE 2021
Isobath Depth in Sea
Water Budget OR Hydrological Budget
Equation- Isohaline Salinity
UPPSC AE 2022 Isohels Sunshine duration
This continuity equation expressed in terms of Isonif Snowfall
various phase of hydrological cycle is called water
budget equation. Isotherm Temperature
This equation is based on conservation of mass. Isopleths Evaportranspiration
a). For a given catchment in a time interval of ∆t
Isohyets Rainfall
Inflow − Outflow = Storage
Isochrones-
P − R − E − T − G = ∆S Punjab PSC SDE 2021, WBPSC AE 2014
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Line on the map which connects points having an
Nagaland PSC 2017, Kerala PSC AE 2015 equal time of interval of the surface runoff.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 475 YCT
02.
PRECIPITATION
Rainfall- Sleet Density of ice is more than snow and
ESE 2019, Karnataka PSC AE 2015 transparent in nature is known as sleet. It is
Precipitation is measured as rainfall and snowfall. frozen rain drops.
Snowfall is measured by snow stack. Hail Lumps of ice > 8mm.
Instrument used to measure rain water is called Rain
gauge/pluviometer/hyetometer/ombrometer/ Key Points
odometer. ■ The infiltration rate is commonly expressed by
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) Feb 2021 using– Horton's equation
Daily The amount of rain water (cm) collected ■ When surface of transpiration is submerged under
Rainfall every day is called daily rainfall. water, then potential evapotranspiration is–
Annual The amount of rain water collected in a year Much more than evapotranspiration
Rainfall is called annual rainfall. ■ The nearest object from a rain gauge should be at a
Average For calculating average annual rainfall, data minimum distance equal to– Twice its height
Annual of past 35z years is taken. Types of precipitation-
Rainfall Avg. annual rainfall in India 119 ≃ 120 cm. 1. Cyclonic Precipitation
Avg. annual rainfall for world = 100 cm. DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021, BPSC AE 2001
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022 Cyclonic precipitation is caused by the movement of
Note- moist air mass to this region due to the difference in
In India, rainfall data is collected every day at 8.30 pressure. Is is two types-s
am and if rainfall in a particular day is more than (i) Frontal Rainfall-
2.5 mm, then that day is called rainy day This rainfall occurs when a warm, tropical air mass
Types of Rain Intensity in mm/h comes in contact with a cold, polar air mass.
Light rain < 2.5 (ii) Non-Frontal Rainfall-
Moderate rain 2.5 -7.5 This phenomenon occurs when the moving mass of
Heavy rain 7.5-10 cold air meets the stationary warm nature of air mass.
Very heavy 10 - 50 2. Convective Precipitation
Torrential > 50 UK PSC AE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022
Manipur PSC AE 2013
Note- The warmer air rises up because of its lower density
7.5% of rainfall is received in India by south - west and cools then precipitates. It is due to temperature
monsoson. variation
Lumps of ice having size more than 5mm is known It occurs due to Cumuliform clouds.
as Hail & Lumps of size less than 5mm is known as 3. Orographic Precipitation
Granopel. UPSC JWM 2017
Head quarter of Indian Metrological Department The warm moist air mass travels towards high
(IMD)- New Delhi. altitude due to the presence of mountain barrier and
Headquarter of World Metrological Department undergoes precipitation.
(WMD)- Geneva. The area to the other side of the mountain where
the rainfall does not occurs is called shadow area.
Forms of precipitation-
UPRVUNL JE 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021 Measurement of precipitation-
NWDA JE 2021
Rain Water drops size- 0.5 - 6 mm
It is expressed in terms of the vertical depth to
It is measured in terms of water depth in
which water would stand on a level surface area if
mm, cm, m.
all the water form it were collected on this surface.
Snow Snow is made up of ice crystals which usually
Fall combines to form flakes.
Average density- 0.1 gm/cm3
Drizzle It is the fine sprinkle of numerous water
droplets of size less than 0.5 mm and falling at
intensity less than 1 mm/h is known as Drizzle.
Glaze When rain or drizzle comes in contact with
cold region and free to form an ice coating is
known as Glaze or freezing rain.
Virage Rain drops evaporate before reaching the earth
while passing through dry air.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 476 YCT
A. Non-Recording Type rain gauge– 2. Weighing-bucket type
NHPC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022 WBPSC AE (Irrigation) 1998
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UKPSC AE 2022 This rain gauge gives a plot of cumulative rainfalls
Non-recording type rain gauge is most common type against time i.e., mass curve of rainfall.
of rain gauge used by meteorological department. It
is installed in an open area on concrete foundation.
Distance of rain gauge from nearest object should be
twice the height of object.
It consists of cylindrical vessel 127 mm in diameter
with a base enlarged to 210 mm dia.
Symons's rain-gauge is most commonly used in India.
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
3. Natural Syphon type or Float type-
Nagaland PSC 2017
Natural syphon or float type rain gauge is adopted as
a standard recording type rain gauge in India.
Minimum Rain Gauge Density or Network Density-
GPSC AE 2019
Type of region Rain gauge Density
Plain region 1 per 520 km2
Region having avg. 1 per 260 - 390 km2
B. Automatic, Self reading, Integrating or elevation 1000 m
Recording type Rain gauge- Hilly region 1 per 130 km2
SSC JE 2022, GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, APPSC AEE 2016 Note-
It is used to determine rates of rainfall over short UKPSC JE 2022
periods of time. As per IMD data there are total 5472 rain-gauge
It essentially consists of s receiver bucket supported station out of which 572 are of recording type.
by a spring or lever balance. Movement of bucket According to WMO at least 10% of the rain gauge
due to its increasing weight is transmitted to a pen stations should be equipped with self recording rain
traces the record on a clock driven chart. gauge.
It is classified into following types of rain gauge- Minimum Network Density As per World
1. Tipping-bucket type- Metrological Origination WMO-
UKPSC AE 2022, HPPSC (HPPTCL) AE 2021 Description Network Density
Uttarakhand Combined State AE 2007 Minimum Tolerable
Dia. of receiver -300 mm Flat region of, 1 gauge for 1 gauge for
Use- For measuring rain in hilly area, remote area Mediterranean 600-900 km2 900-3000
and inaccessible area. zones & tropical km2
The record from tipping bucket gives data on the Mountainous areas 1 gauge for 1 gauge for
intensity of rainfall. of Mediterranean 100 -250 km2 250- 1000
and tropical zones km2
Arid and polar 1 gauge for -
zones 1500-10000km2
Optimum number of rain gauge-
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
Additional number of rain gauge required = N − n
2
C
Optimum number of rain gauge- N = V
ε
Avg. annual rainfall values or mean rainfall-
∑ x x1 + x 2 + x 3 ....
x= = x = Total annual rainfall
n n
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 477 YCT
σ n −1 (iii) Index station should be event spaced around the
Coefficient of Variation, C V = × 100 missing station.
x
(P1 + P2 + P3 + ...... + Pn ) 1 N
Standard deviation of the rainfall, Px = = ∑P
n N i =1
∑(x − x)2 (x1 − x)2 + (x 2 − x)2 + − − − −
σ n −1 = = n = Total number of index station.
n −1 n −1
Note-
Standard error in the estimation of the mean, If the stations are uniformly distributed over the area
Cv and the rainfall rates does not differ much at various
ε= stations then this method is quite satisfactory.
n
4. Inverse distance method-
n = Number of rain gauge stations It is also known as Weather Service Method. This
Cv = Coefficient of variation. methods provides good result and is therefore the
ε = Allowable percentage error. most acceptable method for scientific analysis.
Key Points n
■ The highest depth of rainfall that can occur in a 1 1 Σ P.W
W= 2 = 2 and Px =
given duration at a given location is known as– D x + y2 ΣW
Probable maximum precipitation Where,
■ Mean precipitation over an area is best obtained W = Weightage of each index station
from gauged amount by– x and y = Co-ordinates of each index station about
Orographically weighted isohyetal method the missing station.
■ In the design of storm sewers, "time of D = Distance of weightage from missing station.
concentration" is relevant to determine the– Note-
Rainfall intensity Normal precipitation values are generally based on a
■ Potential evapo–transpiration primarily– 30 year's period–
Depend on climatological factors
Double mass curve-
Calculation of missing rainfall data- RSMSSB JE 2022, CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
UPRVNL JE 2022 Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021, CGPSC AE 2020
1. Normal Precipitation method- It is a curve between accumulated rainfall at any
Missing data can be estimated by using the data of station versus mean of accumulated rainfall at near
the neighboring stations. In these station the normal by stations.
rainfall is used as a standard of comparison. Double mass curve is used to check and find out the
It is the average value of rainfall of a particular, date "Inconsistency of rainfall data".
month or year over a specified 30 year period. It is plotted in "Reverse chronological order".
Normal rainfall is used to find out the missing data
of certain rain gauges.
2. Normal Ratio Method-
GPSC AE 2019, Gujarat PSC AE 2017
This method is adopted when normal annual rainfall
at any of the station index stations differ by more
than 10% of the missing.
N x P1 P2 P3 P
Px = + + + ........ n
n N1 N2 N3 Nn
Where,
Px = Missing precipitation or rainfall at broken station
P1, P2, P3 ...Pn are annual rainfall at rain gauge station.
N1, N2, N3 ........are the average normal/annual rainfall at Presentation of rainfall data
index station. Mass Curve-
Nx = normal annual precipitation of missing stations. RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, GPSC AE 2021, BPSC AE 2019
3. Arithmetic mean method- Rajasthan JE (Degree) 2016, MPPSC AE 2016, ESE 2013
This method is only used when- It is a graph of cumulative rainfall against time
(i) The normal annual rainfall of the nearby missing arranged in chronological order. The slope of the
stations is within 10% of the normal annual rainfall mass at any point represents rate of flow at that
of the index station. instant, so flash flood during a period represents the
(ii) Data of at least three stations should are available. steep rise in the flow mass curve.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 478 YCT
Float type and weighing type rain gauges is used to 1. Arithmetic mean method-
measured rainfall in terms of mass curve. JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022, Kerala PSC AE 2015
Mass curve method is used to estimate the required It is simplest method when rainfall is uniformly
storage capacity of a reservoir in the stage of project distributed on its areal pattern. In practice this
planning water inflow and water demand data is used method is used very rarely.
for the determination of storage capacity of reservoir. P1 + P2 + P3 + ......Pn 1 n
Reservoir capacity = Pav = = ΣP
n n
Cumulative inflow – Cumulative demand curve
2. Thiessen’s Polygon Method-
SSC JE 2022, DSSSB Tech. Asst. 2021
NWDA JE 2021, Haryana PSE AE 2018
In this Method the rainfall recorded at each station is
given a weightage on the basis of area closest to the
station. This method is also call weighted mean
Hyetograph- method.
MPPGCIL JE 2023, GPSC AE (Civil) 2022
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, JSSC JE 2022 This method is more accurate than arithmetic mean
It is defined as the plot of the average intensity of method.
rainfall against the time intervals. The area under the Station outside the catchment can also used
hyetograph represents the total precipitation received effectively.
in the period. This method is reliable only for plain area because
The hyetograph is derived from the mass curve and elevation does not accounted.
usually represented as a bar chart. P1A1 + P2 A 2 + P3A 3 + ........ + A n Pn
Pav = or
A
ΣP ⋅ A n A i
Pav = = ΣP⋅
ΣA A
P1, P2 are the rainfall magnitude
A1 A 2 A 3
, , are the weightage factor
A A A
A1,A2 are the respective areas of the thiessen's
polygon.
Point Rainfall-
It shows the rainfall data of a station. Data can be
listed as daily, weekly, etc. Graphically, these data
are represented as plots of magnitude vs.
chronological time.
Note-
A rain gauge must be set as near the ground To
reduce wind effect.
Method of average rainfall calculation
over an area– Rain gauges
NWDA JE 2021 Cacthment boundary
To convert the point rainfall values at various station
Lines joining neraby stations
into an average value over a catchment, following
method are used. Thiessen Polygon network
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 479 YCT
3. Isohyetal Method–
SSC JE.2022, GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
An Isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall
magnitude.
After preparation of isohyetal map, measure the
areas enclosed between successive isohyets with the
planimeter.
It is most accurate method and superior to the other
two methods specially when the stations are large in
number.
P + P P + P P + P
A1 1 2 + A2 2 3 + .....A n −1 n −1 n
Pav = 2 2 2
A1 + A2 + ........ + A n −1
P +P
Intensity duration Analysis-
or Pav = ∑ A 1 2 According to Sherman relation between intensity and
2
duration.
a
I=
(t + b) n
The curve represented by this equation will be
hyperbolic.
Max. Intensity Duration Frequency Relationship-
KT x
I=
(t + b) n
Where,
I = Rainfall Intensity, T = Return period, t = time
Depth Area Duration curve (DAD) Duration, K, b, x, n → Constant for given catchment
Relationship-
UKPSC AE 2022, GPSC AE 2019
Development of relationship between maximum
depth, area and duration for a region is called DAD
analysis. It is used to determined the maximum
amount of precipitation of various duration over
areas of various size.
● DAD curve of precipitation are drawn as maximizing
envelopes through the appropriate data point.
DAD curves are essential to develop design storms
for use in computing the design flood in the
hydrological design for major or heavy structures.
● DAD curves requires metrological and topographical
information of the region.
DAD curve indicate the areal distribution
characteristic of the storm in a given duration. Note-
For a rainfall of known duration, the average depth The energy source for precipitation and evaporation
decreased with the area increase- thermal energy.
n
Rainfall intensity as per British ministry
Average depth P = P0 ε − kA
of Health Formula-
P = Average depth in cm over an area A, km2 (i) For storm duration of 5-20 minutes.
P0 = Highest amount of rainfall or highest storm at
storm center 760
Rainfall Intensity I =
k, n = Constant for given region t + 10
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 480 YCT
(ii) For storm duration of 20 - 100 minutes. water supply i.e. stream flow, reservoir and lake
1020 levels, groundwater.
Rainfall Intensity I = The surface water aspect of drought studies is
t + 10
essentially related to the stream and following
Where, techniques are commonly adopted.
I = Intensity of rainfall (mm/hr) i). Low-flow duration curve.
t = Duration of storm (minutes) ii). Low-flow frequency analysis
Index of Wetness- iii). Stream flow modeling
GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022, GPSC AE (NWR) 2021
3. Agricultural Drought
It is used to determine variation or deviation in rain
fall for a particular year. Agricultural drought is mainly characterized by
rainfall deficiency.
Rainfall in a year This type of drought is also called soil drought. In
Index of wetness = × 100
Average annual rainfall this type of drought, the soil moisture becomes so
low or dries up that crops cannot be grown in it.
W.I. > 100% - Good Year
Index used for agricultural drought-
W.I. = 100% - Normal Year DSSSB AE 2021
W.I. < 100% - Bad Year (i) Aridity index.
(ii) Palmer index or palmer drought severity index
Wetness index also indicate deficiency of rainfall in
a particular year. (PDSI).
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021 (iii) Moisture availability index( AMP).
% Rain deficiency = 100 – % index of wetness (i) Aridity Index-
Rainfall Deficiency Type of Deficiency Agricultural Drought can be defined by Aridity
30 – 45 % Large index (Dryness). AI is used for measure agricultural
45 – 60 % Serious drought.
> 60 % Disastrous AI is used to indicator of possible moisture stress
experienced by crops.
Clouds-
PET − AET
Clouds are measured in okta (scale 1 to 8). Aridity index, AI = × 100
Full covered sky with clouds is 8 okta. PET
Half covered sky with clouds is 4th okta. Rajasthan Nagar Nigam AE, 2016, ESE 2004
Drought- PET = Potential Evapo-transpiration
It is the climatic situation which is characterized less AET = Actual Evapo-transpiration
availability of moisture or less water availability. (Actually water provided to the crop)
Approximately 33% area of India comes under the AET
< 1 Not sufficient water supply
category of drought prone areas. PET
Probability of drought Types of area AET = 0 Soil moisture at PWP level (dry soil)
occurrence AET
≥ 1 Supplied water is equal or more than
0.2 ≤ p≤ 0.4 Drought prone area PET required water
> 0.4 Chronically drought
prone area
Aridity index (AI) Severity Class
1. Meteorological Drought 0 or –ve Non-arid
When there is more than 25% reduction in average
1 - 25 % Mild-arid
annual rainfall, then this stage is called
26 - 50 % Moderate arid
meteorological drought.
> 50 % Severe arid
Seasonal Shortfall Meteorological Drought
or Deficiency AET is calculated according to Thornthwaite water
< 25 % Drought balance technique.
26 – 50 % Moderate meteorological Aridity index (AI) is used as an indicator of possible
Drought moisture stress experienced by crops.
> 50 % Severe meteorological Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)-
Drought The PMP is designed as the greatest or extreme
2. Hydrological Drought– rainfall for a given duration that is physically
GPSC AE 2018 possible over a station or area.
It is associated with the effects of periods of [PMP = 42.16D0.475]
precipitation short falls on surface or subsurface D = Duration of storm (hr).
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 481 YCT
03.
ABSTRACTION FROM PRECIPITATION &
STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT
Losses from Precipitation– Lake evaporation= Pan coefficient × Pan
1. Evaporation 2. Transpiration evaporation.
3. Evapotranspiration 4. Infiltration E L = C Pan .E Pan
EVAPORATION Coefficient for various types of Pan-
CGPSC AE 2014 RSMSSB JE 2022
It is a process in which liquid changes to gaseous
Pan Cpan Dimension
state at the free surface below the boiling point
through the transfer of heat energy.. Class A 0.7 Dia.- 1.21 m
It is a surface phenomenon, no external energy evaporation Pan Depth- 25.5 cm
required for evaporation and it happen all time. bottom raised 15 cm
above ground surface
Factors Affecting Evaporation Losses–
NWDA JE 2021 Colorado Sunken 0.78 Area- 900 mm2
1. Vapour Pressure- Pan Depth- 30 - 90 cm
According to Dalton's law- E L ∝ (e w − ea ) U.S. Geological 0.80 Area- 900 mm2
survey floating Depth- 450 mm2
e w > ea pan ( USGS)
EL = Rate of Evaporation( mm / day) I.S.I. Pan. 0.80 Specified by IS-
(Modified of class A) 5973-1970
If e w > ea − continuous evaporation
Note-
If e w < ea − No evaporation
Generally the value of pan coefficient is < 1
2. Temperature- Class A type of evaporation pan made up by
If the temperature is more, the saturation vapor galvanized iron sheet.
pressure and evaporation both increases i.e, In India standard pan a hexagonal wire net is
E and e w ∝ T provided to reduce disturbance from environment.
3. Wind speed– Measurement of evaporation-
Removable rate of vapour over the water body will (i) Mayer's & Dune's equations for calculating the
increase by increasing wind speed. Lake evaporation-
Higher wind speed will remove the vapour at high
V
rate results as complete vapour is removed ever E L = C(e w − ea ) 1 +
initial vapour formation depends on temperature but 10
not wind speed. Where-
1 E = Daily evaporation in inches of depth
4. Atmospheric Pressure- E ∝ ew = Saturation vapour pressure
Atmospheric Presure
V = Wind velocity in m/h measured about 25ft
Atmospheric Pressure ↑ - Evaporation (E)↓ above the water surface.
1 C = Pan empirical coefficient.
5. Humidity- E ∝
Humidity Empirical equation-
(1) Mayer’s formula-
6. Area of the Water Surface–
Mayer’s equation is based on the Dalton’s law.
Amount of evaporation is directly proportional to the
area of water body. V
Evaporation, E = K m (e w − ea ) 1 + 9
If Area is large, evaporation will be more. 16
{
Evaporimeters For large deep water − 0.36
Pan coefficient- K m = Coefficiant
For small shallow water − 0.50
U.K. Combined AE 2012, WBPSC AE 2014
Pan coefficient is used for calculating lake V9 = Monthly wind velocity (Kmph) at height of
evaporation. 9m above the ground.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 482 YCT
2. Rohwer’s Formula- Loss due to transpiration T = (W1 + W) − W2
E1 = 0.771(1.465 − 0.000732Pa ) ( 0.44 + 0.0733Vo ) (e w − ea ) W1 = Initial weight of the instrument
Pa = Mean barometric reading in mm of mercury. W2 = Final weight of instrument
Vo = Mean wind velocity (km/h) At ground level. W1 = Total weight of water added during full growth
of the Plants.
E L = k. f (v) ( e w − ea ) Factors affecting the transpiration-
GPSC GES Pre 2021
f ( v ) = Wind speed correction function
Atmosphere vapor pressure, Wind, Types of Plants,
k = Coefficient Temperature and Light intensity,
Analytical method- Key Points
1. Water-budget Method-
BPSC AE 2022, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
■ Infiltration rate is always–
This method is simplest but least reliable. Equal to or less than the infiltration capacity
This method is based on law of conservation of ■ Water existing in the capillary zone is a part of–
mass. Vadose water
EL = P + (Vis – Vas) + (Vig – Vog) – TL – ∆S ■ Under identical conditions, if the infiltration
2. Energy budget balance method capacity measured by double ring infiltrometer is
This method is based on law of conservation of fd and that measured by a rainfall simulator is fs,
energy. the relationship between fd and fs is– fs > fd
It is more accurate than water budget method.
INFILTRATION
3. Mass–Transfer or aerodynamic Method
This method can give satisfactory results Infiltration Capacity-
NHPC JE 2022, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
It is based on theories of turbulent of mass transfer UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021, UPPSC AE 2022
in boundary layer.
Maximum rate at which a soil in any given time is
Method to Reduce Evaporation- capable of absorbing water is called its infiltration
1. By reducing surface area of water body- capacity .
It can be achieved by providing a larger depth. Unit- cm/h.
2. By using chemicals
BPSC AE 2019, GPSC AE 2019 Infiltration Capacity, f p = Maximum Infiltration Rate
SJVNL ET 2019, MPPSC AE 2016, MPSC 2015
OPSC AE 2019, Chandigarh SDE 2017, CIL MT 2017
Cetyl Alcohol (C16H33OH) or stearyl (C18H37OH) GUJRAT PSC AE, 2017, UK Combined AE 2012
alcohol.
Cetyl alcohol can reduce evaporation up to 60%. • f p is high at the beginning of a storm and has an
By Increasing salinity (Salty Concentration) exponential decay as the time elapses.
Evaporation station density as per WMO – It depends mainly on number of voids present in the
Region/ Area (Km2) Installed soil, but does not depend upon the size of the soil
Zone Station particles but rather upon the arrangement, sorting
Arid 30,000 One Station shape and degree of compaction.
Humid 50,000 One Station Infiltration Capacity depends on-
Cool 1,00,000 One Station 1. Condition of soil surface
Mountainous 300-1000 One Station 2. Soil temperature
TRANSPIRATION 3. Current moisture content
ESE 2022, Nagaland PSC 2017 4. Vegetation cover
Uttarakhand Combined State AE 2007 5. Characteristics of soil (Texture, Porosity etc)
A process by which water leaves the body of living 6. Type of rainfall (Light, heavy)
plant and reaches the atmosphere in the form of
water vapour is called transpiration. Temperature-
Transpiration intact occurs, when the plant High Temperature– Less Viscosity, More Seepage,
manufactures carbohydrates for its growth by more infiltration.
process of photosynthesis. Filtration capacity reduces in winter season and
Total mass of water transpirated by the
increases in the summer season.
Transpiration
=
plant during its full growth Measurement of Infiltration–
Ratio (T.R.) mass of dry matter produced UPPSC AE 2020, Rajasthan AE (Nagar Nigam) 2016
T.R. for wheat - 300 - 600 a). Flooding type infiltrometers
T.R. for Rice - 600 - 800 (i) Tube type or simple infiltrometer
Transpiration measured by phytometer method (ii) Double ring infiltrometer
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 483 YCT
b). Rainfall Simulators- Ratio of φ – index for flood storm and Soil condition
UPRVUNL AE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2014 in India–
It is an instrument which causes artificial rain (from
(I − r) r = Runoff from 24 hours rain (cm)
2 m height) over a small size plot of about 2 m × 4 φ=
m size. 24 I = Rainfall intensity (cm/day)
This device sprinkles water like rainfall through 2. W-Index–
nozzle arranged along the longer side of the land GPSC AE (NWR) 2021, CGPSC AE 2020
plot with arrangements to collect and measure the MPPSC AE 2017, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2007
surface runoff. This is an average infiltration rate during the time if
Note- rainfall intensity > Infiltration rate.
Value obtain from rainfall simulators < Value obtain W-index is reformed version of φ – index.
from flooding type infiltrometer. (P − Q − IL )
Infiltration Rate,
W − index =
tr
= Total Rainfall Water − Total Runoff Water with time
P = Total Precipitation (rainfall) in cm
If, I = f p No Surface Runoff Q = Total Runoff in cm
Excess accumulated water will
If, I = f p IL = Initial losses in cm
runoff surface
tw = Duration of rainfall in hr
Where, I = Rainfall intensity
W = index is always less than φ-index
f p = Infiltration rate
W − index ≤ φ index
c). Hydrograph analysis
d). Measurement of subsidence of free water in a W- index is more accurate than φ - index
large basin EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Value of infiltration capacity- • When water is provided to the plant through the root
Maharashtra PSC 2018 zone, some parts of the water is evaporated from the
Horton’s equation surrounding soil and transpiration from plant will be
RICCO Asst. Site Engineer 2021
occur so that a combined term is used as evapo-
Infiltration capacity for any soil decreases over time transpiration.
with the onset/ starts of rainfall.
• Field Capacity (FC) is the maximum amount of
−k .t water soil can retain against the force of gravity.
f p = f c + ( f 0 - f c )e h d for 0 ≥ t ≤ tc
• Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) is the moisture
Where- content of soil at which moisture is no longer
f c = Constant rate or infiltration capacity or final available in sufficient quantity to sustain the plants.
steady state infiltration capacity at time, t = tc Potential Evapo- transpiration (PET) -
f 0 = Initial infiltration capacity at t = 0 UPMRC AM 2023
k h = Hortan’s decay coefficient. It is the amount of water that called be evaporated
and transpired if there were sufficient water
Infiltration Indices- available or no control on water supply.
It is defined an average filtration rate. It is two Actual Evapo- transpiration (AET)-
types- It is the actually amount of water removed from the
1. φ – Index : surface due to process of evaporation and
NHPC JE 2022 transpiration.
The φ – Index is derived from the rainfall
Condition AET
hyetograph with the knowledge of resulting runoff Ratio
volume. PET
P−Q In clayey soil 0
φ − index = cm/hr If water supply to the plant is 1
t
adequate
UK PSC AE 2022
If water supply to the plant is <1
P = Total Rainfall depth
inadequate
Q = Total Runoff depth , t = Rainfall duration
If rainfall intensity Infiltration Rate Note–
I < φ - Index = Rainfall intensity AET
Ratio of is between (0 − 1)
I > φ - Index = φ - Index PET
φ Index is a value that separates runoff and rainfall At permanent wilting point, AET = 0
intensity for a particular storm. AET can be measured by an Lysimeter.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 484 YCT
Penman's Equation :
• It is based upon both energy balance and mass
transfer approach.
AH n + Eαγ u2
PET =
+ γ
Eα = 0.35 1 + ( e w − ea )
A 160 (iv) Current meter method
PET = Daily potential evapotranspiration in mm per day. V = aNs + b
A = Slope of saturation vapour pressure vs temperature. V = Stream velocity at the instrument location.
Hn = Net radiation in mm of evaporable water per day. Ns = Revolution per second of the meter
Ea = Parameter including wind velocity and saturation a, b = Constant of meter.
deficit.
g = Psychrometric constant = 0.49 mm of mercury.
u2 = Mean wind speed at 2 meter above ground in
km/day.
ew = Saturation vapour pressure
ea = Actual vapour pressure.
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
UKPSC AE 2022, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Indirect Method of Discharge
Blaney-Criddle Formula : Measurement
• It assume that the PET is related to hours of sunshine Slope Area Method
and temperature which are taken as measure of solar In this method we find the discharge with help of
radiation at an area. Manning's equation. This equation is used to relate
E T = 2.54 KF F = ∑ Ph Tf /100 the depth at either ends of river reach to the flowing
discharge in that reach and in this way by knowing
ET = PET in a crop season in cm.
the depth , we find out the discharge. It is used to
K = Emperical coefficient depends on type of crop.
estimate flood discharge based on high water marks
F = Sum of monthly consumptive use factors for period. left over in the past.
Ph = Monthly % of annual day-time hours. For using technique, we should know :
o
Tf = Mean monthly temperature in F. (i) Cross-sectional properties at upstream and
STREAM FLOW MEASUREMENT downstream including bed elevation also.
Measurement of stage- (ii) The value of manning's coefficient n.
(i) By manual gauge- (iii) The water surface elevation at both upstream and
(a) Staff gauge - downstream.
Elevation of water surface is measured with the help V2 V2
of fixed graduated staff. z1 + y1 + 1 = z 2 + y 2 + 2 + h L
2g 2g
(b) Wire gauge-
It this gauge staff is just like a pendulum wire with a
specific weight.
(ii) Automatic gauge-
a. Float gauge recorder-
Mostly used to prevent entry of debris and nullify the
wave effect.
b. Bubble gauge recorder-
record pressure head.
Measurement of velocity-
(i) Vertical Axis Meter
It consist of series conical cups, mounted around a
vertical axis. Note-
The normal range of velocity is from 0.15 - 0.4 Sounding weight-
m/sec. It is a standard weight which are used to fixed the
(ii) Horizontal Axis Meter current meter in a correct position.
These meter consist of propeller mounted at the end W = 50. Vavg.d
of horizontal shaft. Wading-
(iii) Float method Find out the velocity and discharge with the help of
V = kVS currentmeter is known as wading.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 485 YCT
04.
RUNOFF AND HYDROGRAPH
RUNOFF- 5. Size and shape of the basin
GPSC AE 2019, GPSC AE 2018 GPSC AE 2021
RPSC GWD AE 2014, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2007 Shape of the drainage basin is generally expressed by
The drainage off precipitation from the catchment “Form factor” & Compactness coefficient
area from the surface channel is known as surface • Compactness coefficient
runoff. It is expressed in terms of volume per unit Perimeter of the basin P
time. = =
Circumference of a circle 2 πA
Runoff and surface runoff are two different terms.
Runoff includes all the water flowing in the stream P = Perimeter of basin, A = Area of basin
channel at any given section. Runoff is also called A Z + A2 Z2 + .......An Zn
the discharge or stream flow. • Elevation of the water shed Z = 1 1
A
Surface runoff includes only the water that reaches
A1Z1 = Area between successive contour
the stream channel without first percolating down to
the water-table. Surface runoff is also called as the Z1 Z2 = mean elevation two successive contours.
direct Runoff (DRO). Form Factor-
Unit- m3/sec. It is defined as the ratio of average width of the
Runoff = Surface runoff + Ground water inflow (base flow) basin to the axial length.
Avg.width of the basin B A/ l A
Form Factor = = = =
Ground water inflow popularly called the base flow. Axial length of the basin l l l
Direct runoff = Total runoff − Base flow Higher is the form factor, lower is the base period,
Runoff is classified into four parts. lower is the infiltration and higher is runoff
JSSC JE 2022 discharge.
Surface The flow of water occurring on the ground Computing Runoff from the Given
runoff surface when excess rainwater, storm water Rainfall Methods
or other sources is known as surface runoff or 1. Computing runoff from the storm hydrograph
overland flow. 2. Using infiltration capacity Curve
Inter It is the lateral movement of water in the 3. Using infiltration indices
flow unsaturated zone or vadose zone, that first 4. Computing peak rate of runoff using rational
returns to the surface or enters a stream prior formula.
to becoming groundwater. 5. Computing runoff hydrograph by using unit
It is based on the time delay b/w the hydrograph.
precipitation and the runoff.
Base It is the delayed flow that reaches to a stream
By using Runoff Coefficient
flow as groundwater flow is called base flow. Q = K×P
Direct It is the rain water that runs off immediate Q = Runoff, K = Runoff coefficient, P = Precipitation
runoff after the rainfall.
1
Factors affecting runoff- QP = K × PC × A
UPRVUNL AE 2022, UPRVUNL JE (Civil) 2022
36
TNPSC AE 2015 A = Area in Hectares,
A. Precipitation Characteristics- It is like as PC = Critical rainfall intensity, QP = m3/sec.
Rainfall intensity, Duration of rainfall, Rainfall Ordinateof direct runoff
distribution, Type of precipitation, Soil moisture Ordinate of unit hydrograph =
deficiency, Direction of prevailing storm and Other Direct runoff
Climatic Conditions
ΣO.t
B. Drainage basin Characteristics- Direct runoff = 0.36. cm
1. Topography of catchment A
2. Orientation of watershed ΣO = sum of discharge ordinate (cumec)
3. Drainage density t = time interval between successive ordinates in hrs.
4. Stream density/Stream Frequency First and last ordinate of DRH is zero.
N 2
Area of DRH
DS = S Where Ns = No. of stream/km Direct runoff depth =
A Area of catchment
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 486 YCT
HYDROGRAPH Base Period (tB)-
JSSC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022, UPPSC AE 2022, NWDA JE 2021 The total time period between rising to the recession
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, PPSC SDE 2021 segment of the hydrograph.
Hydrograph is a graph between rate of discharge and
time at any given section. tB = tP + tR
When there is no base flow, then hydrograph starts tP = Occurrence of peak of hydrograph (time)
from origin. tR = Time recession of hydrograph
The shape of rising limb of a hydrograph depends on
both catchment characteristic and rainfall characteristic.
The shape of falling limb of a hydrograph depends
only on catchment characteristic.
Unit Hydrograph-
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022, BPSC AE 2022
HPSC Lecturer 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
An unit hydrograph is a hydrograph representing
1cm or 1 inch of runoff from a rainfall of some unit
duration over a catchment area.
The theory of unit hydrograph was developed by
L.K. Sherman in the year of 1932.
Rising limb-
In is also known as concentration curve that
represent the increase in discharge due to gradual
building up of storage in channel and over the
catchment area.
Recession/falling limb-
MPSC (ASCE) 2021, BPSC AE 2019
Rajasthan VP ITI 2018, HPSC AE 2017, MPPSC AE 2017
It is length form the inflection point to the
commencement of natural ground water flow. It
represent the withdrawal of water from the storage
built up in the basin during the earlier phases of the Effective rainfall hydrograph (ERH)-
hydrograph. DSSSB AE 2021
• Starting point of recession limb or point of inflection Effective rainfall is also known as excess rainfall. It
represents the condition of maximum storage. is the part of the rainfall that becomes direct runoff at
Crest segment the outlet of the watershed.
• Peak is hydrograph is controlled by both basin and Effective rainfall = Total rainfall – total losses
storm characteristics. ERH is obtained after subtracting initial loss and
• Crest segment contains the peak flow. infiltration loss.
Lag Time (tl)- Volume of runoff
Effective rainfall =
SSC JE 2022 Catchment area
Time elapsed between centroid of storm to the point Surface runoff hydrograph obtained after the base
of peak flow. OR Time elapsed between peak of flow separation is also known as direct runoff
rainfall to peak of discharge. hydrograph
Time of Concentration (tc)- Area of direct runoff hydrograph
KPSC AE 2020, GPSC AE 2019 = Area of ERH × Catchment area
Kerala PSC AE 2015, GATE 2003
Assumptions of Unit Hydrograph–
Time elapsed between end of storm to the point of GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
maximum storage. JPSC AE 2019, DSSSB AE 2019, GPSC AE 2018
tc = 0.01947 (k)0.77 Kirpich equation 1. Ordinates of direct runoff hydrograph of common
1/ 2 base-time are directly proportional to the total
L3 amount of direct runoff represented by each
k= k = (∆H = S1 – S2)
∆H hydrograph.
2. For a given drainage basin the hydrograph of runoff
L = Length along main stream (km)
due to a given period of rainfall reflects all the
Numerically t c = t l combined physical characteristics of the basin.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 487 YCT
3. Excess/effective rainfall has a constant intensity The resulting hydrograph derived from basic
within effective storm duration or specific period of characteristics relationship is known as a synthetic
time. unit hydrograph. It use three parameter.
4. Effective rainfall is uniformly distributed throughout
the whole area of the drainage basin.
5. Base or time duration of the hydrograph of direct
runoff due to an effective rainfall of unit duration is
constant.
6. Two basic assumption constitute the foundation for
the unit hydrograph, they are the time invariance and
linear response.
Limitation of Unit Hydrograph-
1. If the precipitation is decidedly non-uniform unit
hydrographs cannot be expected to give good result.
2. The catchment should not have unusually large
storages in terms of tanks, ponds, large flood-bank
Basin lag, tl -
storage etc. which affect the linear relationship
between storage sand discharge. It is the time between mass of centre of unit rainfall
3. Snow melt runoff cannot be satisfactory represented of T hours duration and runoff peak flow.
n
by unit hydrograph L .L
4. Developing flood forecasting and warning system is (i) Basin lag in hrs. t ℓ = C t ca
based on rainfall data. S
Attenuation- UPPCL AE 2021
ESE 2021, MH PSC 2018, GATE 2008 C t = Constant (1.35 − 1.65 )
Owing to the storage effect, the peak of the outflow
L = Distance of catchment boundary from station
hydrograph will be smaller than that of the inflow
hydrograph. This reduction in the peak value is (km)
called attenuation. Lca = Distance form gauging station to the point
opposite the centroid of watershed (km)
S-Hydrograph (Summation Hydrograph)
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, HPPSC Lect. 2021 2.778.C p .A
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, DSSSB AE 2021 (ii) Peak discharge, Q P = m2/sec.
tl
Cp = Regional constant (0.56 – 0.69)
A = Catchment area
(iii) Time base of unit hydrograph-
Tb = 72 + 3.t l hrs.
Width of 50 and 75% of the peak
5.87 W50 = Width of unit hydrograph in
W50 = hrs. at 50% peak discharge.
q1.08
p
S-Curve is a hydrograph that is produced by W75 = Width of unit hydrograph in
continuous effective rainfall at a constant rate for W50
W75 = hrs. at 75% peak discharge.
infinite period. 1.75
It is a continuous rising curve in the form of letter S, q = m3/S/km2
till equilibrium is reached. At the time of Qp
qp =
equilibrium it will represent a constant rate of A
continuous effective rainfall say R0 cm per hour.
Average intensity of effective rainfall producing the Key Points
S-curve in 1/D cm/h and the equilibrium discharge. ■ The run off increases with–
At the time of equilibrium the S-curve will represent Increase in intensity of rain
a runoff discharge given by– ■ When the duration of rainfall is equal to the time
A 3 of concentration, the runoff from the catchment
Q0 = 2.778 m /sec. area will be– peak run off
D
A = Area in hectares, D = Duration in hour ■ S–hydrograph is used to obtain unit hydrograph
of–
Synder’s Synthetic Unit Hydrograph- Shorter duration from longer duration, Longer
GPSC AE 2021, GPSC GES 2021
Karnataka PSC AE (WRD) 2021, MPPSC AE 2021 duration from shorter duration
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 488 YCT
05.
FLOODS AND FLOOD ROUTING
Floods- Empirical formula for estimation of flood discharge-
Any flow which is relatively high and which over Dicken Formula Q = C.A 3 / 4
P
tops the natural or artificial banks in any reach of a Suitable for North
river may be called flood. and Central parts of Q P = High flood/Peak
India.
Types of Flood- discharge in cumec.
(i) Standard Project Flood (SPF)- A= Catchment area in Km2
ODISHA PSC 2021, UK Combined AE 2012 Ryve’s Formula
It includes floods of severe conditions. Q P = C.A 2 / 3
Suitable for Southern
≃ 40 - 80% of MPF India specially
Flood from most severe combination of Inglis’ Formula 124A
meteorological and hydrological condition. Suitable for Fan QP = ≅ 123 A
shaped and Western A + 10.4
(ii) Maximum Probable Flood (MPF)-
ESE 2014, UJVNL AE 2012 Coast in Maharashtra • North India = 60
Its includes extremely rare and catastrophic flood. • South India = 49
SPF + extreme rare combination + catastrophic flood Modified Myer’s
It is usually confined to spillway design of very high Q P = 177P A
Formula
dams. * P is the fraction that the flood
(iii) Probable maximum precipitation (PMP)- How at that stream
UPRVUNL AE 2022, UPSC AE (PWD) 2021 Fanning's QP = C.A5/6
GPSC AE 2021, MH PSC 2021
Formula C ≃ 2.54
Greatest of extreme rainfall of given duration (For American Manipur PSC AE 2013
physically possible over an station or basin. Catchment)
PMP = 42.16 D0.475 Ali Nawab Q = CA(0.993 – YA log A)
(iv) Design Flood- formula
It is the flood adopted for the design of hydraulic (It is suitable the
structure like spillways, bridge opening, flood banks old hydrabad state)
etc.
Fuller's formula Q = CA0.8 (1 + 0.8 log TT) (1 +
Estimation of the magnitude of peak (Basin of USA) 2.67 A–0.3)
discharge- Zonal Values of ‘C’ for Dicken’s
1. Unit hydrograph technique
2. Flood frequency studies Formula–
3. Rational Method- Value of C in Dicken’s
Location of catchment
This simplest method is suitable for small size (< formula
5000 ha.) catchment. North India Plains 6
peak value of runoff, Northern India hilly 11 – 14
1 regions
QP = × k × Im × A hectares, or Central India 14 – 28
36
Coastal Andhra & 22 – 28
1 Orissa
QP = .k.A.Im In km2
0.36 Western Ghats of India 26 – 28
k = Coefficient of runoff Values of Constant C to be used in
Im = Mean rainfall intensity in cm/h Ryve’s Formula-
A = Drainage area of the basin/Area of catchment Location of catchment Value of C in
Use- In the design of urban drainage system, small Ryve’s formula
culverts, bridges and storm water.
Areas within 80 km from the 6.8
This method cannot produce hydrograph.
east coast
If Im is in mm/hour, QP = 0.2778 k.A. Im
Areas within 80 – 160 km from 8.5
4. Empirical Formula-
the east coast
These are suitable for larger area of catchment.
The empirical formula are applicable only in the Limited areas near hills 10.2
region from which they were developed. Actual observed values Up to 40
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 489 YCT
Gumbel's Method- Probability of Non-occurrence or non exceedance
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021 q = 1− p
Gumbel's extreme value distribution is also known
as Gumbel's distribution. This method is useful for Method of flood frequency analysis
the calculating the value of flood discharge for a 1. Binomial distribution-
high recurrence interval. It may be used to find the probability of occurrence
According to Gumbel, of the event 'r' times in 'n' successive years.
The probability of occurrence of an event ≥ x0 is
given by- p r,n = n C r .p r .q n − r
P ( X ≥ x 0 ) = 1 − e−e
−y
n!
p r,n = p r × q n − r where q = 1 – p
(n − r)!× r!
X T = ( x + k.σ )
Where, 2. Annual flood series-
XT = Peak value of hydrological data Probability of an event equaling or exceeded is
σ = Standard deviation computed from one of the given plotting position.
Probability of
y T − yn Method -
Frequency factor, k = occurrence
Sn Weibull m n +1
Note- p= T=
N +1 m
When, N = ∞, Sn = 1.285, yn = 0.577 Allen Hazen m − 0.5 N
p= T=
yT = − log e .log e
T N m − 0.5
T −1 Chegodayev m − 0.3 N + 0.4
p= T=
Determination of discharge for different N + 0.4 m − 0.3
frequency floods using probability Blom m − 0.44 N + 0.12
p= T=
Statistical method– N + 0.12 m − 0.44
DSSSB AE 2021
California m N
On the basis of available records of the past floods. P= T=
The predication will be precise only if there has N m
occurred no appreciable change in the regime of the Gumbel's m + C −1 N
river during or after the period of records. P= P=
N m + C −1
The values of the annual maximum flood from a given
Where,
catchment area for large number of successive years
constitute a hydrological data called the annual series. C = Gumbel's correction that is depends upon ratio
The data are arranged in decreasing order of m
of
magnitude and the probability ‘p’ of each event N
being equaled to or exceeded is calculated by Note – Weibull formula is the most popular plotting
plotting position formula. position method
m 3. Data of Frequency studies –
p= • Minimum of 30 years of data is considered
N +1
m = order number of the event • Frequency analysis should not be adopted if the
N = Total number of events in the data length of records is less than 10 years.
Recurrence interval (T) - Risk -
WBPSC AE 2003 The Probability of occurrence of an event of least
It denotes the number of years is which a flood can once over a period of n successive years is called
be expected once. 'Risk'.
n
1 1
Recurrence interval (T) = R = 1 − (1 − p ) = 1 − 1 −
n
p T
Probability of occurrence or exceedance – n
1
Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020, TNPSC AE 2019 Reliability, R e = (1 − R ) = 1 −
GPSC AE Class (1&2) 2017, UK Combined AE 2012 T
The probability of an event being equaled or
exceeded in any one years is called probability of Cam
Safety factor , SFm =
occurrence. Chm
p = 1/ T Where Cam = actual value of the parameter M
T = Recurrence interval or Return period of frequency adopted in the design of project.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 490 YCT
Chm = Value of M adopted from hydrological
consideration only
Note-
Safety margin = Cam – Chm
Method adopted for flood Control-
NHPC JE 2022
A. Structural method
1. Storage & detention reservoirs Inflow
2. Levees (Flood embankments) Wedge storage
3. Channel improvement
4. Flood ways (New channels)
5. Soil conservation 1
6. Watershed management
B. Non-Structural methods Prism storage Outflow
2
MPPGCL JE 2023, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
1. Flood plain zoning Prism Storage-
JPSC AE 2019
2. Flood warning relocation. It is the volume that would exist if the Uniform flow
FLOOD ROUTING occurred at the downstream depth, i.e., the volume
Flood routing is carried out in a reservoir to formed by an imaginary plane parallel to the channel
determine the maximum rise in water surface and the bottom drawn at the outflow section water surface.
discharge in the downstream channel when Wedge Storage-
particular flood passes through it. It is the wedge like volume formed between the
It is necessary for the complete solution of a flood actual water surface profile and the top surface of
control problem and for the satisfactory operation of the prism storage.
a flood prediction services. S = K[x.I m + (1 − x)Q m ]
Use-
HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021
(i) Flood forecasting (ii) Flood protection Where, m = constant
(iii) Reservoir design For rectangular channel - 0.6
(vi) Design of spillway and outlet structures For natural channel - 1.0
Methods of Routing – The wedge storage in river reach during the passage
1. Reservoir Routing of a flood wave is positive during the rising phase.
A. Paul’s methods (Graphical Method) Muskingum equation–
B. Goodrich method (Trial and error method) UPPSC AE 2022, JKPSC AE 2021
2. Channel Routing S = Sp +Sw
ESE 2021, DSSSB AE 2021, TNPSC AE 2018 Sp = Prism storage, Sw = wedge storage
i. Hydrologic routing method S = K[x.I + (1 − x)Q]
It is use only continuity equation
ii. Hydraulic method Weighting factor, x = ( 0 – 0.5)
Uses both dynamic and continuity equation. This value represents the wedge storage
1. Approximate method If x = 0, then S = K.Q. such a storage (s) is known as
linear storage or Linear reservoir.
2. Complete numerical method
If x = 0.5, then inflow and outflow are equally
important in determining the storage represents an
outflow hydrograph that has reduced peak.
K = storage time constant
I1 + I 2 ∆t − Q1 + Q 2 ∆t = ∆S
2 2
Q n = C 0 I n + C1I n −1 + C 2 Q n −1
I = Implicit method, E = Explicit method C0 + C1 + C2 = 1
Muskingum Method–
0.5∆t − kx 0.5∆t + kx
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022, UJVUNL JE 2021 C0 = , C1 =
UPPSC AE 2022, JKPSC AE 2021 k (1 − x ) + 0.5∆t k (1 − x ) + 0.5∆t
This method of flood routing is also known as
C 2 = 1 − C0 − C1
lumped method and based on the concept of wedge
and prism storage. For best result 2k.x < ∆t < k
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 491 YCT
Water Supply Engineering.........................................................................................492-515
1. Water Demand ...................................................................................................................... 493
2. Water Quality Parameter ...................................................................................................... 497
3. Treatment of Water............................................................................................................... 504
4. Disinfection and Softening of Water .................................................................................... 510
5. Distribution System .............................................................................................................. 513
Sanitary Engineering ..................................................................................................516-538
1. Public Sanitation quantity of sewage.................................................................................... 516
2. Sewerage Systems and sewer ............................................................................................... 518
3. Building Drainage and plumbing ......................................................................................... 521
4. Characteristics of Waste Water or Sewage........................................................................... 523
5. Sewage Treatment ................................................................................................................ 525
6. Disposal of Waste Water and Sewage .................................................................................. 532
7. Pollution (Air and Noise) ..................................................................................................... 534
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 492 YCT
01.
WATER DEMAND
Water Demand- Lawn watering & gardening - 15
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018, APDCL Junior Manager 2017 Cooking 5 5
The amount of water needed to a person in 24 hours, Drinking 5 5
for daily activities is called as water demand (per
Total 135 200
person/ capita per day).
2. Institution and commercial demand-
Unit- liter per capita per day (lpcd).
Per Capita demand- Type of Buildings Water per
DSSSB JE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022 capita per day
Yearly water demond of the city Q
(in Liter)
= = ltr./day Cinema & Concert halls 15 Per seat
365 × Design population 365 × P
Schools 45 Per Student
Rate of demand depends on-
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022, GSSSB AAE 2021 Offices 45 Per Head
Quality and cost of water Factories with bathrooms 45 Per Worker
Size of city Distribution pressure Restaurants 70 Per Seat
Supply system Climatic Conditions
Hotels 180 Per Bed
Industries Policy of metering
Hostels, Medical quarters 135 Per Head
Sewerage Habits, Custom of
Design period population and living Hospital with < 100 beds 340 Per Bed
standards BPSC AE 2018
Safe and Wholesome water(potable water)- Hospital with > 100 beds 450 Per Bed
This type of water is defined as that which is- 3. Industrial water demand-
(i) Free from pathogenic bacteria. SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021
(ii) Free from harmful chemical substances. Total water demand = 20 - 25% of the total demand
(iii) Pleasant to taste, colourless and odourless. of the city.
(iv) Usable for domestic purposes. Note-
Note- It varies from- 50 - 450 lpcd
If water does not fulfill the above criteria it is said to Industrial water demand has the maximum
be polluted or contaminated. influence on the total water demand it depend on
Types of Water Demand- type of industry.
U.K. Combined AE 2012
4. Fire demand- 1 liter per capita per day
1. Domestic Water Demand-
5. Water losses and theft- 10 - 15% of total demand.
TNPSC (CESS) 2021, KA PSC AE (WRD) 2021
BPSC AE 2019
As per IS 1172 : 1993
• For high income group/fully flushing system- 200 lpcd Water demand in India-
• For low income group - 135 lpcd. As per IS : 1172-1993, Total quantity of water.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2016 (a) For high income group (full flushing system)-
Use LIG HIG 200 (domestic) + 135 = 335 lpcd.
(lpcd) (lpcd) Fire Demand 15 lpcd
Bathing 55 75 Public Use 25 lpcd
Flushing of water closets 30 45 Industrial Use 40 lpcd
Washing of cloths 20 25 Losses, Wastage thefts 55 lpcd
Washing utensils 10 15 Domestic Purpose 135 lpcd
Washing the house 10 15 Total 270 lpcd
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 493 YCT
(b) For low income group (without flushing system)- Max. daily demand
135 (domestic) + 135 = 270 lpcd. = 1.80t −0.10 or
Annual avg. demand
Domestic Demand 200 lpcd
Public use 10 lpcd p = 180 ( t )−0.10
Industrial + Commercial Demand 70 lpcd DMRC AM 2020, BPSC AE 2019, HPPSC AE 2016
Losses and thefts 55 lpcd p = % in the annual draft
Total 335 lpcd t = time in days
(c) Rates of demand with respect to population of Peak Factor-
town- Max.hourly water demand
GPSC AE 2021 Peack factor =
Avg.daily water demand
Population Rate Of Demand (Lpcd)
Upto 20000 110 1
Peak factor ∝
20000 - 50000 110 - 150 Population
50000 - 200000 150 - 180 Peak Hours-
200000 - 500000 180 - 210 The peak demand for water is usually from 6AM to
500000 - 1000000 210 - 240 9AM and from 6PM to 8PM these are called peak
> 1000000 240 - 270 hours of water demand.
Variation in rate of demand– Note-
Max. consumption may be raised upto 200% of the
Max. hourly demand 1.5 × Avg.
avg. daily demand.
hourly demand
At the peak hour time, water supply increased 2 - 2.5
of max. day
times.
Max. daily demand 1.8 × Avg. Population Peak Factor
daily demand
Upto 50,000 3
Max. weekly demand 1.48 × Avg. 50,000 - 200000 2.5
weekly demand > 200000 2
Max. monthly 1.28 × Avg. For Rural Water supply 3
demand Fire Demand (Q)-
monthly demand It is the amount of water required for the fire
Max. seasonal 1.3 × Avg. fighting purpose.
demand seasonal demand It should be available at pressure of 1-1.5 kg/cm2 or
10 - 15 m head of water.
Max. hourly demand = 1.5 × Avg. For smaller towns (P < 50,000) fire demand is not
(for peak demand) calculated.
hourly demand • Bouston's formula - Q = 5663 P
on the max. day MPPGCL JE 2023, ESE 2021
P
q • Freeman's formula - Q = 1136 + 10
= 2.7 5
24 Rajasthan AE Nagar Nigam, 2016
Where, • Kuichling's formula - Q = 3182 P
q = Average daily demand
= 2.7×Avg. hourly demand JKSSB JE 2022, CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
Goodrich formula
It is used to calculate the % of the annul draft that is • National board or fire
required as a peak factor in meeting the variations in Under writes formula - Q = 4637 P(1 − 0.01 P )
water demand-
DSSSB JE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 494 YCT
(iv) Graphical extension method
• As per manual of the Q = 100 P k.liter
(v) Comparative graphical method
ministry - (Population > 50000) (vi) Zoning/Master plan method (best method)
Where, (vii) Ratio and Correlation method
Q = Required quantity of water (ltr/min) (viii)Growth composition analysis method
P = Population (thousands) (ix) Logistic curve/Decreasing rate of growth method
• F = 2.8 P (i) Arithmetic Increase Method-
MH WRD JE 2022
Where, F = Number of simultaneous fire streams RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
or no. of nozzles. This method is simple and based upon the
Coincident/Draft Demand- assumption that population increases at constant
GPSC AE 2022, UJVNL AE 2021 rate.
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021 Suitability- Old, large and established cities.
Maximum daily demand when added to fire draft for RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021, Nagaland PSC 2017
working out total draft is known as coincident draft. Rajasthan Nagar Nigam AE, 2016, OPSC AE 2016
OPSC AEE 2015
It is used for distribution system.
It gives lowest value of forecasted population
max. daily demand + Fire demand
It is the max .of Pn = P0 + nx
max. hourly demand
Pn = Future population after n decades
Note-
P0 = Existing /present population
Kuichling formula gives satisfactory result for
Indian conditions. n = No. of decades
ESE 2021 x = Arithmetic mean of population increase in
known decades.
National Board of fire Under Writer's
(ii) Geometric increase /Logarithmic/Uniform/
formula-
Exponential growth method-
(a) For a central congested high valued city- RSMSSB JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022
MH WRD JE 2022, UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022
i. For Population ≤ 2 lakhs, Q = 4637 P(1− 0.01 P)
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, JKPSC AE 2021
ii. For Population > 2 lakhs, Q = 54600 l/min. Percentage increase or percentage growth rate in
(b) For Residential Cities- population from decade to decade remains constant.
Types of city Quantity of water It gives highest value of forecasting.
(ltr/min) Suitability- For new/young cities expanding at faster
rate.
Small cities 2200
GPSC GES 2021
Large cities 4500 n
r
High value apartment 7650 - 13500 Pn = P0 1 +
Three storey building in 27000 100
density built-up area Where,
Population forecasting- Pn = Future population
Future estimation of population is called population P0 = Existing/Present population
forecasting. r = Average growth rate
r + r + ...........rn
or ( r1 × r2 × .........rn ) or
1/ n
It is predicted by three common technique which r= 1 2
depend on Birth Rate, Death Rate and Migration n
Rate. P2
r=n −1
Methods of Population Forecasting- P1
UK Combined AE 2012
(i) Arithmetical increase method P1 = Initial population,
(ii) Geometrical increase method P2 = Final population
n = No. of decades
(iii) Incremental increase method
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 495 YCT
(iii) Incremental increase/Varying increment Method- (v) Master Plan Method-
DSSSB JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, PSTCL AE 2021 UPPCL AE 2019
This method is the combination of both the A master plan under this method is prepared by
arithmetic increase method and geometrical increase
dividing the city into various zones such as
method.
In this method, growth rate is not assumed to be residential, commercial, industrial etc. and
constant, it may be increase or decrease. population densities for these zones are
It is considered to the best method for any city (old predetermine.
or new city) or when no information is provided for This method is also known as density method.
area.
Design life period of water supply
Population after nth decade,
n(n + 1)
structure–
Pn = P0 + nx + y HPCL JE 2022, UPPCL AE 2021
2
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
x = Avg. increases population of known decades.
Components Design period
y = Avg. of incremental increases in population.
in years
(iv) Logistic Curve Method-
BPSC AE 2006, 2001
Water treatment units 15
As per P.F. Verhulst, It is used when the growth rate Electric motors and pumps 15
of population due to births, deaths and migrations Balancing tanks Service 15
are given.
reservoirs, head works
If the population of a city is plotted with respect to
time, the curve obtained under normal condition is Storage reservoirs/Dams 30
look like S-shaped curve which is known as logistic Infiltration works 30
curve.
Conveying pipes for raw water 30
This method is applicable for very large cities with
sufficient demographic data. & clear water
Mathematical solution for a logistic curve which is Distribution system, pump 30
represented as : house and pipe connection to
P −P several treatment units
P −P
log e s − log e s o = −kPs .t
P Po Water pressure at door step in water supply-
DDA JE 2023, DDA JE 2023
Where,
Ps = Saturation population Min. water pressure at door step ferrule point should ≮-
Po = Population at the starting point Floor Water Head
P = Population at any time First 7m
k = Constant
Second 12 m
t = time in years
Third 17 m
Comparison of forecasting method-
CHB JE 2023
Forecasting Forecasted Suitable for
method population
Arithmetic Lowest Very old city
increase method
Geometric Highest Young and rapidly
increase method developed city
Incremental Intermediate Old city/New city
increase method
Note-
Graphical method gives the most accurate pre-
assessment of the total population.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 496 YCT
02.
WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
H2S is main cause of odour
Odour is measured by Osmoscope. Osmoscope test
is expressed in threshold number.
Intensity of taste and odour is measured by
Threshold Odour Number (TON), which represents
the dilution ratio at which the water sample losses
taste.
Causes of bad taste and odour in drinking water is
algae.
1 ≤ TON ≤ 3
BPSC AE 2016, MPPSC AE 2014
PHYSICAL PARAMETER
A+B Diluted sample 200
1. Colour- TON = = =
DDA JE 2023, SSC JE 2022 A Undiluted sample A
UKPSC JE 2022, HPCL JE 2022
A = Volume of raw water sample
Apparent colour is due to suspended and dissolved
solids while true colour is due to dissolved solids. B = Volume of distilled water used for dilution.
Test Instrument- Tintometer Odour is based on pO value.
Unit of colour measurement- TCU (True colour pO Value Indication
unit) 0 No Perceptible odour
Tintometer or Nesler tube by Pt - Cobalt scale is 1 Very Faint odour
used measurement of colour of water.
2 Faint odour
1TCU is the colour produced by 1mg of platinum
cobalt in the from of chloroplatinate ion in one meter 3 Distinct odour
distilled water. 4 Strong/very distinct odour
TCU- 5 Extremely/very strong odour
Acceptable - 05
4. Temperature–
Maximum - 15
For potable water it should be 100- 250C.
Water containing oxidized iron and manganese impart
Nagaland PSC 2017
characteristic reddish or black colour. If temperature increases at the rate of 100C then
2. Suspended Solid (S.S.)- biological activity will be just double.
Suspended solid may be organic or inorganic nature
5. Turbidity–
it is cause of colour and turbidity
JSSC JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
Silt, Clay, Fungal, Algae and Protozoa are present in
Turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended
suspended solid is removed by sedimentation and
matter per million parts of water (ppm or mg/l).
filtration process.
Permissible limit of suspended solid by It is not direct quantitative measure of suspended
environmental protection agency (E.P.A) is 30 mg/l. solids.
Ground water is free from suspended impurities. Permissible turbidity – 1 - 5 ppm
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
It is measured by gravimetric technique.
DSSSB JE 2022
Total solid = suspended solid + Dissolved solid
Turbidity > 5 NTU visible by naked eye.
Note-
It is denoted on the silica scale.
As per IS : 10500 : 2012 permissible limit of total JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022
hardness of potable water in the absence of
alternative source - 600 mg/ltr. Measurement of Turbidity–
LMRC AM 2018 1. Turbidity Rod-
3. Taste And Odour- It is a field method in which a aluminium rod with
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021, OPSC AE 2019 platinum needle is inserted in water then the depth at
Taste and odour are caused by dissolve gasses like which platinum needle becomes invisible gives
H2S, Mercaptans, methan etc. turbidity in PPM.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 497 YCT
Platinum needle- Dia.- 1 mm, Length- 25 mm 3. Nephelometer-
Unit- Silica turbidity unit. RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Nephelometer is a technique to measure level of
light scattered by the particles at right angles to the
incident light beam or scattering principle.
Turbidity is expressed in FTU (Formazin Turbidity
Units).
It measure low turbidity with very high precision.
4. Baylis Turbidity meter–
It is based on a colour matching technique and used
2. Jackson's Turbidity meter (Laboratory method)- for measuring low turbidity < 1 ppm.
It is based on the principle of light absorption. Blue cobalt plate is used.
Jackson's Turbidity meter is used to measure high
turbid raw water of natural sources only not for
drinking water.
DDA JE 2023, MH WRD JE 2022
JSSC JE 2022, TNPSC (CESS) 2021
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021
It is suitable, if turbidity > 25 ppm.
Note:
Nephelometer and Baylis turbiditimeter are the most
accurate method used for drinking water supply.
CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY
PARAMETER
1. Chlorides-
NHPC JE 2022
Chlorides are estimated by Mohr's method in which
raw water is titrated with standard AgNO3 solution
using K2CrO4 (Potassium Dichromate) as indicator.
High Quantity of chloride indicate water pollution
due to sewage wastage.
Acceptable limit - 250 mg/l
rejection limit - 1000 mg/l.
NHPC JE 2022, HPSC Lecturer 2022
GPSC AE (Civil) 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 498 YCT
2. Dissolved gases- (b) Addition of lime/Clark's method-
DDA JE 2023 Calcium hydroxide is Clark's reagent.
Very small amount of hydrogen sulphide gives (ii) Permanent / Non-carbonate hardness–
pungent odour to the water. PPSC JE 2022, UPPCL AE 2022
Carbon dioxide content indicates biological UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB AE 2021
activities, causes corrosion and imparts bad test. It is due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides,
Oxygen, (O2) - Corrodes metal nitrates of calcium and magnesium.
Chlorine (Cl2) + • CaCl2CaSO4
Ammonia (NH2) - Bad taste • MgCl2MgSO4
CO2 and hydrogen - Acidity Lime soda method removes hardness up to 50 ppm
only.
sulphide
For drinking water supplies generally lime soda
Dissolved Oxygen (D.O)- method is adopted.
Modified Winkler's azide method is the methods of
Total Hardness = Carbonate + Non - carbonate hardness
dissolved oxygen (D.O.) measurement in laboratory.
When, Alkalinity < Total Hardness then,
For Potable water, (D.O.) = 5 - 10 ppm.
Min. amount of (D.O.) for the survival of fish in a Carbonate Hardness = Alkalinity
stream is 4 ppm. When, Alkalinity ≥ Total Hardness, then
At least 4 ppm of D.O. is required in treated sewage Carbonate Hardness = Total Hardness
before discharging into river stream.
Removal of Permanent Hardness-
3. Hardness-
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021
(a) Lime soda ash process-
UPPCL JE 2022, SSC JE 2022
GPSC AM (Environment), GMDC, 2020
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
Hardness is defined as the calcium carbonate
It is also known as zeolite process. This process is
equivalent of calcium and magnesium ions present
now obsolete but was very useful for the treatment
in water.
of large volumes of hard water.
1 degree hardness = 14.25 ppm or CaCO3.
Major disadvantage to formed huge amount of
Key Points precipitate.
■ The nature of wastewater produced by (b) Ion-exchange method-
mercerization operation is– UKPSC JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Strongly alkaline and with low BOD both GPHC AE 2018, TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
■ The most important water quality parameter for It is also known as zeolite or permutit method.
domestic use of water is – Zero hardness of water is achieved by ion-exchange
Coliform group of organisms method.
■ The Indian Standard series deals with the This process is more costlier than soda lime process.
‘Methods of sampling and test (physical and (c) Calgon's process-
chemical) for water and wastewater’ is – IS 3025 Sodium-hexa-meta phosphate (NaPO3)6 known as
■ Water quality is classified as bad if water quality calgon, is used.
index score is between– 81-100 (d) Clark's method-
DDA JE 2023
Methods of Determining Total Hardness of
It is based on that hardness producing substance react
Water-
JSSC JE 2022, WBPSC AE 2021
with soap and form insoluble compounds before
leather
(i) Temporary / Carbonate (CO32− ) hardness –
is produced.
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023, CHB JE 2023
JSSC JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
Total hardness is found by determining the standard
Cause- presence of carbonate and bicarbonates soap solution required to obtain a permanent lather
with the water sample of known volume constant
(HCO3− ) of calcium & magnesium.
shaking.
• Ca(HCO3)2 Hardness is removed by converting bi-carbonate
• Mg(HCO3)2 hardness into carbonate hardness.
Removal of Temporary hardness- Magnesium hardness with sulphate (MgSO4) when
(a) Boiling- exceed 50 ppm causes laxative effects.
Soluble bi-carbonates are converted into soluble Hardness is measured by spectrophotometric
carbonates which are removed by filtration. techniques.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 499 YCT
(e) Henner's method- pH value of water indicates the reciprocal logarithm
In this method temporary hardness is determined by of hydrogen ion concentration present in water.
titration with a standard solution of sulphuric acid pH value is measured by potentiometer and
and using methyl orange as a indicator. sometimes aquascope instrument.
For permanent hardness is determined by using pH value of water is measured by electrometric
sodium carbonate (NaCO3). method and colourimetric method.
(f) Versanate or EDTA method- As per IS Code 10500:2012, pH value for potable
JPSC AE 2021, GPSC AE Class 2017, ESE 2012, 2009 water, 6.50 to 8.50.
DSSSB JE 2022, UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022
Hardness is determined by tetra acetic against Di-
MH WRD JE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022
Ethylene Diamine Tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) solution
using Erio-Chrome Black T(EBT) as indicator at pH
8.5 to 11 that give wine red to blue colour.
EBT forms Red colour and titration changes the
colour to blue or black.
Hardness of water is measured in other
Two types of colour indicator technique is
units-
used-
1 British degree 14.25 mg/l
(i) Methyl Orange- (Acidic indicator)
1 American degree 17.12 mg/l TNPSC AE 2018
1 French degree 10 mg/l Its initial colour is red and final is yellow. It mean
Water Hardness (In ppm of Calcium Carbonate) pH value 2.8 to 4.4.
UK PSC AE 2022 (ii) Phenolphthalein- (Basic indicator)
Type of water Hardness TNPSC AE 2012
(PPM) Its initially colorless and final colour is pink. It
Soft water 10 - 50 means pH value is 8.6 to 10.3
Slightly hard water 50 - 100 pH value of water-
UPMRC AM 2023, JKSSB JE 2022
Hard water 100 - 200
UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB AE 2021
Very hard water Over 200
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021
+
• pH = − log[H ] • pOH = − log [ OH − ]
If [Ca++] and [Mg++] is known in mg/litre- • pH + pOH = 14 • [H+ ].[OH− ] = 10−14
MPPSC AE 2021, Punjab PSC SDE 2021
Total Hardness • [ H + ] > 10−7 • [ H + ] < 10−7
[Ca ++ ]mg / l For strong acid For strong base
= × Eq.Wt. of CaCO3 +
Eq. Wt. of Ca ++
• [ H + ] = [ OH − ] = 10−7
[Mg ++ ]mg / l For neutral solution
× Eq.Wt. of CaCO3
Eq. Wt. of Mg ++ 1 H + ↑ −pH ↓ Acidic
• pH ∝
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UPPCL JE 2022 [ H + ] H + ↓ −pH ↑ Alkaline
GPSC AM (Environment), GMDC, 2020
Note-
Total hardness
• Carbonate Hardness = Min. of UK PSC AE 2022
Alkalinity Acidic water causes corrosion of pipe while alkaline
• Non - carbonate Hardness = Total Hardness - alkalinity water causes incrustation.
Hydroxide ion [OH–] is also known as caustic
If value is -ve then take zero.
alkalinity.
GPSC AM (Environment), GMDC, 2020, JUVNL AE 2016
Note- 5. Alkalinity -
DSSSB JE 2022
Pseudu hardness is a imaginary hardness and which JSSC JE 2022, CGPSC AE 2020
is cause by salt of sodium (Na).
Major source- HCO3− , CO3− − and OH −
4. Hydrogen–ion concentration (pH value)-
Acidity or alkalinity of water is measured in term of Minor source- HS− , HSiO3− , HPO 4− −
its pH value. Total Alkalinity (Form of CaCO3) =
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 500 YCT
−
OH
−−
CO3 (iv) Nitrate ( NO3− ) -
−
× Eq. Wt. of CaCO3 +
Eq. Wt. of OH Eq. Wt. of CO3− − UPPCL AE 2021
HCO3− Nitrate, represent the fully oxidized organic matter.
× Eq. Wt. of CaCO3 + × Eq. Wt. of CaCO3
Eq. Wt. of HCO3− Permissible limit- 45 mg/l.
Alkalinity on pH scale- Nitrate contaminated in drinking water cause blue
baby syndromes (methemoglobinemia).
No Alkalinity 0 - 4.5
7. Total Solids-
Total Alkalinity 4.5 - 14
OPSC AE 2019
Bicarbonate (HCO3− ) 4.5 - 8.2
Total solids consist of dissolved and suspended
8.2 - 10
Carbonate (CO3−− ) matter.
It can be determined by evaporating a known
Key Points
volume of sewage sample and weighing the dry
■ Chemical oxygen demand in domestic waste water
residue left.
should NOT be more than– 250 mg/lit
■ The BOD removal efficiency, in percentage, Mass of residue
Total solid =
during primary treatment, under normal conditions Volume of evaporated sample
is about– 30%
As per G.O.I. manual,
■ The concentration of hardness producing cat–ions
is estimated using– Spectrophotometer Acceptable limit - 500 mg/l
■ The purpose of adding ammonia buffer in sample Rejection limit- 2000 mg/l.
solution– Adjustment of pH in sodium analyser 8. Dissolved Solids(D.S.)-
■ If free dissolved oxygen is not available to the GPSC AE (Civil) 2022
sewage, then the resulting anaerobic In natural waters, dissolved solids consist of
decomposition is called– Purification inorganic salts like sulphates, chlorides, bicarbonates
and carbonates etc.
6. Nitrogen content-
Presence of nitrogen in waste water indicates the D.S. = Electrical conductivity µ(mho / cm) × 0.65
presence of organic matter and may occurs in four
Dissolved solids = Total solid – suspended solid
forms.
Note-
For drinking water, permissible limits of T.D.S.
500mg/l and tolerable limit 1000 mg/l.
DSSSB JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
9. Suspended Solids-
In surface water, suspended solids consist of
(i) Free Ammonia or Ammonia nitrogen– inorganic matter like silt or organic matter like
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021 algae.
It indicates first stage decomposition of organic
matter and recent pollution. Mass of residue
Suspended solid =
For potable water >/ 0.15 mg/l Volume of sample filtered
(ii) Albuminoid Ammonia or Organic Nitrogen- Biochemical Oxygen Demand-
ESE 2021
It is defined as the amount of oxygen required by
It indicates quantity of nitrogen present in water in
bacteria in decomposing organic matter under
the form of under composed organic matter.
aerobic condition at 20°C over a period of 5 days.
For potable water >/ 0.30 mg/l.
BOD after 5 days at 200C is taken as standard BOD.
(iii) Nitrite ( NO 2− − ) - UK PSC AE 2022, SSC JE 2022
CHB JE (Building) 2023 BOD5 = Oxygen consumed × Dilution factor/ratio
Nitrite show the presence of partly oxidized organic
matter. It is very dangerous for health. = [( D.O.)Initial – (D.O.) final] × dilution factor
Permissible amount- 0 (zero).
It is measured by colour matching technique with Final volume
colour developed by Sulphonic acid and Dilution factor/ratio =
Sample volume
Napthamine.
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Chemical oxygen demand (COD)- B-Coli Index-
HPSC Lecturer 2022 DSSSB JE 2022
It is measure of the capacity of water to consume It is a number or index which represent number of
oxygen during the decomposition of organic matter B-Coli per C.C. of sample of water.
and the oxidation of inorganic chemicals. B-Coli index varies - 3 to 10.
BOD/COD ratio- E-Coli (Escherechia coliform)-
It is the indicator of the degree of biodegradation of Assam PSC AE 2020, GATE 2004
the waste water. It is present in intestine of people and animal. They
BOD are harmless non-spore forming gram negative
< 1.0 always bacteria their presence indicates the presence of
COD
pathogenic bacteria.
Waste water can be considered is fully
BOD Most probable number (M.P.N.)-
biodegradable if, is lie b/w 0.92 - 1.00 JSSC JE 2022, UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022
COD Punjab SDO 2021
BIOLOGICAL WATER PARAMETER MPN is a method used to estimate the concentration
of available micro-organisms in a sample.
It indicates the bacterial density/consistency present
in water.
Biodegradable matter- MPN removes the drawback of B-Coli index.
It can be decomposed under biological activity. GPSC AE 2021
Non-Biodegradable matter- Bacteria Property
It cannot be decomposed under biological activity Pathogenic bacteria These are harmful or
but can be oxidized by chemicals. disease causing bacteria.
Ex. Industrial waste and detergent Non-pathogenic Oxygen required for living
Non-biodegradable organic = COD – Ultimate BOD bacteria of bacteria
Measurement- TOC & also COD. An-aerobic bacteria Bacteria can live without
Bacteriological test of water- oxygen
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021 Facultative bacteria Can lives with or without
Total Standard Bacteriological Test- oxygen
(a) Total Count or Agar Plate Count Test-
(i) Hot Count– Sample are placed for 24 hour at 370C. Key Points
(ii) Cold Count– Sample are placed for 48 hour at 200C ■ The solubility of oxygen in sewage as compared to
JKPSC AE 2021, UPPSC AE 2020
its solubility in distilled water is about– 95%
For Potable water, Total count >/ 100per C.C. ■ Water Quality Index is a value evaluated by the
(b) Coliform Test- type of function is– Aggregate function
It is based on the ability of coliform group to ■ As per IS 10500, the maximum acceptable limit of
ferment the lactose broth and producing gas. boron content in drinking water is– 0.5 mg/1
This test is divided into three parts- ■ The E–coli bacteria will not survive in the water–
(i) Presumptive test- > 9.5
When a water sample is tested in lab for total
Water-Borne diseases-
coliform, if total coliform is present then the test is
(i) Caused by Bacterial infections–
known as presumptive test.
UKPSC JE 2022, JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022
If gas is produced, it indicates B-Coli. RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
A negative result of presumptive test indicates that
Diseases Bacteria
water is fit for drinking.
Typhoid & Salmonella typhe
(ii) Confirmed test-
Paratyphoid-Fever bacteria
When in test water sample fecal coliform is present
then test is known as confirmed test. Bacillary dysentery Shigella bacillus or
(iii) Completed test- flexner-bacillus/sonne
bacillus
In this case water sample is tested for presentation of
E-coli bacteria. Cholera Vibrio-cholerae bacteria
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(ii) Caused by viral infections– Parameters Diseases
Infectious hepatitis, Hepatitis Virus Absence of fluorides Dental, fragile bones,
infectious Jaundice skeletal fluorosis
Poliomyelitis Polo virus Excess of lead Anemia
(iii) Caused by Protozoal infections– Absence of iodine Goitre
Bacteria Figure Diseases Excess of chlorides Hyperchloremia
Cocci Skin As Per IS : 10500 : 2012 Drinking Water
Infection Specification-
Bacilli Typhoid GPSC AE 2021, UJVNL AE 2021
Fever, Para TNPSC (CESS) 2021, UJVNL AE 2021
Typhoid,
Water Quality Acceptable Permissible
Dysentery Parameter Limit Limit (Mg/l)
Vibrio Cholera (mg/l)
Physical Parameter
Turbidity 1 NTU 5 NTU
Shape of bacteria Name Colour 5 TCU 15 TCU
Spherical Cocci or Cocus Taste and odour 1 TON 3 TON
Rod Bacilli Chemical Parameter
Twisted rod Spirilla Alkanity 200 600
Spiral curve Spirallum pH value 6.5 - 8.5 No relaxation
Irregular Vibrio Hardness (CaCO3) 200 600
Chain Streptococus Chloride (Cl) 250 1000
Double Diplococus
Single Cocci or Cocus Free NH3 0.15 No relaxation
Nitrate (NO3) 45 No relaxation
Water and instrument used for test- Nitrite Nil ––––
Property of Types of test/instrument for Fluoride (F) 1 1.5
water measurement Iron (Fe) 0.3 No relaxation
Hardness EDTA Method Magnesium (Mg) 30 100
Turbidity Turbidity meter/ Maganese (Mn) 0.1 0.3
Nephlometer/Jacsion Phenolic Compounds 0.001 0.002
turbidity meter (C6H5OH)
Bacteria count MPN test, Membrane filter Sulphate (SO4) 200 400
technique Zinc (Zn) 5 15
pH Potentiometer, Aquascope Copper (Cu) 0.05 1.5
Colour Tintometer, Nesler tube Free residual chlorine 0.2 1
Dissolved Winkler's method Total dissolved solid 500 2000
Oxygen Toxic Chemicals Parameter
Organic matter BOD Test, COD Test Calcium (Ca) 75 200
Taste and Odour Osmoscope Arsenic (As) 0.01 0.05
Total dissolved Di-ionic tester Cadmium (Cd) 0.003 No relaxation
solid Lead (Pb) 0.01 No relaxation
Chlorides Mohr's method Selenium (Se) 0.01 No relaxation
Volatile solid Muffle furnace Silver (Ag) 0.1 No relaxation
Settleable solid Imhoff Cone Mercury (Hg) 0.001 No relaxation
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 503 YCT
03.
TREATMENT OF WATER
Treatment method for various Application of physical unit operations-
impurities- JPSC AE 2019, UPRVUNL AE 2015
Impurities Treatment method Operation Application
Floating objects Screening Screening Removal of coarse and settle able solids
(Larger and heavy) by surface straining
Suspended solids Sedimentation Flocculation Promotion of the aggregation of small
Colloidal solids Sedimentation with coagulation particles into larges particles.
Micro-organisms Filtration, Disinfection Sedimentation Removal of settleable solids and
Dissolved gases Aeration thickening of sludges.
Colour Adsorption through activated Floatation Removal of finely divided suspended
carbon, chlorination, sedimentation solids and particles which densities
and coagulation close to that of water.
Turbidity Coagulation & Sedimentation, Filtration Removal of fine residual suspended
filtration solids remaining after biological or
Taste & odour Chlorination, filtration chemical treatment.
Sedimentation, Coagulation
Adsorption Primary treatment of water-
Hardness Zeolite process, Lime soda method A. Screening-
It is first process used to remove floating matter of
Flow diagram of water treatment-
comparatively large size.
DDA JE2023, CHB JE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022, JPSC AE 2021
UPPSC AE 2020, Rajasthan AE, 2016 As per IS : 6280 - 1971.
Type of screens Opening size (mm)
Fine screens < 20
Medium Screens 20 - 50
Coarse Screens > 50
Inclination of coarse screen is kept at 45° - 60° to the
horizontal because this angle increase the opening
area to reduce the flow velocity.
B. Aeration-
DDA JE 2023, JPSC AE 2021
Assam PSC AE 2020, CGPSC AE 2020
It is the process to remove dissolved impurities is
from the water. Air is mixed into water to remove
odour.
GPSC AE 2022
It removes iron and manganese & it also decreases
the acidity of water.
Methods of Aeration-
(i) Tricking bed or Tray tower or Gravity aerator–
It is most efficient method for the removal of CO2
Fe, Mn.
KMnO4 may be used to help oxidation.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 504 YCT
(ii) Diffused air aerator- (ii) Overflow velocity/Rate on surface loading-
Water absorbs oxygen from compressed air and ( ≃ 600 ltr./hr.m2)
colour, odour & taste are removed. Q
B.L
HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021
(iii) Detention period (5 - 8 hrs.)-
ESE Pre 2023, WBPSC AE 2021
Theoretical time taken by a particle of water to pass
between entry and exit of a settling tank is known as
the detention period.
V
T= For rectangular tank
Q
SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021
(iii) Cascade aerator– Where,
It is the cheapest method.
B = Width of tank
It removes 20 - 45%, CO2 and 35% H2S
L = Length
This method is adopted for the treatment of water
H = Height
available from deep wells or valleys.
Q = Discharge through tank
For plane sedimentation- 4 - 8 hrs.
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021
For sedimentation coagulation- 2 - 4 hrs.
RPSC AE 2018
Flowing through period
Displacement efficiency =
Detention Period
Displacement efficiency varies between 0.25 to 0.50
in normal sedimentation tanks.
When coagulant are used efficiency are almost
double.
(iv) Spray nozzle-
Q
It is efficient and commonly used to remove CO2 (iv) Surface area of settling tank =
90% and H2S, 99%. Over flow rate
Sedimentation- (v) Dimensions-
DDA JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022 Chandigarh SDE 2021, Punjab MCP SDO 2015
HPCL JE 2022, Punjab SDO 2021 Breadth = 10 - 12 m
Removal of dissolved impurities by decreasing the Length ≯ 4 × Breadth (L/B ratio = 4)
velocity of water is called sedimentation. Suspended Depth = 3 - 4.5 m
substance settles in the form of sludge at the bottom
Flow period < time period
of tank.
Design of sedimentation tank is based upon surface
ρdissolved impurity > ρwater loading.
Settlement of particles ∝ temperature. Settling velocity, VS should be > surface loading of
Colloidal impurities can't be removed by this the tank.
process. Efficiency of tank is increased for a given discharge
Design of Sedimentation Tank- by increasing the surface area of tank.
UPPCL JE 2022 Shift-II, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021 Pre-sedimentation-
JPSC AE 2021, APDCL Junior Manager 2017 Nagaland PSC 2017, Punjab PSC SDE 2016
(i) Flow velocity- ( ≃ 30 cm/minute or 5 mm/sec.) Concentration of suspended solid > 1000 mg/l.
Q Impurity removed by plain or pre sedimentation-
B.H • 60% suspended impurity.
HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021 • 75% bacterial impurity.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 505 YCT
When sedimentation involves one or more basins Over flow rate for coagulation with sedimentation
called "clarifiers". tank 1000 - 1250 l/hrs/m2 or 24000 - 30000 l/day/m2
Settling of particle depends upon- Types of sedimentation tank-
WBPSC AE 2021 (i) Rectangular-
RPSC Lecture 2011
It is used in India and useful for a large treatment
plant.
(ii) Circular-
Useful for small treatment plant.
Flowing rate at surface area- 2000 l/hrs./m2
Volume of tank, V = D2 [0.011D + 0.785H]
(iii) Hopper type-
influent Deflector Drawoff
channel Box Channel
(a) Specific gravity, shape & size of particles-
When, particles size (d) < 0.1 mm
Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021, MPPSC AE 2021
To
(G –1)gd2 (γS − γw )d2 Sludge
Settling velocity, VS = = (m/sec) Pump
18µ 18ν
CHB JE 2023, UK PSC AE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Sludge Pipe
(b) Temperature, density of water & viscosity of
water-
Sludge
(i) For particle size < 0.1 mm
3T + 70 ηHopper tank > ηCircular tank
VS = 418(G −1)d 2 (mm / sec.)
100
(iv) Intermittent/Quiescent type-
(ii) For particles size 0.1 - 1 or > 0.1 mm.
Its design is based on the max. daily demand.
3T + 70
VS = 418(G − 1)d (mm/sec.) Sedimentation period- 24 hrs.
100
Time required to clean the tank- 6 - 12 hrs.
d = Diameter of particle (cm) Depth of tank- 2.5 - 6m.
v = Kinematic viscosity (cm2/sec.) Sedimentation with Coagulation-
γS = Unit weight of particle It is done if turbidity of water > 40 ppm.
µ = Dynamic viscosity OPSC AE 2019
Type of settling- Turbidity remains after this process < 20 ppm.
DDA JE 2023, CGPSC AE 2020
Coagulation Aids-
Discrete In this case particles individually settle
settling down at the bottom of tank. Size, shape
and weight of particles remains constant
it is known as discrete settling.
Flocculation When particles settle down after
settling formation of floc is known as
flocculation settling.
Compression/ Particles settle down under
pressure compressive/pressure action of particles
settling is known as compression settling.
Sedimentation tank-
Overflow rate of plain sedimentation tank- 500 - 700
l/hrs./m2. or 12000 - 18000 l/day/m2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 506 YCT
Coagulation- • Forms heavy, dense floc while settles
DDA JE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022 rapidly.
GPSC AM (Environment), GMDC 2020
• It is widely used in sewage treatment.
It is the process of mixing flocculant chemical in
water to remove fine impurities suspended in water. • pH of water should be- 5- 11.
Coagulation is performed in 3 stages- Ferric It is used with lime then it is more
(i) Mixing of coagulant (Fast mixing) sulphate effective than chlorinated copperas.
(ii) Flocculation (Slow mixing) Calcium Hydroxide-
(iii) Sedimentation Sodium Aluminate + Ferric chloride-
Types of coagulants- Feeding method of coagulant-
DSSSB JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
Coagulant may be fed into the raw water either in a
GPSC Assistant Prof. 2016 UPRVUNL AE 2016, HPPSC 2016
To produce the hydroxide floc, enough alkalinity powder form or in a solution form.
should present in the water. 1. Dry feeding -It is simplest method
(i) Alum [Al2(SO4)3.18H2O]- 2. Wet feeding- Wet feeding instrument is costlier but
CHB JE 2023, UKPSC JE 2022 these are easily controlled and adjusted.
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022, KPSC AE 2020, GPHC AE 2018 Note-
It is a most universal used coagulant. It produces Jar test is used to determine the quantity of
effective floc in the water when the pH of water is in coagulant to be mixed in water.
the range of 6.5 to 8.5. No. of bottles used in this test- 6.
CHB JE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022
Chemical name- Aluminium sulphate [Al2(SO4)3] Criteria of Coagulant-
MPPSC AE 2021
Alum requires sufficient alkalinity in water to
produce floc. Dose upto 10 - 25 ppm
It imparts non-carbonaceous precipitates so water Feeding In powder form or in solution form
becomes corrosive. Flash mixing Coagulants properly mixed with water.
Normal dose of alum is 10 - 30 mg/l. Mixing period- 30-60 sec. or less
Note- • Propeller type impeller is mostly
Alum used in raw water treatment while iron salt used in flash mixer
used in sewage treatment. pH alkalinity • To remove acidity, lime is added
(ii) Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4.7 H2O)- • To remove alkanity H2SO4 is added
It works in pH range > 8.5. Hence it is always used
Detention Minimum detention period of 30 sec
with lime.
time
Normal dose = 10 - 30 mg/l.
horizontal 2.5 - 7.5 mm/s
(iii) Chlorinated Copper [Fe2(SO4)3 and FeCl3)-
velocity
Chlorine + copperas = chlorinated copperas.
pH range 3.5 - 6.5 or > 8.5 Flocculation-
(iv) Sodium Aluminate (Na2Al2O4)- RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 15.03.2021 P-I, P SDO 14.06.2021
Normal dose = 10 - 30 mg/l. The process used to bring the coagulated particles
Working pH range - 6.5 - 8.5. together so that they can combine to form large,
settleable and filterable masses of particles is called
Note-
flocculation.
Use of iron salts causes pitting & tuberculation in
pipes. Flocculation rate depends on-
GPSC AM (Environment), GMDC 2020
Coagulant Property
Turbidity More turbidity more
Alum Spongy floc resulting in large volume of
flocculation
sludge
Type & dose of Iron coagulant forms
Chlorinated Effective for producing sludge for
coagulant heavier floc
copperas activated sludge process.
(Sulphate) Temporal mean velocity Depends on power
gradient P
Ferric • 90% suspended impurities can be shaft G =
chloride removed. µV
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 507 YCT
Where, Design criteria-
P = Power (watts) DDA JE 2023, UPPCL AE 2018
V = Volume of Tank Filtration medium Sand
Note- Sand of Size 0.20 - 0.30 mm
If coagulation, flocculation & sedimentation occurs
Depth of filter 2.54 - 4.0 m
in a single tank it is called clari-flocculator.
Plan area of filter 100 - 2000 m2
Filtration-
Cleaning period 1 - 2 month
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022
The process of passing the water through the beds of Rate of filtration 2400 - 4800 l/m2/day
granular materials is known as filtration. or 100 - 200 l/m2/hr.
Filtration is most often used as limiting step to Efficiency of bacteria 98 - 99%
remove the flocs and finer unsedimented particles. removal
Filtration may help in removing bacteria, colour, Effective Size (D10) of 0.2 - 0.35 mm
odour, taste, turbidity and colloidal impurities. sand Particles
Theory of filtration- Cleaning method By scraping of top sand layer
Mechanical Upper layers particles are (1.5 - 2 cm)
Straining removed
Uniformity 1.8 - 2.0
Sedimentation Particles finer than voids are removed coefficient
by sedimentation
Loss of head Initial - 15 cm
Biological Three Zones of purification
Final - 100 cm
action The surface coating is known as
Initial cost High
''Schmutzdecke''
The 'autotrophic' zone existing a few Depth of sand 90-110 cm
millimeters. Note-
The ''heterotrophic'' zone, which Slow sand filter are not used for water if turbidity is
extends around 300 mm into the bed > 50 NTU.
Electrolytic In this theory, a filter helps purifying Size of particle and bed thickness material-
Changes water by changing the chemical Layer Depth (in mm) Size (in mm)
characteristics of water.
Top 150 3-6
Types of filters Middle 150 6 - 20
1. Slow Sand Filters– 20 - 40
150
DDA JE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022
UPPCL AE 2022, SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021 Low 150 40 - 65
In this process, water is allowed to pass slowly Required number of filters as per treated filter
through a layer of sand placed above the base area-
material.
Area No. of Filters
The purification process aims at simultaneously 2
improving the biological, chemical and physical < 20 m 2 (1 + 1)
2
characteristics of water. 20 - 250 m 3 (2 + 1)
2
It is very well suited for rural areas in developing 250 - 650 m 4 (3 + 1)
countries. 650 - 1200 m 2
5 (4 + 1)
2
> 1200 m 6 (5 + 1)
2. Rapid Sand Filters (Gravity types)-
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, KPSC AE 2020
RSF is a common technique in developed countries
for treating large quantities of drinking water.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 508 YCT
Note-
The colour of water also fades away. If falls to 10 on
the cobalt scale.
Important point regarding to rapid sand
filter-
UK PSC AE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, GPSC AE 2019, GPSC AE 2017
Due to excessive negative head, air binding
phenomena is exist, which is cause of resistance to
filtration rate.
Presence of clay particle in rapid sand filter which of
mud ball formation.
Cracking of filter due to temperature variation
Design Criteria-
BPSC AE 2019, Rajasthan Nagar Nigam AE, 2016
Purpose of filters under drainage system-
1.
For slow sand filter-
Depth of tank 2.5 - 3.5m
To receive and deliver the filtered water.
Area 10 - 80 m2 each unit
2. For rapid sand filter-
Rate of washing 15 - 90 cm Rise/minute (a) To receive and collect filtered water.
Cleaning period 2 - 3 days (b) To allow the back washing for cleaning of filter.
Rate of filtration 3000 - 6000 L/m2/ hrs. Pressure filters-
(30 × SSF) GPSC AE 2021
Pressure filters are just like small rapid gravity filters
Back washing time 30 min
placed in closed vessels, through which water to be
Turbidity removal 99% treated is passed under pressure of 3 to 7 kg/cm2.
efficiency Pressure filter is less efficient than the rapid gravity
Bacterial removal 80% filters in removing bacteria and turbidities.
efficiency It may be horizontal or vertical type and used for the
Washing period 24 - 48 hrs. treatment of industrial or swimming water.
Sand Layer thickness 60 - 90 cm Rate of filtration of pressure filter as compared to
rapid sand filter is 2-5 times.
Effective sand size (D10) 0.35 - 0.55 mm
Rate of filtration- 6000-15000 l/hrs./m2 of filter
Water depth over sand 1 - 2 m area.
layer Diameter tank-1.5 - 3 m
Length width ratio 1.25 to 1.33 Depth- 3 - 8 m.
Back wash velocity 45 cm/min.
Max. head loss 2.5 to 3.0 meters
Water for back washing 2 - 4% of total water
filtered
Uniformity Coefficient, Cu 1.3 - 1.7
Number of units N = 1.22 Q
Q = Plant capacity in
MLD.
Disadvantage-
Loss of head Initial- 30 cm
(i) Uneconomical
Final- 3 m
(ii) Bacterial removal efficiency is less.
Removal of turbidity 40 ppm
(iii) Not suitable for drinking water.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 509 YCT
04.
DISINFECTION & SOFTENING
OF WATER
Disinfection or sterilization- Ozoniser is used to produce ozone O3.
Chandigarh SDE 2021 Effective dose- 2-3 ppm.
Water disinfection means the removal, deactivation Contact period- 10 - 15 min.
or killing of pathogenic bacteria/micro-organisms. It is more costly method than chlorination.
Sterilization kills all types of harmful or harmless Adopted for large scale disinfection.
substance present in water by the process of boiling. 6. Potassium Permanganate Treatment (KMnO4)-
Disinfectants- WBPSC AE (PWD) 1998
Disinfectants Example ('Red Medicine')
Oxidizing chemicals Bromine, Chlorine, It is powerful disinfectants for well water supply in
Ozone, Iodine etc. rural areas.
Metal ions Silver and copper ions It is a powerful oxidizing chemical that completely
oxidizes organic materials.
Surface active Cationic detergent
Dose- 1 - 2 ppm.
chemicals
Contact period- 4 - 6 hrs.
Alkalies and acids -
It is not used in the water supply system of cities.
Method of Disinfection- 7. Silver Treatment-
ESE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022
In this method the water is filtered with a filter, in
Kerala PSC AE 2021, TSPSC Deputy Engineer 2015
which Katelyn silver is mixed in the sand.
1. Disinfection by Ultra-Violet Rays
PPSC Building Inspector 2022, WBPSC AE 2021 Does- 0.5 - 0.1 ppm.
It is very effective in killing all types of bacteria It does not create any harmful effect on human
viruses and bacterial spores. body.
It is suitable for turbidity upto 15 ppm. 8. Treatment with Chlorine-
CHB JE 2023, UKPSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
Suitable for health centers, swimming pools and
pH >5
other small works. Cl 2 + H 2 O → HOCl + HCl
2. Boiling method- Hypochlorous acid
Not suitable for large scale water treatment. pH > 8
HOCl ↽ pH < 7⇀ H + + Cl −
Boiling method does not safeguard of water against
future recontamination. Chlorine is mostly used for treatment in liquid form
3. Excess Lime Treatment- because of is handling. It dissolves quickly in water.
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021 It is cost effective and a reliable because residual
It increase pH so recarbonation is done to remove chlorine safe guards the water against future
alkalinity. recontamination.
At pH 9.5-10.5, 99.9-100%, bacteria destroyed. Chlorine is mixed in water with chlorinator.
10-20 ppm lime removes 99.93 or ≃ 100% bacteria. Chlorine is more effective at higher temperatures.
It kills present existing bacteria. Chlorine is depend on pH value, it is more effective
4. Iodine and Bromine treatment- when pH < 8.
GPSC AE 2021 At pH > 8, bactericidal action increases.
Dose- 8 ppm
Chlorine is applied in following forms-
Contact period- 5 minutes.
(i) Free chlorine-
It is suitable for swimming pools.
Available in liquid or gaseous form
5. Ozone Treatment-
WBPSC AE (PWD) 1998 (ii) Chloramines-
JSSC JE 2022
Ozone gas is the best bacteria disinfectant and very
effective in removing taste, smell, colour, iron- It forms more stable residual than chlorine alone
manganese from water. Contact period- 1-2 hrs.
(iii) Chlorine dioxide-
O3 → O 2 + O
Nascent Better control over taste and odour than chlorine.
Nascent oxygen is the powerful oxidizing agent. 2.5 times faster than free chlorine
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 510 YCT
(iv) Hypochloritesion & bleaching powder
(v) Hypochlorous Acid
(vi) Chlorine tablet
Order of power-
HOCl > ClO 2 > Cl 2 > Chloramines
pH > 7.5
• NH 3 + Cl2 → HCl + NH Cl 2
(Monochloromines)
pH < 7
• NHCl 2 + Cl 2 → HCl + NHCl 2
(Di-chloromines)
pH < 4.4
• NHCl 2 + Cl 2 → HCl + NCl 3
(Nitrogen trichloromines)
Types of Chlorination- Dechlorination Chemical compounds -
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, JPSC AE 2021
HPPSC Lect. 2021, HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
GPSC AE (NWR) 2021
a. Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3)
Plain Done if water is only chlorinated. b. Sodium bisulphate (Na2 H SO4)
chlorination And turbidity<10 NTU c. Sodium meta sulphate (Na2 S2 O5)
Dose- 0.5 mg/ltr. d. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) (Gas/liquid form)
Pre- Chlorine is added before e. Sodium sulphite (Na2SO3)
chlorination Sedimentation, filtration, f. Potassium permagnate (KMnO4)
coagulation etc. g. Activated carbon
Residual chlorine- 0.1 - 0.5 ppm Testing of Chlorine Residue-
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, GPSC GES 2021
Normal dose- 5 - 10 ppm.
i. Orthotolidene Test
Post- Chlorine added after the filtration HPCL JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Chlorination process . ii. DPD Test (Diethyl Phenylene diamine test)
drinking water safe so it must be iii. Chlorotex Test
adopted iv. Starch Iodide Test
Contact period- 20 minute v. Colour matching method
Residual chlorine- 0.10-0.20 ppm Methods of Removing Permanent
Double When chlorination is done at two Hardness–
chlorination different points during the water 1. Zeolite Process ( permutit method)
DSSSB JE 2022
treatment process
Hardness can be removed up to zero value.
Break point The difference of applied chlorine No Drainage problem because of no sludge formed.
chlorination & residual chlorine beyond It is simple process and useful for small town.
breakpoint When water contains iron & manganese, Zeolite
Residual chlorine at this stage = 0 process cannot be adopted.
Super The application of chlorine beyond ION exchange process is commonly used in industries
chlorination the stage of break point. & individual residences.
residual chlorine – 0.2 to 0.3 ppm Zeolites are natural or synthetic cations or base
exchange hydrated SiO2 of sodium and aluminium.
De- The removal of excess chlorine To regenerate zeolite bed prime solution 5 to 10%
Chlorination from water (NaCl + 10% concentration) is added.
Note- Pre -chlorination is always followed by post 2. Lime-Soda Process
chlorination to ensure safety of water. GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
GPSC AM (Environment), GMDC, 2020
It improves coagulation and reduce load on filter. Lime and sodium carbonate are used to remove
Dichloramine is more effective than other permanent hardness from water.
chloramine because its pH value is approximately Hydrated lime or quick lime (CaO) are used for water
equal to water pH value. softening.
Chlorine worked in two steps- It is standard water softening process and it carried out
(i) Kill pathogenic bacteria. either hot or cold.
(ii) Oxidized organic matters. Used for highly turbid & acidic waters.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 511 YCT
3. Demineralization/De-ionization Process The adsorption process is best carried out under
To improve the quality of water demineralization process slightly acidic condition.
is another method in water softening technique. (ii) Activated carbons-
The demineralization process is mainly used for CHB JE 2023, DDA JE 2023
preparing water to be used for the industrial purposes. CHB JE 2023, UK PSC AE 2022
4. Reverse Osmosis (R.O.)- In these applications adsorption with activated
R.O. is used to obtain completely pure, clean, carbon is most commonly oriented towards the
glittering, tasty, soft, salt-free water without bacteria. removal of species that are recognized as toxic
pollutants like fluoride.
(iii) Nalgonda method ( NEERI 1974) -
UPCL AE 2021, RPSC AE 2018
It involves addition of Alum, salts lime, and bleaching
power followed by rapid mixing flocculation,
sedimentation, filtration and disinfection.
Aluminium salts responsible for removal of fluoride
from ground water.
Most commonly used in rural areas for ground water
containing excess fluoride and Hand pump.
The Nalgonda technique uses alum with prior
mixing of lime (CaO) or sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3).
(iv) Membrane filtration process-
UPMRC AM 2023
(a) Reverse Osmosis (R.O.) process-
It is a simple solution for removing fluoride from
drinking water. It is known as hyper filtration.
5. Mixed bed ion exchange-
Efficiency of fluoride removal 85-92%.
when the hard water is passed through this bed
slowly the cations and anioins of the hard water (b) Electro-dialysis-
comes is to contact with the two kind of resins many Membranes allow the ions to pass but not the water.
number of times (v) Bone charcoal-
The soft water from this method contains less than It is the oldest known de-fluoridation technique used
1ppm of dissolved salts and hence suitable for and successfully removes arsenic from water.
boilers. (vi) Ion exchange absorption technique-
Efficiency- 90 - 95%.
Desalination-
HPCL JE 2022
It is the process of removing salts or other minerals
and contaminants from sea water, blackish water,
and waste water effluent and it is increasingly
common solution to obtain fresh water for human
consumption and for domestic or industrial
utilization.
Method of Desalination-
DDA JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022
(i) Freezing of water
(ii) Evaporation
De-fluoridation and desalination- (iii) Reverse Osmosis
De-fluoridation- (iv) Electrolysis
The removal of fluoride from drinking water is Note-
known as de-fluoridation. Copper sulphate is used to removal of algae from
More Fluoride is present in ground water than water.
surface water mainly due to the leaching of minerals. Activated carbon is used to control taste and odour
Methods to remove excess fluorine- and to remove fluoride from water.
(i) Activated Alumina (Prashanti Technology)- Copper sulphate (CuSo4.7H2O) removes Algae from
Activated alumina is an excellent medium to remove water. It can also remove bacteria, odour and test
excess fluorine along with NaOH solution. and colour etc.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 512 YCT
05.
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
Introduction- 2. Grid iron System/Interlaced/Reticular System-
DDA JE 2023, UKPSC JE 2022
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022 NHPC JE 2022, GPSC AE (NWR) 2021
Distribution system is provided for carrying the It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout where
water from treatment plant to the individual home,
the water mains and branches are laid in rectangles.
offices & commercial spaces.
Hardy cross method is used to design of water There is known dead end in the system as looping is
distribution system. provided and more suitable for well planned cities.
UK PSC AE 2022
Requires more length of pipe lines & a large number
Method of Distribution-
of sluice valve.
GPSC AE 2017, UPRVUNL AE 2015
1. Gravitational Water from high level of source is Design is little difficult and costlier. This pattern is
System distributed to lower levels by simple used in Chandigarh.
action of gravity without pumping. Flow path is multiple and equal pressure in all pipes.
This system is best, economical,
Supply can be made during repair works.
reliable and hilly areas.
2. Direct The treated water, is directly pumped
Pumping to the distribution mains.
This system is unreliable,
expensive and plane and hilly area.
3. Combined Treated water is pumped and stored in
System an elevated distribution reservoir or
service tank and here it is feed to the
distribution system by the action of
gravity.
The dual system is more reliable
and economical system.
Layout of water distribution system–
1. Dead end/Tree/closed System-
HPCL JE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022, UPPSC AE 2020
Suitable for old cities where the houses come up in a 3. Ring/Circular System-
unplanned way. JSSC JE 2022, UPPCL AE 2022
Cheap, simple and easy in design. DSSSB JE 2022
Water can reach at a particular point only through This system consists of a main pipe around the area.
one route, hence if some fault occur in, water supply The supply main is laid all along the peripheral
gets disturbed in whole area.
roads and sub mains branch out from the mains.
4. Radial System–
WBPSC AE 2021, TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir
kept in the middle of each zone.
The supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the
periphery and water flow towards these outer
periphery.
This method gives higher service head and efficient
water distribution.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 513 YCT
Victaulic Joint This Joint is suitable for steel and
iron pipes, which are laid in the
exposed position.
This joint can bear shocks,
vibration etc.
Screwed and Used for low diameter steel and
Socket Joint galvanized iron service pipes
It is usually used in pipe fitting
inside homes.
Rate of flow in distribution pipes- Collar Joint It is leak-proof joint adopted for
≮ 0.6 m/sec. large dia. hume-pipes, asbestos
Maximum- 3.3 m/sec. cement pipe and concrete pipes.
Types of water meter- Water Supply Fixture-
(i) Velocity type or inferential meters- (i) Ferrule-
This meter is suitable for measuring high discharge Ferrule is the right angle sleeve made of brass or gun
and is used in industrial and commercial institutions metal. It is joined to a hole drilled in water main to
for bulk supply. which it is screwed down with a plug.
It is not measure absolute velocity or volume. It is first pipe for supply of water in house.
Ex.- Venturitubes, Rotameters, Orifice plate, Flow Dia.- 10 - 50 mm.
nozzles, Mass flow meter, Swirl meter etc. (ii) Goose Neck-
(ii) Displacement or positive meters- RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021
It measure the total amount or volume of flow. RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021, CGPSC AE 2017
It give more accurate value. It is a small curved pipe made of flexible material
Ex.-Reciprocating piston, Rotating piston etc. that forms flexible connection b/w service pipe and
water main.
Types of Pipe Joints-
Length- 75 mm
Pipe joint Use
(iii) Stop Cock-
Socket and spigot It is permanent Joint and mostly
Generally it is provided before water enters the
Joint used to connect cast iron pipes
water meter in the house screw down type value is
Flanged Joint For connecting pipes carrying used for stopping and opening water supply.
water under high pressure and
(iv) Bib-
where the vibration is high.
Sequence of connection-
Expansion Joint This joint is used where expansion RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
or shrink in length occurs due to
Ferrule → Gooseneck → Stopcock → Water mater
change of atmospheric
Note
temperature.
Order of tapping waters-
Flexible/Universal Flexible joint is placed the pipes
Service main → Applying ferrule →
/Bituminous Joint laid in soft and marshy soil where
settlements of ground occurs. Goose neck → Stopcock → Meter
It is used on the curves where the Types of Valves-
pipeline bends CHB JE (Building) 2023, HPPSC Lect. 2021
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Dresser Coupling Used for connecting small dia. of
Joint iron pipes. Ends of the pipe to be Shut-off/Gate/Bib Installed in the pipeline to regulate
jointed have thread on outside. cock/Sluice Valve and control the water flow.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 514 YCT
Reflux/Check/Non- It allow the water to flow in one Firefighting hydrant connection is
Returning valve direction only or check the flow of provided from this pipe.
water in the reverse direction. Sub branches Dia.- 50-300 mm, connected from
Placed at the delivery pipe of or service main sub main pipes.
pumps for inspection and repair. For water supply in houses
Air/automatic/Air Provided at the summit point of connection is done from this pipes.
Relief valve water mains to release the Communication/ It is used to provided connection for
accumulated air. Service - pipe houses from street laid pipes.
float arrangement is provided. It is also known as Service pipe.
Pressure Relief/ To Reduces excessive pressure in Method of analysis of a complex
safety/ automatic the pipe line.
distribution pipe networks-
cut-off valve To Protects the pipe from bursting
UK PSC AE 2022, UPSC JWM 2017
and used at over-flow tower
a. Hardy cross/Trial and error method
Scour /Blow-off/ Installed at the low level b. Equivalent pipe method (used for long & narrow
drain /wash-out (depression or valley) dead ends pipe)
valve of the pipe line. CHB JE 2023
It removes sand and silt in pipe c. Circle method (used for fire hydrant pipe)
line. d. Electrical Analysis method (Electrical loop process)
Butterfly Valve Placed on the distribution pipes to Classification of cement concrete pipe-
control water like a sluice valve
Classes Remark
Float Ball Valves Installed in service tanks/domestic
NP1 Unreinforced concrete non-pressure pipes
water storage tanks to maintain
NP2 Reinforced concrete, light duty, non-pressure
fixed water level
pipes.
Minimum size of pipes-
NP3 Reinforced and also unreinforced (in case of
Population Dia of pipe (mm)
pipes m0anufactured by vibrated casting
upto 50,000 100 process) concrete, medium-duty, non-pressure
> 50,000 150 pipes.
Laying of pipes- NP4 Reinforced and also unreinforced concrete,
1. Marking centre line on (30-30)m length but at curve heavy-duty, non-pressure pipes.
length (15-15)m. P1 Reinforced concrete pressure pipes tested to a
2. Min. width of ditch→ (30-45)cm + external diameter hydrostatic pressure of 0.2 MPa (20 m head).
of pipe. P2 Reinforced concrete pressure pipes tested to a
or ≮ 75 cm (Which is more) hydrostatic pressure of 0.4 MPa (40 m head)
3. Min. Depth of ditch→ 90 cm + external diameter of P3 Reinforced concrete pressure pipes tested to a
pipe. hydrostatic pressure of 0.6 MPa (60 m head).
4. Min. horizontal distance between supply pipe and Method of leakage detection in pipe line-
sewer pipe should be 3m and min. vertical distance 1. Measuring pressure difference
should be 2m. 2. Measuring mass difference
Supply main It is a large diameter of feeder pipe, 3. Visual inspection
which laid between storage tank to 4. By using radioactive isotopes
distributed areas 5. Plotting hydraulic gradient line
Sub main It is a subsidiary feeder pipe, which 6. Sounding rod
or branches are connected from main pipe. 7. Sensor release to flow with water stream.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 515 YCT
01.
PUBLIC SANITATION &
QUANTITY OF SEWAGE
Sanitary Engineering- It includes biodegradable waste produced by
domestic activities (500 - 750)kg/m3.
It is the branch of public health engineering deals
with collection, conveyance, treatment and disposal % of sewage discharge assumed for design purpose
of sewage- 75 - 80%.
of wastes (garbage, sullage, sewage).
Nature of sewage-
Sanitary Sewage-
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021, GSSSB AAE 2021
Combined sewage obtained from urinals, water UPCL AE 2021, APDCL Junior Manager 2017
closets and business establishments is called sanitary
sewage. Fresh Sewage - Slightly alkaline
Sanitary Sewage = Domestic + Industrial sewage Stale sewage - Acidic
Sullage-
UK PSC AE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
It is the less offensive liquid waste without human
excreta drained out from the kitchen, bathroom,
wash basin, floor and ceiling washing.
It includes non-biodegradable activities (700 - 900)
kg/m3.
Sullage = Domestic sewage – Toilet waste
Sludge-
Kinds of Sewage-
RPSC ACF 2011]
JPSC AE 2021
Waste that settle down in a large tank is known as
Domestic Sewage comes out from the flush
sludge.
sewage system of residential buildings.
Rate of accumulation- 25 l/person/year
Industrial The water used for keeping the
Garbage-
sewage/trade machines cool and cleaning also
NHPC JE 2022
effluent comes out as waste water.
It is dry waste which includes waste paper, rotten
Storm water When rain water starts to fall on
fruits, rags, leaves, grass, vegetable peels, plastic
ground it is called storm.
bag, broken pieces of glass, soil particles etc.
It is not mixed in sewage. Quantity of Storm water-
Classification of waste material- (i) Rational Formula
AIR 3
Types of waste Example Q= (m / sec) or Q = 10AIR m3 / Hour
360
Solid Waste Garbage
(ii) Empirical Formula–
Fluid Waste Sullage, waste water
Mac Math’s Formula AIR S
1/ 5
Semi-solid & Sewage Q=
Semi-fluid waste 148.4 A
Sewage- Fanning’s Formula Q = 12.8M 5 / 8
WBPSC AE 2003
Talbot’s Formula Q = 22.4M1/ 4
Waste water containing solid and liquid excreta
derived from house, industries and factories is called Fuller’s Formula CM8 /10
Q=
sewage. 13.23
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 516 YCT
Where, Q = Runoff (in m3/s) Minimum/self-cleansing velocity-
A = Catchment area (in hectares) Maharashtra PSC 2018, GPSC Assst. Prof. 2016
I = Max. rainfall intensity (cm/h) Minimum velocity or sewer flow at which there is
R = Runoff factor (0.3 to 0.9) neither silting nor scouring occurs at the bed of
S = Gradient of land (meters/thousand meters) sewer along the drain length is called self cleaning
M = Catchment Area (Km2) of velocity of sewage.
Dry Weather Flow (DWF)- It depends upon the size, shape and relative density
UPPCL AE 2022 of the suspended particles.
If rain water is not included in sanitary sewage then Self cleaning velocity for all sewers- 1 - 1.2 m/sec.
flowing sewage is dry weather flow. It is not affected by UPSSSC Mandi Parisad Droughsman 2022
temperature. Self cleaning velocity is not depends upon dia. of
Sewerage System Capacity sewer.
Separate system Rainfall + 3 - 6 times of DWF Sewer Pipe Dia. (cm) Min. Velocity (m/sec.)
Combined system Rainfall +2 times of DWF 15 - 25 1.0
It is calculated in liters/per person/day. 30 - 60 0.75
Variation in dry weather flow- > 60 0.60
Note-
1.5 × max. daily flow
1. Max. hourly flow = Sewer is laying from lower to upper ground.
or 3 × Avg. daily flow
For domestic sewage, min. velocity is maintain upto
2. Max. daily flow = 2 × Avg. daily flow 0.75 m/sec.
UK PSC AE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
3. Min. daily flow = 2 / 3 × Avg. daily flow Self cleaning velocity
1/ 2× min . daily flow In domestic sewer- 1.2 - 1.5 m/sec.
4. Min. hourly flow = For inverted siphon- 0.9 m/sec.
or 1/ 3 × Avg. daily flow
Maximum /Non Scouring Velocity in sewer-
Wet Weather Flow (WWF)-
Max. velocity of sewage flow at which no such
The flow of sanitary sewage including storm water
scouring action will occurs is called non-scouring
in rainy season is known as wet weather flow.
velocity. It is mainly depend upon material used in
DWF = to × WWF
1 1 sewer construction.
20 25 According to I.S. Vmax. = 2.4 - 3 m/sec.
Note- DSSSB JE 2022, Haryana PSE AE 2018
At the time of maximum flow of sewage only 2/3 of Sewer Material Max. Permissible
the sewer should be filled has, so that the 1/3 part of velocity (m/sec.)
place available for the gases to collected. Raw soil Sewer 0.60 - 1.20
TNPSC AE 2012, WBPSC AE (PWD) 1998
Brick Sewer 1.20 - 2.40
Sewerage system Sewage velocity (m/sec.)
Concrete Sewer 2.4 - 3.00
Separate system 0.6 - 0.9
Shell Sewer 3.00 - 4.50
Combined system 0.75
Cast-Iron Sewer 4.5 - 5.0
Self cleaning velocity-
DSSSB JE 2022
Minimum Size of Sewer-
Material Velocity cm/sec. Type of sewer Min. size of sewer
Angular section (stones) 100 (max.) Public Sewer </ 150 mm
Fine gravels 30 Hilly areas sewer 100 mm
Coarse sand 20 Note-
Fine sand and clay 15 Maximum flow defined the dia. of sewer pipe while
Fine clay and silt 7.5 (min.) minimum flow defined the gradient of sewer pipe.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 517 YCT
02.
SEWERAGE SYSTEMS & SEWER
Sewerage system- • Sewage flows from the periphery of
WBPSC AE 2003 the area towards its center.
Process for the collection and conveyance of • Sizes of the main and trunk sewers is
municipal waste water to the sewerage treatment very large.
plant or the point of disposal. It is originate from Intercepting • It is an improved form of a
house sewer. Pattern perpendicular pattern.
Design period- 25 years
• Main sewers meet at last intercepting-
NHPC JE 2022, ESE 2021
sewer and sewage from here reaches
Separate Sewer Combined Sewer Partially- the sewage treatment plant.
System System Separate
• This pattern is appropriate for a
Sewer
System combined system.
Sanitary or Good for narrow It is good for Zonal • Suitable for elevated settled cities.
domestic sewage streets and suitable new areas Pattern • Entire city is divided into several
and storm water for areas having also provided zones and separates intercepting
are taken out by shorter durations of for metros. sewer lines are laid for each zone.
separate sewer. rainfall. • Useful for Types of Sewer-
• Sanitary sewage small
and storm water towns.
are carried out by
this sewer.
Waste water-
Every human society used water for domestic,
commercial and industrial activities and as a result
of that there is a formation of waste water.
Domestic waste water-
Waste water from residential and commercial area is Nagaland PSC 2017
known as domestic waste water. Pathogenic
Domestic The sewage from flush latrine and
organisms present in domestic waste water.
Sewer/House waste water comes out from other
Sewer- drain places of house.
It is conduit carrying the sewage like as sanitary • Dia. - 10 - 20 cm (cast-iron).
sewers, storm sewers, and combined sewers.
Lateral Sewer It obtains discharge directly from
Sanitary sewers carry industrial and domestic waste
the buildings and meets the
waters.
branch sewer.
Infiltration waters and storm water.
It is the first stage of sewer
Layout of Sewer System-
collection.
Perpendic- • The layout of the main or trunk sewer
• Dia. ≮15 cm.
ular Pattern is placed perpendicular to the flow of
disposal river/drain so that its length Branch sewer Two or more lateral sewers
is minimum. /Sub main delivers it to main sewer.
• Suitable for a separate and partially- Sewer
separate sewer system. Main Sewer It consists of two or more branch
Radial • In this pattern large number of outlets sewers.
Pattern are provided. (Hence uneconomical). Trunk or Installed at the border of city and
Fan Pattern • This is the reverse form of the radial Intercepting obtained discharge of the main
pattern. Sewer sewers fall into it.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 518 YCT
Outfall Sewer It is the length of main sewer Mostly useful at the bottom of road or rail track.
between lowest branch and the Dia. - 60 - 180 cm,
final point of disposal. Length- 1.2 m.
It collects the discharge from (d) Hume Pipe or Cement Lined steel Pipe–
collecting system and delivers it Steel pipes are light weight waterproof and vibration
into treatment plant. resistant.
Note- Dia. -. 10 -250 cm
Relief Sewer- Length- 1 - 3 m.
It is used to carry the excess flow of existing sewer. Larger dia. of Hume pipe is joined by collar-joint.
Key Points (e) Cast-Iron Pipe-
■ The material selected for sewer should have– UPSSSC Mandi Parisad Droughsman 2022
Low value of Manning's constant N UPRVUNL AE 2022
■ A deep manhole will have a depth of– >1.5 m It is used for sewers in filler land, soft soil or at the
■ Crown corrosion in a reinforced concrete sewer is places where heavy traffic flows over the sewer.
caused by– H 2S Dia.- 10 -150 cm
■ For the variation in rate of sewage, Babbit's Length- 2 m.
formula for maximum (Qmax) and average rate (f) High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Pipe–
(Qav) of flow– Qmax = 5Qav/P0.2 It is suitable for large diameter underground sewer
■ A sewage sample containing fully oxidised organic lines, Sewage pump main, marshy, saline and
matter consists of nitrogen in the form of–Nitrates alkaline soil.
Capacity and Design Period of Various Dia.- 6.3 - 100 cm
Sewer- Length- 5-20 m
Sewer Name Capacity Design (B) According to Shapes of Sewers-
Period (Years) Rectangular/ Suitable for excess discharge and
Box Sewer outfall sewer.
Domestic Sewer 6 × average flow 40
• This type of sewer is used under
Lateral Sewer 4 × average flow 50
road and railway line.
Branch Sewer 3 × average flow 50
Circular Suitable for separate sewerage
Main Sewer 1 30 - 40 Sewer system.
2 × average
2 • It can carry max. discharge and self
flow cleaning velocity can be achieved
Trunk & Outfall 2 × average 30 easily.
Sewers flow Dia. ≤ 80 cm (economical).
Classification of sewer pipe- Semi-Circular Suitable for large sewers with less
DDA JE 2023 Sewer available headroom.
(A) On the Basis of Construction Method- Egg-shaped/ It is highly adopted for large sewers
1. Pre-Cast Sewer Pipe Ovoid Sewer which built up on the site.
DSSSB AE 2021
• Adopted for both separate and
2. Cast- in -situ Sewer Pipe
combined systems.
(a) Glazed Stone-Ware/Vitrified Clay Pipe-
• Most efficient for main and trunk
It is durable, cheap, waterproof and anti-corrosive.
sewers.
Use- For domestic and lateral sewers.
• It gives higher velocity at low flow.
Dia. = 10 - 90 cm,
Inverted Egg - Best for main trunk and outfall
Length = 60 - 90 cm
Shaped Sewer sewers.
(b) Cement Concrete Pipe-
It is waterproof, efficient, durable and cheap but Semi-elliptical • More stable and adopted for soft
affected by acids and sewer gases. Section soil.
Long dia. concrete pipes are jointed by the collar Dia. > 1.8 m.
joint. Horse-shoe • Suitable for outfall sewer mostly
Use- For branch, main and rainwater sewers. type sewer used in tunnels.
Dia. - Up to 60 cm • For lower discharge, made cunette
(c) Reinforced Cement Concrete Pipe– at the bottom of sewer.
It is strong in tension as well as compression. Dia.- 1.8 m.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 519 YCT
Note- (ii) Access shaft-
Steel pipe used to bear more external and internal It is a vertical passage and upper portion of the
pressure. manhole which provides access to the working
Small sewers are cleaned by flushing. chamber
Sight rail and boning rod is used to laying of sewer.
Size
Circular brick sewer is most commonly used under
culvert. Rectangular manhole 0.75 m × 0.60 m
Sewer appurtenances- Circular manhole 0.70 m (Dia.)
(i) Manhole (ii) Drop manhole (iii) Working chamber-
(iii) Lamp hole (iv) Inlet (Street inlet) SSC JE (Civil) 2022
(v) Catch basin (vi) Clean-outs Provided working space for cleaning and inspection
(vii) Inverted syphon (viii) Flushing tank of the sewer line.
(ix) Aqueduct (x) Grease and oil trap Drop Manhole-
(xi) Ventilation shaft (xii) Over flow weir CHB JE 2023, UK PSC AE 2022, DSSSB AE 2021
Manhole- It is provided, when two sewers (main & branch)
UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
flowing at different levels have a vertical gap of
It is masonry or RCC chambers provided at suitable
intervals along the sewer line for inspection, more than 60 cm in the intersecting water levels.
cleaning and maintenance of sewerage system. Lamp holes-
Circular manhole is adopted at depths > 0.90 m. It is a small openings on sewers to permit the
it is made of cast iron in circular shape. insertion of a lamp into the sewer.
Min. dia.- ≮ 56 cm ≃ 50 cm. Adopted When-
UKPSC JE 2022 (i) A bend in a seer is necessary.
Manhole is provided at- (ii) Construction of manholes is difficult.
i. Starting point ii. Junction of pipeline (iii) Spacing of manholes is more than the usual.
iii. Change of direction iv. Change of diameter Lamp holes are rarely used these days & have
v. Change of gradient vi. Crossing of roads become obsolete.
vii. 30 m to 300 m in straight length of the sewers.
Inlet-
Spacing of Manholes (IS : 4111/1742 : 1960)-
NHPC JE 2022, HPPSC Lect. 2021 It removes rain water from road along footpath .
Diameter (cm) of Manhole interval Spacing- 30 - 60 cm along both side of road
Sewer (m) Ventilation shaft/pipe-
≤ 30 45 UPPCL AE 2015
31-60 75 It is used to remove polluted gases (H2S, CO2, CH4)
61-90 90 from the sewers.
91-120 120 Spacing- 200 - 300 m along with sewers.
121-150 250 Dia.- 15 - 25 cm or 1/3 of sewer dia.
> 150 300 Cowl is provided at the top of ventilation shaft/pipe.
Min. Diameter of Circular Manholes- Peak flow-
Manhole depth Min. dia. (At bottom) Sewers are designed for the peak flows.
(From G. L.) Max. hourly flow
Peak factor =
0.90 - 1.65 m 90 cm Avg. hourly flow
1.65 - 2.30 m 120 cm
2.30 - 9.0 m 150 cm 1 1
Minimum peak flow may be ( to ) of Qavg.
> 9.0 m 180 cm 3 2
Components of the manhole- Note-
(i) Cover- 18 + P
Cover sizes- Max. flow, Q max. = × Q avg.
4+ P
Square/rectangular 300 mm × 300 mm to
1200 mm × 1200 mm Slope of sewers is based on the present peak of flow.
Circular covers (Dia.) 450 mm or 600 mm Diameter of the sewer is based on the design peak
Standard size 56 cm (Dia.) flow.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 520 YCT
03.
BUILDING DRAINAGE & PLUMBING
Trap- It is provided at the head of each drains of house.
UJVNL AE 2021 This trap is the first entry point for contaminated
Traps are fitted below a plumbing fixture and retains water going into the domestic sewer.
small amount of water. Water seal depth- 35 -50 mm.
It prevents entry of the foul gases from the sewer 2. W.C. Pan (Basin) Trap-
line. It is a glazed china-ware trap filled below the W.C
Classification of the trap- trap.
SJVNL ET 2019 Anti-siphon pipe is used for this trap
A. On the Basis of Shape 3. Gulley/Yard Trap-
P, Q and S traps are mostly used. JSSC JE 2022, PPSC Building Inspector 2022
P trap is provided at the end of water closet. Waste water coming from the kitchen, bathroom and
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UK PSC AE 2022
wash basin is dumped in the gulley trap before
V-trap is a simple trap, applied on a horizontal flow.
releasing it into the domestic sewer. There is two or
D-trap has a higher sealing depth and its outlet part
more inlet.
is larger than the water inlet part.
It is fitted at ground floor to connect the liquid waste
from each floors.
This trap is not used in case of soil pipe.
4. Intercepting Trap/Sewer Trap/Master Trap
JSSC JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021
It is used to prevent the entry of sewer gases from
public sewer line into the house drains.
It is the last trap that connect the municipal sewer to
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023
main sewer.
Water-seal depth- 75 - 100 mm.
Water seal-
UK PSC AE 2022
Depth of water in the trap is called ‘Water Seal’.
Efficiency of the trap is measured by the depth of its
water-seal.
Due to the water seal the contaminated gases of the
sewer do not get out from the trap.
Depth of water seal- 25-75 mm. Generally it is
taken 50 mm.
Pipes used in sanitary system-
1. Rain Water/down Pipe-
It is used to bring the rain water from the roof to the
Various type of pipes-
2. Soil Pipe-
Anti siphonage /grevak/resealing trap- It is used to flush the sewage from the flush latrine.
This trap prevents siphon action during flushing and It is made of cast-iron, stone-ware or plastic.
does not allow the vessel’s water-seal to break.It is Socket and spigot joints are used.
connected with top of P trap and water closet.
3. Waste Water Pipe–
Back-siphonage causes breaking of the water seal
therefore antisiphonage pipe is required. This pipe is installed to take out waste water from
B. On the Basis of Use- bathrooms, kitchens, wash basins etc.
TNPSC (CESS) 2021, GWSSB AAE 2015
1. Floor/Nahani Trap
SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021, GPHC AE 2018 4. Vent Pipe and Anti-Siphonage Pipe-
Sikkim PSC AE 2017
This trap is installed at the each floors to collect
liquid waste from bathrooms, Kitchens, Sink, wash Provided for ventilation purpose to facilitate the
basin and verandah etc. exhaust of foul gases into the atmosphere.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 521 YCT
To prevent induced syphoning action, a vent pipe is Boning/Traveler /T-shaped rod-
installed along with the sewage pipe. Boning rod is used to transfer the gradient displayed
Anti-siphonage pipe protect the water seal of traps by the sight rails to the invert of the sewer.
against siphonage and backflow.
Note - Cowl is a perforated cap provided at the top of
Testing of Sanitary pipe lines-
BPSC AE 2016, UJVNL AE 2012
vent pipe
Size of Various Pipe Used in Sanitary- Air Test Air pressure should be of 65 mm
water
Type Diameter (mm)
• Air test is done for sewer pipe of
Soil pipe 100
large diameter.
Waste water pipe
• It is done for vertical and
Horizontal 30-50
underground pipes.
Vertical 75 - 100
Smoke To generate smoke, a fire is ignited by
Vent Pipe 50 Test soaking rags in oil or a smoke
Rain Water Pipe 150 machine is used.
Anti-siponage pipe 50 • This test is suitable for vertical
Plumbing System- sullage pipe or rainwater pipe.
1. Single Stack system Colored This test is performed on a 4.5m static
In this system, sewage from the toilet and sullage water Test head.
from the bathroom, kitchen and sink are released in Hydraulic Suitable for domestic underground
the same vertical pipe (soil pipe). Test drains (Pipe sewer).
It is useful for up to five floor buildings.
Smell Test -
• Water seal depth < 75mm.
• Stack pipe diameter < 100 mm.
Water Closet (W.C.) Pan-
It is connected to the sewage pipe by a trap on its
2. One Pipe System –
bottom.
There is two vertical pipes are fitted. A soil pipe
The toilet pan should be firm and water resistant.
pipe that carry both sewage and waste water, while
vent pipe carry foul gases. Flushing cistern-
• Water seal depth- 75 mm. Minimum height of cistern-
3. Two Pipe System- For high level - 15 cm
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UK PSC AE 2022 For low level - 30 cm
This system consists of two pairs of two pipe (four Sink-
vertical pipe)
It is less deep, rectangular vessel, placed in kitchen,
i). Sewage pipe & vent pipe for sewage and urinal
toilet, hotel, etc. for washing utensils.
ii). Waste water pipe & vent pipe are separately
installed for waste water & rain water. Sink is generally made of glazed fire-resistant clay,
Mostly two pipe system is used for kitchen gardening. marble, Stainless Steel, Mosaic etc.
It is a satisfactory drainage system. Height of sink of wash basin from floor- 75-80 cm
4. Partial ventilated, single/one pipe system- Toilet Room Measurement-
In this sewage and waste water are left in the same Bathroom- 1.10 m × 1.40 m (Min.)
sewage pipe, but only toilet and urinal traps are W.C.- 1.05 m × 1.40 m (Min.)
connected to the vent pipe. Combined bathroom and toiled- 1.80m × 2.40 m
Steps for laying sewer lines- (Min.)
1. Setting out center line. 2. Trenching Note Point-
3. Timbering of trenches. 4. De-watering The height of these rooms should not be less than 2.4
5. Laying of pipe. 6. Jointing of sewer m.
7. Connection of Sub sewer. 8. Sewer line testing. A high level window of 0.30 m2 must be installed
9. Back Filling. in each room.
10. Appurtenances of Sewers.
Min. area of water closet is 2.0 m2
Sight Rail and boning rod are used to place the
gradient. W.C required for 200 women-
Sight Rail- 2% for cinema hall and
It is a long strip of rectangular block of wood or 1% for theater.
aluminum used to check the gradient of pipe in a Dado-
trench. It is the height of cement plaster in bathroom , flush
It is placed in a horizontal position, just above the latrine etc.
sewer-trench. Height of dado- 2.00 m
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 522 YCT
04.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
WASTE WATER OR SEWAGE
Physical characteristics- (iii) Chlorides-
(i) Colour- Excess chloride concentration than water supplied
If the colour of sewage is yellowish, grey or light can be used to measure the index of sewage strength.
brown, it indicates fresh sewage. It content in domestic waste water is 120 ppm.
If the colour of sewage is black or dark brown, it (iv) Dissolved Oxygen (D.O.)-
indicates septic or stale sewage. Amount of oxygen is taken as 4 ppm for aquatic life.
(ii) Odour- 1
Dissolved Oxygen ∝
It is formed due to decomposition of sewage. Temp.
Fresh domestic sewage has no odour & Rancid
sewage gives odour like hydrogen sulfide. Oxygen deficit = Saturation D.O. − Actual D.O.
(iii) Temperature- Temperature Saturation dissolved
The biological activities in sewer are higher at oxygen (mg/lit.)
greater temperatures. 0
20 C 9.2
Average temperature of sewage 20°C. 300C 7.6
(iv) Turbidity- 0 0C 14.6
Sewage turbidity is due to presence of suspended
(v) Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand(B.O.D.)-
matter, dissolved substances, colloidal matter and CHB JE 2023, ESE 2023
microbial cells. SSC JE 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
Chemical characteristics- B.O.D. is used to measure the self-purification
(i) pH value- capacity of streams.
UPRVUNL AE 2016
It is slightly alkaline in nature, ranges from 5.5 to 8.0.
Nature of Sewage B.O.D. Value in 5
(ii) Nitrogen and phosphorous-
days
Presence of nitrogen in sewage indicates the presence
(mg/litre or PPM)
of organic matter. It may occurs in the form of-
CHB JE 2023 Very good filter effluent 5 to 10
(a) Free ammonia (called ammonia nitrogen) Standard filter effluent 20
(b) Albuminoid nitrogen (call organic nitrogen) Weak Sewage 250
(c) Nitrites and nitrates. Average Sewage 350
In raw sewage phosphorus ranges 5 - 10 mg/l. Stronger Sewage 450 to 550
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 523 YCT
B.O.D. is done into two stage- BOD10
(i) Carbonaceous matter stage = 90%
BOD ult
(ii) Nitrogenous matter stage
CHB JE 2023
Tests for B.O.D.–
(i) Direct Method, (ii) Dilution Method For B.O.D. test size of bottle- 300 ml.
(i) Direct Method– B.O.D of municipal sewage 100-500 mg/l.
JPSC AE 2021, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
In this method, sewage-sample is placed in a special
GPSC AE 2021, UPPSC AE 2020
vessel in contact with a fixed volume of oxygen.
BOD Concentration of Mix.
(ii) Dilution method–
WBPSC AE (Environment) 2021 Cs .Qs + C R .Q R
=
5- days B.O.D. = Loss of oxygen × Dilution ratio Qs + Q R
(mg/litre) CHB SDE (Building) 2023
5 day B.O.D. =[(D.O.)initial – (D.O.)Final]× Dilution factor Where,
Total volume of diluted sample Cs = BOD of sewage, CR = BOD of stream
Dilution factor =
Volume of the undiluted sample Qs = Sewage flow, QR = Stream flow
Limitations of B.O.D. test-
Key Points (i) Measures only bio-degradable organics.
■ The analysis of solid waste to determine the (ii) The effects of nitrifying organisms should be
proportion of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen reduced before applying the test.
and sulphur is called– Ultimate analysis (iii) BOD test should be done only in dark room so that
■ The major segregation of biomedical solid waste there is no possibility of photosynthesis
for safe and economic disposal is done on the basis (iv) If the sample of sewage contains toxic wastes, it
of– Hazardous and non–hazardous categories should be given pre-treatment before applying the
■ The solid waste called _____ can include a variety B.O.D. test.
of materials which may either be combustible or (iv) Chemical Oxygen Demand COD-
incombustible– Rubbish UK PSC AE 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
■ In the first stage of decomposition of organic BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021, UPCL AE 2021
matter in sewage– Ammonia is formed It is defined as the amount of oxygen for the
Standard B.O.D. for 5 days at 20 C 0 decomposition of biodegradable and non non-
compared to ultimate B.O.D.- biodegradable compound.
Punjab SDO 2021, UPSC AE (PWD) 2021 This test is usually carried out with potassium
dichromate (K2Cr2O7) at a high temperature.
[ B.O.D.]t = ( B.O.D.)ult × (1 − e− kt ) CHB JE 2023
For typical domestic Waste, the ratio COD and
B.O.D. is 1.2 - 1.5.
[ B.O.D.]5 = ( B.O.D.)ult × (1 − 10− k D t ) GPSC AE 2022
COD
If > 3 then sewage is considered as difficult
BOD
[ k D ]T°C = ( k D )20°C × (1.047 )T °C−20°C to biodegrade.
COD
k D = 0.434k If > 10 then sewage is non-biodegradable.
BOD
Where, Population Equivalent-
t = time (5 days) JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
k = Rate of de-oxygenation constant at base 'e' It is equal to the number of persons who produce the
(per day) average standard BOD equal to industrial sewage at
kD = Rate of de-oxygenation constant at a base the rate of 80 gm per capita per day.
'10' (per day) Total (BOD)5 of industry in (kg/day)
Population equvalent =
Type of water kD (per days) Avg. standard BOD (kg/day/capita)
Tap water < 0.05 UPPSC AE 2020
Surface water 0.05 - 0.10 Relative stability (s)-
Treated sewage effluent 0.05 - 0.10 Ratio of oxygen available in the waste water as D.O
Municipal waste water 0.10 - 0.15 to the total oxygen required to satisfy its Ist stage
Note- BOD is called relative stability.
BOD5 Total oxygen available in effluent
= 68%
BOD ult Total oxygen required to decompostion Ist stage BOD
PPSC Building Inspector 2022 UJVNL AE 2016, TSPSC Deputy Engineer 2015
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 524 YCT
At 20°C
Facultative These bacteria can survive in both
S = 100× 1 – ( 0.794 ) t 20° C Bacteria the presence and absence of oxygen.
At 37°C Classification of Bacteria-
S = 100× 1 – ( 0.630 ) t 37° C
Pathogenic These bacteria cause diseases like
Bacteria dysentery, cholera, typhoid, diarrhea etc.
If DO = Total oxygen required to satisfy its BOD i.e.
total BOD has removed then, Non- These bacteria do not harm humans and
relative stability = 100%. Pathogenic helpful in the biological treatment of
Bacteria- UPPCL JE 2022 Bacteria sewage.
Sewage contains innumerable bacteria and other micro-
• Oxygen required for living of bacteria.
organisms which by consuming organic matter as food
play a major role in the biological treatment. Saprophytic It helps to break down waste into
Bacteria are Uni-cellular organisms. bacteria- inorganic and organic by products.
Types of Bacteria- • The decomposition process of organic
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021, UPCL AE 2021
matter without saprophytic bacteria,
Aerobic Bacteria These bacteria survive on free or
decomposition may not occur.
dissolved oxygen in water.
Anaerobic They are more active at extreme • Most of the bacteria in sewage are
Bacteria temperatures. saprophytic bacteria.
05.
SEWAGE TREATMENT
PRIMARY TREATMENT
Haryana PSE AE Paper-2 2018
Under this treatment, floating and suspended
organic matter mixed in sewage is removed.
Treatment Plant Treatment Activity
Name
Screens Used to remove large size
i. Coarse screen or particles as suspended solids,
racks leaves, paper rags, straws,
(opening size- 45 mm) garbage, gravel, sand .
ii. Medium screen- Note-
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
PPSC Building Inspector 2022
(Opening size 6 -40 inclination of screen should
mm) be 30°- 60°.
Note -
iii. Fine screen Fine screen removes 20%
Sewage treatment units are normally design for 15-
(Opening size 1.5 - 3mm) suspended particles.
20 years for average flow.
SSC JE (Civil) 2022 Grit chamber It removes inorganic grit/
( Installed before primary suspended particles whose
sedimentation tank) S.G > 2.65 and eff. size of
particles > 0.2 mm.
• Proportional flow weirs are
provided at the outlet to
control the speed of sewage in
the grit chamber.
Detention period - 40 - 60 sec.
Flow velocity- 0.15-0.30 m/sec.
Depth- 1-1.8 m
Detritus Tank- It removes grit and fine sand
particle whose effective size ≤
0.2 mm.
Detention period- 3 - 4 min.
Flow velocity- 0.9 m/sec.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 525 YCT
Skimming Tank To separate grease, oil and Aerobic treatment-
Grease Trap other smooth substance from (A) Biological Filtration-
sewage. Haryana PSC AE 2020
Detention period, 3 - 5 min. Working rate of aerobic bacteria is three times of
Grease and oil traps are used to anaerobic bacteria.
exclude grease and oil from It depend is aerobic or anaerobic bacteria.
waste water. Detention period is 4 - 6 hrs.
Sedimentation Tank- Sewage filters used for the biological treatment or
TNPSC AE 2015 sewage by aerobic bacteria and micro organisms.
It is done to remove fine suspended and dissolved Contact beds/ Removal Efficiency-
substances. Bacteria beds • BOD- 60 - 70%
• It fulfill 30 - 35% BOD demand. • Suspended matter - 80 - 90%
i. Over flow rate- • Organic matter- 60 - 80%
Design overflow rate is taken considering dia. of Filtration rate- 110 lit/day/m2
solid intended to be removed. Rate of sewage filling- 4500 - 65000
2
40000 - 50000 lit./ m / day m3/hectare /day
Intermittent • Rate of sewage- 800 - 1500
For plain sedimentation
sand filter m3/hectare /day
2
50000 - 60000 lit./ m / day • BOD remove- 60 - 70%
For sedimentation with coagulation • Filtration rate- 110 - 180 lit/day/m2
Trickling filter • It has a comparatively low sludge
25000 - 35000 lit./ m 2 / day
volume index.
For secondary sedimentation tank • Worked by aerobic bacteria.
ii. Detention period - (1 - 2) Hrs. • Unit- kg/hectare- meter/day.
It decide the efficiency and size of tank.
iii. Flow velocity (v)- ( 0.3 - 0.6) m/min.
iv. Depth- 2.4 - 3.6 m
v. Width- 6 m
vi. Length- (4 - 5) times of width
Q
vii. Flow velocity- V =
B.D
Q
viii Settling velocity- Vs =
B.L
BLD
ix. Detention time- t = For rectangular tank
Q
( 0.011d + 0.785D )
t = d2 For circular tank
Q
SECONDARY TREATMENT UNITS
BOD can be removed up to a maximum of 90 -
95% by biological/secondary treatment.
Secondary Treatment Units-
Trickling Filter
Treatment unit Contact Decomposition
Difference between low rate trickling filter
mechanism Condition & high rate trickling filter-
Septic Tank Suspended Anaerobic Property Low rate High rate
growth trickling filter trickling filter
Imhoff tank suspended Anaerobic Size of filter media 25 - 75 mm 25 - 60 mm
growth Depth of media 2-3 1.2 - 1.8
Oxidation pond suspended Aerobic Interval of doses 3 - 10 min. 15 second
growth Hydraulic loading 22 - 44 110 - 330
Activated Sludge suspended Aerobic ml/hectare/day ml/hectare/day
process growth Organic loading 900 - 2200 6000 - 18000
Rotating biological Attached Aerobic kg/hectare/day kg/hectare/day
contactor growth Effluent BOD ≤ 20 ppm ≥ 30 ppm
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 526 YCT
Re-circulation No For hydraulic Recirculation factor, for IInd stage filter
provided loading 1+ R2
Sludge is obtained in Black colour & Brown colour F2 =
[1 + (1 − f .)R 2 ]
2
highly oxidized. & less oxidized
Re-circulation ratio 0 0.5 - 3.0 Where,
Cost of operation More less f = Treatability factor (0.9 for domestic waste
Filter- water)
Filter Hydraulic loading Organic loading R
m3/day/m2 g/d/m3 1+
I R
Low rate filter 1-4 80 - 320 or , F1 = F2 = F = 2
∵R 2 or R 1 =
R I
High rate filter 10 - 40 320 - 1000 1 + 0.1
with recirculation without recirculation I
Re-circulation- Effluent-
Partially clean liquid, over the sludge and comes
out of the flowing tank is called effluent.
Clarifier-
A sedimentation tank which have mechanical
Re-circulation ratio- scraper for sludge discharge is called cleaner or
Volume of re - circulation sewage V clarifier.
R= or R = R
Volume of raw sewage VI (B) Activated Sludge-
DDA JE (Civil) 2023, PPSC JE 2022
Hydraulic Re-circulation/Re-circulation factor- GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
Volume of raw sewage + volume of re - circulation sewage
It is the biological process by which non settleable
Fh =
volume of raw sewage substance occurring in dissolved and colloidal forms
V + VR are converted into settleable sludge which is
Fh = I , Fh = 1 + R removed from the liquid carrier.
VI
Advantage-
Note- (i) Highly efficient to removal of suspended solid, BOD
When there is no require re-circulation of treated
and bacteria are around 90% each.
sewage in high rate trickling filter, the re-
circulation factor is unit. (ii) Smaller area as compared to trickling filter.
(iii) No odors during the process.
Then, R = 0 Fh = 1 + 0 ∴ Fh = 1
Efficiency of trickling filter-
100
η=
1 + 0.0044 u
For conventional or low rate trickling filter.
u = Organic loading kg/h or m/day.
NRC Formula-
(i) For low rate or single stage T.F,
100 Aeration Tank-
η1 % =
W RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
1 + 0.443 1
V1F1 1. Detention/Aeration period-
UPRVUNL AE 2022
BOD loading to IInd filter of two stage, The rate at which sewage is circulated in the
W2 = W1 (1 − η1 ) aeration tank, called aeration period.
1 + R1 t=
Volume of Aeration tank V
=
F1 =
[1 + (1 − f .)R1 ]
2
Flow rate of sewage Q
(ii) For high rate or two stage T.F.- 2. Organic Loading/Volumetric BOD Loading-
100 Amount of BOD load applied per unit volume of
η2 % = aeration tank is called volumetric BOD loading.
0.443 W2
1+ . Organic loading = Total BOD applied in aeration tank
1 − E1 V2 F2 Volume of aeration tank
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 527 YCT
Q× (BOD)5 Where,
= Qw = Wasted sludge volume/day
V
XR = Concentration of solids in the return sludge, mg/lit.
Where,
Q = Sewage inflow/day
Q = Sewage flow rate in m3 or litre and
3
(BOD)5 in mg/l or gm/m of the influent sewage XE = Concentration of solid in the effluent mg/lit.
V = Volume of aeration tank 5. Sludge index/sludge volume index-
NHPC JE 2022, UK PSC AE 2022
3. Food to micro organism ratio (F/M ratio)-
UPPSC AE 2020
F Daily BOD load applied in aeration tank (gm)
ratio = It is defined as the volume occupied in ml by one gm
M Total microbial mass in the system (gm)
of solids in the mixed liquor after setting for 30 mint.
Q.(BOD)5 Settled volume of sludge ml/l
= S.V.I. = ×1000
X T .V MLSS (gm/l )
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB), TSPSC AEE 2017
Where, XT = MLSS- Mixed liquor suspended solid V V
S.V.I. = ob ml/mg or S.V.I. = ob ×1000 ml/gm.
in mg/l X ob X ob
F
Aeration tank is design on the basis of ratio. 6. Sludge recycle and rate of return sludge-
M
QR XT XT
M = X T .V = Total microbial mass in the system = = − XT
Q X R − X T (10 / S.V.I )
6
(gm)
F Where,
Rang of ratio- 0.2 - 0.5.
M 106
XR =
F S.V.I
If ratio < 0.2 then quantity of food in aeration
M 7. Sludge Density Index (S.D.I.)-
tank reduced and bacteria died. Sludge density index is used in place of sludge
F
ratio ↓, BOD remove ↑. volume index S.V.I.
M S.D.I. for-
4. Sludge Age-
UPPCL JE 2022
Good sludge - 1 - 2
It is the average time for which particles of poor sludge > 0.3
suspended solids remain under aeration. S.D.I. = Percentage of suspended solids by weight ×100
Sludge age indicates the residence time of biological Percentage of sludge by volume
solids in the system.
MLSS(%)
Sludge age Q c =
Mass of suspended solids in the system = ×100
Mass of solids leaving the system perday Settled volume of sludge in 30 minutes(%)
X T .V 100
Qc = S.D.I. =
Q w .X R + ( Q − Q w ) .X E S.V.I.
Comparison Between Activated Sludge Process And Trickling Filter-
Item Activated Sludge Process Trickling Filter
Flow diagram
Bio-reaction Fully aerobic. Anaerobes attached to media and aerobes
attached to them.
Microbes involved Aerobic bacteria, protozoa, algae, Facultative anaerobes, aerobes, protozoa, fungi,
etc. sludge warms, snails, insect larvae, etc.
Aeration Either diffused air supply or Sewage gets aerated during trickling. Bed
mechanical agitation. (media) gets aerated during resting period.
Period of aeration 6 to 10 hours. Relatively less.
Operation Continuous Intermittent, continuous
Shape or reactor Rectangular Circular
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 528 YCT
Depth Aeration tank- 3 to 4 m Standard rate trickling filter- 1.8 to 2.4 m
High rate trickling filter- 1 to 2 m
Media None Highly porous media having greater specific area.
Energy required High for aeration, mixing and Less for rotating the distributor arm and spraying.
maintenance in suspension and
sludge recycling.
Organic Loading 500 to 650 g/m3–d Standard rate trickling filter– 100 to 400 g/m3–d
High rate trickling filter–500 to 1500 g/m3–d
Head loss Very less More
Area required Less About 10 times more
Weather Works well in any weather Works well in summer and not in winter.
Pathogenic bacteria 90 to 95% 60 to 90%
remove efficiency
BOD 80 - 95% 75 - 80%
Suspended solid 95% 80%
(C) Oxidation/Waste Stabilization Pond or (D) Oxidation ditch-
Sewage Lagoon- UK PSC AE 2022, JPSC AE 2021
DSSSB AE 2021, JKPSC AE 2021 Oxidation ditch is a modified activated sludge
Aerobic bacteria present in oxidation pond oxidized biological treatment process that utilized long
solids retention times to remove bio-degradable
the organic waste of the sewage in the presence of
organics.
sunlight and bacteria released carbon dioxide, water
It is a modified form of activated sludge process.
and ammonia, now algae growth occurs in the
Very high efficiency.
presence of sunlight. It utilizes the inorganic wastes
Design Criteria-
formed by organic matter decomposition and
Sewage loading rate 2.5 m3/kg/day
releases oxygen. This mutually relationship is
Detention period 10 - 15 hours
called symbiotic relationship.
BOD removal 98 - 99%
suspended solids 95%
removal
Shape Oval
Length 200 - 1000 m
Width 1-5m
Depth 1 - 1.5 m
Note -
In polluted waste water dissolve oxygen is
maximum at noon but in pure water it is maximum
at mid night.
Design Criteria- Anaerobic treatment-
Area (each unit) 0.2 - 0.4 hectare (A) Septic tank-
Depth 1 - 1.8 MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021, BPSC AE 2019
Detention time 2 - 6 weeks (168 - 1008)
Septic tank is anaerobic attached growth biological
hrs. treatment system.
B.O.D. removal 80 - 90% A septic tank combines the function of
Pathogenic bacteria remove 99.9% sedimentation tank, sludge digestion tank and
Sludge accumulation 2 - 5 cm/year sludge storage tank.
Length of tank (L 750m) 3 × width of tank Suitable if the number of users is < 300.
Capacity- 0.07 - 0.13 m3
Suspended solid removal 90%
Volume of septic tank
Organic loading Hot countries- 150 - 300 = Volume of effluent + Volume of sludge
(In kg/hectare/day) Cold countries- 60 - 90 or
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 529 YCT
(Sewage flow × detention period) + (Rate of (i) Upper/Sedimentation Chamber-
accumulation of sludge × cleaning period) Sedimentation of sewage occurs here.
Working process is aerobic.
Effluent released from this tank is quite clean and
the digested sludge is black and odorless.
(ii) Lower/Digestion Chamber-
The solids obtained from the sedimentation
chamber are digested, thus working condition is
anaerobic.
Properties of septic tank-
JSSC JE 2022
Width 0.9 m
Length 2 - 3 times the width
Depth 1.2 - 1.8 m
Free board 0.30 m
Detention period 12 - 36 hr.
Cleaning period 6 month - 3 year)
Rate of sludge accumulation 30 lit./person/year
Dimension of Imhoff tank-
COD reduction 25 - 50% DDA JE 2023
Dissolved matter/suspended 60 - 70% Upper/Sedimentation Chamber
solids removal capacity Length 30 m.
According to IS : 2470 - Size of septic tank- Width 1 1
to of length
No. of Length Width Depth 3 4
person Depth of chamber 3 - 3.5 m
5 1.5 0.75 1.0 Free board 0.45 m
15 2.0 0.90 1.3 Flow velocity 30 to 45 cm/minute
20 2.3 1.10 1.3 Surface loading rate (V0) 0.30 m/minutes
50 5.0 2.0 1.0
Detention period 2 - 4 hrs.
Note- Lower/Digestion Chamber
Soak pit- Rate of accumulation of 30 - 40 lit./person/year
ESE 2023
sludge
Effluent received by septic tank is disposed in soak
Capacity 0.028 - 0.056 m3/capita
pit.
Total depth 9 - 11m
Minimum dia.- 0.9 m
Minimum depth- 1 m Slope of hopper 1:1
(B) Imhoff/emscher/two storey digestion tank- Sludge pipe dia. 15 - 20 cm.
ESE 2023, RPSC AE 2018 Area (digestion chamber) 20% - 25% of scum
It is an improve form of septic tank in which chamber area.
sedimentation and digestion of sludge take place in (C) Sludge Digester-
different chamber. Imhoff cone is used to measure Stages in Sludge Digestion-
settelable solid. RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Treatment is accomplished by anaerobic bacteria. 1. Acid The fresh sewage sludge begins to
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022 Fermentation/ be acted upon by anaerobic and
Sewage aeration is not required at any stage. Acid facultative bacteria called acid
By this treatment 60 - 65% solids and 35 - 40% production formers.
BOD is removed. stage Duration- 7-15 days
It consists of two chamber- pH value- 5-6.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 530 YCT
2. Acid Organic acids and nitrogenous Technical terms related to sewage
Regression compounds are decomposed to treatment-
form carbonate and ammonia like (i) Mixed Liquor-
elements. UPPCL AE 2022
Duration- 3 month When biologically activated sludge is added to raw
pH value increases- 6-7. sewage, It is called mixed liquor.
It acts as seeding, which facilitates the treatment of
3. Alkaline This sludge is granular and stable
sewage 25 - 40% of activated sludge (by volume) is
Fermentation and does not give offensive odors. added to the raw sewage.
Duration- > 1 month. (ii) Supernatant liquor or effluent-
• Digested sludge pH > 7. The waste water separated from solid is called
Note- effluent.
Order of sludge digestion- In supernatent liquor BOD is (1500 - 3000 ppm).
(iii) Sludge Bulking-
Acid Fermentation → Acid regression → Alkaline
If the mixed liquid in the aeration tank is not well
fermentation. aerated and sludge is not fully activated or become
The main gases released from the digestion Sick then its volume increases a lot, which is called
system/Sludge gases- the bulking of sludge.
Methane (CH4) 60 to 75 % Bulking of sludge increases the sludge index, and
decreases its efficiency.
Carbon Di oxide (CO2) 15 to 30%
It can be controlled by chlorination.
Nitrogen (N2) 5 to 15% (iv) Return-Sludge-
Hydrogen (H2) 1 to 4% After aeration, some part of the sludge which settles
Carbon Mono-Oxide (CO) 1% at the bottom of the final sedimentation tank and
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) 2% which is biologically activated, is again mixed with
Note- the raw sewage in the aeration tank.
The activated sludge thus returned is called return
Sludge digestion completed by the thermophilic
sludge.
bacteria (at 54°C) in 10 - 15 days and by the
(v) Fresh Sludge-
Mesophilic bacteria ( at 29°C) 30 days. The sludge separated from the fresh sewage is light
Sludge moister contents- gray or yellowish gray in colour due to the high
V1 (100 − P1 ) amount of water in it.
V2 = It contains 60 - 70% organic matter & 80 - 95%
(100 − P2 )
water.
UPPCL JE 2022, Punjab PSC SDE 2021 (vi) Digested Sludge-
GPSC AM (Environment), GMDC, 2020 CHB JE 2023, Kerala PSC AE 2015
Where, Sludge derived from septic tanks, Imhoff tanks and
V1 = Volume of raw sludge at moisture content other digestive tanks is called digested sludge.
P1(%) It contains 90 - 94% water.
V2 = Volume of digested sludge at moisture It is granular & light black in colour due to iron-
content P2 (%) sulfide.
1
Sludge condition Moisture content Volume of digested sludge = × volume of
3
Raw sludge 93%
undigested sludge
Trickling filter sludge 90% (vii) Sludge seeding-
Activated sludge 98% Digested sludge is mixed in fresh sludge to increase
Sequential treatment process of sludge- the activity and growth of microbes.
This digested sludge is about 3-5% of the fresh
(i) Sludge thickening
sludge
(ii) Sludge digestion
(viii) Sludge Thickener-
(iii) Sludge conditioning It is used to thickened the sludge by reducing water
(iv) Sludge dewatering content. It reduce the sludge volume which results
(v) Sludge disposal into a lesser volume of the digester.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 531 YCT
06.
DISPOSAL OF WASTE
WATER & SEWAGE
Method of sewage disposal- solids should not be ≯30 ppm and 5
Natural method- day B.O.D should ≯20 ppm.
In the natural method sewage that is disposed in to <8 The sewage should be completely
river drain with no treatment or with initial treatment treated before it discharge into water.
(A) Dilution method-
Zone of Pollution in River Stream-
UPPCL AE 2014
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, MPPSC AE 021
This method is used for large cities. this method is
1. Zone A - Zone of clear water
done by
2. Zone B - Zone of degradation
(i) Disposal in river
3. Zone C - Zone of active decomposition
(ii) Disposal in the sea
(iii) Disposal in the lake or pond 4. Zone D - Zone of recovery
B.I.S Standards for Sewage Disposal- 5. Zone E - Zone of clear water
Parameter Domestic Industrial sewage
sewage
Discharge Into surface Surface Public
water source water sewer
BOD5 20 ppm 30 ppm 500 ppm
pH - 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0
Suspended 30 ppm 100 ppm 600 ppm
solid
Quantity of diluted water Zone of clear water (1 & 5)-
Dilution Factor- D.F =
Quantity of sewage Dissolved oxygen rise up to its saturation value
clear water, and presence of fishes.
Sewage Treatment as per Dilution
Zone of degradation (2)-
Factor- CHB JE 2023
CIL MT 2017, UPPSC A.E. 2013(II) D.O. level falls due to the decomposition of organic
Dilution Sewage treatment level matter in this zone. Water becomes dark and turbid
factor . Fishes may present while algae are absent.
≥ 500 No treatment is required. Raw sewage In this zone dissolve oxygen reduced up to 40% of
can be directly disposed into river. saturation.
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 28.06.2022 Shift-III Zone of active decomposition (3)-
300 -500 Sewage should be released into the UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
river after its plain-sedimentation so In this zone exist heavy pollution and water is very
that the volume of suspended solids dark and turbid.
should not exceed 150 PPM. D.O. level falls to zero and critical oxygen deficient
150 -300 Sewage should be sediment with occurs.
condensation, so that the amount of Fishes and algae are absent in this zone.
solids suspended in the effluent does In this zone gasses H2S, CH4, CO2 generated etc.
not exceed 60 PPM. Zone of recovery (4)-
8 - 150 The sewage should be treated Level of D.O. is increases and may reach to
extensively. The content of suspended saturated value.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 532 YCT
Fishes and algae are re-appear. Methods of Sewage Sickness Removal-
Nitrate, Sulphate and Phosphate start appearing in 1. By treated sewage
this 2. Adopting rest method
zone. 3. Aeration of land particles.
Dissolved content rises above 40% of the saturation 4. By increasing leakage capacity of soil.
value. 5. By crop rotation.
(B) Disposal of Sewage Over the Land- Ways to disposal of garbage-
Disposal of sewage effluent on land can be done GPSC GES Pre 2021, NLC (GET) 2020
CIL MT 2020. LMRC AM 2018
either by effluent irrigation or sewage farming.
The allowable disposal rate of application of sludge Throwing into It is a simple method of waste disposal.
on land is determined by the nitrogen content of the Sea
sludge. Where there is lack of proper place to
Note- dump the garbage it is burnt in the
Maximum quantity of dissolve oxygen at noon in Incineration furnaces.
winter season and at mid night in summer season. • Most suitable method for urban area.
The permissible limit of some parameters for the • By incinerating the garbage, all germs
disposal. that grow in it are destroyed
Parameter Disposal Disposal Disposal Dumping on Garbage is taken out of the slum and
in river in sea on land land dumped in low-lying sites or pits.
BOD (mg/l) 20 100 500 Pulverization This method of waste disposal is
adopted in advanced Countries
COD (mg/l) 250 250 -
Composting This is ecologically adoptable method of
pH 5.5 - 9.0 2.5 - 9.0 5.5 - 9.0
solid waste disposal.
TDS (mg/l) 30 100 2100
• For Rural areas, preparing manure
Oil and grease - 20 ppm 30 mm from waste is the best way to dispose it
(mg/l)
Burning It is adopted for rural areas.
Key Points Feeding to This method is quite popular in western
■ The pyrolysis process is– Endothermic Hogs countries & America.
■ For analysis of carbonaceous aerosols the Disposal of human excreta from un-
particulate sample must be collected on ________ sewered area-
paper– Quartz filter
(a) Aqua Privy-
■ In Sanitary landfill, control of leachate movement HPCL JE 2022
into ground can be accomplished by– It is the most useful method of disposal of night soil
Landfill sealants without the help of water carriage system.
■ Soak pits are preferable where– soil is porous Where sewer systems or septic tanks cannot be built,
■ For incineration and deep burial of biomedical its construction remains satisfactory and suitable.
waste________color plastic bag is used– Yellow Its capacity-0.28 to 0.56 m3/sec.
Sewage sickness- (b) Sewage Seepage Pools-
CHB JE 2023, UPPCL AE 2015 (i) Cess Pool-
When sewage is applied continuously on a piece of It is a tank used for temporary collection and storage
land, the soil pores or voids may get filled up and of sewage or waste.
clogged with sewage matter retained in them. This (ii) Leaching Cess Pool-
phenomenon of soil getting clogged is called This pool serves as both seepage pools and septic
sewage sickness. tanks. It is more useful in such places, where the
Hydrogen sulphide gas produced in this condition. ground water level is very low.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 533 YCT
07.
POLLUTION (AIR & NOISE)
AIR POLLUTION Aerosols-
UPSSSC JE 2022 JPSC AE 2021
Undesirable gases and particles present in the air and It is a extremely small solid/liquid particles
cause of negative impact on human health or life suspended in the atmosphere.
style is called air pollution. It is classified into smoke, dust, fumes or mist.
Air Pollutions are Classified as- Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)-
UPMRC AM 2023
Dust Its is used to describe air-borne solid particles
that range in size from 1-1000µ.
Smoke Vaporous matter with suspended particles of
carbon, arising from incomplete combustion.
Particle size < 1µ.
Mist It is liquid particles.
Size < 10µ
Fog It indicates a mass of smoke, dust etc.
1. Primary Pollutants (90%)
Punjab SDO 2021, DSSSB AE 2021
obscuring the atmosphere.
DSSSB AE 2021, UPPCL JE 2022, SSC JE 2022 Size→ 0-10µ
(i) Finer particles (dia. < 100µ) Smog Due to excessive smog, visibility decreases,
(ii) Coarse particles (dia. > 100µ) vegetable starts getting destroyed and eye
(iii) Sulphur dioxide (SO2) (Prime constituent of air irritation etc.
pollution) Smog = [Smoke + fog]
(iv) Oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2)
Haze It is in the form of thin vapour of fog, smoke,
(v) Carbon monoxides (CO) dust etc. in the air.
(vi) Halogen compounds
(vii) Volatile organic compounds Main gases responsible for the greenhouse effect and
its percentage –
(viii) Lead (Pb)
(ix) Radioactive substances Carbon dioxide(CO2) 57%
Nitrous oxide (N2O) 6%
2. Secondary Pollutant (10%)
JSSC JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022, NLC (GET) 2020 Methane (CH 4 ) 12%
It is formed due to interaction between two primary CFC 25%
or more pollutants. Green House Gases-
(i) Ozone (O3) GPSC AE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
MH WRD JE 2022 Methane (CH4) , Carbon dioxide (CO2) , Ozone (O3)
(ii) Formaldehyde (CHO) Nitrous Oxide (N2O), Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC),
(iii) PAN (Peroxy acetyl ntrate) Carbon monoxide (CO), Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) etc.
(iv) Photochemical Smog, Note- Green house gases trap the heat in the atmosphere
(v) Formation of acid mist and warm the planet
(vi) Sulphuric acid Acid Rains-
(vii) Smog If pH value of natural rainfall is < 5.6 then it is
called acid rain.
(viii) Chlorofluorocarbon ( CFC)
Cause- SO2, NO ( main cause) H2SO4 , HNO3 etc.
Composition & Structure of Atmosphere- gases.
Layer Height Temperature H2SO4 harms the soil and plants mostly.
(km) Note-
Troposphere 0 - 11 15° to – 56°C The main cause for the depletion of ozone layer is
Stratosphere 11 - 50 –56° to – 02°C CFC gases. .
Mesosphere 50 - 85 –02° to – 92°C IAO = Indoor air quality.
Thermosphere 85 - 500 –92° to 1200°C Ringelmann's scale is used to measure the smoke
density.
Exosphere > 500 >1500°C Assam PSC AE 2020, GPSC AE 2019
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 534 YCT
Legislation related to pollution- Key Points
MH WRD JE 2022
Institution Established ■ According to the Ministry of Environment, forest
year and climate change Government of India, water
Water law (prevention of pollution 1974 can be used for the propagation of wildlife and
and control) fisheries– Class D
Air act (prevention of pollution 1981 ■ As per National Ambient Air Quality standards,
and control) the concentration of PM10 in industrial area in a
Environmental protection law 1986 day must be less than– 100 µg/m3
Lapse Rate- ■ The hazardous pollutant released from LEDs is–
In the troposphere the temperature of ambient Arsenic
atmosphere decreases with increase in altitude is ■ Thermal optical analysis is widely used to assess–
∆T 0 C Carbonaceous aerosols (PM– carbon)
called lapse rate. Lapse Rate =
∆H ■ As per IS 2296-1982, which category of surface
NLC (GET) 2020 water can be used as drinking water source without
1. Environmental Lapse Rate(ELR)/Ambient Lapse conventional treatment but after disinfection–
Rate- Category C
GPSC AE 2017
It is the actual rate at which the ambient temperature Plume-
changes with height. NHPC JE 2022, RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021
It is also known as Prevailing Lapse Rate (PLR). A Plume is defined by the path taken by a
2. Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR)- continuous discharge of gaseous wastes emitted
LMRC AM 2019, GPSC AE 2017 from a stack or chimney.
The rate at which atmospheric/ Environmental
The Shape of the path of plume depends upon the
temperature decreases( 1ºC/100 m height) with
increasing altitude is known as adiabatic lapse rate. localized air stability.
If lapse rate is +Ve then temperature decreases with Source of origin of plum is called stack.
eight, conversely if lapse rate is -Ve then Effective height of stack,
temperature increase with height. = Plum height + Actual stack height
Wind Velocity-
k
Z
u = uo
Zo
Zo = Height at which anemometer is kept
uo = Wind speed at any height Z.
k = Constant
(Unstable Environment) (Stable Environment) For large rate, k = 1/9
3. Neutral adiabatic Lapse Rate-
For marked inversion, k = 1/3
Average value, k ≈ 1/7
Note-
Super adiabatic laps rate- ELR > ALR
Sometimes, temperature increase with height which
is known as inversion.
1. Looping Plume
CHB JE (Building) 2023, JSSC JE 2022
4. Inversion/Negative Lapse Rate (Unstable It is a rapid mixing and wavy character under super
environment)- adiabatic conditions, when atmosphere is highly
unstable and under strong lapse rates.
It takes place when the atmosphere is very unstable,
wind speed is greater than 10 m/s.
Condition- ELR > ALR or ELR >>> DLR and also
higher stacks are needed.
HPCL JE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 535 YCT
5. Lifting/Lofting Plume-
JSSC JE 2022
When there exist strong super adiabatic laps rate
above a surface inversion, then the plum is said to be
lofting.
It have minimum downward mixing but upward
mixing will be quite turbulent and rapid.
It is most ideal for dispersion of emission.
2. Coning Plume-
JSSC JE 2022, CIL MT 2020
Pollutants travel fairly long distances before
reaching ground level in significant amounts.
Occurs when wind velocity is high(> 32 km/hrs) and
Sub-adiabatic conditions exist (ELR < ALR).
Environment is highly stable with small scale
turbulence. 6. Fumigating Plume-
It is most likely to occur during cloudy or windy GPSC AE 2019
periods. It occurs when inversion occurs at short distance
above the top of the stack and super adiabatic
condition prevail below the stack.
3. Neutral Plume-
Natural plum is the upward vertical rise of the plum
from the stack.
It is just opposite to lofting plume.
7. Trapping Plume-
When inversion layer exist above the emission
source as well as below the source. Emitted plume
will neither go up nor go down.
This plume is not ideal for dispersion of pollutants
as it can not go above a certain height.
Upward vertical rise when ELR = ALR
4. Fanning Plume-
UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
LMRC AM 2018, ESE 2019, UPRVUNL AE 2015
It is the most favorable plume.
It occurs under extreme inversion conditions caused
by –ve ELR.
Emission will spread only horizontally. Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)-
High rising stacks are required. WBPSC AE (Environment) 2021
PSI Air Quality Descriptor
0 - 50 Good
51 - 100 Moderate
101 - 200 Unhealthy
201 - 300 Very Unhealthy
> 300 Hazardous
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 536 YCT
Major instruments used to control of Air Wet Scrubbers-
Pollution- PPSC SDE 2021, GPSC AE 2017
HPSC Lecturer 2022 Wet scrubbers are effective air pollution control
Bag House A fuel gas is allowed to pass through device for removing particles and gases from
Filter a felted, which filter out the industrial exhausts. Polluted is air passes through a
particulates matter and allows the gas chamber or where water is sprayed on air.
to pass. Scrubbers are designed to removal of gas pollutants
• Pore volume efficiency, η = 99%. from the air.
It is very efficient process to separate dirt from
• Very high for the collection and removal
ambient air.
of very small particles upto 1µm.
Wet scrubbers are three types-
Cyclone It is used to separate from polluted gas SSC JE 2022
Separators or liquid stream, without the use of
Cyclonic Removal particle size > 2.50µm.
filters through vortex separation.
scrubbers Efficiency < 80%.
• It is also used in oil refineries to
separate oils and gases. Spray Removal particle size > 10 µm.
Collection efficiency of cyclone tower Efficiency < 80%.
increases with increase in density and Venturi Gases and particulate contaminates or
particle size. scrubbers removed.
Electrostatic It is widely used in thermal power Removal particle size > 0.50 µm.
Precipitators plants pulp and paper industries, Efficiency < 99%.
chemical industries iron and steel
plants, etc. NOISE POLLUTION
• It is a larger size and low velocity dust Effect of noise on human beings-
collection device that works by Noise level in db Effects observed
removing particles and smoke from a 0 Threshold of audibility
gas stream using an electrostatic charge.
105 Significant change in pulse rate
• Efficiency- 99%
110 Stimulation of reception in skin
Gravity Min. size of particle removes > 501 µm,
120 Pain threshold
settling η% < 50%
chamber 130-135 Nausea, Vomiting dizziness
Centrifugal Min. size of particle removes 5 – 25µm, 140 Pain in ear
collectors in η% = 50 - 90% 150 Burning of skin
cycle
Measurement of Sound-
Fabric filter Min. size of particle removes > 1 µm, SSC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
η% - 99%. GPSC AE 2019, UPSC JWM 2017
Sound Q Q
Key Points L = log10 (inBel)= 10.log10 (in dB)
level Q0 Q0
■ The current national ambient air quality standards
in India were notified on____by the central Sound I
intensity Li = 10 log10 −12
pollution control board– 18 November 1994 10
level ( dB
■ The rate of doing work by a travelling sound in the I = Sound intensity Watt./m2
direction of the propagation of the wave is called– Sound 2
p
Power of sound Pressure L P = 10.log10 rms
■ ________ is a silent killer because it is colourless, level 20µPa
odourless, tasteless, and nonirritating– p
Carbon monoxide = 20 log10 . rms
20µPa
■ As per National Air Quality Standards, 24–hour
Average 1 n=N
mean concentration of PM10 in ambient air in
industrial, residential, rural and other areas should sound L P = 20 × log10 ∑ (10)(Ln / 20)
N n =1
pressure
NOT exceed– 100 µ g/m3 N = Number of measurement readings
level
■ As per CPCB, effluent discharge standard for lead n = 1,2,3,…….....….N
into public sewers should NOT exceed– 1.0 mg/L Ln = nth Sound pressure level in dB
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 537 YCT
Where, Large public office, Banks,
45 - 50
p rms = Root mean square pressure in µPa Stores, etc.
I = W/a Restaurant 50 - 55
Q0 = Reference standard quantity of sound pressure
/ sound power/ sound intensity as per Noise level limit for various zone-
condition. Area Category of Noise level limit(dB)
Q = Measured quantity of sound pressure / sound code Area/Zone Day time Night time
power / sound intensity.
A Industrial Area 75 70
Key Points
■ The parameters are taken into consideration while B Commercial Area 65 55
measuring air quality in India– 8 C Residential Area 55 45
■ As per the National Ambient Air Quality D Silence Zone 50 40
Standards 2009, the limits for the 24–hourly
Degree of Noise-
averaged concentration for SO2 is– 8.0 ppm
■ The type of noise can be abated by providing 120 - 140 dB Painful
lining on walls and ceiling with sound absorbing 90 dB Extremely loud
material is– Reflection Noise 60 - 80 dB Very loud
■ Pneumoconiosis is caused due to inhalation of– 40 - 50 dB Moderate
Silica dust 30 dB Faint
■ Thermal Power Plants, based on burning of coal, Note-
pollute atmosphere by adding to it–
Indoor Limit < 30 dB according to WHO
NOx and SOx and particulate matter
Noise greater than 75dB over long exposure can
Acceptable noise level from residential cause hearing damage.
area according to IS : 4958 : 1968- MH WRD JE 2022
1. Acceptable outdoor noise level- Noise above 120 dB can cause biochemical changes
DSSSB AE 2021, RPSC ACF & FRO 2021 in human bodies.
Punjab SDO 2021, DSSSB AE 2021 DSSSB AE 2019
Location Noise level Standard noise pressure- 20µ Pa.
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) (dB) Standard noise intensity- 10 Watt/m2
26.09.2021 If noise level increases- 20 dB, Then noise intensity
Rural area 25 - 35 increase 10 times.
Suburban area 30 - 40 Normal conversation is acceptable up to 60 dB.
Residential area (urban) 35 - 45 Whisper is usually measured up to 30 dB.
(Urban area) residential and business 40 - 50 Acceptable measurement up to 95 dB for motorcycle
City area 45 - 55 in motion.
NBCC JE 2022
Industrial areas 50 - 60
Industrial sound limit as per WHO- 75 dB.
2. Acceptable indoor noise level-
CIL MT 2020, LMRC AM 2019 Hearing level of noise.
Acceptable Unit Minimum Maximum
Type of building
noise level (dB) Decibel (dB) 0 dB 180 dB
Radio & T.V. Studios 25 - 30 Frequency 20 Hz 20,000 Hz
Music Room 30 - 35 WBPSC AE (Environment) 2021, DSSSB AE 2021
Hospitals, Class room, Auditoria 35 - 40 Echo-
Apartment, Hotel, Homes, A sound that reflects from a surface to the listeners
35 - 40
Conference rooms, small offices ear is called echo.
Court rooms, Libraries, Private Distance b/w reflector and source of sound should be
40 - 45
offices ≥ 17.2 m for being echo.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 538 YCT
1. Origin of soil .............................................................................................................. 540
2. Basic definition & simple tests of soil ....................................................................... 541
3. Index properties of Soil.............................................................................................. 545
4. Soil classification ....................................................................................................... 551
5. Soil Structure and Clay Mineralogy .......................................................................... 554
6. Effective and Neutral Stresses .................................................................................. 556
7. Soil Hydraulic ............................................................................................................ 557
8. Compaction ................................................................................................................ 562
9. Consolidation ............................................................................................................. 565
10. Stability of Slope...................................................................................................... 569
11. Earth Pressure Theory .............................................................................................. 572
12. Stress Distribution in Soil ........................................................................................ 575
13. Shear Strength of Soil .............................................................................................. 578
14. Foundation ............................................................................................................... 582
15. Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundation ................................................................ 588
16. Soil Exploration ....................................................................................................... 593
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 539 YCT
01.
ORIGIN OF SOIL
Introduction- 2. By Wind Aeolin i. Loess
Soil is defined as the solid particles formed by the soil Fine graded soil (Ex. Clay, silt)
disintegration and weathering of rock. It is yellow in colour.
Scientific approach of soil mechanics is given by ii. Dune
Father of soil mechanics- Dr. Karl Terzaghi Coarse graded soil (Ex. Sand)
NBCC JE 2022 3. Gravity Colluvial soil (Ex. Talus)
The book Erdbaumechanik was Written by Dr. 4. By Ice/ Glacial drift or Simple drift (Ex. Drift, Till)
Karl Terzaghi. Glacial
Fragmentation of rock is known as soil and process Various Types of Soil-
of formation of soil is known as pedogens (i) Bentonite Soil-
Geological Cycle of Soil Formation- Karnataka PSC AE 2017
UPSSSC JE 2022, Assam PSC AE 2020 Obtained from the decomposition of volcanic ash.
It is highly plastic clay & also highly water
absorbing capacity.
It have high shrinkage and swelling characteristics and
unsuitable for foundation due to montmorillonite
mineral.
(ii) Black Cotton soil-
Assam PSC AE (I.W. T.) 2021, GSSSB AAE 07.02.2021
It is a residual soil formed from basalt & have
excess of montmorillonite.
It has high swelling, shrinkage and very low bearing
Weathering of rocks- strength due to montmorillonite mineral.
Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020
It is a type of inorganic clay, black in colour &
Physical/mechanical Chemical Weathering useful for cotton crops.
Weathering (iii) Laterite Soil-
It occurs due to temperature, Occurs due to the It is a residual soil formed by leaching action.
pressure, abrasion, wedging hydration, carbonation, Its hardness is due to cementing action of iron oxide
action of ice etc. oxidation, hydrolysis etc. and aluminum oxide.
particles are changed only chemical property changes. Due to iron oxide gives red colour.
in size. (iv) Muck-
Stability of rock decreases Stability decreases It is mixture of fine soil particles and highly
Ex. Sand, Gravel etc. Ex. Clay decomposed organic matter.
(v) Peat-
On the Basis of Origin- UPPCL AE (Civil) 31/10/2022
Residual Soil Transported Soil It is formed by the rotting of the peel of the leaves of
The soil which is deposited The deposited soil the plant.
at its original parent rock transported from one place Highly compressible, low strength and permeable in
• Mineral composition of soil to another place by the nature.
are same as parent rock. natural forces like as wind, (vi) Marl-
water, glacier. Formed due to the decomposition of plants and
Ex. Lateritic soil ,Black bones of animals.
cotton soil, bentonite clay. •Soil mineral composition It is a stiff, marine calcareous clay of greenish colour.
•This soil have mainly will vary. (vii) Humus-
kaolinite minerals. Ex.- Colluvial, alluvial It is a dark brown organic amorphous earth of the
• These soils are generally ,glacial, aeolin. top soil.
stiff and stable. • These soils are loose and (viii) Caliche-
soft upto a fixed depth. It is a type of soil which contains gravel, sand and silt
Transported Soil and Mode of Transport- and its particles are cemented by calcium corbonate.
DSSSB AE 2021, Haryana PSC AE 2020 (ix) Tuff Soil-
Transported soil It is fine grained slightly cemented volcanic ash
It is classified on the basis of transporting agent as- transported by wind or water.
(xii) Gumbo soil- It is a black and highly plastic soil.
1. By water Alluvial i. Lacustrine soil
(xiii) Fills-
soil Deposited at the bottom of lake All man made deposits of soil and waste materials is
ii. Marine soil called fills.
Deposited at the bottom of sea (xiv) Loam- It is the mixture of (sand+ silt + clay).
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 540 YCT
02.
BASIC DEFINITION &
SIMPLE TEST OF SOIL
Phase Diagram- 2. Two Phase Diagram-
DDA JE Civil 2023, MH WRD JE 2022
Diagram which represents the components of soil is
RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021, TNPSC AE 2018
called phase diagram. It is two types
It represents only two components of soil which is
1. Three Phase Diagram- dry soil (solid and air) or saturated soil (solids and
MP Vyapam Sub. Engg. 2022
water).
OPSC AE 2019, ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2018
It represents three components of soil which is soil Note-
solid, air and water. It is also known as block If air is present in soil considered as unit then soil
diagram. consist one phase diagram.
Volume relationship- Weight relationship-
• Total volume of soil, V = Vv + Vs •
Total weight of soil, W = Wv + Ws
• Volume of voids, Vv = Va + Vw •
Weight of voids, Wv = Wa + Ww
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 Where,
Where, Wa = Weight of air
Va = Volume of air Ww = Weight of water
Vw = Volume of water WS = Weight of solid
Vs = Volume of soil solid Note-
V • Weight of air is considered as zero.
Void Ratio, e= v ( e > 0, Always ) W
Vs Water content, w = w c ( w c ≥ 0)
Ws
SJVNL ET 2019, TNPSC AE 2018
GPSC R&B AE 2016, KPSC AE 2016, OPSC AE 2016 DDA JE Civil 2023, NPCIL KAGIA SA 2022
OPSC AE 2019, APDCL Junior Manager 2017
Vv
Porosity, n= ( 0 < n < 1) Effective water content, w'=
Ww
( 0 ≤ w ' < 1)
V W
UPSSSC JE 16.04.2022
Unit weight of soil-
V
Degree of saturation, S = w ( 0 ≤ S ≤ 1) W
Vv Bulk unit weight, γt / γb =
V
Va
Air content, ac = ( 0 ≤ a c ≤ 1) WS
Vv Dry unit weight, γ d =
V
Nagaland PSC 2017
V Wsat
Percentage air voids, na = a ( 0 ≤ n a < 1) Saturated unit weight, γ sat =
V V
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 541 YCT
Submerged unit weight, G + S⋅e Gγ w (1 + w)
• S.e = w c G • γ b = γw =
W γ 1+ e 1+ e
γ sub = sub = γ sat − γ w = sat
V 2
• γd =
γb G γw
• γd =
(1 − n a ) Gγ w
W • γd =
Unit weight of soil solid, γ s = s 1+ wc 1+ e 1 + w cG
Vs RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021, OPSC AE 2020
Ww (G + e) Gγ w
Unit weight of water, γ = • γ sat = γw = (1 + w)
Vw 1+ e 1 + w.G
Decreasing order of unit weight- Manipur PSC AE 2013
γ s > γ sat > γ t > γ d > γ sub G −1 G
• γ sub = γw • Gm = = G (1 − n )
PPSCJE 2022 1+ e 1+ e
Dry unit weight of soil represents the compactness RPSC (Tech. Edu.) 2021, Mizoram PSC AE 2020
or denseness of soil
wc
Unit weight of soil at zero air voids depends upon- • S= • γ b = γ d + S ⋅ ( γ sat − γ d )
γw 1
i. Unit weight of water (1 + w c ) −
ii. Water content γt G
iii. Specific gravity
• n a = a c .n • ac = 1− S
Key Points
■ Geostatic stress on the soil is due to the _____ of G = Gs
soil– Self–weight Density Index/Relative Density/Degree of
■ If both the permeable and impermeable voids are density-
excluded to determine the true volume solids, the HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021
specific gravity is called–Absolute specific It is used to express relative compactness of
gravity cohesionless soil. It is unitless quantity.
■ The porosity depends upon which process–
Mechanical processes
■ The term which is useful for calculating the rock
overburden stress– Specific gravity
■ The porosity of a rock depends upon–
Size & shape of the rock grains
Specific Gravity-
MH-WRD JE 2022, TNPSC (CESS) 2021
OPSC AE 2019, DFCCIL Executive 2016
• True/Absolute specific gravity of soil solid
γs Ws
Gs = = emax − enatural
γ w Vs γ w ID =
emax − emin
• Apparent/ Mass specific gravity for soil
TNPSC AE 2022, GPSC GES 2021
γ
Gm = t
γw γ d max , ( γ d − γ d min ) 1
ID = e ∝
For- γ d ( γ d max − γ d min ) γd
Organic soil solid, Gs = 1.2 - 1.4
Inorganic soil solid, Gs = 2.6 - 2.75 ID =
( n max − n natural )(1 − n min )
Functional relationships- ( n max − n min )(1 − n natural )
G m < Gs (S.G.)Fine Grained > (S.G.)Coarse Grained 0 ≤ ID ≤ 1 Important Relation
,
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, RSMSSB JE 2020
w' wc n
• wc = • w'= • e= Note-
1− w ' 1+ wc 1− n
DSSSB JE 2022
Id ∝ denseness, compactness and shear strength.
Soil at loosest state, e = emax & ID = 0
e W V
• n= • Ws = • Vs = Punjab SDO 2021, APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020
1+ e 1+ wc 1+ e Soil at densest state, e = emin & ID = 100%
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 542 YCT
Density Index Soil Condition 3. Structural water-
0-15 Very Loose It is chemically combined in the crystal structure of
15-35 Loose the soil mineral. It can be removed only by breaking
35-65 Medium Dense the structure.
65-85 Dense SIMPLE TESTS OF SOIL
85-100 Very Dense Methods for determination of water
Saturation (%) Soil Condition content-
0 Dry 1. Oven Dry Method- IS : 2720 (Part II) – 1973
SSCJE Civil 2022, NBCC JE (Civil) 2022
0-0.25 Humid
UPPRUNL JE (Civil) 2022
0.25-0.5 Damp It is the simplest and most accurate standard
0.5-0.75 Moist laboratory method.
1 Fully Saturated Soil sample dried in oven at a temp. of 110° ± 5° C
Specific Gravity of Different Types of Soil- for 24 hrs.
NBCC JE 2022 DSSSB JE 2022
ASSAM PSC AE (IRRIGATION) 2021
Generally it is lie between- 2.65 - 2.85 W2 − W3
Water content, w c = × 100
Soil Type Specific Gravity W3 − W1
Clean Sand & Gravel 2.65 - 2.68 Where,
Silt & Silty Sands 2.66 - 2.70 W1 = wt. of container
Inorganic soil 2.68 - 2.80 W2 = wt. of container and wet soil sample
Organic Soil 1.2 - 1.4 or < 2 W3 = wt. of container and dried soil sample
Soil High in Mica, 2.75 - 2.85 Ww = W2–W3
Iron Ws = W3–W1
Porosity of soil in different condition- Type of Soil Temp. Drying
Condition Porosity (n) Range period
loose condition 50-60% Inorganic soil 105-110°C 4 hrs.
Compacted condition 30-40% Organic soil (Clay and silt) < 60º C 12-16 hrs.
Soil particle arranged in 47.6%
Soil containing Gypsum & ≯80º C -
cubical form emax = 91%
calcium component
Soil particle arranged in 25.9%
prismoidal form emin = 35% 2. Sand Bath Method-
NBCCJE (Civil) 2022, CGPSC AE 2014
Types of Water Present in Soil Mass- It is rapid field method but not very accurate. It is
1. Adsorb water- used to determining the rough value of water
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 content.
It is also termed as the hygroscopic water/constant This method should not be used for organic soils or
moisture/Surface banned moisture. for soils having higher percentage of gypsum.
It is the part of soil water which the soil particles freely
adsorbed form atmosphere by the physical forces of W2 − W3
Water content, w c = × 100
attraction and is held by the force of adhesion. W3 − W1
(i) Hygroscopic water-
3. Torsion Balance Moisture Meter Method -
Film of water which is tight of held by the soil
particles is called hygroscopic water. It is rapid and accurate laboratory method. By this
(ii) Firm water or structural water- method water content determine within 15 to 30
2. Pore water- minutes.
(i) Gravitational water- Infrared rays are used for drying the soil sample
The water which is free to move through a soil mass It is suitable for soil which absorbed moisture from
under the influence of gravity is known as free the atmosphere
water/gravitational water. 4. Calcium Carbide or Rapid Moisture Method-
(ii) Capillary water or Held water- West Bengal PSC AE 2021, WBPSC AE 2021
It is mainly available water to the plants which is This method is rapid but not accurate and can be
held in the interstices of soil due to capillary forces. used in the field and laboratory both.
This water is present in soil due to surface tension.
JSSC (Gen. Eng.) 2022 Result in 5 to 7 minutes.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 543 YCT
It is use for fine grain soil. Methods of Specific Gravity
CaC2 + 2H 2 O → C 2 H 2 ↑ + Ca ( OH ) 2 Determination -
( Acetylene Gas ) GPSC AE (GMB) 2021
Specific gravity of solid particles is determined in
This method is suitable for embankment of highway. the laboratory with the following methods.
Note-
Measuring flask For coarse grained soil
To get an accurate value, a minimum of three soil
Method volume = 500 ml.
samples should be taken to test, and average water
content should be taken as result. Gas Jar Method For coarse grained soil.
5. Pycnometer Method- volume = 1 Ltr.
DDA JE Civil 2023, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022 Pycnometer For coarse grained cohesionless soil.
UP Awas Vikas Parisad 2022, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021 Method volume of flask = 900 ml.
This is a quick laboratory method for determining
Density Bottle Most accurate and useful for all types
the water content of those soils whose specific
Method of soil
gravity (G) is already known.
It is standard laboratory method.
It is suitable for cohesionless soil only.
volume of bottle = 50 ml.
Its principle is not based on air voids.
• It is suitable for Cohesive and
cohesionless soil.
DMRC AM 2017
Shrinkage limit -
Method
Specific gravity of solids is generally reported at
27°C (IS:2720-II) or at 4°C.
GPSC AE June 2019
S.G.of water at t °C
W − W1 G − 1 G 27 = G t ×
Water content, w c = 2 − 1 × 100 S.G.of water at 27°C
W3 − W4 G
G 4 = G t × S.G.of water at t °C
W2 − W1
Specific gravity, G = Methods to determine the unit weight of
( W4 − W1 ) − ( W3 − W2 )
soil
Maharastra PSC 2021
W1 = wt. of empty pycnometer Method Suitable for
W2 = wt. of pycnometer + wt. of dry soil Core cutter method It is quite suitable for soft, fine
(Field Method) grained and clayey soil.
W3 = wt. of pycnometer + wet soil + water
W4 = wt. of pycnometer filled with water only It is not suitable for stony soil.
Note- Sand replacement It is suitable for gravelly, sandy
If fine grain soil is to be tested in pycnometer or method and dry soil.
(Field Method)
flask kerosene is used instead of water due to better
properties. Water displacement It is suitable for cohesive soils
6. Alcohol Method (field Method)- Method only and in this method paraffin
This method cannot be used if the soil contains a wax is used.
large proportion of clay, organic matter, gypsum or Submerge density This method is also suitable for
any other calcareous material. Method cohesive soil.
This method is quite rapid, but not very accurate. Rubber Balloon Suitable for all types of soils.
The soil sample is mixed with methylated spirit Method • It is not so accurate method.
(alcohol), and quantity of methylated spirit about Radiation/direct Bulk mass density of in-situ soil
one ml. for every gram of soil. transmission can be determined using this
7. Radiation Method-This method is extremely useful Method method.
for the determination of water content of soil in-situ
• It is quick and convenient
conditions.
SJVNL ET 2019 • In this method Nuclear density
In this method Radio-active isotopes material (such meter is used.
as cobalt 60) are used for the determination of water • It is quick and non-destructive
content of soils. method.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 544 YCT
03.
INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Introduction- Limitations-
TNPSC (CESS) 2021 OPSC AE 2019
It refers to the properties of the soil that helps to • Stoke's law is applicable for spherical particles only.
classify and identify the properties of soil for • The depth of liquid in it is infinite.
engineering purposes. It is valid for-
Particle Size Distribution (PSD) Method- 0.0002 mm to 0.2 mm size of particle
KPSC AE 2016, (BPSC AE 2001 PPSC JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022
It is used for separation of soil into different
fractions. size > 0.2 mm Turbulent flow occurs.
size < 0.0002 mm Brownian motion take place.
Sedimentation analysis is carried out by-
1. Pipette Method 2. Hydrometer Method .
Deflocculating agent:- (IS: 2720 (part iv)-1965)-
i. Sodium Hexa metaposhtate (calgon)
ii. Tetra Sodium Pyrophosphate
iii. Sodium silicate
Note-
Dispersing solution containing 33 gm of the sodium-
hexa metaphoshphate and 7 gm. of the sodium
1. Sieve/Mechanical Analysis- carbonate in distilled water to make one liter of
SSC JE Civil 2022 solution.
Resulting data is represented as a distribution curve 1. Pipette Method-
with grain size along X-axis (Log scale) and finer DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021
percentage passing along Y-axis (arithmetic scale). It is a standard laboratory method for the quick
It is shown graphically on a particle size distribution particle size analysis of fine grained soils.
curve. Not suitable for routine control tests.
2. Sedimentation Analysis- 2. Hydrometer Method-
MH. WRD JE 2022, OPSC AE 2019
According to stoke's law, velocity of particle
Used to determine specific gravity or density of fine
during settlement that is assumed to be spherical
particles (silt & clay).
dependents upon shape, size and weight to the grain
and keeping all the other factors constant. R
δSL = 1 + H
1000
v=
( G − 1) γ w D2 = ( γ s − γ w ) D 2 v = h e , v ∝ D2
18µ 18µ t R H = ( δSL − 1)1000
RH = Observed hydrometer reading
D1 h e1 t 2
= × δSL = density of suspension liquid
D2 t 1 h e2
Hydrometer corrections-
Where, CHB JE (Building) 2023, HPCL JE 2022
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021, UPSC JWM 2017
v = Terminal velocity (m/sec)
Meniscus Correction, Cm Always +ve
γs = Unit weight of particles (kN/m3)
Temperature correction, Ct +ve (if T > 27°C)
γw = Unit weight of water/liquid (kN/m3) –ve (if T < 27°C)
D = diameter of the particle Dispersing agent correction, Cd Always –ve
he = height through which particle falls in t-seconds
Corrected hydrometer reading-
t = Time (second)
µ = Viscosity of liquid/water R c = R H + C m ± C t − Cd
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 545 YCT
Note- D 60
Rc = Current hydrometer reading used in the Coefficient of Uniformity, Cu =
D10
calibration graph to obtain the effective depth (He)
OPSC AE 2019, NPCC AE 2017, OPSC AE 2019, MPPSC
Both method follow the same principal but different AE 2017, Nagaland PSC 2017
in taking sample/observations. D60 = Size of the particle such that 60% particle are
Particle Size Distribution Curve (PSD finer than this size.
Curve)- D10 = Effective size of particle or size of the particle
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, HPCL JE 2022 such that 10% particles are finer than this size.
DSSSB JE 2022 It is used to measure range of particle size.
It is also known as gradation curve and it is Cu Soil
extremely used for coarse grained soil. =1 Uniform soil
>4 Well graded gravel
>6 Well graded sand
> 15 Well graded soil
5 - 15 Medium/poorly graded soil
1-5 Uniformly graded soil
Coefficient Curvature-
It determine the shape of soil particle and PSD curve
also.
2
D30
CC =
D 60 × D10
D30 = Size of the particle such that 30% particle are
finer.
For well graded soil, 1≤ CC ≤ 3
DDA JE Civil 2023, DDA JE Civil 2023
NHPC JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
Grading of soil-
TNPSC AE 2022
Relation between CC and Cu-
Rajasthan A.M. (Diary) 2021, Kerala PSC AE 2015 2 2
D C c D30
Type of soil Explanation (i) CC × C u = 30 (ii) =
D10 C u D60
Well graded All size of soil particles available.
soil Note-
It is in 'S' shape and smooth curve.
D50 is known as average size of particle.
Poorly/Gap It has excess or deficiency of a
graded soil certain particle size. In gap graded Key Points
soil some particle size are missing. ■ The size of the colloidal particles lies in between–
Uniformly Most of the particles has same 1 nm – 1 µm
graded soil size. ■ The porosity of spherical rock grains is high in
case of– Cubic packing
Note-
PSD curve of residual soil indicates the age of soil Consistency of Soil-
deposit. It is a term used to describe the resistance of soil to
DDA JE Civil 2023 mechanical stress or manipulation at various
Use of PSD/Gradation Curve- moisture contents.
i. Design of drainage filters. Consistency Limits/Atterberg's limits-
GPHC AE 2018, GUJRAT PSC AE 2017
ii. Useful in soil stabilization and pavements design..
DMRC AM 2017, RPSC AE (GWD) 2014
iii. To know the susceptibility of a soil to frost action. RPSC AE 2014, TNPSC AE 2012
iv. To determine the grade of soil. Water contents at which soil mass passes from one
v. Provide an index to the shear strength of the soil state to another is called consistency limits.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 546 YCT
Consistency limit is used to denote the degree of
firmness of the soil.
(ii) Static Cone Penetration Method-
RPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2014
UKPSC AE 2013
Amount of water at which cone penetrometer
1. Liquid Limit (wL)- penetrates 25 mm in the sample in 30 sec.
TNPSC (CESS) 2021 Cone angle- 30º
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021 Weight of cone- 80 gm
GPSC AE 2018, RIICO AE 2014, TNPSC AE 2012 As per IS:2720-V, Liquid limit can also find out by
All soil at liquid state have negligible shear strength. using cone penetrometer apparatus.
Liquid limit of the soil depends upon clay mineral NHPC JE 2022
(LMRC AE 2017), LMRC AM 2015
present.
Liquid limit,
Falling height of cup- 1 cm
w L = w y + 0.01(25 − y)(w y + 15)
If the base of casagrande liquid limit device is softer
than the standard harder rubber then the liquid limit Where,
of soil will always increase i.e. y = Penetration depth(mm)
Liquid limit ∝ Softness of base wy=Water content at y
Advantage-
Method of liquid limit determination- i. Easier from casagrande method
(i) Standard Liquid Limit Apparatus Method- ii. Suitable for a wide range of soil
[IS : 2720 (part-v) 1985] by grooving tools iii. Result are reliable
(a) Casagrande's Apparatus (iii) One Point Method-
GPHC AE 2018, RRB SSE 2015 This method is used only for getting rough value of
(b) ASTM Apparatus- (American Society for liquid limit.
Testing of Material) e
w L = w n
N
Casagrande tool is used for highly plastic soil like
25
clay.
ASTM tools is used for less plastic soil like sandy & If, wL < 50%, e = 0.092 for N = 15 - 35
silty soil. N = Number of blows.
Difference between Casagrande and ASTM w L > 50%
Apparatus-
e = 0.12 for N = 20 - 30
Casagrande ASTM
Apparatus Apparatus
Flow Index (If)-
NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022
Use For Cohesive soils For sandy soil Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020, JUVNL AE 2016
Dimension The rate at which a soil mass losses its shear
Bottom width 2 mm 2 mm strength with an increases water content is known as
flow index.
Top width 11 mm 13.6 mm
It also indicates the shear strength of soil at plastic
Groove depth 8 mm 10 mm
limit.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 547 YCT
It is obtained by the slope of the curve drawn on Plasticity Index (IP) Plasticity
semi logarithmic graph between number of blows 0 Non-plastic
and their corresponding water content.
<7 Low-plastic
7-17 Medium-plastic
>17 Highly-plastic
CHB JE (Civil) 2023, UKPSC JE(Civil) 2022
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022
Plasticity Index (IP) Soil Type
0 Sand (Non-plastic)
10 - 15 Silt
15 - 100 Clay (Alluvial)
20 - 40 Kaolinite
w1 − w 2 1 35 - 60 Illite
Flow index, If = If =
N Shear Strength 50 - 100 Montmorillonite
log 2
N1 Note-
Where, If the value of plastic index of soil is –ve (i.e. wp >
w1 = Water content at N1 wL) then it is considered as zero i.e. Ip can't be –ve.
w2 = Water content at N2 When a non-plastic soil like sand is mixed with
N1 , N2=Number of blows plastic soil like clay then plasticity index of mixed
2. Plastic Limits (WP)- soil.
PPSC JE 2022 I psand .x + I p.localsoil (100 − x)
IP mixed.soil =
Water content at which the soil begins to crumble 100
when rolled into a threads of 3 mm dia. is known as
Soil : Sand = 1 : x
plastic limit.
3. Shrinkage Limit (WS)-
Soil stops behaving like a plastic material at this
DDA JE Civil 2023, SSC JE (Civil) 2022
limit. DSSSB JE 2022, MPPSC AE 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
It is the boundary between plastic and semi-solid The maximum water content below which a
state. reduction in water content will not cause a decrease
Note- in the volume of a soil mass is called shrinkage
Shear strength at wp = 100 times of shear strength at wL limit.
Plasticity- It is the lowest water content, at which the soil is
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022 still completely saturated.
NBCC JE (Civil) 2022, MPPSC AE 2022, JUVNL AE 2016 JPSC AE 2021
Property of soil that allows it to be molded into It is the boundary between the semi-solid and solid
desired shape without changing its volume and state
without cracks called plasticity. GPSC GES 2021
Plasticity Index- ( V − Vd ) ρw 1
UPPCL AE 2021 w s = w1 − G =
Md 1/ G − w s
ASSAM PSC AE (IRRIGATION) 2021, ODISA PSC AE 2020
IP = w L − w P ( Vd − Vs ) ρw × 100 = V M d ρw
ws = d − ×100
It is the indicative of the range of water content over Md Vs M d
which the soil remains in plastic state.
Plasticity index of soil depends upon its fineness i.e, w s = w1
( V1 − Vd ) γ w ×100
Wd
IP ∝ Fineness of thesoil
GSSSB AAE 2021, CIL MT 2017
Vs = Volume of solids
Mizoram PSC AE (DMRD Deptt.) 2015 Md = Dry mass of soil.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 548 YCT
ρw = Density of water Typical Atterberg limits for soil-
ρs = Density of soil solids. GMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
Vd = Dry volume of soil sample Soil Type Liquid Plastic Limit
Wd = Dry weight of soil sample Limit (wL) (wP)
w1 = Water content of the original saturated sample Sand - -
of volume V1 Silt 30-40 20-25
Clay 40-50 25-50
Note-
Specific gravity of soil solid is determine by Consistency Index/Relative Consistency –
shrinkage limit. Karnataka PSC AE (WRD) 2021
In situ behavior of saturated fined grained soil at its
Shrinkage Index (IS)-
natural water content is represented by IC.
NHPC JE 2022
It is the difference between plastic limit and wL − w wL − w
IC = =
shrinkage limit. IP wL − wP
IS = w P − w S Liquidity Index /Water-plasticity Ratio-
JSSC JE Civil 2022
V −V /V DSSSB JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022
Shrinkage Ratio, SR = 1 2 d ×100
w1 − w 2 w − wP w − wP
IL = =
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, ESE 2019 IP wL − wP
At shrinkage limit V2 = Vd Note-
V1 − Vd Liquidity index of a soil indicates the nearness of its
Vd γ water content to its liquid limit.
∴ S.R. = ×100 or d = G m JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
w1 − w 2 γw
For all type of soil, IC + IL = 1
1 1 e
or w s = − , w s = min. GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022
S.R G G
IC and IL for different types of soil-
V1 = Volume of the soil mass at w1 NBCC JE (Civil) 2022, NBCC JE (Civil) 2022
V2 = Volume of the soil mass at w2 NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022, JKSSB JE (Civil) 2022
Vd = Volume of dry soil mass. Consistency Description IC IL
Note- Liquid Liquid <0 >1
Value of shrinkage ratio is determined with Plastic Very Soft Plastic 0 - 0.25 1 - 0.75
reference to mercury. Soft Plastic 0.25 - 0.50 0.75-0.50
V1 − Vd Medium Plastic 0.50 - 0.75 0.50-0.25
Volumetric shrinkage V.S = × 100
Vd Stiff Plastic 0.75 - 1 0.25-0.00
Semi-solid Very stiff to hard >1 <0
V.S. = S.R. × ( w1 − w 2 )
Solid Hard to very hard >1 <0
Linear shrinkage- Toughness Index (IT)-
NLC (GET) 2020 UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021, GPSC AE (GMB) 2021
ASSAM PSC AE (IRRIGATION) 2021
L0 − Lf
L.S. = × 100 It is the measure of shearing strength of soil in
L0
plastic limit.
L0 = Initial length It is defined as the ratio of plasticity index to flow
Lf = Final length index.
100 1/ 3 IP
L.S ( % ) = 1 − IT =
× 100 If
100 + V.S
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 549 YCT
For most of the soil 0 < IT < 3 Sensitivity (St) Soil Classification
1 Insensitive
For clayey soil 0 ≤ IT ≤ 3 (Gravel & Coarse Sand)
IT< 1, Indicates the soil is friable at the plastic limit. 1-4 Normal/less or moderate sensitive
(Honey combed structure)
DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021, CIL MT 2020
4-8 Sensitive (Silt & clay)
Activity (Ac)- (Honey combed and flocculent structure)
DMRC AM 2020, GPSC AE 2019
8 -16 Extra sensitive
GPSC AE 2019, GPSC AE 2018, APTRANSCO 2017
(Flocculent structure)
Skempton define a parameter is termed as activity > 16 Quick Clay/Unstable
which represent the compressibility or volume
change in soil with change in water.
Thixotropy -
HPCL JE 2022, LMRC AM 2019, ESE 2019
Plasticity Index I TSPSC AEE 2017, TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
Ac = = P The phenomenon of loss of strength due to
% Clay fraction finer than < 2µ Cw
remolding of soil and gain of strength with passage
Higher activity value signifies large volume change of time with no change in volume or water content is
when wetted and large shrinkage when dried. called thixotropy of soil. These change are
Classification based on activity- reversible.
MP PGCL JE 2023, NBCC JE 2022
SJVNL Jr. Field Eng. 2021, Assam PSC AE (IWT) 2021
Activity Value Classification
< 0.75 Inactive
0.75-1.25 Normal
>1.25 Active
Activity value of soil minerals-
Assam PSC AE PHED 2021
GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021
Activity Mineral
Collapsible Soil-
When there is a large change in the volume of soil
Value
due to increase in moisture content without increase
0.4 - 0.5 Kaolinite any external loading then this property of soil is
0.5 - 1.0 Illite called collapsibility.
1-7 Montmorillonite These soil have low density, high compressibility
4-7 Na-Montmorillonite and very low bearing capacity
Ex- Sand dunes, Loess etc.
Sensitivity- The collapsibility of the soil is measured in terms of
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021, Maharastra PSC 2021 collapse potential (C.P).
Sensitivity the degree of disturbance of undisturbed ∆ec ∆H c
soil sample of soil upon remolding. Cp = or
1 + e1 H1
It measure the reduction of undreained shear
strength due to soil disturbance. Where,
Sensitivity for most of clay is lie b/w 2- 4 ∆ec = Change in void ratio upon wetting
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
e1 = Void ratio before wetting of soil
∆Hc = Change in height upon wetting
UCS ( Un distrubedSoil ) H1 = Initial height
St =
UCS ( RemouldedSoil ) Collapse Potential Values-
CP(%) Severity of Problem
q u ( Undisturbed )
St = 0-1 No Problem
q u ( Re moulded disturbed )
1-5 Moderate Trouble
5-10 Trouble
q u undisturbed
q u remoulded = 10-20 Severe Trouble
2 > 20 Very Severe Trouble
qu or UCS = Unconfined compressive strength
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 550 YCT
04.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Classifications of soil- It is divided into 12 groups.
It is based on grain size and soil consistency.
1. Grain/Particle Size Classification-
(i) U.S. Bureau and Public Road Administration
(PRA) Classification.
MHADA JE 2022
(ii) International (Swedish) soil Classification-
GPSC AE 2017
KPSC AE 2016, UJVNL AE 2012, TNPSC AE 2012
3. Highway Research Board Classification-
It is based on particle size composition and plasticity
characteristics.
It is mostly used for pavement construction.
It is also called as American association of state
(iii) M.I.T. Classification- highway and transportation official (AASHTO).
UPRVUNL JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022 It is divided into 8 groups from A-1 to A-7 with and
Assam PSC AE 2020, GSPHCL AE 2020
additional group A-8 for peat or muck soil and it is
OPSC AE 2020
based on group index of soil.
Group index-
Higher the value of group index, poorer is the
quality of material.
Group Index = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Where,
(iv) Indian Standard Classification- As per IS : 1498 - a = P – 35 ≯ 40 (Range 0 to 40)
1970, b = P –15 ≯ 40 (Range 0 to 40)
DDA JE (Civil) 2023
NBCC JE 2022, UPSSSC JE 2022
c = wL – 40 ≯ 20 (Range 0 to 20)
d = IP – 10 ≯ 20 (Range 0 to 20)
If the value of a,b,c,d comes negative while
determining the group Index of soil, then it is taken
as zero.
If the value of ‘a’ and ‘b’ is more than 40% only
2. Textural Classification- taken 40% and if the value of ‘c’ and ‘d’ is more
HPSC Lecturer 2022 than 20% only 20% is taken.
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 wL= Liquid limit
The texture depends upon the particle shape, size IP = Plasticity Index
and gradation of particles. P = Percentage of particle finer than 75µ
It is based on the percentage of sand, silt and clay
size. 0 ≤ G.I. ≤ 20
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 551 YCT
Group Index Value Qualify of Soil In USCS, various soils are classified into 4 major
0 -1 Good groups-
2-4 Fair (i) Coarse grained (ii) Fine grained
5-9 Poor (iii) Organic soil (iv) Peat
10-20 Very Poor There are 15 Groups of soils-
4. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)- • Coarse grained - 8 groups
Assam PSC AE (I.W. T.) 2021 • Fine-grained - 6 groups (including organic soil)
Soil Based on • Peat- 1 group
Course grained Grain size distribution. It is based on index property of soil.
Fine Grained Plasticity characteristics. It is developed by A. Casagrande's.
Symbols Used in USCS- Indian Standard Classification System
UPRVUNL JE (Civil) 2022, DFCCIL JM 2021 (ISCS, IS: 1498-1970)
RSMSSB JEN (DEGREE) 2021 ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2019
OPSC AE 2019, GPSC R&B AE 2016 This system has been derived from the unified soil
Symbols Description classification system. This classification is done
G Gravel based on three parameters-
Primary S Sand 1. Coarse grained Soil-
M Silt (i) Gravel-
C Clay Coarse fraction > 50% retained on 4.75 mm IS sieve
O Organic (ii) Sand-
Pt Peat Coarse fraction > 50% passes through 4.75 mm IS :
Secondary W Well-graded sieve.
P Poorly-graded Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021, TNPSC (CESS) 2021
RSMSSB JEn (Degree) 2020
M Non-Plastic fines
Group Classification
C Plastic fines
Symbol
L Low plasticity
GW Well-graded Gravel
H High plasticity
Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021
GP Poorly- graded Gravel
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 552 YCT
GM Silty Gravel Equation of A-line-
GC Clayey Gravel RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022,
DSSSB AE 2021, GATE 2014
SW Well graded Sand
IP = 0.73(w L − 20)
SP Poorly graded Sand
SM Silty Sand Soil above A-Line is clay.
Soil below A-Line is silt or organic soil.
SC Clayey Sand
Equation of U-line-
2. Fine grained soil-
U-Line is a line above which not any soil is exist.
HPPSC AE (PWD) 2021, Assam PSC AE (PHE) 2020
RSMSSB JEn (Degree) 2020, GPSC Assistant Prof. 2016 I P = 0.9(w L − 8)
Plasticity index and liquid limit are used to classify
Note-
the fine grained soil by plasticity chart.
Dry strength of organic soil > inorganic soil.
Group Classification
CGS is based on fineness-
Symbol
Gravel and sand are further classified base on
ML Silt of low plasticity
percentage (%) fineness finer than 75µ sieve.
MI Silt of intermediate plasticity (i) Fineness < 5% -
MH Silt of high plasticity
CL Clay of low plasticity
CI Clay of intermediate plasticity
CH Clay of high plasticity
OL Organic silt/clay of low plasticity
OI Organic silt/clay of intermediate
plasticity
(ii) 5% < Fineness < 12%
OH Organic silt/clay of high plasticity
Coarse grained soils are designed by dual symbols.
Liquid limit Plasticity clay Compressibility
silt
< 35 Low Low
35 - 50 Medium Medium
> 50 High High
Note-
WL < 35 - Low plasticity clay and low
compressibility silt.
(iii) Fineness > 12%-
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023, CHB CDE (Building) 2023
HPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
DSSSB JE 2022
Soil is defined as value of A-Line and U-Line Note-
equation. For 4 ≤ IP ≤ 7, dual symbol is used.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 553 YCT
05. SOIL STRUCTURE &
CLAY MINERALOGY
Introduction-
It is defined as the arrangement of soil particles and
their aggregates into certain defined pattern.
Type of soil structure-
Soil Structure Found in If net force during deposition is repulsive then
particle oriented face to face.
Single grained Cohessionless soil
Strength, void ratio and permeability is more.
Honey comb Fine Sand & silt
Formation of these types of structure is due to
Flocculated Clayey soil surface electrical forces not due to gravity force.
Dispersed Clay Ex. Marine clay soil, fine clays, colloids (size < 0.2µ
Coarse-grained skeleton Mixed soils or 0.0002 mm)
Clay matrix Mixed soils 4. Dispersed structure-
1. Single Grained Structure- JPSC AE 2021, LMRC AE 2017, LMRC AM 2015
Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020 This type of structure occurs in clay particles, when
This types of structure is formed in cohesionless the clay is reworked are remolded.
soil, having size > 0.02 mm or 20µ Structure is formed from net repulsive force forming
Ex. Gravel, Sand face to face orientation.
Strength is more and compressibility, permeability is Strength, void ratio and permeability is less but
less. compressibility is high.
In this structure, Gravitational force > Surface force. Ex.- Lacustrine soil
Each grain is in contact with the surrounding grains
and formed single grain structure.
Void ratio- 0.35 - 0.90
Soil particles are spherical in shape and positioned
in cubical array manner then- CLAY MINERALOGY
emax. = 0.91 (Loosest state) All the clay minerals are made up of two fundamental
When positioned in diagonal packing manner; then- crystal sheet joined through different bonds.
emin. = 0.35 (Densest state) Formation of clay structure-
Fundamental sheet → Clay minerals → Clay
particles → Clay structure.
Type of fundamental sheet-
(i) Tetrahedral Sheet-
2. Honeycomb structure-
DDA JE (Civil) 2023
JPSC Comb. Civil Services 2011
Soil particle size- 0.002-0.02 mm or 2µ < d < 20µ
Surface force and gravitational force involved
equally during formation of soil.
It can not resist vibrations and shocks under building
and may cause large deformation. In this sheet, a silica atom is attached of 4 oxygen an
Ex. Cohessionless soil as Fine sand & Silt. ions surrounding central cations.
Adhesive force hold the particles together. Its shape is trapezoidal. Net charge per tetrahedral
unit is1.
(ii) Octahedral Sheet-
3. Flocculent Structure-
(JPSC Combined AE 2013)
It occurs in clays particles having large surface area.
Clay particle have –ve charge on surface and +ve
charge on the edge.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 554 YCT
In this sheet, 6 hydroxyl ions (OH) are attached to 2. Montmorillonite Mineral-
aluminium/magnesium or iron in rectangular shape. UK PSC AE 2022, UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB) ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
If the central atom is aluminium then sheet is called Its basic structural unit consists of gibbsite sheet
gibbsite sheet.
(Gi) Sandwiched between two silica sheets (2 : 1).
If the atom at centre is magnesium (mg) then sheet
is called Brucite sheet. Gibbsite sheet may include atoms of aluminum, iron
It the atom at centre is iron then sheet is called or magnesium or a combination of these.
ferrite sheet. Basic structural units are joined together by a link
Net charge on octahedral unit with aluminium is 3. between oxygen ions of the two silica sheet.
Each hydroxyl ion on Gibbsite sheet is being shared In this bond water is easily enters between structural
between 3 octahedral units. Therefore net charge unit and cause expansion.
over Gibbsite is +1.
Specific Surface - 800 m2/gm.
Atomic & Molecular Bonds-
Electrostatic or Primary Valence Bond-
Atoms bonding to atoms forming molecules is called
primary valence bond. These are intra-molecular
bond.
(i) Ionic bond-
It is the complete transfer of balance electron
between atoms. It is a type of chemical bond that
generates two oppositely charged ions.
(ii) Covalent bond- 3. Illite Mineral-
In this bond sharing of electrons between atoms. no- ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022
metals have covalent bond. There is always substantial(20% ±) substitution of
Secondary Valence Bond- silica atoms by aluminium atoms in silica sheet.
When atoms in one molecule bond to atoms of Properties of illite mineral is intermediate between
another molecule secondary valence bonds are
those of kaolinite and montmorillonite.
formed. These are intermolecular bond.
(i) Vander walls forces-
It act between all atoms and molecules. It play a role
in many important phenomena such as the aggregate
stability of soil.
(ii) Hydrogen bond-
It is bond between the hydrogen cation (H+) and an
ions of two atoms of another element. It is weaker
than an ionic or covalent bond but stronger than
Vander walls forces.
Properties of clay minerals-
Clay Minerals-
Minerals Bond Example Thickness
Types of Clay Minerals-
1. Kaolinite Mineral- Kaolinite Hydrogen China Clay 7Å
Karnataka PSC AE (WRD) 2021 (Strongest)
Its basic structural unit consists of gibbsite sheet Illite Ionic Green clay 10Å
(Gi) with aluminium atoms at the Centre. sand Laterite
It is joined to silica sheet (Si) through the soil.
unbalanced oxygen atoms at the apexes of the silica
sheet. Montmoril- Water bond Black Cotton 10Å
Its structure is made up of a silica and gibbsite Sheet lonite (Weakest bond) soil,
(1 :1). Bentonite soil
Specific Surface- 15 m2/gm
Bond Strength-
Kaolinite > Illite > Mont morillonite
Order of size of clay mineral in descending order-
Kaolinite > Illite > Montmorillonite
Shrinkage/Swelling/Plasticity Index/dry strength-
GPSC AE 2018, GPSC AE 2017, ESE 2002
S = silica sheet
Montmorillonite > Illite > Kaolinite
G = Gibbsite sheet
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 555 YCT
06.
EFFECTIVE & NEUTRAL STRESSES
Stresses Condition in Soil-
Water Table conditions are considered to compute
the effective stress.
(i) Total stress ( σ )-
The total vertical stress acting at a point below the
ground surface is due to the weight of everything
including soil, water and surface loading.
It is increases with increase in height and unit weight.
σ = σ '+ u
u = pore pressure
(ii) Effective Stresses (σ')-
It is the part of the total stress that is resisted by soil
particles by grain to grain interaction.
It is also known as intergranular stress.
Concept of effective stress is developed by Terzaghi.
(vi) Water Table below the ground level-
σ' = σ − u Effective pressure ,
UPSSSC JE 2022
σ ' = Z1γ + (Z − Z1 ).γ sub
(iii) Neutral stress/Pore water Pressure-
UKPSC AE 2022 γ = Bulk unit weight.
GUJRAT PSC AE 2017, APPSC AEE 2016 Total pressure,
It is the pressure due to pore water filled in the voids σ = Z1×γ + (Z – Z1)×γsat
of soil.
Pore Pressure,
It act on all sides of the particle but does not cause
particles to press against adjacent particles. u = (Z – Z1)×γw
It has no shear component.
u = γw hp
(iv) Submerged Soil Mass (Water table at the ground
level)-
hp = Z
σ = Z.γsat , u = γw.Z
then σ ' = Z( γ sat − γ w ) or σ' = γsub. Z
Note-
When water table rise under ground surface then-
σ↑, u↑, σ'↓ vice-versa
When water table rise above ground surface then-
σ & u equally ↑, σ' = constant
(v) Water table above the ground level- Due to capillary effect negative pore pressure
Pore Pressure, u = (Z+Z1)γw generated, so σ' ↑ than σ.
Effective Pressure, σ ' = Z( γ sat − γ w ) = Z.γ sub UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
Total Pressure, σ = Z1×γw + Z×γsat MPPSC AE 2014, UPPSC State Eng. AE 2004
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 556 YCT
07.
SOIL HYDRAULIC
PERMEABILITY Factor Affecting of permeability-
GPSC AE 2021, SJVNL ET 2019 UKPSC JE 2022, RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, RPSC AE 2018
TANGEDCO AE 2018, APDCL Junior Manager 2017
Property of soil which permit the flow of water
Particle size k ∝ D10
2
through its voids is called permeability. Property of Shape of particle 1
a porous material which permits the passage or k∝
(S-Specific Surface S2
seepage of water.
Area).
Darcy's Law-
DDA JE 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022 Void ratio e3
According to Darcy’s law, "The rate of flow or the k∝
1+ e
discharge of water per unit area is proportional to
the hydraulic gradient i.e, Viscosity 1
k∝
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022 µ
v ∝ i , v = k.i , or q = ki. A Temperature k∝T
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022 Effective stress 1
∆h ∆h k∝
σ'
q = k. .A , ∵ q = A × v and i =
L L Degree of saturation k∝s
Where,
k = Coefficient of permeability Unit weight of water k ∝ γw
(Unit of k- cm/sec, m/sec or mm/sec) Impurities in water 1
MH WRD JE 2022 k∝
impurity
v = Discharge velocity
i = Hydraulic gradient , ∆h = Head loss Entrapped air
k∝
1
L = Length of soil specimen Entrapped air
q = Amount of water (in time ‘t’)
Adsorb water 1
A = C/S area of soil perpendicular to the direction k∝
of flow Adsorb water
Permeability is also known as coefficient Relation b/w e & k-
permeability.
Assumption of Darcy’s Law- k1 e12
= (Used for Sand)
Kerala PSC AE 2015, UKPSC AE 2013 k 2 e 22
i. Soil is fully saturated.
ii. Flow is completely laminar through fine grained soil log10 k1 e1
= (Used for Silt & Clay)
(silt, clay, fine sand). log10 k 2 e 2
iii. Relationship between velocity and hydraulic
gradient should be linear. Typical Values of the Coefficient of
iv. It is not valid for extremely find grained soil Permeability (k)-
(colloidal clay) and coarse grained soil. Soil Type (k) (cm/sec) Drainage
Hydraulic gradient- properties
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021
The loss of head per unit distance of flow (or along Clean Gravel ≥1 Very good
the length of flow) is called hydraulic gradient. Clean Sand (coarse) 1 - 0.01 Good
∆h Sand (Mixture) 0.01 - 0.05
i = tan θ = , ∆ h = (h in – h out ) , i = tanφ
L Fine Sand 0.05 - 0.001 Fair
-3
γw e 3
Silty Sand 2×10 -
Poiseuille Equation- k = C.D 2 . . here, k ∝ e2
η 1+ e 1×10-4
Rajasthan VP ITI 2018 Silt 5×10-4 -1 ×10- Poor
5
According to Allen k sand = 100D 2
10
UPRVUNL JE 2022, GPSC AE 2018 Clay ≤10–6 Very poor
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 557 YCT
Note-
Superficial velocity (Avg. velocity)=Avg. velocity
of flow through soil.
Seepage velocity (actual velocity) = Velocity of
flow through soil.
Coefficient of permeability-
1. Laboratory (direct) methods-
SSC JE (Civil) 2022, ESE 2022
Permeameter is used to measure coefficient of Where,
permeability. a = Standpipe area
(i) Constant Head Permeability Test A = Permeameter area
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, GPSC AE 2021, ESE 2021 L = Length of Sample
This test is suitable for coarse grained soil with high hl = Head of water in time ‘t1’
permeability. h2 = Head of water in time ‘t2’ (t2 > t1)
Q.L h = Head of water at any intermediate time t (h1-h2)
k= Capillary Permeability Test-
A.h.t
This test is suitable for partially saturated soil but
above two test are suitable for saturated soil.
Jodhpur Permeameter-
It was designed & developed by Dr. Alam Singh
(1958).
It measure the permeability of all types of soil and it
is useful for laboratory and field both.
Falling head and constant head test can be done by
this method.
It is performed on remolded as well undisturbed
specimens. Remolded specimen is prepared by static
and dynamic compaction.
Apparatus size-
Capacity = 300 ml, Dia. = 79.8 mm,
Height = 600 mm,
Transverse sectional area = 50 cm2
2. Field methods-
(ii) Falling/variable Head Permeability Test- GPSC AE 2018
RSMSSB JE 2022 (It is suitable for large area)
HPPSC AE (HPPCL) 2021, J&K PSC AE 2009 Dupit's equation-
This test is suitable for less permeable soils like fine It is used to find out the co-efficient of permeability
sand silt and clay etc. of confined and unconfined aquifer.
It is used to compute the discharge through an
2.303.a.L h
k= log10 1 unconfined and confined aquifer.
At h2 Assumptions-
CHB CDE (Building) 2023 i. Soil mass is homogeneous, isotropic and flow is
t = Time interval during the head reduces from h1 to steady and laminar.
h2. (t2 – t1). ii. Darcy's law is valid.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 558 YCT
iii. Co-efficient of permeability remains constant (ii) Pumping in test-
throughout. It is conducted to determine the coefficient of
iv. Flow towards well is radial and horizontal. permeability of an individual stratum of soil just
v. Ground water conditions remain constant all the close to the hole.
time. This test give the value for a large area around the
hole.
This test is suitable for low permeability and thin
strata.
It is more economical than pumping out test but
results of pumping out test are more reliable than
that pumping in test.
q
(a) Open - End Test- k =
5.5rh
(i) Pumping-out test- Differential head, h =Gravity head + Pressure head
NHPC JE 2022, CIL MT 2017
(b) Packer Test-
It is used for large engineering project for a
The packer tests are commonly used for pressure
homogeneous and coarse grained deposits for which
it is difficult to obtain undisturbed samples. testing of bedrock by using packers but these tests
can also be used for determining coefficient of
This test is very costly.
permeability of soils
(a) For Confined Aquifer-
DSSSB JE 2022 q L
• If, L ≥ 10 r k= log10
It is an aquifer below the land surface that is 2πLh r
saturated with water.
q L
• If, 10 r < L ≥ r k= sinh −1
2.303q log10
R
2πLh 2r
k= r (Dupit's Equation)
2πD(H − h) r = Radius of bore hole
L = Length of the test section
D = thickness confined layer
Theoretical/ Indirect Method-
If h1 & h2 = Depth of water above bottom
impervious stratum in two observation well then. (a) Consolidation Method- k = C v .m v .γ w
q r Cv = Coefficient of consolidation (m2/sec)
k= .log e 2 (Thiem's Equation) mv = Coefficient of volume compressibility (cm2/N)
2πD(h 2 − h1 ) r1
Indirect method of Coefficient of Permeability
(b) For Unconfined Aquifer- Determination-
It is an aquifer whose upper water surface is at NHPC JE 2022
atmospheric pressure and thus is able to rise and fall. Jaky’s formula k = 100 D 2
m
2.303q log10
R Dm= Grain Size (cm)
k= r (Dupit's Equation) Allen Hazen’s formula k = CD10
2
, if D in mm
π(H 2 − h 2 )
C =constant = 100, if D in cm.
TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
Terzaghi’s formula k = 200 De2 e 2
r
2.303q log10 2 De= Effective grain size
k= r1 (Thiem's Equation) Kozney’s Carman
π(h 22 − h12 ) 1 n3
formula k= ×
Gujarat PSC AE 2021 (GWSSB)
k k .µ.Ss2 1 − n 2
Where , Louden’s formula Log10 (kS s2 ) = a + bn
r = Radius of well
a = 1.65 b = 5.15 constant
R = Radius of zero draw down curve
h = Depth of water in main soil Where,
q = Rate of discharge SS = Specific area surface of particles (cm2/cm3)
h1 = H – S1 µ = Viscosity (g-sec/cm2)
h2 = H – S2 Kk = Constant (5 for spsherical particles)
S1 and S2 are the drawdown in two observation Note-
well located at radial distance r1 and r2 from Allen Hazen formula is used for uniform sands in a
main well axis. loose state of compaction.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 559 YCT
Radius of Influence , R- 3. Equivalent Permeability-
As per Sichardt, R = R = 3000.s k i. In case if 2D flow- k eq = k H .k V
s = drawdown of main well (m) GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, UPPCL AE 2018, RPSC LECTURE 2014
WBPSC Poly Lect. 2019, APTRANSCO 2017, UPSC JWM 2017
1/ 2 ii. In case if 3D flow- k eq = k x .k y .k z
1/ 2
As per Kozeny (1933)- R = 12.t s.k Note-
n π kGravel > kSand>kSilt > kClay
Where, For homogeneous layers the average permeability of
k = Co-efficient of permeability (m/sec.) entire deposit- k H > k V
s.k = Draw down (m)
GPSC AE 2018, APPSC AEE 2016
Permeability of stratified soil-
1. Parallel to the Bedding Planes- For isotropic soil- k V = k H
DSSSB JE 2022, DMRC AM 2020, UPPSC AE 2016 Seepage velocity (Vs)-
In this case head loss is constant for all layers. DSSSB JE 2022, UPPSC AE 2020, GATE 2016
k1z1 + k 2 z 2 + ............ + k n z n The velocity of water passes through voids of soil
kH = mass is known as seepage velocity.
z
vs ∝ i , vs = k p .i
(z = z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 ........ zn)
kp = Coefficient of percolation
Relation between flow velocity and seepage
velocity-
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021, UJVNL AE 2021
v
vs = , vs > v ∵ n is less than 1
n
k
k < kp , n=
kp
Where,
n = Porosity of soil
Flow parallel to bedding plane vs = Seepage velocity
2. Perpendicular to the Bedding Planes- v = Flow/discharge velocity
MPPGCL JE 2023, TNPSC AE 2018, Haryana PSC AE 2017 Coefficient of transmissibility (T)-
In this case discharge is same for all layers. MH WRD JE 2022
z WBPSC Poly Lect. 2019, UPRVUNL AE 2016
kV = Rate of flow of water through the entire medium of
z1 z 2 z
+ ....... + n unit width under unit hydraulic gradient is termed as
k1 k 2 kn coefficient of transmissibility.
T = k.d
d = Thickness of aquifer water (m)
k
Coefficient of Percolation- k p = n = porosity
n
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021
TSPSC Deputy Engineer 2015, WBPSC AE 2014
µ
Coefficient of Absolute Percolation- k o = k.
γw
µ = Coefficient of dynamic viscosity
SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
Seepage Pressure (Ps)-
MH WRD JE 2022
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
JPSC AE 2021, GPSC AE (GMB) 2021
Assam PSC AE PHED 2021, UPPSC AE 2020
Seepage is a process in which liquid flows through a
Flow perpendicular to bedding plane pores of soil mass from higher to lower head.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 560 YCT
The pressure of water exerted on the soil which N d = N φ − 1 N φ = Total number of equipotential
tends to percolate, is called seepage pressure.
Lines.
Seepage Pressure, Ps = hγ w = hγ w i
N f = Nψ – 1 Nψ = Total number of flow line.
UPRVUNL AE 2022
Seepage force Fs = hγ w A = iγ w V Coefficient of permeability for Non-isotropic soil.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 k = k eq = k x k y
A = Area of soil sample.
Note-
h = Total head of the point = (H –n.∆h)
Shape factor is a only function of boundary
H = Total head causing flow
condition.
n = Number of potential drop
V = Seepage force per unit volume In earthen dam during seepage top flow line is called
phreatic line. It is parabolic shape.
H
Potential drop per field, ∆h = WBPSC AE 1998
Nd On phreatic line acts atmospheric pressure.
Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020
2H Rajasthan JEn (Degree) 2016
h =H−
Nd Quick Sand Condition or Boiling
H Condition-
Exit gradient i e = CHB JE (Building) 2023, SSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2022
b.N d
When submerged weight of the soil is equal to the
Seepage force seepage pressure at a section, then in this case
Seepage specific force = = i.γw
volume of Soil effective stress is equal to zero. In this case, the soil
like coarse silt and fine sand losses all its shear
Laplace’s Equation-
strength and move along flowing water, such a
Laplace’s equation describes the loss of fluid
condition is referred as quick sand condition.
energy, when water flow through pervious medium.
It is a vertically upward flow condition in fine
2D Laplace equation-
grained sand or silt.
∂ 2h ∂2h Critical hydraulic gradient-
(i) In terms of head, + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 MPPGCL JE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022
PPSC JE 2022, WBPSC Poly Lect. 2019
∂ 2 φ ∂ 2φ
(ii) In terms of velocity potential, + =0 γ sub G − 1
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ic = = = (G − 1)(1 − n)
γw 1+ e
Assumption-
ic and FOS condition Quick sand condition
(i) Soil is isotropic, homogeneous and fully saturated.
(ii) Water and soils are incompressible and flow is 2-D. ic > i or FOS > 1 Safe or stable
(iii) Flow is steady. ic = i or FOS = 1 Critical
(iv) Darcy’s law is valid. ic < i or FOS < 1 Unsafe or unstable
Type of soil Shape of flow channel Filter Material Specifications-
Isotropic soil Square shape D15 (Filter) It ensure no
<5 significant invasion
Non-isotropic soil Rectangular shape D85 (Protected Material)
of particles from the
Seepage Discharge-
GPSC AE 2021, OPSC AE 2019
protected material to
UPPCL AE 2019, TSPSC AEE 2017 the filter
For isotropic medium per unit width. D15 (Filter) It ensure that
4< < 20 sufficient heat is lost
Nf Nf D85 (Protected Material)
Q = kH × = Shape factor in filter without built
Nd Nd
up of seepage
MPPGCL JE 2023, JKSSB JE 2022
pressure.
Q = Seepage discharge per unit width
D50 (Filter) It gives additional
H = Total head loss < 25
D50 (Protected Material) guideline for
Nf = Total number of flow channels
selection of material
Nd = Total number of equipotential drops
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 561 YCT
08.
COMPACTION
Introduction- Methods of Soil Compaction Test-
MPPGCL JE 2023, DDA JE 2023 1. Proctor test-
UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 Gujarat PSC AE (N.W.R.) 2020, GPHC AE 2018
The process by which grains of soil get rearranged RPSC AE 2018, HPPSC 2016
more closely by mechanical means due to which air It is a laboratory method used to determined the dry
voids volume reduced and density of soil increases, density of soil. It is two types-
is called compaction/compression of soil. (a) Standard Procter compaction test-
It is done to improve the engineering properties of UPPCL JE 2022
soil. It is developed by R.R. proctor in 1933.
Object of soil compaction- Optimum moisture content is obtained by this test.
(i) To increase shear and bearing property. (b) Modified proctor compaction test-
(ii) To decrease permeability and settlement. NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022
(iii) To increase dry density. Soil compaction increases with increase in
(iv) To increase stability of soil. compaction.
(v) To decrease air voids or void ratio of soil etc. The degree of compaction of a given soil is
Factors affecting compaction- measured in terms of its dry density.
UPRVUNL JE 2022 It is used for rapid determination of moisture
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 contents in situ.
Water γd ↑ with ↑ in moisture content up to
γb
Content OMC but γd ↓ with ↑ in moisture γd =
beyond the OMC. 1+ wc
Type of Soil Coarse grained soil requires less 2. Core cutter method-
moisture content to achieve γd max. UPRVUNL JE 2022
because of lesser specific surface area. It is used to find out the field density of
Admixture The most commonly used admixture are cohesive/clayey soil and not for coarse grain soil.
lime, cement and bitumen, Determination of in situ dry density is necessary for
Amount of Increasing in compaction energy- dry the design of pavement and highways.
Compaction density increase and OMC decrease. 3. Sand replacement method-
Method of Vibratory rollers It is useful for sandy and gravelly soil.
Compaction Static roller- (Useful for clayey soil) It is based on the IS : 2720 part - 28.
Clean, uniformly graded natural sand passing the
Moisture Density Curve-
300 micron sieve and retained on the 600 micron
The graph drawn b/w dry density of soil at
sieve is used.
corresponding water content during compaction is
called moisture density curve. Moisture density curve for standard and
Compaction curve- modified (Light & Heavy) proctor test-
Compaction curve representing the relation b/w UPRVUNL JE 2022
water content and dry density.
Increasing the compacting effort on the soil
maximum dry density achieved and corresponding
line OMC is deceases.
Maximum dry unit weight at a particular water
content during compaction is achieved when
saturation is 100% or percentage of air voids is zero.
γd =
G.γ w
=
(1 − n a ) .G.γ w γd =
γb
1 + w c .G 1 + w c .G 1+ wc
CHB SDE (Building) 2023
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 562 YCT
Curve-1 (d) Tamping foot Fine Grained soils
Lower dry density at higher OMC i.e. more water roller Ex. Silt, Clay
content is required for lubrication to achieve lower (e) Grid roller Used for weathered rock
compactive effort. Ex. Sand stone
Curve-2 2. Rammers/ All soils
Higher dry density at lower OMC. Tampers (mainly cohesionless soil)
Standard Modified Light Heavy 3. Vibrators Used for cohesionless soil
proctor proctor compaction compaction (Granular soils like gravels and
test test sands).
Weight 2.54 4.54 2.60 4.9 Vibro floats Compaction of larger areas at
of greater depth.
hammer Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)-
Falling 304.8 457.2 310 450 PGCIL DT 2023, JSSC JE 2023
CGPSC AE 2020
height
(mm) Maximum dry density (MDD) is achieved at higher
optimum moisture content for fine grained soils as
Number 25 25 25 25
compared to Cohesionless/coarse grained soil.
of blows
per layer
Number 3 5 3 5
of layer
Volume 944 944 1000 1000
of mould
Compaction energy ratio for-
Maharashtra PSC 2018
UPPSC AE 2016, UPPCL AE 2015 Order of OMC-
E modified SPT 4.9 × g × (5 × 25) × 450 OMCsand < OMCsandy clay < OMCSilty clay < OMC high plastic clay
= = 4.5
ESPT 2.6 × g × (3 × 25) × 310 Typical values of MDD & OMC-
ESPT 2.6 × g × (3 × 25) × 310 Type of soil Max. dry density OMC (%)
= = 0.22 (MDD) (In kN/m3)
E modified SPT 4.9 × g × (5 × 25) × 450
Sand 19.0 11
Method of field Compaction-
Sandy Clay 18.1 14
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022
Silty Clay 16.3 21
Type of equipment For affective Compaction in
Clay 15.2 28
1. Rollers-
Gravel sand-Clay 20.0 9
(a) Sheep's foot Cohesive soil.
Mixture
roller Ex. Silty soil, Clayey soil, Clayey
Zero Air Voids Line-
silt.
NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022, Punjab SDO 2021
(b) Smooth wheel Coarse grain soil. Zero air void line or 100% saturation curve is the
roller (compact by the Ex. Crushed rocks, Gravels, Sand line shows the relationship between dry density and
action of kneading) water content at 100% saturation.
(c) Pneumatic tyred All type of soil (Mainly cohesive Relative Compaction/Percent Compaction (Rc)-
rollers soil). It is used to represent relative compactness/
Ex. Sand, gravel, Silt and Clayey denseness of cohesionless and cohesive soil. It is
soil. unitless quantity.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 563 YCT
γ d field Min. Relative Compaction for various types of work-
R c (%) = × 100
γ d max .lab Type of work Minimum
Relative
TSPSC AEE 2017, TRB Poly. Tech. Lect. 2012
compaction
1 + e min
R c (%) = ×100 Highly expansively 85%
1+ e Top 500 mm of embankment below 100%
Rc measured the degree of compaction measured in Subgrade level and shoulers
the field. Other portions of embankment 95%
Empirical formula for Granular soil -
Engineering properties of soil-
R c = 80 + 0.2I D
Property Dry optimum Wet optimum
BPSC AE 2022
Structure Flocculated Dispersed
At loosest state, ID = 0 Rc = 80%
Permeability More Less
TRB Poly. Lect. Tech. 2017
Swelling ability More Less
At densest state, ID = 100% Rc = 100% Shear strength High Less
Degree of compaction for sand is defined in terms of Water deficiency More Less
relative density. Shrinkage Less More
Note- Pore water Less More
As per IS : code γ ≮ 95% of γ pressure
d field d max.
Property of soil for various types of construction-
Type of Project Minimum required Types of Water content Required
Relative compaction construction (During compaction) property
Earth dames 100% Core of earthen Wet optimum Less
Aggregate base materials 95% dam permeability
below roadways Sub-grade of Wet optimum Less volume
Upper 150 mm of sub-grade 95% pavement change
belows roadways Homogeneous Dry optimum More strength
Fill to support building or 90% dam and low pore
roadways water pressure
Compaction Curve for Various types of Soil-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 564 YCT
09.
CONSOLIDATION
Introduction- (ii) Primary Consolidation-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 UPPCL JE 2022, UK PSC AE 2022
Reduction in soil volume due to escape of pore After initial consolidation, further reduction in
water filled in voids is called consolidation. volume occurs due to expulsion of pore water from
It is time dependent phenomenon. void is called primary consolidation.
The rate of consolidation increases with increase in It is time settlement phenomena.
temperature. It depends on permeability, loading rate and length
BPSC AE 2001 of drainage path.
Consolidation is just opposite of the swelling. (iii) Secondary Consolidation-
Consolidation mechanics was given by Karl HPSC Lecturer 2022, GPSC AE March 2018
Terzaghi by means of piston and spring analogy. After the primary consolidation, if load is constant
then plastic readjustment of soil particle is known as
secondary consolidation.
It occurs at a very slow rate and negligible in
granular soil.
Type of Soil Due to Application of Load-
(i) Normally Consolidated Soil-
NHPC JE 2022
A soil which has not been subjected to a pressure in
the past greater than the present/existing pressure.
(ii) Over Consolidation/Pre Consolidated Soil-
Such a soil mass on which the applied load has been
more in the past, but less in the present/existing is
called over-consolidated soil.
In this soil less settlement occurs than normally
consolidated soil.
Over Consolidation Ratio (OCR)-
Terzaghi's Theory of one Dimensional
Max. effective stress applied in the past σ'past
consolidation- OCR = =
DDA JE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022 Existing effective stress σ'present
GOA PSC Assistant Prof. 2020
Mizoram PSC AE 2020
Type of soil as per OCR-
(i) Soil is homogenous, isotropic and fully saturated. OCR value Type of soil Liquidity
(ii) Flow is laminar i.e. (RN ≤ 1). index
(iii) Hydrostatic loss is considered. OCR > 1 Over/pre consolidated soil
(iv) Soil particles and water are incompressible. σ'past > σ'present (volume expansion) 0 - 0.6
(–ve pore pressure)
(v) Decrease of pore pressure occurs only in one
direction. OCR = 1 Normally consolidated 0.6 - 1.0
(vi) Load is applied in one direction only and soil.
deformation occurs only in the direction of load (More compressible)
applied. OCR < 1 Under consolidated
(vii) For small load increment ratio. soil. > 1.0
(i) Initial/Immediate Consolidation- (volume expansion)
ESE 2018, KPSC AE 2016, WBPSC AE 2007 (+ve pore pressure)
It is defined as the reduction in volume of the soil Coefficient of compressibility-
just after the application of load. UPMRC AM 2023, NHPC JE 2022
Terzaghi theory is applicable only for primary DDA JE 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022
consolidation. Only hydrodynamic lag is considered It is defined as decrease in void ratio per unit
in this theory. increase in effective stress i.e. It is the slope of
For saturated soil, it is mainly due to compression of effective stress v/s void ratio curve on arithmetic
solid particle. scale.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 565 YCT
−∆e
Cc =
log(σ / σ0 )
OPSC AEE (Panchayati Raj) 2021
Assam PSC AE (IWT) 2021, CIL MT 2020
Compression index for various type of soil-
−∆e e1 − e 2 Undisturbed soil, C = 0.009(w − 10)
av = = a v = tan θ Terzaghi & Peck
C L
∆σ σ 2 − σ1
empirical index i.e. Cc ∝ w L
UPPCL JE 2022, MPPSC AE 2022, PSTCL AE 2021
CGPSC AE 2020, LMRC AM 2019, OPSC AE 2019
Remolded soil C = 0.007 ( w − 10 )
C L
(low sensitivity),
e1 = Void ratio at effective stress σ 1 skempton's
e2 = Void ratio at effective stress σ 2 formula
Units- m2/kN For all clay soil C C = 1.15 ( e0 − 0.35 )
Note-
As effective stress increase, the void ratio decrease,
Inogranic C C = 0.30 ( e0 − 0.27 )
cohesive soil
∆e
so the ratio of is –ve. Organic soil
∆σ CC = 1.15 ×10−2 w C or 0.0115w C
Coefficient of volume change/compressibility
(mv)- Compression index (CC) value-
TNPSC AE 2018 Type of soil Value of CC
It is defined as the volumetric strain per unit Normally consolidated soil of 0.2 - 0.5
increases in effective stress. medium sensitivity
−∆V / V0 ∆e a Organic clay >4
mv = = = v , Peat 10 - 15
∆σ ∆σ(1 + e0 ) 1 + e0
Highly plastic clays 0.30
Kerala PSC AE 2015
Low plastic clays 0.075
−∆H 1 Expansion/Swelling Index (Ce)-
mv = ×
H 0 4σ It is the slope of void ratio Vs log σ plot obtained
V0 = Initial Volume during unloading.
∆V = Change in volume ∆e
Ce =
∆ σ = Change in effective stress σ + ∆σ
log10
Unit - m2/kN σ
mv and av are not constant parameters. Recompression index/coefficient of
Compression modulus (EC)- Recompression (Cr.)-
1 It is represented over consolidated soil.
Ec = It is the slope of the recompression curve obtained
mv
during reloading.
Compression Index/Coefficient of −∆e
C r = −C e =
σ + ∆σ
log10
Compression (CC)-
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, JSSC JE 2022 σ
CC has significance only for normally consolidated
soil of is not function of effective stress. 1 1
C = to of C
r c
It is constant parameter. 5 10
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 566 YCT
Note- e0 − e
C c > C r > Ce %U = × 100
e0 − ef
Cr is more stable and less compressible than CC. ef = Void ratio at 100% Consolidation
Coefficient of Consolidation (Cv)- e = Void ratio at any time (t)
GPSC AE (GMB) 2021, Mizoram PSC AE 2020 e0 = Initial void Ratio
k = C v .m v .γ w Time factor (TV)-
Assam PSC AE (PHED) 2020, GPSC AE June 2019
k
Cv = TV =
Cv t
mv γ w d2
Units- m2/sec or m2/day Where,
k(1 + e0 )∆σ t = Time required for consolidation.
Cv = d = Drainage path length
γ w .∆e Relation between time factor and degree of
1
consolidation-
1
CV ∝ ∝ ∝ Temperature 2
π 2 π U
w L IP TV = U % or Tv = For U ≤ 60%
OPSC AEE (Panchayati Raj) 2021, UPRVUNL AE 2014 4 4 100
Methods to Find (Cv)- TV = 1.781 − 0.933log (100 − U% ) For U > 60%
(i) Square Root of Time Fitting Method-
Karnataka PSC AE (WRD) 2021, DFCCIL Executive 2016 U% TV
It is also known as parabolic isochrones method 0 0
(Taylor's method). 50 0.196
Graph is plotted b/w U and Tv 60 0.287
90 0.848
T90 .d 2 TNPSC AE 2018, BPSC AE 2001, CSE-1996
Cv = (T90 = 0.848) Drainage condition-
t 90
It represents the max. distance that water particle
Where, have to travel to reach the free drainage layer.
d = Length of drainage path It is two types-
T90 = Time factor corresponding to 90% (i) Single drainage-
consolidation. If soil has one layer is free for drainage is known as
(ii) Logarithm of Time Fitting Method single or half drainage then-
(Casagrande's method)- d=H
Graph plotted b/w U and log10Tv.
(ii) Double drainage-
T50 .d 2 Arunachal Pradesh Poly. Tech. Lect. 2019
Cv = (T50 = 0.196) If soil has both upper and lower layer is in free
t 50
drainage then-
Note-
H
CV can be used to calculate coefficient of d=
permeability for fine grained soil. 2
Degree of Consolidation (U)- H = Thickness of soil sample
NHPC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, ODISA PSC AE 2020 1
These are represents the stage of consolidation at a d2 ∝ t ∝
certain location in the consolidating layer. drainage face
It is the ratio of settlement at a particular time to the Double drainage is 4 times faster than single
ultimate settlement. drainage i.e. t 1 > 4t 2
It is related to the primary consolidation.
Settlement of soil-
∆h Settlement is due to
%U = × 100
∆H 1. Due to compaction-
∆H = Settlement corresponding to 100% degree of It is also known as primary/immediate/initial
consolidation settlement.
At, t = 0, U = 0% It is due to compression, expulsion of pore air,
elastic deformation of solids and squeezing of water.
t = ∞, U = 100%
(a) For cohesionless soil-
Range of U = 0 - 100%
∆h = Settlement occurred at any time (t) H σ + ∆σ 1.5Cr
Sintial = 0 log10 0 , Cs = σ
It is unit less quantity Cs σ 0 0
When void ratio is known then-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 567 YCT
Where, Soil sample taken in odeometer test will be double
Cr = Static cone resistance (in kN/m2) drainage condition.
H0 = Initial settlement/Total thickness of soil The pore water pressure in the soil sample of
layer initially consolidometer test is maximum at centre and
(b) Cohesive soil- minimum at top/bottom.
q A (1 − µ 2 )
It is classified in two ways-
Sinitial = × If (i) Floating ring cell (ii) Fixed ring cell
Es Thickness of sample-
(i) For uniform pressure distribution on the sample,
q.B(1 − µ 2 )
Sintial = × If (for strip footing) t sample = 20mm
Es
TRB Poly. Tech. Lect. 2012 Depth
Where, (ii) <3
q = Pressure at base of foundation t sample
B = Consolidation width (iii) For maximum size of soil particles, t sample = 60mm
µ = Poisson of ratio of soil (0.3 - 0.45)
If = Influence factor Note-
2. Due to consolidation (Sc) - Soil consolidation is also determined by spring
It occurs due to primary and secondary analogy method.
consolidation. NPCC AE 2017, Maharashtra PSC 2012
(a) Due to Primary consolidation- Settlement due to secondary compression is
predominant in organic clay.
∆V ∆H ∆e 1+ e
= = , ∆H = H 0 During the installation of sand drains, the clay
V H 0 1 + e0 1 + e0 around the drain may get remoulded thus reducing
UK PSC AE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022 the value of Cv. This is known as the "Smear effect".
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Three dimensional consolidation-
Where,
Drain well or sand drains is provided to increase the
∆H = Final settlement
consolidation activity so that future safety against
H0 = Initial settlement/initial thickness of
consolidation settlement can be ensured.
compression layer
Case-1- When void ratio is known Advantage of sand drains-
UPCL AE 2021, RPSC AE (GWD) 2014
e −e Mizoram PSC AE (DMRD Deptt.) 2015
∆H = 0 1 H 0
1 + e0 (i) Length of drainage path decrease
(ii) Rate of consolidation increases
For consolidation settlement, ∆H = Sc
(iii) Number of drainage face increase
Case-2- When av is known-
(iv) Rapid consolidation settlement.
av Consolidation terminology & their unit-
∆H = ∆σ.H 0
1 + e0 Terminology Unit
Case-3- When coefficient of compression Cc is known- • Co-efficient of compression unitless
• Co-efficient of compressibility m2/kN
Cc σ + ∆σ
∆H = H 0 log10 0 • Volume compressibility m2/kN
1 + e0 σ0 kN/m2
• Compression modulus
(For normally consolidation soil) • Co-efficient of consolidation m2/sec.
Case-4- If volume compressibility is known- unit less
• Degree of consolidation
∆H = m v ∆σH 0
Relation b/w compaction and consolidation-
(b) Due to Secondary consolidation- Compaction Consolidation
CH t Reduction in volume is Gradual reduction in
∆H = s 100 log10
1 + e100 t100 due to dynamic load. volume is due to static
loading so it is time
Cs H 0 σ +σ dependent term.
∆H = log10 0 for over consolidator soil
1 + e0 σ0 Applicable for partially Applicable for fully
saturated soil. saturated soil.
Laboratory Consolidation Test- Volume reduction is It is due to expulsion of
Determination of the property of soil during one due to expulsion of air pore water.
dimensional consolidation or swelling is known as
odeometer/consolidation test. It is done with the help It occurs instant after It takes a lot of time.
of odeometer. the load applied.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 568 YCT
10.
STABILITY OF SLOPE
Introduction-
Slope stability refers to the capability of the soil
mass to withstand its gravitational forces.
It depends upon the shear strength of the soil higher
the shear strength of soil higher will be the stability
of soil.
F.O.S. for different conditions of
cohesionless soil- Stability of an infinite slope of cohesionless soil-
S tan φ
(i) Dry/Moist soil- Fs = =
τ tan i
(ii) Submerged soil-
tan φ
Factor or safety, Fs =
tan i
UPRVUNL AE 2022
For safety or no failure, Fs ≥ 1
tan φ
Fs = ≥ 1 , tan φ ≥ tan i
tan i
φ ≥ i for stability
N
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021 (a) Normal stress- σ = = γ.Z cos 2 i
Area
Where,
Normal component, N = γ.Z.b.cos2i
Area = b.l (l = 1)
(b) Tangential stress or shear stress-
T
τ= = γ.Z. ( cos i.sin i )
Area
In case of pore water-
Pore water pressure, u = γ w .Z cos 2 i
S tan φ '
Factor of safety, Fs = =
Z tan i
Maximum angle in case of infinite slope in
cohessionless soil should be less than internal Stability Analysis of an Infinite Slope of
friction. Cohesive Soil-
Type of Slopes- Shear strength, S = C + γ.Z cos 2 i. tan φ
1. Infinite Slope-
Shear stress of cohesive soil, τ = γ.Z cos i.sin i
If the transverse extent of a slope is greater than the
depth of the failure zone is known as infinite slope. Critical Height (Zc)-
Failure of infinite slope takes place due to sliding The height at which slop is just stable called critical
and failure plane is planer and parallel to ground height.
surface. C
The strata of different soils are parallel to the surface ZC =
γ ( tan i − tan φ ) cos 2 i
of slope.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 569 YCT
2. Finite Slopes- Depth of foundation Type of failure
If the transverse extent of slope is less than the depth Df < 1 Face failure
of the failure zone then it is known as finite slope. Df = 1 Toe failure
This slope occurs due to rotation. Df > 1 Base failure
Finite slopes are bounded by top and bottom surface.
B. Translational Failure-
Shape of failure surface- Circular or spiral
It occurs in infinite slope along a long failure surface
parallel to the slope.
This failure occurs above hard stratum at a shallow
depth of soil and layered material.
Shear strength, S = C + σ tan φ
S
Factor of Safety, FS =
τd
τd = Average shear stress developed along the C. Compound Failure-
potential surface. Its failure surface is curved at the two ends and
A. Rotational failure- plane in the middle portion.
Failure occurs due to rotation along a slip surface by It is a combination of rotational and translational
the downward and outward movement of the soil
slip.
mass.
Shape of slip surface- D. Wedge Failure-
(a) For homogeneous soil condition- Circular MHADA JE 2022
(b) For non-homogeneous soil- Non-Circular A failure along an inclined plane is known as
Type of rotational failure- plane/block/wedge failure. It occurs when distinct
i. Face/slope Failure occurs along the surface that blocks and wedges of the soil mass become
failure intersects the slope above the toe. separated.
ii. Toe failure Occurs when failure surface passes It is mostly occurs when the wedges and the distinct
through the toe. It occurs when the blocks of the soil mass get separated.
slope is steep and homogeneous.
Wedge failure occurs in both finite and infinite
iii. Base failure In this case the failure surface passes
conditions.
below the toe.
Culmann's method-
it is used for approximate stability analysis of
homogeneous slope.
This method gives accurate result for homogeneous
slope which are vertical or nearly vertical.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 570 YCT
1 Z
Weight of wedge, W = γ.L sin(i − α)
2 sin i
and C = C m .L
(b) Based on Effective Stress Analysis-
4C m sin i.cos φm (i) Taylor's Method/Stability Number (Sn)-
Safe height of slope, Z =
γ [1 − cos(i − φm )]
CGPSC AE 2022, GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
It is based one principle of soil mass resistance
Where, Z = Height of slope against sliding because of cohesion and internal
Cm = Mobilized cohesion friction acting over the failure plane.
φm = Angle of mobilized friction This method is suitable for C - φ and clay soil.
L = Length of failure surface Taylor determined the values of (Sn) for finite slopes
Analysis of stability of finite slope- using the friction circle method.
(a) Based on total stress analysis- Cm C
Stability number, Sn = =
(i) Swedish Circle Method/Method of Slices- γH Fc γH
This method first introduced by Fellenius (1926) for
analysis of finite slope stability for C - φ soil. C
Cm = Mobilized unit cohesion C m =
In this method, the soil mass above the assumed slip Fc
circle is divided into a number of vertical slices (6 -
12) of equal width. There is no friction between two 1
slices.
• Stability factor =
Sn
The actual shape of a slip surface in case of finite
slopes is curvilinear or circular. 1
• Sn ∝ C and ∝
Resisting moment is developed due to cohesion & H
friction. Use of Stability Chart-
Overturning moment is developed due to tangential (a) To determine the FOS of a given slope.
component of slices.
(b) To determine the steepest slope for given FOS.
This method can be used for homogeneous or
(ii) Bishop's Method-
stratified soil and where seepage takes place and
pore pressure are presents in the soil. This method is uses the method of slices to
discretize the soil mass and determine the factor of
Resisting moment C.L. + ∑ N tan φ safety.
F.O.S. = =
Driveing moment ∑T Difference between this method and the ordinary
Where, L = Length of arc method of slices is that the resolution of forces takes
place in the vertical direction instead of a direction
Normal component, N = Wcosα
normal to the arc.
Tangential component, T = Wsinα
(ii) Friction Circle Method-
It is useful for the slope stability analysis of
homogeneous soils.
In this method the failure surface is the arc of a
circle.
It is base on the assumption that the resultant
reaction along a slip surface is tangential to a circle
of radius 'r sinφ'.
C tan φ
Fs = fφ =
Cm tan φm
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 571 YCT
11.
EARTH PRESSURE THEORY
Introduction- Note-
Pressure exerted by soil or earth on the retaining For cohesive less soils consider (C = 0).
wall is known as earth pressure. Negative (–ve) earth pressure will be developed at
the top of the wall-
Lateral Earth Pressure-
Soil is contact with any vertical are inclined face of For Z = 0 at G.L. Pa = −2C k a
a structure which exert force on structure is known
UPPCL JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
as lateral earth pressure.
4C
Lateral earth pressure are categorized in Cohesive soil can withstand ( 2Z0 ) = depend
γ ka
three Types
1. Active Earth Pressure (Pa)- without any lateral support.
DDA JE 2023, MPPGCL JE 2023 φ
Length of failure block = H cot 45 +
If the displacement of the wall is away from the 2
backfill soil the resulting failure is called active and φ
lateral pressure exerted on the wall by the backfill Failure plane, from horizontal 45° + .
soil is called active earth pressure. 2
The minimum pressure exerted by the soil on the 2. Passive Earth Pressure (Pa)-
DDA JE 2023, NHPC JE 2022
retaining wall is called active earth pressure.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 The max. earth pressure due to maximum shear
stress on the retaining wall is called passive earth
Active earth pressure of cohesive soils- pressure.
DDA JE 2023, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
It exist when the movement of the wall is such that
the wall tends to compress horizontally and the wall
is moving towards the soil mass.
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
Passive earth pressure for cohesive soil-
1
Active Earth Pressure, Pa = k a γH 2 − 2C k a H (kN/m2)
2
Passive Earth Pressure,
CGPSC AE 2022
1 2
Coefficient of active earth pressure, Pp = k p .γ.H 2 + 2C k p H (in kN/m )
2
1 − sinφ φ φ
ka = = tan 2 45° − = cot 2 45° + JSSC JE 2022
1+ sinφ 2 2 Coefficient of passive earth pressure;
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021 1 + sin θ φ φ
∆H
kp = = tan 2 45 + = cot 2 45 –
Strain in active state- = 0.2 − 0.5% 1 − sin θ 2 2
H
SJVNL Jr. Field Engg. 2021, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021 1
kp = k a .k p = 1
Types of soil Strain ∆H/H ka
Dense sand 0.2% Strain in passive state-
Loose sand 0.5% Dense sand 2%
Clayey sand 0.4% Loose sand 15%
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 572 YCT
Note- ii. Back of the wall is vertical and smooth.
Failure plane angle or length of failure block - iii. Soil element is in a state of plastic equilibrium i.e, at
φ the verge of failure.
45° − iv. The result is parallel to the backfill surface.
2
MPPGCL JE 2023 v. The ground surface is plane , which may be
horizontal or inclined.
Pressure distribution order - Pp > P0 > Pa
vi. The back of the retaining wall is smooth and
Coefficient of earth pressure distribution order- vertical.
kp > k0 > ka 2. Coulomb theory of earth pressure-
ESE 2023, DSSSB AE 2021
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 i.
Backfill soil of retaining wall is a dry, cohesion less,
3. Earth Pressure at- Rest (Po)- homogeneous, and isotropic.
ii. Back surface of retaining wall is inclined to the
vertical and planar.
iii. Failure surface is a plane surface which passes
through the heel of the wall.
iv. Position and the line of action of the earth pressure
are known.
v. Sliding wedge is considered to be a rigid body and
the earth pressure is obtained by considering the
limiting equilibrium of the sliding wedge as a whole.
Variation of lateral earth pressure-
In his case , the wall is rigid and does not move with The variation of lateral earth pressure on retaining
the pressure exerted on the wall. The soil behind the wall with the movement of wall from at rest
wall be in a state of elastic equilibrium. condition is-
Pressure at rest condition,
1
Po = k o γH 2 at Z = H & Po = k o γH at Z = 0
2
ko = Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
σh µ
For cohesive soil, k o = =
σv 1 − µ
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
Empirical Formula for (ko)-
1. Cohesionless or N.C clay
As per Jaky, k o = 1 − sin φ
As per Brooker k o = 0.95 − sin φ + 0.15
Value of ko for different type of soil-
2. N.C clay DDA JE (Civil) 2023
As per Alpan, k o = 0.19 + 0.233log10 ( PI ) Type of soil ko
Dense sand 0.4 - 0.45
3. For O.C soil, ( k o )O.C = ( k o ) N.C × OCR
Loose sand 0.45 - 0.5
OCR = Over consolidation ratio Mechanically compacted sand 0.8 - 1.5
NC = Normally consolidated Normally consolidated clay 0.5 - 0.6
OC = Over consolidated Over consolidated clay 1.0 - 4.0
PI = Plasticity index in (%) Retaining wall, with inclined backfill-
Theory of earth pressure- cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ
1. Rankin theory of active earth pressure- k a = cos β ×
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, UPMRC AM 2023 cos β + cos 2 β − cos 2 φ
NHPC JE 2022 SSC JE 2022
Assumptions- cos β + cos 2 β − cos 2 φ
i. The soil is isotropic, homogeneous, semi-infinite, k p = cos β ×
dry and cohesionless. cos β − cos 2 β − cos 2 φ
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 573 YCT
Note- Position where active earth pressure is zero.
Retaining wall are designed for active earth 2c
pressure. Z=
Ka γ
Due to compaction of soil active earth pressure
decrease and passive earth pressure increase. Passive case-
Due to cohesion, decreases the active pressure while
K a γh 2 2c 2
increase the passive earth pressure. Pa = − 2ch K a +
When height of retaining wall is greater than 6 m the 2 γ
counterfort retaining wall is provided and cantilever
Item description Value
retaining wall is generally economical for height of
6 -7 m. Active earth pressure at top −2c K a
Coulomb's Theory Rankine Theory surface
[tensile nature]
Coulomb's considers a Rankine does not
retaining wall and the consider it. Active earth pressure at K a γh − 2c K a
backfill as a system. bottom
The back of the wall can Retaining wall is Critical depth of cohesive 4c
be inclined or vertical. vertical. soil γ Ka
Back of retaining wall is Back of retaining wall is
rough. smooth. Active earth pressure at zero 2c
z=
Backfill surface may This theory allows only position γ KA
plane or curved. for a plane surface.
Total active earth pressure 1 2c 2
More rational and Relativity simple and K a γh 2 − 2ch K a ×
difficult to solve the hence is more commonly 2 γ
problems. used.
Passive earth pressure in case of non-
Pressure magnitude end Pressure magnitude and
location are calculated location are calculated cohesive soil-
from the concept of wave mathematically. Case Passive earth Total pressure
friction. pressure per per unit length
Note- unit area
The earth pressure behind a bridge abutment is at
If dry back fill & Pa = kpγh 1
rest. Pp = k p γh 2
horizontal 2
As angle of internal friction 'φ' increases, coefficient
of active earth pressure ka decrease. surface
Case Active earth Total pressure per If clay backfill Pp = kpq + kpγh 1
Pp = k p qh + k p γh 2
pressure per unit length with surcharge 2
unit area pressure
If dry back fill & Pa = kaγh 1 When surface is Pp= kpγh 1
horizontal Pa = k a γh 2 Pp = k p γh 2
2 inclined 2
surface
If clay back fill Pa = kaq + kaγh 1 Cohesive soil-
with surcharge Pa = k a qh + k a γh 2
2 1 + sin φ 1 + sin φ
pressure Pp = γ h + 2c
1 − sin φ 1 − sin φ
When surface is Pa = kaγh 1
inclined Pa = k a γh 2 1 + sin φ
2 [Where, = Kp ]
1 − sin φ
Active earth pressure in case of cohesive
soil- Pressure per unit area = Pp = γ h K p + 2C K p ...eq. (i)
Active case- Put h = 0 in eq. (i)
Active earth pressure intensity
Pp = 0 + 2C K P
Pa = K a γh − 2c K a
Total passive earth pressure per unit area =
At top surface i.e h = 0
1
Pa = −2c K a tensile nature 2ch K P + K P γh 2
2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 574 YCT
12.
STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOIL
Determination of stress due to external z = Depth of the point below surface of soil mass.
load at any point in soil- r = Radial distance of point P, from axis of load.
Shear stress acting on the surface at point 'P' due to
1. Boussinesq's Analysis-
CHB SDE (Building) 2023 Q.r
point load 'Q' τrz = k B
It is applicable for isotropic soil.. z3
Assumptions-
Q
ESE 2023, ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022 σ z min . = 0.0888
i. Soil mass is homogeneous, semi-infinite, elastic z2
isotropic and weightless. Q
ii. Hooke's law is valid and stress-strain relationship σ z max. = 0.1332
z2
linear.
iii. Soil is initially unstressed.
iv. Distribution of the stresses is symmetrical about
vertical axis.
v. No change in the volume of soil take place due to
application of load.
vi. Surface of soil is free from shear stress and it is
subjected to only point load.
vii. Continuity of the stress exist in the medium.
Pressure Distribution Diagrams-
Q
Vertical stress, σ z = k B ×
z2
5/ 2
Stress isobar/isobar diagram or Pressure Bulb-
3Q 1 It is a line which connects all points of equal stress
=
2πz 1 + ( r / z )
2
or vertical pressure below the ground surface.
Isobar is a curved surface resembling like a bulb due
kB max. = 3 = 0.4775 to vertical pressure at all the points below the
2π
ground surface in horizontal plane called pressure
Q
∴ σ z = 0.4775 bulb.
z2 Each isobar represents a fraction of the load applied
3 1
5/ 2 at the surface.
where, IB =
2π 1 + ( r / z )2 Isobars are drawn for vertical, horizontal and shear
stresses.
kB = Boussinesq's influence factor It is based on the boussinesq equation for square and
Q = Applied point load strip footing.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 575 YCT
The depth where the vertical stress in the soil mass (i) Equivalent point load method-
reduced to 0.2 times of foundation contact pressure , It is an approximate method of calculation vertical
is known as significant depth. stress at any point due o any loaded area.
• For square or circular footing Ds = 1.5B Total area is divided into number of small areas and
total distributed load over unit area is replaced by
Where , B = width or dia. of footing the point load of small magnitude acting centroid of
2. Westergaard's Analysis- area .
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
Westergaards analysis is used for stratified soils for
computing pressure distribution or stress
distribution.
It represents stress distribution due to point load in
anisotropic medium.
Applicable for isotropic and non- isotropic soil.
Assumptions-
UPPCL JE 2022
i. Soil is homogenous, elastic, semi-infinite, non-
isotropic and stratified.
UK PSC AE 2022
ii. Soil is composed of numerous closely spaced
horizontal layers of negligible thickness of an Vertical stress, σ z = σ z1 + σ z2 + σ z3 + ...........
infinite rigid material.
1
iii. In this theory medium is assumed to be horizontally = Q1.K B 1 + Q 2 .K B 2 + ..........Q n .K B n
z2
rigid but vertically elastic.
iv. Rigid materials permits the downward deformation Q
= .Σk B if, Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q
of mass in which horizontal deformation is zero z2
Vertical Stress, Result accuracy depends upon size of the area unit
3/ 2 chosen
Q Q 1
σz = k w = 2 2
(ii) Stress Isobar Method-
z 2
πz 1 + 2 ( r / z ) Area bounded by 0.2q stress isobar is considered to
kw = Westergaard's influence factor be stressed by vertical stress on loading.
3/ 2 0.2q = 20% of stress isobar
1 1
kw =
π 1 + 2 ( r / z ) 2 (iii) Trapezoidal Method-
4. Newmark's Influence Charts Method-
1
k max = = 0.3183
π
Comparison b/w Boussinesq's and
Westergaard's Theory-
k W > KB r / z > 1.52
kW = kB r / z = 1.52
kW < kB r / z < 1.52
k W = 67% of k B r/z = 0
3. Approximate method (2 : 1 method)-
In this method it is assumed that the stressed area is
larger than the corresponding dimension of the
loaded area by an amount equal to the depth of the
subsurface area.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 576 YCT
It is more accurate method used to determine the Stress distribution for various cases-
horizontal/vertical and shear stress/pressure at any For uniform load on strip area-
point below a uniformly loaded flexible area of soil
of any irregular shape.
This method is derived from the Boussinesq's
equation for point load by integration.
Newmark's influence charts is base on the concept of
vertical stress under a uniformly loaded circular
area.
It is not applicable for layered structure.
Newmark proposed influence chart for vertical
pressure distribution in soil which is made of
q
concentric circles and radial lines. σz = (2θ + sin2θ cos2φ)
π
where, If point P is directly below the centre of strip then,
• Number of concentric circle , m = 10
q
σz = ( θ + sin θ )
• Number of radial lines , n = 20 π
Vertical stress below the centre of the For a line load-
circular area-
Vertical stress at point 'P' at depth 'Z' just below the
centre of the loaded area due to load on one sector
(hatched area) will be 1/20 of that to load on full
circle.
2
2q 2q 1
σz = cos 4 β or σ z =
πz πz 1 + (x / z) 2
Where, x = Horizontal distance of point P.
Vertical pressure/stress under uniformly
loaded circular area-
1
3/ 2
σz = k c × q k c = 1 − 2
1 + ( R / z )
kc = Influence coefficient for the circular area
q = Intensity of the load per unit area
q
3/ 2
1
σz = 1 − = If .q R = Radius of loaded area
20 1 + ( R / z )2
{ }
3/ 2
1
k c = 1 − ∵ tanθ = R/z
• σ z = If × q × N Where, If = Influence factor 1 + tan 2 θ
1 1 = 1- cos3θ
• If = = = 0.005 Note-
m × n 20 ×10
Stein Brenner method-
N = Total no. of sectorial areas of Newmark's chart
It is to determine influence chart for stress
q = Intensity of load distribution in a rectangular area.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 577 YCT
13.
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL
Shear Strength- Coulomb Equation (In terms of total stress)-
It is defined as the resistance deformation by the CHB SDE (Building) 2023, DDA JE 2023
action of tangential stress. MH WRD JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022
The bearing capacity of soil, stability of slope, earth S = C + σ tan φ
pressure and retaining structure depends on shear
Where,
strength of soil.
S = Shear strength
Factor affecting shear strength-
UKPSC JE 2022 C = Apparent cohesion
• Shape of particle • Gradation of soil σ = Total normal stress
• Denseness of soil • Confining pressure φ = Angle of internal friction
• Deviator stress • Loading Mohr Coulomb's Equation (In terms of
• Type of minerals • Capillary moisture effective stress)-
Mohr's Circle- S = C '+ σ ' tan φ '
DDA JE 2023
It is a graphical representation of a general state of S = C '+ ( σ − u ) tan φ '
stress at a point.
C' = Effective cohesion
This method is used for evaluation of principal
stresses, maximum shear stress, normal and σ' = Effective normal stress
tangential stresses at any given plane. u = Pore water pressure
Note- φ' = Effective friction angles
Failure plane is one at which angle of obliquity is Failure envelope for various soil-
max. where max. angle of obliquity is equal to angle (i) Cohesion less soil (ii) Cohesive soil or pure
of friction. (φ-soil) clay (C-soil)
Difference of shear shear stress and shear strength is
min. at failure shear stress.
S = σ tan φ ( C = 0) S = C (φ = 0)
CG Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
C - φ soil-
Soil which possesses both cohesion and friction is
Normal stress, σ n
( σ + σ3 ) + ( σ1 − σ3 ) .cos 2θ
= 1
called (C - φ) soil.
2 2 S = C + σ tan φ
Shear stress, τ =
( σ1 + σ3 ) sin 2θ
2
Resultant stress, σ r = σ n2 + τ2
φ φ
σ1 = σ3 tan 2 45 + + 2C tan 45 + (for C-φ soil)
2 2
φ Effect of angularity and grading on φ of C- soil.
σ1 = σ3 tan 2 45 + (for φ soil)
2 Shape Grading Angle of internal friction
σ1 = 2C (for C - soil) Loose Dense
Rounded Uniform 30° 37°
Where, Rounded Well graded 34° 40°
σ1 = Major Principal stress Angular Uniform 35° 43°
σ3 = Minor Principal stress Angular Well graded 39° 45°
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 578 YCT
Note-
For a granular material at its loosest state, angle of Dense sand/
OC clay
repose is equal to the angle of friction.
Shear Stress, τ
Angle of repose is the angle b/w the horizontal and τf
maximum slope at which a given dry material is Loose sand/
τf NC clay
stable.
φ = 0 for cohesive soils.
Effective stress analysis is used in drained condition.
In undrained condition, total stress and analysis is Shear displacement
done by assuming pore water pressure developed in Advantage-
lab is same as those in field. (i) Due to the smaller thickness of the sample, rapid
Test condition for shear stress- drainage can be achieved.
Drained condition Effective stress analysis and (ii) Easy and quick test for sands and gravels.
post construction stability is (iii) It is used to determine interface strength parameter.
checked. (iv) Large deformation achieved by reversing shear
Undrained condition Total stress analysis and direction.
(with +ve pore water stability should be checked Disadvantage-
pressure) immediately after construction. (i) Shear plane is predetermined that can't be weakest
Undrained condition Effective stress analysis and plane.
(with –ve pore water long term stability should be (ii) Stress distribution is not uniform (more at the edge,
pressure) checked. least at centre).
(iii) No control over drainage.
SHEAR STRENGTH TEST OF SOIL (iv) Reliable mostly for granular soil.
Tri-axial Test-
PGCIL DT 2023, NHPC JE 2022
UPSSSC JE 2022, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
Suitable for all types of soil.
Laboratory test-
This test is done for the soil with max. particle size
4.75 mm in undrained, consolidated undrained and
consolidated drained conditions.
Undrained test can be performed only for highly
impermeable clays. When silty clays and silts are
involved, partial drainage is inevitable.
Direct Shear Test or Shear Box Test-
SSC JE 2022, HPSC Lecturer 2022
This test is used for both cohesive and non-cohesive
samples of undisturbed or remolded soil. • σ1 = σ3 + σd
Effective stress and total stress are same.
P
• ( σd )failure = ( σ1 − σ3 )failure =
A
• S = C + σ'n tan φ
Where,
σ3 = Cell pressure
σd = Deviator stress
A = Area at failure
A 0 (1 ± ε v )
• A=
Apparatus-
(1 − ε L )
• Square shear box (60 × 60 × 50 mm) Where, A0 = Area at beginning
• Proving ring (used to read applied shear load), Dial εv = Volumetric strain
gauge, Grid plate etc. εL = Axial strain
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 579 YCT
• ε v = 0 for UU test Types of Failure in Tri-axial Test-
1. Brittle Failure occur in dense sand and
∆V failure over consolidated clayey soil.
• εv = for CD test
V • Axial strain at failure is 5-8%.
Tri-axial test is used In following condition - 2. Plastic Failure occur in loose sand or NC
(a) Unconsolidated un-drained test (UU)- failure clayey soil.
NHPC JE 2022 •Axial strain occurs upto 10- 20%.
• It is performed on cohesive soil sample to determine 3.Semi plastic Failure occur in C - φ soil.
the un-drained shear strength of core sample. &semi brittle •Axial strain occur upto 12- 14%.
• In this case drainage is not permitted at any stage. failure
• This test is suitable for low permeable soil such as Condition of tri-axial test and their
clays with fast loading. suitability-
• It shows short term stability of the soil structure. CHB JE (Building) 2023, PGCIL DT 2023
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
• Failure envelope for the total stress Mohr's circle
Test Suitability
becomes a horizontal line.
UU Test Construction of building over
saturated clay.
CU Test Analysis of earthen dam during
sudden drawdown.
CD Test Analysis of retaining wall with sandy
backfill.
Properties-
i. This test is suitable for accurate research work.
(b) Consolidated Un-drained Test (CU)- ii. Specimen is free to fail on the weakest plane.
UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022 iii. Stress distribution on the failure plane is uniform.
• In this case drainage is permitted at confining stage iv. Drainage can be controlled.
but at consolidation stage drainage is not allowed. v. Pore water pressure and volume changes are
• Pore pressure or volume are measured during shear measured.
stage. vi. The state of stress at all intermediate stages up to
failure is known and Mohr circle drawn at any stage
of shear.
viii. Axial stress, deviation stress are determined.
Unconfined compression test-
It is one of the fastest and cheapest methods of
measuring shear strength of clayey soil.
It stands for the maximum axial compressive stress
that a cohesive soil specimen can bear under zero
confining stress.
(c) Consolidated Drained Test(CD)-
UKPSC JE 2022
• In this case drainage is permitted during the
confining and shear stage both.
• This test carried out for evaluation of long term
stability of the structure.
DDA JE 2023
σ1 = σ3 tan (45º +φ) + 2C tan(45º +φ)
2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 580 YCT
For unconfined compression test, φ = 0, at G.L. 1. One Way Shearing-
σ3 = 0 When only bottom end shear the soil
∴ σ1 = 2C For C-soil T
Shear strength, τf =
σ1 = 2C tan(45º +φ / 2) For C-φ soil H d
πd 2 +
2 12
qu
S=C= For clay's or C- soil 2. Two Way Shearing-
2
When top & bottom both ends shear the soil
Mohr's Circle for UCS test-
T
Shear strength, τf =
H d
πd +
2
2 6
Properties-
i. The height of the vane is usually twice its diameter.
ii. This test can be done both in the lab and field. This
is an undrawn test.
iii. Sensitivity of a soil is determined by vane shearing.
iv. It is often used for marine clays.
Dimension of vane-
Parameter Lab size Field size
(mm) (mm)
Properties- Height of vane (H) 20 100 - 200
i. Easy and quick. Dia. of vane (d) 12 50 - 100
ii. Most suitable for saturated clayey soil. Thickness of vane (t) 0.5 20 - 30
iii. Failure surface is exist at weakest point and plane is Pore pressure parameter-
not predefined.
Field test- ∆ U c ∆U c
(i) B= =
Vane shear test- ∆σc ∆σ3
DDA JE 2023, UPMRC AM 2023 ∆U c = Change in pore pressure due to increase
UPPCL JE 2022, MH WRD JE 2022
GPSC AE 2022, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022 in cell pressure
It is a quick test and used to determine the in situ un- ∆σc = ∆σ3 = Change in cell pressure.
drained shear strength of soft clays and silts.
Suitable in plastic cohesive soil(clay) which is very • 0 ≤ B ≤1
sensitive.
• B = 0 , for dry soil.
• B = 1 , for saturated soil
(ii) A = A.B
Where A & B = Pore pressure parameter
∆U d
• A=
∆σd
Where,
∆U d = Change in pore pressure due to deviator
stress
∆σd = Change in deviator stress
∆U = Change in pore pressure
(iii) ∆U = ∆U c + ∆U d
(iv) ∆U = B[ ∆σ3 + A(∆σ1 − ∆σ3 )]
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 581 YCT
14.
FOUNDATION
A. SHALLOW FOUNDATION 2. FOOTING
Condition- (i) Isolated Footing-
UP Awas Vikas Parishad 2022, ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, This type of footing is used to transmit and
ESE Pre (Civil) 2023 distribute loads of individual columns to the soil.
Df It is used when bearing capacity of soil is high.
(i) As per Skempton- ≤ 2.5
B (ii) Strip/Continuous Footing-
JSSC JE (Gen. Engg.) 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
Df
(ii) As per Terzaghi- ≤1 A strip footing is also provided for a row of column
B
which one so closely spaced that their spread footing
1. Raft/Mat/Floating Foundation- overlap or, nearly touch each other.
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023 (iii) Combined Footing-
It is preferred when the required area of the footing SSC JE 2022
is greater than 50% or one half of the total area. It is suitable when the area is limited and
construction is to be done near the boundary line of
the building.
It is used when the two columns are so close to each
other that their individual footing would overlap.
Case of loading Shape of footing
Equal loading Rectangular
Unequal loading Trapezoidal
(iv) Strap/Cantilever/Tie Footing-
It is a type of combined footing and consisting of
Raft foundation is adopted when, two or more column footings connected by a
concrete beam(strap).
i. Settlement & weight of the structure is high and soil
having low bearing capacity.
ii. Structure is situated in marshy land and in case of
basement construction.
iii. The load of the structure has to be distributed over a
large area.
iv. It is useful where large settlement is occurs on non
homogeneous soil and where large variation of loads
on individual column.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 582 YCT
Such footing is generally used to combine the (ii) Primary/consolidation settlement-
footing of the outer column to the adjacent one so Occurs in saturated inorganic fine grained soil.
that the footing of the former does not extend in the
C σ + ∆σ
adjoining property. Sc = C c .H log10 0
Here strap is a perfectly rigid and weightless 1 + e0 σ0
The interior footing is centrally loaded C = Coefficient or correction factor
Strap is not subjected to any direct soil pressure. (iii) Secondary settlement (Ss)-
(v) Spread/Pad Footing- It occurs due to consolidation of soil under constant
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023 effective stress.
It is not used where the high flow of ground water is Total settlement of foundation, S = S + S + S
i c s
found within the depth of foundation as it may result
in scouring. Note-
Contact Pressure Distribution & Settlement- Contact pressure is uniform for flexible footing.
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 Settlement is uniform for rigid footing.
RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
Types of footing Contact pressure Settlement
Flexible footing
Over the clay Uniform Min. at edge & max.
at centre.
Over the sand Uniform Min. at centre &
max. at edge.
Rigid footing
Over the clay Min. at centre & Uniform
max. at edge.
Over the sand Min. at edge & max. Uniform
at centre
According to IS code 1904 - 1966,
allowable settlement of foundation-
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021, UKPSC JE 2022
Sand Clay
Specification Max. Deferential Max. Deferential DSSSB AE 2021
Settlement Settlement Settlement Settlement B. DEEP FOUNDATION-
DSSSB JE 2022
Isolated 40 mm 25 mm 65 mm 40 mm
footing Deep foundation criteria-
D
Raft 40 - 65 25 mm 65 - 100 40 mm • As per Skempton- f > 2.5
footing mm mm B
D
Note- • As per Terzaghi- f > 1
Permissible angular settlement for high framed B
1 TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATION-
structure <
500 Pile foundation-
PGCIL DT 2023, UPSSSC Mandi Parisad Droughsman 2022
Types of settlement in foundation- It is used when soil of the construction site is weak
(i) Immediate/ short term settlement- and there is no hard rock at a suitable depth below
Mostly occur in coarse grained soils of high the ground level.
permeability over short period of time which is 7
CLASSIFICATION OF PILE FOUNDATION-
days.
(a) Based on the function-
1− µ DSSSB AE 2021, GPSC AAE (GMC) 2021
Si = qB Iw
E
s Compaction Used to compact loose granular soil
pile (sand) to increase its bearing capacity
Iw = Influence factor
and density . Ex.-Sand piles
Rigid footing shape Influence factor, Iw • It is used when there is a danger of
Circular 0.88 liquefaction in the soil.
Square 0.82 Batter pile Driven in an inclined direction to
Rectangular, L/B = 1.5 1.06 prevent horizontal thrust or inclined
Rectangular , L/B = 5 1.70 forces.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 583 YCT
Anchor pile It is provided to protect the sheet pile Driven/displacement piles-
from horizontal pressure coming on the Use- Embankments, retaining walls, bulkheads,
wall or retaining wall. anchorage structure and cofferdams.
Sheet pile Used as bulkheads, or as impervious Driven pile is classified as-
cut-offs to reduce piping failure or i. Raymond pile-
seepage and uplift under hydraulic These piles are economical which is developed by
structures. AA Raymond 1897. Raymond pile is primarily used
Fender/ Used to protect waterfront structures as a friction pile.
Dolphins against the impact from ships or other ii. MacArthur pile-
pile floating objects. (Ex.-Ship, Boat). These piles is formed by driving a steel shell into
Uplift/ Used to anchor down structures ground upto required depth.
Tension pile subjected to hydrostatic uplift pressure Concrete is placed in the shell by gradually
or overturning forces. compaction and withdrawing the steel casing.
iii. Western button bottom pile-
It is used to increase in required end bearing area.
Uncased driven pile-
Simplex This type of pile driven through soft or hard
pile soil.
• It is formed by driving a steel tube with a
detachable cast iron shoe.
Franki Suitable for granular type of soils and for
pile bearing stratum of soil located at limited
thickness upto reasonable depth.
• It can be used as high-capacity deep
foundation elements without the necessity
of excavation or dewatering.
Vibro It is used where the ground is soft thus
pile offering little frictional resistance to the
flow of concrete.
Key Points
■ If the foundations of all the columns of a structure
are designed on the total live and dead load basis
then– The settlement of exterior columns
will be more than interior columns
(b) Based on materials and composition- ■ The soils having SPT value in between 0 & 2, will
have the consistency as– Very soft
(i) Pre-cast concrete pile-
■ The piles which are formed by driving a casing
These piles moulded in circular, square, rectangular
with a closed bottom end into the soil is–
and octagonal form.
Driven and cast–in–situ piles
(ii) Cast-in-situ concrete pile-
DSSSB AE 2021
■ For loose soil, the formula used to find the
minimum depth of foundation is–
Rankine’s formula
■ Sheet pile walls are used as–
Retaining walls for water front construction
■ In a plate load test, if the value of N lies between
15 to 30, no. of plates to be used are– 3
Bored/replacement pile-
These piles are used primarily in cohesive sub-soil
for the formation of friction piles.
Note-
The efficiency of driven pile is more as compared to
bored pile.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 584 YCT
BORED PILE CLASSIFICATION- End bearing and friction piles-
(i) Under-reamed/cast in situ pile- Its load bearing capacity is due to combination of
This pile is suitable for expansive soil or soft soil end bearing and skin friction.
with filled up ground. This pile is cheap and can be
Classification of timber pile-
made in less time.
Class A pile Used for heavy loads or large
unsupported length.
Class B pile These piles are used for medium loads
Class C pile These piles are used for temporary
structure.
Negative Skin Friction-
HPCL JE 2022, UKPSC JE 2022, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
When the soil layer surrounding a portion of the pile
shaft settles more than the pile, a downward drag
occurs on the pile which is known as negative skin
It is a bored cast in situ concrete pile having one or
more bulbs or under-reams at its lower portion. friction.
This pile protects the foundation from the up-lift of
ground water length of 3 to 8 m.
Most suitable for multi-storey building.
UK PSC AE 2022, RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021
• Bulb dia.- 2-3 times of shaft (pile) dia.
• Spacing - (1.25 - 1.5) × bulb dia.
(ii) Pressure pile-
This type of pile is used where heavy vibration and
noise are not permissible.
(c) Based on mode of load transfer-
(i) End bearing pile-
UK PSC AE 2022 It occurs in soft clays due to relative settlement of
It transmit the load through bottom tips. Such piles the soil.
act as columns and transmit the load through a weak
It reduces the bearing capacity of pile.
soil to a firm stratum at a greater depth.
(ii) Friction pile- Friction resistance can be increased by-
It is used when a hard stratum of soil does not exist • Making pile surface rough
at a reasonable depth. • Placing closely or grouping of pile
These piles transfer the load through skin friction • Increasing length and diameter
between the pile surface and the surrounding soil.
Group settlement ratio (Sr)-
HPSC Lecturer 2022, Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
Settlement of pile group (Sg )
Sr =
Settlement of individual pile (Si )
1 < Sr < 16
Group efficiency of piles (ηg)-
Q ug
ηg = ×100 For sandy soil, ηg > 1
N.Q up
Qug = Ultimate load carrying capacity of pile group.
N = Number of pile.
Qup = Ultimate load on individual pile.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 585 YCT
For end bearing pile- Energy of hammer after impact
ηb =
Q ug = NQ up , ηg = 100% Energy of hammer just before impact
Note- W + e2 P
ηb = When, W > e.P
For group action of min. number of piles = 3. W+P
According to I.S. code min. spacing b/w piles. 2
W + e 2 P W − eP
• Friction piles- 3D ηb = − When, W < e.P
W+P W+P
• End bearing piles- 2.5D
Where, W = Weight of hammer in kg.
• Loose sand and back filled pile- 2D
p = Weight of pile + pile cap
Where, D = Dia. of piles. e = Coefficient of restitutions
Methods to determine load carrying capacity (iii) Danish formula-
of pile- WHη
1. Dynamic method- Qu = h
S
S+ 0
Applicable for dense cohesionless soil only. 2
(i) Engineering news formula- 2. Analytical or static formula-
WH It is suitable for friction piles driven through
(a) Ultimate load on pile, Q u =
S+C cohesive soils.
Q u = Qeb + Qsf = q b A b + q s A s
WH Q
(b) Allowable load on pile, Q a = = u
Fs (S + C) 6 Where, Qeb = End bearing capacity
Qsf = Skin friction
Where,
qb = End bearing resistance of unit area
W = Weight of hammer (kg)
qs = Skin friction resistance of unit area
H = Height of Hammer fall (cm)
As = Surface area, Ab = Bearing area
Fs = Factor of safety (6 for all piles)
For pure clay, Q u = 9C.A b + α cA s
S = Final settlement (cm)
C = Empirical constant/elastic compression 3. Field method-
For double acting steam hammer, Use of standard penetrations data
(W + ap).H Q u = 400NA b + 2NA s
Da =
6(S + 0.25) Where, N = Corrected SPT number
Where, a = Hammer area on which pressure acts. N = Avg. Corrected SPT number
p = Steam pressure. Qu
Qa =
Type of Hammer C, in cm Hammer Fs
Efficiency ( ηh ) For driven pile, Fs = 4
Drop 2.5 100% For driven bored pile, Fs = 2.5
Single acting 0.25 75 - 85% Cone Penetration Test-
Double acting 0.25 75 - 80% To determine the ultimate bearing capacity of piles
in cohesionless soil the result of Dutch cone
(ii) Halley's or IS formula (IS : 2911-1964)
penetration test applied with sufficient accuracy.
ηh .ηb WH Qu
Qu = , Qa = qc
S+
C Fs Qu = qc Ab + As
2 2
ηh = Hammer efficiency, Fs = Factor of safety = 3 Where, qc = Static cone resistance
qc = Average cone resistance
ηb = Efficiency of blow
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 586 YCT
Well Foundation- Well It is the outer wall of the well which
DSSSB JE 2022, RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 Steining transfer the load to sub soil.
It is generally provided below the water level for • It act as cofferdam during sinking and
bridges.
provides weight for sinking.
Well foundation is preferable to pile foundation
• Thickness ≮ 500 mm.
when foundation has to resist large lateral forces.
Grip length- Well Lower wedge shaped portion of well
The depth of bottom portion of well from the scour curb steining is called well curb.
level is called the grip length. • Well curb is composed to support the
It is used for developing sufficient passive resistance weight of well.
to counteract the overturning moment due to • 75-100 mm off set is provided with
horizontal force at well top. well curb to facilitate well sinking.
Grip length for well foundation-
Cutting It is the lowest part of the well curb which
• For railway bridge- 50%.
edge cuts the soil during sinking.
• For road bridge- 30%.
Well caisson- Bottom After the well is sunk to the required
It is used in the construction of bridge piers plug depth, the base of the well is plugged with
foundation beneath rivers & other water bodies. concrete which is called bottom plug. It
It is prefabricated hollow box or cylinder. transmits the load to the subsoil.
Type of well caisson- Top It is a concrete plug provided over the
(i) Open caisson- plug filling inside the well.
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021 • It provide contact between well cap
It is also known as well foundation. and sand filling.
Open caisson is a box opened both at top and
Well It is a RCC slab provided at the top of
bottom.
cap steining to transmit the load of
(ii) Box caisson-
superstructure to the steining.
It open at the top but is closed at bottom. This type
of cession is used where bearing stratum is available • Minimum thickness of the slab is 750
at shallow depth. mm.
(iii) Pneumatic caisson- Dredge The hole formed due to the excavation of
Its lower end designed as a working chamber in hole soil is called dredge hole.
which compressed air is forced to prevent the entry
of water and thus excavation can be done in dry Note-
condition. Micro pilling-
Components of Well Foundation- Pile having dia. less than 300 mm is known as micro
pilling. Reinforcement and cement grout are the
major component of micro pile. It is install at any
angle.
Grillage foundation-
GPSC AAE (GMC) 19.09.2021
Grillage foundation is special types of isolated
footing (spread foundation). It consists of two or
more tiers of beams laid at right angles to distribute
the load over a large area. Generally it is used for
heavy loaded steel stanchions and where bearing
capacity of soil is very poor.
Depth- 1 - 1.5 m.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 587 YCT
15.
BEARING CAPACITY OF
SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Introduction- 5. Net Allowable bearing pressure/capacity (qna)-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, UPPCL JE 2022 Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021, DDA JE 2023
Ability of the soil to support the superimposed load It is the maximum net intensity of loading that can
without excessive settlement or failure is called be imposed on the soil with no possibility of shear
bearing capacity. failure or the possibility of excessive settlement.
Max. load qu
Bearing capacity = q na =
Unit area of foundation F.O.S
It can be used for the design of foundations.
Gross pressure intensity (q)-
(i) qna = qns, If qnρ > qns
It is the total pressure at the base of footing due to
weight of structure, self weight of footing and (ii) qna = qnρ, If qns > qnρ
weight of earth fill. qnρ = Net safe settlement pressure.
Net pressure intensity- Decreasing order of bearing capacities-
q u > q nu > q s > q ns
q net = q g − σ qg = Gross pressure
Load carrying capacity of footing-
JSSC JE 2022
Strip < Circular < Square footing
Various types of bearing capacity of soil-
1. Ultimate bearing capacity (qu)-
Terzaghi's bearing capacity theory-
ESE Pre 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
ESE Pre 2023, JSSC JE 2022, MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
Assumptions-
It is the maximum gross pressure that soil can
(i) Soil is semi infinite, homogeneous, isotropic and
support before it fails is in shear. problem is two dimensional.
qu = CNc + γDf (ii) Principle of superposition and columbs law is valid.
2. Net ultimate bearing capacity (qnu)- (iii) Base of footing is rough
It is the minimum net pressure causing shear failure (iv) Footing is laid at a shallow depth (Df < B)
of soil. (v) Load distribution on footing is vertical and uniform.
q nu = q u − σ Where, σ = γ Df (vi) Shear strength of the soil above the base of the
footing is neglected.
3. Net safe bearing capacity (qns)-
(vii) Footing is long i.e. L/B ratio is infinite.
q q − γD f (viii) Shear strength of the soil is governed by the Mohr-
q ns = nu = u
FOS FOS coulomb equation.
4. Gross safe bearing capacity (qs)- (ix) Ground surface is horizontal and overburden
MHADA JE 2022 pressure at foundation level is equivalent to a
Max. pressure which soil can carry safely without surcharge load.
risk of shear failure As per Terzaghi, Bearing capacity of soil
q nu depend on-
q s = q ns + γD f = + γD f (i) Cohesion of soil particles
FOS (ii) Angle of internal friction between soil particles
MHADA JE 2022 (iii) Shape and size of foundation
σ or γDf = Overburden pressure. Types of shear failure-
Factor of Safety- 1. General shear failure-
UPMRC AM (Civil) 2023 HPCL JE 2022
Ultimate net bearing capacity This type of failure occurs in shallow footing, dense
FOS = sand and stiff clay.
Allowable net bearing capacity Failure pattern in shallow foundation is continuous
Ultimate bearing capacity
well defined reaching up to ground surface.
Safe bearing capacity = Well defined peak in P-∆ curve.
Factor of safety
Bulging of ground surface adjacent to the
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022 foundation.
Note- Ultimate bearing capacity is well defined.
Max. safe bearing capacity is always greater than Failure is sudden and accompanied by tilting of
max. allowable bearing capacity. footing.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 588 YCT
All the three zones of failure fully develops. No failure pattern is observed.
Bulging is more. Failure surface, which is vertical or slightly inclined.
In case of general shear failure- There is no tilting and bulging of footing.
N c = cot φ(N q − 1) , N γ = 1.8 tan φ(N q − 1) , Failure is defined by very large settlements.
Ultimate bearing capacity is not well defined.
N q = N φ e π tan φ Where, Nφ = Influence factor
MPPGCL JE 2023, MH WRD JE 2022, UPRVUNL JE 2022
HPSC Lecturer 2022
Bearing capacity test-
2. Local shear failure-
UPRVUNL JE (Civil) 2022
This type of failure occurs in relatively loose sand
and soft clay in case of shallow foundation. In this
type of failure there is a large settlement of soil
before shear.
Failure surface is well defined only immediately
below the footing.
Failure is not sudden and there is no tilting of
footing.
There is no heave, no bulging and no tilting.
In case of local shear failure- A. Field Test-
2C 2φ 1. Plate load test (IS : 1888-1982)-
C' = , tan φ ' = tan( ) CHB JE (Building) 2023, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
3 3 UPPCL JE 2022, JKSSB JE 2022
This method was developed to determine modulus
of sub-grade reaction which is used in the design of
rigid pavement. It is can also be bused to find
bearing capacity based on shear criteria and ultimate
bearing pressure based on settlement criteria.
It is only suitable for cohessionless soil.
Used for design of rigid pavement.
Width of foundation/pit, Bf = 5Bp
Parameter General Local/punching BP = Width of Plate (m)
shear failure shear failure
Internal friction angle > 36° < 28°
or angle of shear
resistance
Void ratio (e) < 0.55 > 0.75
Relative density (ID) >70% < 20%
Standard penetration ≥ 30 ≤5
number (N)
Net bearing capacity of > 100 MPa < 80 MPa
soil (Ultimate Bearing
capacity) (qu)
Strain of failure <5% 10-20%
Equation parameter Size of plate-
Cohesion C 2/3 C • (30 × 30) cm (min.) • (45 × 45) cm
Friction tanφ 2/3tanφ • (60 × 60) cm • (75 × 75) cm (maximum)
3. Punching shear failure- Thickness of plate - 25 mm.
DDA JE (Civil) 2023 Pre loading recommended - 70 kg/cm2
This type of failure occurs in very loose sand and Min. thickness of plate should be 10 mm to avoid
deep foundation with low compressibility. punching.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 589 YCT
Limitation of plate load test-
DDA JE (Civil) 2023
i. This test is a short duration test and is not suitable in
cohesive soil.
ii. It does not record the total settlement of the test
plate in clayey soil.
iii. Ultimate bearing capacity of clay is free from the
size of plate.
iv. It does not represent the actual conditions.
a. Foundation on clay, q uf = q up
q uf Bf
b. Foundation on sand, =
q up Bp
Sf Bf ( Bp + 0.3)
2
• = If test carried at foundation level.
Sp Bp ( Bf + 0.3)
SPT test is done to determinate-
• If foundation is located at deep depth- (i) Permissible bearing capacity on the basis of shear
0.5 norms.
1 (ii) Permissible bearing pressure based on settlement
Sf corrected = Sf ×
(1 + D f / B )
f
criteria.
(iii) Ultimate pile load bearing capacity.
Sf Bf (iv) Unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil.
c.. For clay, = (v) Angle of internal friction or shearing resistance.
Sp B p
(vi) Relative density/density index for cohesionless soil.
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 (vii) Shear resistance of sand.
S Bf ( Bp + 0.3)
2 Note-
d. For dense sandy soil, f = There is number of blows (N) counted required to
Sp Bp ( Bf + 0.3) reach a depth of 15 cm.
JKSSB JE (Civil) 2022
n +1
Sf Bf Correction done in SPT-
e. For silt, =
Sp Bp
HPSC Lecturer 2022
(i) Overburden pressure correction-
Where, SPT value is less for shallow foundation and higher
for for greater depth.
quf = Ultimate bearing capacity of foundation
qup = Ultimate bearing capacity of plate Then corrected value of SPT, N c = N o × C
Sf = Settlement of foundation 350
Sp = Settlement of plate Nc = No × but σ ≯ 280
σ + 70
n = Coefficient (depends on type of soil) Where,
n = 0 (for clay) and 0.5 (for sand) σ = Effective overburden pressure
2. Standard Penetration Test (IS : 2131 - 1981)- No = Observed SPT value for first correction
PGCIL DT (Civil) 2023 Nc = Overburden correction.
NHPC JE 2022, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022 Note-
This test is most commonly used in situ soil test for If the value is σ ≥ 280 kN/m2 then correction is not
cohesionless soil which is not easily sampled. required.
Split spoon sampler that is a thick wall sampler is Nc/No should be lie between- 0.45 - 2.
used to take soil sample. (ii) Water table/dilatancy correction-
• Bore hole dia. - 55-150 mm MPPGCL JE 2023
• Weight of hammer - 63.5 kg 1
( Nc − 15)
Nc > 15 then, N 2 = 15 +
• Height of free fall - 750 mm. 2
HPCL JE 2022 Nc = 15 (For dense sand)
• S.P resistance, N - 15-30 Where, N2 = Dilatancy or water table correction.
• Length of sampler - 60 cm. Note-
• Inner and outer dia. - 35 mm, 50.5 mm Nc ≤ 15 No correction required
Nc > 15 Correction apply
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 590 YCT
All the value of corrected SPT No. should be in the B. Analytical method-
range of Nfinal ± 0.5 Nfinal. If any of the values is not 1. Elastic theory-
range then that should be ignored and average of Schleicher's method-
remaining should be taken. It is based on elastic theory and boussinesq stress
For Sand- theory.
HPCL JE 2022 It is also used for calculation of immediate
No. of blow (N) Soil packing ID φ settlement of cohesive soil.
<4 Very loose < 20 < 30°
1 − µ2
4 - 10 Loose 20 - 40 30° - 35° Si = q.B
10 - 30 Compact 40 - 60 35° - 40° Es
30 - 50 Dense 60 - 80 40° - 45° 2. Classical/pressure theory-
> 50 Very Dense > 80 > 45° (i) Rankine theory (φ - soil)-
For Clay- RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
It is used for cohesionless soil and not give reliable
No. of blow (N) Consistency
value of ultimate bearing capacity.
<2 Very soft
2
2-4 Soft φ 1 + sin φ
4-8 Medium stiff q u = γD f tan 4 450 + or q u = γ.Df
2 1 − sin φ
8 - 15 Stiff
15 - 30 Very Stiff (ii) Pauker's theory-
> 30 Hard It is used for cohesion less soil (sand) and based on
rankine theory.
3. Static/Dutch Cone Penetration Test- (iii) Bell's theory (C - φ)−
It is used on very soft and loose soils where It is used to obtain the ultimate bearing capacity of
transportation of heavy equipment required for SPT the foundation placed in semi-infinite rock mass
and DCPT test not be possible. (cohesive soil).
Unsuitable for gravelly soil and soil for having SPT
number > 50. q u = CN c + γDf .N q for pure clay, C = 4
Rate of penetration 10 mm/sec. 3. Plastic theory-
Depth of penetration 35 mm/sec. (i) Fellinius theory-
This method is used for long strip footing on highly
q cohesive soil.
C = 1.5 c
σ0 W.lr + C.R.
Where, qu = or q u = 5.5C
b.lo
qc = Static cone resistance (kg/cm2)
c = Compressibility coefficient (ii) Skemption's theory (C- soil)-
σ = Initial effective over burden pressure in kg/cm2 It is applicable only for pure cohesive soil and
provide net ultimate value of bearing capacity.
H0 σ + ∆σ qnu = CNc
• S = 2.3 log10 0 Where, S = Settlement.
C σ0 • For strip footing, Nc = 5 - 7
• q ns = 3.6q ns W ' When B < 1.2 m. • For circular and square footing N c = 6 - 9
• q ns = 2.7q c .W ' When B > 1.2 m Df/B Value of Nc
ratio
Where, W' = Water table correction factor Strip footing Circular/ square footing
0 5 6
>2.5 7.5 9
(iii) Prandtl theory-
This theory is based on the assumption that a strip
footing placed on the ground surface sinks vertically
downwards into the soil at failure like a punch.
1
q u = CN c + γDf .N q + γB.N γ For strip footing
2
For C- soil Nc = 5.14 , Nq= 1 , Nγ =0
(iv) Terzaghi's theory-
Tarzaghi's bearing capacity equation-
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
q u = CN c + γD f N q + 0.5γBN γ
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 591 YCT
For clay Nc = 5.7, Nq = 1 and Nγ = 0 (v) Mayor Hoff's theory-
∴ qu = C×5.7 + γDf (for clay) This theory failure mechanism is similar to
and qnu = qu – γDf (∵ qu = CNc γ.Df) Terzaghi's but Mayor Hoff's considered failure
= C× 5.7 + γDf – γDf surface that extended above the foundation level.
= C × 5.7 or C.Nc It is used for strip footing at any depth.
i.e. net ultimate bearing capacity of the foundation in q u = CN c s c d c i c + σ.N q s q d q i q + 0.5γBN γ s γ d γ i γ
clay strata is free from depth and width of footing.
In case of shape factor- Where,
s, d and i stand for empirical correction factor called,
• q u = CN cSc + γDf N qSq + 0.5γBN γ Sγ shape factor, depth factor and inclination factor.
σ = γDf = Effective surcharge at the base.
• N c = ( N q − 1) cot φ
for strip footing- sc, sq & sγ = 1
N c = ( N q − 1) cot φ , N q = e( π tan φ ) tan
2
a2 (45+φ / 2)
• Nq =
φ
2 cos 2 45° + N γ = (N q − 1) tan (1.4φ)
2
(vi) IS code method (IS : 6403 - 1981)-
tan φ k p
• Nγ = − 1 q nu = CN c s c d c ic + σ.Df (N q − 1)s q d q i q + 0.5γBN γ s γ d γ i γ w '
2 cos 2 φ
w' = A factor which take into account the effect of
Where, water table.
a = e(0.75π−φ / 2)tan φ
k p = Passive earth pressure coefficient
Nq, Nc, Nγ = Bearing capacity factors that is depends
upon values of angle of internal friction.
Shape factor for various types of footing-
DDA JE (Civil) 2023
Shape of footing Sγ Sq Sc
Strip footing 1 1 1
Circular footing 0.6 1.2 1.3
Square footing 0.8 1.2 1.3
Rectangular 0.4B 0.2B 0.3B
footing 1 − 1+ 1+
L L L • If, D 'w ≥ B w' = 1
UKPSC JE (Civil) 2022
• If, D = 0
'
w w' = 1
Angle of General shear Local shear
Internal failure failure • For, 0 < D < B w' = 0 - 1
'
w
Friction (φ) Nc Nq Nγ Nc Nq Nγ • For local shear failure and loose soil.
0° 5.7 1 0 5.7 1 0
5° 7.3 1.6 0.5 6.7 1.4 0.2 2 2
C' = C and tan φ = φ
10° 9.6 2.7 1.2 8 1.9 0.5 3 3
15° 12.9 4.4 2.5 9.7 2.7 0.9
20° 17.7 7.4 5 11.8 3.9 4.7
(vii) Hansen's method-
For cohesive soil Hansen's theory gives better
1 correlations than the Terzaghi equation.
For strip footing- q u = CN c + γ.D f .N q + γ.B.N γ
2 q u = CN c sc d c ic + σ.Nqs q d q iq + 0.5γBN γ s γ d γ i γ
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021
applicable if φ = 0
For circular footing-
q u = CN c (1 + s c + d c − i c ) + σ / r if φ = 0
q u = 1.3.CN c + γ.Df .N q + 0.3γ.D.N γ
Nc = (Nq –1) cotφ
D = Diameter of the footing 2
N q = e( π tan φ ) tan (45 +φ )
For square footing-
q u = 1.3CN c + γ.D f .N q + 0.4 γ.B.N γ N γ = 1.8 ( N q − 1) tan φ
B = Width of footing Note-
Order of bearing capacity of various soil-
For rectangular footing-
Soft clay < Loose sand < Black cotton soil < Loose
B gravel < Compact clay < Compact sand < Compact
q u = CN c 1 + 0.3 + γ.D f .N q + 0.4 γ.B.N γ
L gravel < Soft rock < Hard rock.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 592 YCT
16.
SOIL EXPLORATION
Introduction- It can be used to determine the index properties of
The process of collection soil data for the assessment soil the soils such as grain size distribution, plastic limit,
properties at the site through laboratory and field liquid limit, specific gravity etc..
investigation is called soil exploration. (i) Representative Samples-
If only soil structure gets modified and moisture
Purpose of soil exploration- content and mineral content remains the same while
i. Used to determine the nature and engineering sampling the sample is called representative sample.
properties of soil. (ii) Non-Representative/Zero Samples-
ii. To know about the location of ground water table If soil structure, mineral content. moisture content
and its variation. get modified by sampling then it is called non
iii. Knowing about the order of occurrence of soil and representative samples.
rock strata. Such samples are obtained by wash boring and auger
iv. Estimation of the max. deferential settlement. boring.
Methods of site exploration- 2. Undisturbed Soil Sample-
1. Open Excavation Method- Soil sample collect from the from the field n a
Pit and trench are prepared and used for all types of natural state without disturbing its natural structure
soil. is called undisturbed soil sample.
Useful if ground water table is lowered. Samplers Used- Shelby tube, piston sampler.
2. Boring/Drilling Method- It is following types It is used for determining the engineering properties
Auger Use- cohesive and soft soils above water of the soil, such as compressibility, shear strength
Boring table and for gravel also. permeability, shrinkage limit etc.
Rajasthan A.M. (Dairy) 2021
• It is suitable for shallow foundation . Soil sample required for various laboratory
Wash Fast and simple method for advancing holes tests-
Boring in all types of soils except hard rock. HPCL JE 2022
• Suitable for exploration below ground Types of test Types of sample required
water table. Natural water Disturbed or SPT sample
Rotary/ It is a very fast method of advancing hole content
Core in both rocks and soils (Clay, Sand). Density Disturbed
Boring • Bore hole dia. made- 50 - 200 mm. Specific gravity Representative or disturbed
Percussion Used for making holes in rocks, boulders Grain size Representative or disturbed
Drilling and other hard strata. distribution
• Used for obtained highly disturbed Atterberg limits Representative or disturbed
samples. Coefficient of Undisturbed
Auger and Cylindrical auger and shell with cutting permeability
Shell edge at lower end can be used for deep Consolidation Undisturbed
Boring boring in hard /stiff soil. parameters
• Auger is used for soft clay while shell is Shear strength Undisturbed
for stiff clay. parameters
3. Sub surface sounding- Key Points
4. Geophysical method- ■ Lime stabilisation is very effective in treating–
Note-. Plastic clayey soils
The depth of exploration should be about 1.5 times ■ Mechanical stabilisation is–
of the width of square footing and 3 times the width Mixing of two or more types of natural soils
of the strip footing. ■ For stabilisation of heavy clays, the methods
which is generally most effective–
Electrical stabilisation
Soil Simpler-
Instrument used to take of undisturbed soil samples
from test pits or boreholes at required depth s known
as soil sampler.
Types of sampler-
1. Disturbed Soil Sample- A. Open Drive Sampler-
Its natural structure has been disturbed during the It is classified on the basis of area ratio.
sampling process. (i) Thin Walled Sampler (IS : 2132 - 1972)-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 593 YCT
It is a seamless steel tube used for taking Note-
undisturbed sample. For Stiff formation Ar ≯ 20%
Ex.- Piston samplers, Shelby tube samplers For soft soil, Ar < 10%
Area ratio ≤ 10%, Wall thickness- 2.5% of dia. HPCL JE 2022
(ii) Thick walled sampler- For a good quality undisturbed soil sample Ar ≤ 10%
Disturb but representative sample is obtained by (iv) Recovery Ratio, (Lr)-
thick walled sampler area. Recovery length of the sample
Lr =
Area ratio- 10 - 25%. Penertration depth of the sample
B. Based on the Sampler Designed- Recovery value Soil property
Open/Shelby Most widely used for collecting Lr = 1 Good Recovery
tube sampler undisturbed soil sample Lr < 1 Compressed soil
• Unsuitable for hard or dense Lr > 1 Swelled soil
gravely soil.
Standard split Used for obtaining undisturbed soil
spoon sampler samples.
Piston Sampler Used to take samples of saturated
sand, soft and wet soils.
Rotary Used for taking samples from firm
Sampler to hard cohesive soils and rocks.
• Unsuitable for gravely soil and
loose cohesionless soil. Standard Penetration Test-
Scraper bucket Useful to obtain disturbed sample (a) Dilatancy Correction-
sampler of cohesionless soil. As per Terzaghi and peck in case of silty fine sand if
N > 15
Design feature of the sampling tool-
1
Nc = ( N R − 15) + 15
2
NR = Recorded value or corrected SPT value after
overburden pressure. Nc = Corrected value
• If N ≤ 15, Nc = NR
(b) Overburden pressure correction-
As per Gibbs and Holtz for dry and moist clean sand
350
Nc = NR ×
σ0 + 70
(i) Inside Clearance, (Ci)-
NR = Observed N-value, Nc = Corrected N-value
D3 − D1 σ0 = Effective overburden pressure (kN/m2)
Ci = × 100% (1 < Ci < 3)
D1 Correlation b/w penetration resistance N & φ-
(ii) Out side clearance, (Co)- N Denseness φ
D − D4 0-4 Very loose 25° - 32°
Co = 2 ×100 (0 < Co < 2) 4 - 10 Loose 27° - 35°
D4 10 - 30 Medium 30° - 40°
Where, 30 - 50 Dense 35° - 45°
D1 = Inner dia. of cutting edge > 50 Very Dense > 45°
D2 = Outer dia. of cutting edge Correlation b/w N & qu
D3 = Inner dia. of sampling tube N Consistency qu (kN/m2)
D4 = Outer dia. of sampling tube 0-2 Very soft < 25
Note- 2-4 Soft 25 - 50
Co > C1 Always 4-8 Medium 50 - 100
(iii) Area Ratio, (Ar)- 8 - 15 Stiff 100 - 200
RPSC Lect. (Tech. Edu.) 2021 15 - 30 Very Stiff 200 - 400
It is the most critical factor which affects sample > 30 Hard > 400
disturbance. Note-
Max. C/S area of the cuting edge SPT is done in bore hole, while CPT & DCPT are
Ar = ×100 done without bore hole.
Area of the soil sample Geophysical method is used for mineral and oil
exploration. This is developed over 100 years.
D2 − D 2
= 2 2 1 ×100 The Shelby tube is used to collect undisturbed soil
D1 samples.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 594 YCT
1. Highway Development and Planning ................................................................................... 596
2. Geometric Design of Highways ............................................................................................ 599
3. Traffic Engineering ............................................................................................................... 609
4. Highway Materials................................................................................................................ 619
5. Pavement Design .................................................................................................................. 623
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 595 YCT
01.
HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT & PLANNING
Development Sequence of Highway- Macadam Construction (1756-1836 AD)-
Roman Tresaguet Construction Metcalf MHWRD JE 2022, OPSC AEE 2015 Paper–I
Construction Telford construction Suggested no requirement of heavy stones in
Macadam Construction Water bound macadam foundation. This was first method based on scientific
(WBM) Bituminous macadam (BM). thinking.
Roman Roads-
These were straight regardless of gradients.
The total thickness of the construction was as high as
0.75 to 1.2 m.
Various organization and their establishment
year-
Organization Establishment year
Tresaguet Construction– Central Public Works July 1854
Pierre Tresaguet (1716-1796) developed an Department (CPWD)
improved method of construction in France by the
year 1764 A.D. Public Works Department 1854
The main feature of his proposal was that the (PWD) (By Lord Dalhousie)
thickness of construction need to be only in the order Jayakar Committee Formed in Nov. 1927
of 30 cm. Recommendation Feb
1928.
Central Road Fund 1 March 1929
Central Road Organization 1930
(CRO)
Indian Road Congress (IRC) 1934
Telford Construction (1757-1834 AD)- Motor Vehicle Act 1939 (Revised-1988,
MHWRD JE 2022 2019)
Telford provided Level Subgrade of width 9 meters. Central Road Research 1950
• Wearing course thickness- 4 cm Institute (CRRI)
• Cross slope- 1 in 45
National Highway Act 1956
Thickness of foundation stone varied from
(17 - 22 cm) from edge to centre. Border Road Organization 1960
Highway Research Board 1973
National Highway Authority 1988
of India (NHAI)
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak December 2000
Yojana (PMGSY)
Recommendation accepted by Jaykar committee.
(i) A semi official technical body should be formed.
(ii) A development fund, CRF should be intended for
road development.
(iii) 20 year road development plan were initiated.
(iv) Formation of CRRI.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 596 YCT
Highway Development–
Specification Ist 20 Year Plan 2nd 20 Year Plan 3rd 20 Year Plan
Name of Plan Nagpur road plan Bombay road plan Lucknow Road Plan
Duration 1943-1963 1961-1981 1981-2001
Completed -1961 Completed 1974
Target Density 16 km/100 km2, 32 km/100 km2, 82 km/100 km2,
Total Target 532700 km 10 Lakhs km 27 Lakhs km
Achieved Target 709122 km 1502697 km 2702000 km
N.H.-66000 km, S.H.-145000 km
Road Pattern Star and Grid - Square and Block
Provision of Expressway No provision 1600 km 3200 km
Road Classification 1. NH NH, SH, MDR, ODR,
2. SH V.R and Expressway
3. MDR
4. ODR
5. VR
Development allowances 15% 5% Nil
Key Points Class-3 These roads have width ranging between
■ The planting of trees along the roadside is known Road 2.45 m to 3.65 m.
as– Arboriculture
Life of Different type of roads-
■ The optimum road length is calculated for an area
based on the concept of obtaining maximum utility Road Life
per unit length of road is– Saturation system Earthen Road 2 Year
■ Unit of average cost of construction of four lane
highways taken by (NHAI) for preparing estimate, WBM Road 5 Year
is– Bituminous Road 10-15 Year
Per km of road Concrete Road 30 Year
Classification of Road-
As per Traffic
Milestone colour code
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
Type of Traffic Vehicle per-day
DSSSB Tech. Asst. Engg. 2021
Extra Heavy Traffic > 600
Heavy Traffic 250 - 600
Medium Traffic 70 - 250
Light Traffic 1 - 70
As per Load
Type of Road Vehicle Load (Tonnes)
Extra Heavy Road 1500
Heavy Road 1001 - 1500
Medium Road 500 - 1000
Light Road 500 Sequence of Road Survey-
Map study → Reconnaissance survey →
As per B.R.O.
Class-9 These roads are 6 meters wide and are Preliminary Survey→ Final location and detailed
Road designed to carry 3- tonne vehicle loads. Survey → Construction Survey.
Class-5 These roads have a width of 4.5 meters and UPPCL AE 2022, GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021
Road designed to carry 1- tonne vehicle loads. HPPSC Lect. 2021, GPSC AE 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 597 YCT
National Highway Development Program, 1988, (NHDP)-
Types of Road Patterns
Length of road as per 3rd 20 year road plan (km) : Length of SH =
Total length of road =
4.74 × Number of towns & villages
( )
Area km 2 / 25
Max
Max 62.5 × no. of towns − length of NH
Road density × area
( )
Area km 2 / 12.5
Length of NH =
(
Area km 2 ) Length of MDR = Max
90 × no. of towns
50
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 598 YCT
02.
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
Geometric Design(IRC: 73-1980) Note-
It deals with the dimensions and layout of visible Roughometer is used to measure longitudinal
features of the highway. coefficient of friction.
It should be provide optimum efficiency in traffic Bump integrator measure the roughness index (RI).
operations with max. safety at reasonable cost. BPSC AE Aug 2019, GPSC AE 2019, Rajasthan VP ITI 2018
Geometric Design of the road is done on the basis of Min. skid resistance number for Indian roads to have
98th percentile speed. serviceability indicator is 50.
HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENT It may be lateral skidding if centrifugal ratio =
Pavement Surface Characteristics- Coefficient of lateral friction.
(i) Friction (ii) Unevenness Longitudinal Coefficient of Friction (fl)-
(iii) Reflection properties For calculating SSD
(iv) Drainage of surface water • Longitudinal friction- 0. 35 - 0.40
(i) Friction or skid resistance- • Lateral friction- 0.15
Condition Translation Rotation Result HPPSC (HPPTCL) AE 2021
If fl is more Occurs Not occurs Tyre burns Speed kmph ≤ 30 40 50 60 ≥ 80
If fl is less Not occurs Occurs Fuel burns fl for SSD 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
Skid- Unevenness Index-
MP Vyapam SE 2022, OPSC AE Paper- II 2019
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, GPSC AE (CLASS 1 & 2) 2019
When the circumferential movement due to rotation
It is defined as the cumulative undulation (sudden
of wheel is less than the path travelled by the wheel
rise and fall on road surface) per km road length.
along the road surface then it is called skid i.e.
It is expressed in mm/km measured by bump
Rotational movement < Translational movement
integrator in terms of unevenness index developed
Slip- by CRRI.
Rotational motion > Translational motion
Total verticle undulation (mm)
For pure slip condition, translational motion = 0 Unevenness Index =
Length of Road (km)
RI = 630 (IRI)1.12 (mm/km)
Where, IRI = International Roughness index
Unevenness Road condition Limited
Index (mm/km) speed
< 1500 Good -
1500 - 2500 Satisfactory 100 kmph
2500 - 3500 Bad 55 kmph
> 3500 Uncomfortable -
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022, Karnataka PWD AE 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 599 YCT
(iii) Combined camber (straight + parabolic)-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
Cross slope on expressway for carriageway and
paved shoulder and edge strip with bitumen surface
is-
Bump Integrator (i) 2.5%, if rainfall > 1000 mm
Camber/Cross slope- (ii) 2%, if rainfall < 1000 mm
Camber is the cross slope given in the pavement in a Note-
transverse direction for effective drainage of Camber for shoulder should be 0.5% steeper than
rainwater from the road surface. Camber value is cross slope of adjoining pavement, having min.
depend upon the types of pavement and amount of value of 3% and max. value of 5% for earth
rainfall. shoulder.
UP Awas Vikas Parisad 2022, MPPSC AE 2022,
Methods of providing camber-
NBCC JE 2022, MHWRD JE 2022
(a) By the rising of centre of carriageway w.r.t the edge
Recommended Values of Camber for Different Types
forming highest point at the centre on straight curve.
of Road Surface-
(b) By lifting the outer edge of pavement w.r.t. inner
MP PGCL JE 2023, NBCC JE 2022
edge on horizontal curve.
Range of camber
Carriageway or Width of Pavement-
Types of for the area with SSC JE 2022
road surface Heavy rain- Low rain- It is the width of pavement way on which vehicles
fall fall travel. It depends upon width of traffic lanes and
Cement concrete and 1 IN 50 or 1 IN 60 or number of lanes.
high type bitumen 2.0% 1.7% Width of Carriageway/Pavement as per IRC-
surface Class of road Width of Carriageway
Thin bituminous surface 1 IN 40 or 1 IN 50 or (m)
2.5% 2.0% Single Lane Road 3.75
Water bound macadam, 1 IN 33 or 1 IN 40 or Two lane, without 7.0
Metal/Gravel pavement 3.0 % 2.5% raised kerb
Earthen surface 1 IN 25 or 1 IN 33 or Two Lanes, with 7.5
4.0% 3.0% raised kerb
TYPES OF CAMBER Intermediate 5.5
(i) Straight Line Camber- Carriageway (except
SSC JE 2022 on important roads)
It is used for impervious pavement like, cement Multi-Lane Pavements 3.5 Per Lane
b or 3.5 × no. of lane
concrete pavement, Height of camber, y = Number of lane on the basis of vehicles per hour-
2n
Apex point of the camber is called crown. Vehicles per hour Number of lane
Very low traffic One lane
300 vehicles per hours Two lane
300 - 600 vehicles per hours Three lane
600 - 1500 vehicles per hours Four lane
(ii) Parabolic camber-Used in bituminous pavement. Note-
On urban roads without raised kerbs lane width may
2x 2 be decreased to 3.5 m.
y=
n.b The minimum width recommended for urban road
with kerb is 5.5 m to make allowance for a stalled
vehicle.
NHPC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
In local streets of residential areas the Lane width
may be decreased to 3.0 m.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 600 YCT
Lane width of Expressways As per IRC minimum shoulder width- 2.5 m.
For plain and rolling terrains- 3.75 m. The desirable min. width is 4.6 m.
For mountainous terrain- 3.5 m. Its surface should be rougher than the pavement.
Medians/Traffic Separator- It is 0.5% steeper than the camber of pavement.
NHPC JE 2022, UPRVUNL JE 2022 Road margins-
A median is provided between two sets of traffic Ex.- Footpath, Cycle track, Guard rail, Driveways,
lanes intended to divide the traffic moving in Parking lanes, Bus bays, Lay bays, Frontage road,
opposite directions. Embankment slope.
Footpath-
It is provided in urban areas when the vehicular as
well as pedestrian traffic are heavy.
• Minimum width - 1.5 m. • Desirable width - 2 m.
• Cross slope - 2.5 - 3%.
Cycle track-
It is provided in urban areas when cycle traffic is
very high.
• Minimum width- 2 m.
Guard Rails-
Traffic Separator It is provided for road safety along the edge of road.
Main function of the median is to prevent head-on • Height- 1 - 2 m.
collision between vehicles moving in opposite
direction on adjacent lanes.
Width of Formation or Roadway-
SSC JE 2022
According to IRC minimum desirable width of 5.0 Width of formation
m for the median of rural highways which may be = Carriageway width + Shoulder width
reduced to 3.0 m where land is restricted.
TNPSC AE 2022, GATE 2020
Roadway Width in
3 m < width of medians < 5 m. Road Plain and Mountainous
For urban road- Classification Rolling and steep
• Min. width - 1.2 m • Desirable width - 5 m terrain (m) terrain (m)
For expressway- National & State
• Min. width - 12 m Highways
• Desirable width - 15.5 m (a) Single Lane 12.0 6.25
Kerbs- (b) Double Lane 12.0 8.80
MHWRD JE 2022, NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022 Major District
Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement Roads
and median or footpath or island or shoulder. (a) Single Lane 9.0 4.75
(b) Double Lane 9.0 ––
Other District
Roads
(a) Single Lane 7.5 4.75
(b) Double Lanes 9.0 ––
Types of kerb and their height- Village roads,
Single lane 7.5 4.00
Type of Kerb Height (mm)
Minimum Roadway Width on Bridge-
1. Low/Mountable type kerb 100
Number of lane Width
2. Semi-barrier type kerb 150
Single lane 4.25 m
3. Barrier type kerb 200
Double lane 7.5 m
Shoulder- Multiple lane 3.5 m + 0.5 m
Shoulders are provided on both sides of the per carriageway
pavement along the road in the case of undivided
Right of Way/Land Width/Road Land-
carriageway and on outer edge with divided
Right of way is the total area required for the
carriageway.
construction of roadway.
GPSC AEE (GMC) Class-2 2022, GPSC AAE 2021
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) Feb 2021
Carriageway + shoulder + Road margin
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 601 YCT
P- Perception time -
It is the time required to perceive an object or
situation.
I- Intellection time-
MH WRD JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
It is time required for the driver to understand the
situation. It is also the time required for comparing
Recommended land width for different classes of the different thoughts, regrouping and registering
roads- new sensations.
GPSC AAE (GMC) Class-3, 2021 E- Emotion time-
Road Plain and rolling terrain (m) Mountainous and GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021
Classification steep terrain (m) It is the time elapsed during emotional sensations
Open Built-up area Open Built-up and other mental disturbance such as fear, anger or
area area area
any other emotional feeling like superstition etc.
Expressway 90 - 60 -
V-Volition time-
N.H. and S.H. 45 30 24 20
It is the time taken by the driver for the final action
M.D.R. 25 20 18 15
such as brake application.
O.D.R. 15 15 15 12
SSD, t = 2.5 sec. (P + I + E + V)
V.R. 12 10 09 09
OSD, t = 2 sec. (P + I)
SIGHT DISTANCE CONSIDERATION
PPSC Building Inspector 2022
(a) Lag Distance-
Clear distance visible to a driver at any instant from It is the minimum distance travelled by vehicle
a specific height above the carriageway is known as during reaction time.
sight distance. Lag Distance = v.t or 0.278V.t
Factors affecting sight distance- v - m/sec., V - kmph
(i) Vehicle speed (ii) Road gradient UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB AE 2021, Kerala PSC AE 2021
(iii) Breaking efficiency (iv) Reaction time (b) Braking Distance-
(v) Frictional resistance b/w road and tyre. Distance travelled by vehicle after the application of
Classification- brake is called braking distance.
1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) It is depends on vehicle character, brake efficiency
2. Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD) and power of vehicle.
3. Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD) DSSSB AE 2021
4. Safe Sight Distance Braking time = P + I + E + V
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)- v2 V2
Breaking Distance = =
CHB Jr. Draftsman 2023, DSSSB AE 2021 2gf 254(f ± 0.01n%)
The minimum sight distance available on a highway
at any spot should be of sufficient length to stop a v2
vehicle travelling at design speed, safely without ∴ S.S.D. = vt + or
2gf
collision with any other obstruction.
UKPSC AE Paper-2 2022
S.S.D = Lag Distance + Breaking Distance 2
V
GPSC AE 2021 S.S.D. = 0.278V.t +
254(f ± 0.01n%)
Punjab PSC SDE 2021
t - Reaction time (2.5 sec.)
g - acceleration (m/sec2)
+ ve = Ascending/upward gradient
n=
Single Lane- − ve = Descending/downward gradient
• Two way Traffic - 2 SSD Stopping Sight distance values for different speeds-
• One way Traffic - SSD UP Awas Vikash Parisad 2022
Double Lane- Design Speed 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
Two way Traffic - SSD (kmph)
'PIEV' Theory- SSD for 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180
GPSC AE (Class-2) 2021, UPSC AE (PWD) 2021 Design (m)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 602 YCT
Note- d3- It is the distance (m) travelled by on- coming
If velocity increase, reaction time decrease. vehicle C in opposite direction during T (sec.) from
Reaction time and height for sight distance position C1 to C2.
As per IRC- d 3 = 0.278Vd T
Sight Reaction time Height (in m) 1. For one way traffic OSD = d1 + d2
Distance in second Driver's eye Object ∵ No vehicle coming from opposite direction
level
2. For two way traffic OSD = d1 + d2 +d3
SSD 2.5 1.2 0.15
1
ISD 2.5 1.2 1.2 OSD = 0.278Vb × t + 0.278Vb × T + aT 2 + 0.278Vd × T
2
OSD 2 1.2 1.2
Space Overtaking Zone for OSD-
Headway 0.7 - - Absolute/Minimum length of overtaking zone
DSSSB JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
= 3.OSD
RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) Cl-3, 2021 CHB JE (Building) 2023, UKPSC AE Paper-2 2022
Intermediate Sight Distance- Max. or desirable length of overtaking zone
NBCC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022 = 5.OSD
Maharastra PSC 2021, UPPCL AE 2021 APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020
ISD is provided only when OSD can't be possible to Note-
provide. OSD is not required for the 4 or more lanes of road
with divided zone.
I.S.D = 2 × S.S.D. Decreasing order of sight distance-
Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)- OSD > ISD > SSD
CHB JE (Building) 2023, ESE 2020
Sight distance required for a faster vehicle to HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
overtake the slower vehicle safely is called Design Speed-
overtaking sight distance. It is the main factor on which geometric design
elements depends.
Classification of Terrain-
CHB JE 2023, UPRVUNL JE 2022
Terrain Classification Cross Slope of the
Country (in%)
Plain 0 - 10
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3 d1 = v b t v in m/s Rolling 10 - 25
Mountainous 25 - 60
or d1 = 0.278Vb t , t = 2sec by IRC (Vb in kmph)
Steep > 60
aT 2
d 2 = b + 2S , Where 2S = , b = vb T Design Speeds on rural highways-
2 SSC JE 2022, ODISHA PSC 2021, Mizoram PSC AE 2020
Road Design speed in kmph for various terrains
1
∴ d 2 = v b T + aT 2 (m) b = 0.278Vb T Classifica- Plain Rolling Mountainous steep
2 tion
Ruling Min. Ruling Min. Ruling. Min Ruling Min.
T = Overtaking operation time
Express- 120 100 100 80 80 60 80 60
S = Minimum spacing between two vehicle ways
= 0.7 vb + 6 m (vb , m/s) NH & SH 100 80 80 65 50 40 40 30
MDR 80 65 65 50 40 30 30 20
= 0.2 Vb +6 m (Vb, kmph) ODR 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20
VR 50 40 40 35 25 20 25 20
4S
T= , (a = Acceleration in m/s2) Key Points
a
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021 (Paper-III)
■ The centrifugal force acting on vehicle will be
more when– Radius of curvature is less
14.4S ■ A portion of the roadway, contiguous with the
T= , (a = Acceleration in km/hr/sec.)
a travelled way and is intended for accommodation
If overtaken vehicle speed is not given then it can of stopped vehicle is called as– Shoulder
be taken as below ■ _____ are provided near public conveniences with
vb = vd – 4.5 Vb = Vd – 16 guide maps to enable the driver to stop clear off
the carriageway– lay byes
vd & Vd = Design speed
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 603 YCT
■ The gradient on which a motor vehicle moving Note-
with a constant speed continues to descend with Centrifugal ratio value for highway >/ 0.25 or (1/4).
the same speed without any application of power Centrifugal ratio value for railway- 0.125 or (1/8).
brakes is– Floating gradient Superelevation/Banking-
Design speeds for different classes of urban roads- To counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to
Arterial Roads 80 kmph reduce the tendency of the vehicle to overturn or
Sub-Arterial Roads 60 kmph skid, the outer edge of the pavement is raised with
Collector Streets 50 kmph respect to the inner edge, thus providing a transverse
Local Streets 30 kmph slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve.
Horizontal Curve-
Wv2
Centrifugal force, P =
gR
W = Weight of the vehicle (Kg)
R = Radius of the circular curve (m)
v = Speed of vehicle (m/sec)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2)
Centrifugal Ratio/Impact factor-
Centrifugal force P v2 General equation for design of superelevation-
= =
Weight of the vehicle W gR v2
e+f = (v in m/sec.)
UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 Paper-II gR
Note-
Max. value of impact factor/ratio- 0.22 V2
e+f = (v in kmph)
Overturning Effect Due to Centrifugal 127R
Force e = Rate of super-elevation = tan θ
f = Lateral friction coefficient = 0.15
R = Radius of the horizontal curve (m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity = (9.8 m/sec2)
Equilibrium Superelevation-
For equilibrium superelevation, coefficient of lateral
friction, f = 0
v2 V2
e= or e =
gR 127R
Design superelevation-
Superelevation for 75% design speed is calculated
by neglecting friction.
b
Equilibrium Condition, P.h = W × For mixed traffic condition speed is reduced by 25%.
2
(0.75V) 2 V2
h = height of object e= = or 75% of V
For No Overturning Condition 127R 225R
P v2 b Allowable speed at the corner va = 5.28 R
= ≤
W gR 2h Note-
Transverse Skidding Effect- Frictional force = f.W. If e < 7% then obtained value is used.
For No Skidding Condition If e > 7% then provide max. superelevation equal to
7% or 0.07.
Centrifugal force ≤ Frictional force Maximum Superelevation for Different terrain-
P v
2 IRC Recommends
Terrain
= ≤f (emax)
W gR Urban/ Built-up area 0.04 or 4%
For no skidding & no overturning 1 IN 25
For plain and rolling 0.07 or 7%
b terrain or hilly terrain 1 IN 15
P
≤ Min. of 2h covered with snow
W f Hilly terrain not covered 0.10 or 10%
with snow 1 IN 10
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 604 YCT
Minimum Superelevation- Where,
n = Number of traffic lanes
e min = Camber
l = Length of wheel base of vehicle
Ruling Minimum Radius of Horizontal Curve- (Normally taken 6.0 m)
V = Design speed
V2 v2
R ruling = OR R = Radius of horizontal curve
127(e + f ) (e + f)g
Total Extra Widening,
Assam PSC AE 2020, UPPSC AE 2020 Paper-II MH WRD JE 2022
Min. Radius of Horizontal Curves for Various nl2
V
Terrain Conditions- We = Wm + Wps = +
2R 9.5 R
Classification Plain Terrain Rolling Terrain Assam Engg. College Lect. 2021, MPSC (ASCE) 2021
of Roads Ruling Absolute Rolling Absolute
Width of pavement (m) Value of 'n'
Min (m) Min. (m) Min (m) Min.(m)
3.75 1
NH & SH 360 230 230 155 7 2
MDR 230 155 155 90 7.5 2
ODR 155 90 90 60 10.5 3
VR 90 60 60 45 14 4
Extra Widening of Pavement- Above formula is applicable for two lane or more.
RIICO Civil Draftsman 2021
For single or two lane road-
It is observed that pavement width, at the horizontal R > 300m No Extra widening provided.
curves, are larger than the width on the straight 50 < R < 300 Extra widening provided on
roads. This extra width is the result of extra both side
widening of the pavement at the curves. R < 50m Extra Widening provided on
inner side
Aim of extra widening-
Extra width of pavement at horizontal curve-
MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
i. To encounter transverse skidding. Extra width for Radius of curve (m)
ii. To prevent off tracking ≤ 20m 21 - 40 41 - 60 61 - 100
iii. To achieve a speed higher than the design speed. Single lane road 0.9 0.6 0.6 -
Two lane road 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.9
iv. To increase the visibility of the curve.
Note-
v. To encounter psychology of driver.
For multi-lane roads, the pavement widening is
Off-tracking- calculated by adding half the extra widening of two-
SSC JE 2022, ESE 2022, SJVNL JE 23.10.2021 lane roads to each lane of the multi-lane road.
When a vehicle makes a turn and it rear wheels do Horizontal Transition Curves-
not follow the same path as its front wheels this MH WRD JE 2022, ESE 2021, Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021
phenomenon is known as off tracking. When a vehicle travelling on straight road (infinite
Classification of Extra Widening- radius) enters a curve of finite radius. Then it
suddenly subjected to the centrifugal force which
1. Mechanical Extra Widening
cause shock/Jerk & sway. For avoiding this, it is
Widening required to account for the off-tracking necessary to provide a transition curve at the
due to the rigidity of wheel based. beginning of the circular curve, and gradually
reducing the radius to the radius of circular curve
nl 2
Wm = where the curve begins.
2R
UPRVUNL JE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022, UPPSC AE 2022
2. Psychological Extra Widening
V
Wps = (V in kmph)
9.5 R
UKPSC AE 2022, CGPSC AE 2022, RPSC Tech. Lect. 2021
v
W ps = ( v in m /s)
2 .6 4 R
(It is not considered for single lane road.)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 605 YCT
Type of transition curves- Set-back or clearance distance on horizontal curves-
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, UPCL AE 2021, UPPSC AE 2020 It is required from the centre line of horizontal curve
1. Spiral or clothoid 2. Bernoulli's lemniscate to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to
3. Cubic parabola provide adequate sight distance at a horizontal curve.
Set back distance depends upon.
(i) Required sight distance (SD)
(ii) Radius of horizontal curve
(iii) Length of curve (LC)
Case-1 When LC > SD
Sight distance
Clearance
Length of Transition Curve (Ls)- Line of sight
GPSC AE (GMC) 2021, Assam PSC AE 2020
1. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration- α/2
R
v3 0.0215V 3
us
α
=
di
LS =
Ra
CR CR
UPPCL JE 2022, UJVNL AE 2021, UPPSC Poly. Lect. 2021 O
Rate of change of acceleration, (a) For Single Lane or narrow road-
80 Set back distance (m) is measure from the centre line
C= m / sec3 of road for single lane.
75 + V
α
Value Range of C = [0.5 < C < 0.8] Set back distance, m = R 1 − cos
2
V = Design speed in kmph (b) For Multiple Lane or Wide Road-
R = Radius of curve Sight distance is measured along the centre line of
2. Rate of introduction of superelevation- the inner lane
150x For plain and rolling terrain Set back distance is measured from centre of road.
Ls = 100x For built up area α
60x m = R − ( R − d ) cos
For hilly area 2
x = Rise of outer line of road α S α 180S
= (in Radians) or = (in degrees)
(Rotation of outer edge about center lines) 2 2R 2 2πR
eN(W + We ) Rotation of pavement d = Distance b/w the centre line of the road & line of
LS = the inside lane in (m).
2 about inner edge
Case-2
Ls = eN (W + We)
RPSC ACF & FRO 2021
When LC < SSD
3. Empirical Formula According to the IRC-
(a) For plain and Rolling terrains
2.7V 2 35v 2 V in kmph
LS = or
R R v in m / s
TNPSC AE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022
(b) For mountainous and steep terrains
V2 12.96v 2
LS = or
R R (a) For Single Lane-
BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021
Shift of the transition curve- α SD − Lc α
m = R 1 − cos + sin
2 2 2
L2s
S= α 180Lc
24R =
and (in degrees)
UPPSC AE 2022, RPSC ACF & FRO 2021, MPPSC AE 2022 2 2π ( R − d )
Note- (b) For Multiple Lane-
Ideal shape of transition curve is clothoid or spiral. α SD − Lc α α
But curve recommend by IRC is cubic spiral. m = R 1 − cos + sin + d cos
NHPC JE 2022, UPRVUNL JE 2022, PPSC JE 2022 2 2 2 2
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 606 YCT
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT Grade compensation -
Gradient- 30 + R 75
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of G.C. = Min.of % or %
R R
the road with respect to the horizontal.
JSSC JE 2022, HPPSC Lect. 2021
TYPES OF GRADIENT-
ODISHA PSC 2021, GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021 75
(i) , If R > 45 m
Ruling or Design Gradient- R
Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within UKPSC AE 2022, MH PSC 2021
which the designer attempts to design the vertical 30 + R
profile of a road. (ii) , If R < 45 m
Limiting Gradient- R
Limiting gradient should be adopted when ruling Compensated gradient =
gradient results in very high increase in cost of Actual/ruling gradient – G.C. 4%
construction due to cutting and filling.
Vertical Curve
Generally provided in hilly regions.
Exceptional Gradient- Summit Curve-
UKPSC AE 2022, SSC JE 2022 CHB SDE 2023, HPPSC (HPPTCL)AE 2021
It is limited for short stretches not exceeding about Summit Curve or Crest curves have Convexity
100 meters at a stretch. upwards.
Minimum gradient- Summit curve design is governed by criteria of sight
It considered with drainage point of view according
distance only.
to IRC-
Circular summit curve is ideal as the sight distance
Cement Road 1 IN 500
Brick Road 1 IN 250 to 1 IN 300 available throughout the length of circular curve is
Bitumen Road 1 IN 250 constant.
Earthen Road 1 IN 200 Simple parabola as summit curve is easy to construct
High Permeable soil 1 IN 100 and also it is found to give good riding comfort too
At hairpin bends, the grade is restricted to 2.5%. because of these reasons in actual practice a simple
Gradients for roads in different terrains- parabola curve is used as summit curve instead of
CHB JE 2023, ESE 2022, GPSC AAE (GMC) Class-3, 2021 the circular arc.
Terrain Gradient Types of Summit Curves-
Ruling Limiting Exceptional
Plain or Rolling 3.3% 5% 6.7%
1 IN 30 1 IN 20 1 IN 15
Mountainous and 5% 6% 7%
steep terrain or hilly 1 IN 20 1 IN 16.7 1 IN 14.3
R.L. > 3000 m above
MSL)
Steep terrain R.L.≤ 6% 7% 8%
3000 m above MSL) 1 IN 16.7 1 IN 14.3 1 IN 12.5
Decreasing order of gradient/steepness-
Exceptional gradient > Limiting gradient > a). When positive gradient meets another positive
Ruling/Design gradient > Minimum gradient gradient.
Grade Compensation- N = n1 − n 2
It is reduction in vertical gradient due to the
horizontal curve, which in intended to offset the b). When positive gradient meets a flat gradient.
extra tractive effort involved at the curve. N = n1
or
The reduction in gradient at the horizontal curve c). When an ascending gradient (positive gradient)
because of the additional tractive force required due meets a descending gradient (negative gradient).
to curve resistance (T–Tcosα), which is intended to N = n1 + n 2
offset the extra tractive force involved at the curve.
IRC gave the following specification for the grade Deviation angle will be max. in this case.
compensation- d). When a descending gradient meets another
Grade Compensation is not required for grades descending gradient.
flatter than 4% because the loss of tractive force is
N = n 2 − n1
negligible.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 607 YCT
(i) Length of summit curve for SSD- Maximum deviation angle is obtained.
UKPSC AE 2022 (c) When an ascending gradient meets another
NS 2
NS 2
ascending gradient. N = n 2 − n1
(a) When Ls > SSD Ls = or
( 2H + 2h ) 2
4.4 Total length of the valley curve (Lv)-
(i) As per comfort criteria
( 2H + 2h) 2
4.4
(b) When Ls < SSD Ls = 2S − or 2S − Transition curve is provided back to back and if C =
N N
1/ 2
(ii) Length of summit curve for ISD/OSD- Nv3
0.6 m/s3. then L v = 2 = 0.38(NV 3 )1/ 2
2 2 C
NS NS
(a) When Lo > OSD/ISD Ls = o
or o
Chandigarh SDE 2021, Assam PSC AE 2020
8H 9.6
(ii) As per HSD criteria-
8H 9.6 Parabolic curve is provided
(b) When Ls < OSD/ISD Ls = 2So − or 2So −
N N Case-1 If L v > HSD
N = Deviation angle (equal to algebraic difference
in grades.) NS2 NS2
Lv = =
H = Height of eye level of driver above roadway 2h + 2S tan α 1.5 + 0.035 S
h = Height of object above the pavement surface As per IRC, h = 0.75, α = 1°
S = Stopping sight distance
Case-2 If L v < HSD
So = Overtaking/intermediate sight distance.
Note- ( 2h + 2S tan α )
L v = 2S −
As per IRC for SSD – H = 1.2 m, h = 0.15 m N
UPPSC AE 2022
Valley curves- (1.5 + 0.035S)
As per IRC, L v = 2S −
Valley curves/sag curves are the vertical curves N
having convexity downwards. HSD - Head light sight distance
Its design is governed by comfort criteria and safety V = Design speed in kmph,
criteria. h = Average height of headlight
Cubic parabola is generally preferred in vertical v = Design speed in m/s, N = Deviation angle
valley curves. α = Beam angle,
2N C = Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration.
Equation of cubic parabola y = b.x 3 , b =
3L3 Position of lowest point of valley curve from starting
Types of Valley Curves- of the curve,
1/ 2
n
x = 1 .L v
2N1
Note-
V3
Length of transition curve, LS =
CR
Min. height of headlight, h = 0.75
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Generally cubic parabola is preferred in valley
curve.
(a) When a descending gradient meets another Total length of valley curve, L V = 2LS
descending gradient. N = n 2 − n1 Safety Criteria-
(b) When a descending gradient meets a flat gradient. In this case driver should have adequate headlight
sight distance at any part of the country.
N = − n1
Minimum radius (R in meters) of the valley curve
(c) When a descending gradient meets an ascending LS L V
gradient. N = − ( n1 + n 2 ) for cubic parabola, R = =
N 2N
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 608 YCT
03.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Introduction- Double Decker buses 4.75 m
Traffic engineering is that branch of engineering Others for normal application 3.8 m
which deal with the improvement of traffic Others for carrying ISO Containers 4.2 m
performance of road network and terminals. Max. weight 52.2 tonne
Traffic Engineering Classification Based Braking Characteristics-
on- MP Vyapam Sub Engg. 2022
SSC JE 2022, DSSSB AE 2021 It is deals with the safety of vehicle operating, sight
distance and spacing between two consecutive
vehicles.
Braking test is done to measure the skid resistance of
the pavement surface.
u2 a
Skid resistance, f = =
2gL g
u = Initial speed (m/sec)
L = Braking distance or length of skid mark (m)
a = Acceleration
g = Acceleration due to gravity
Braking Efficiency,
Skid resistance obtained from braking test
η=
f max known
[B] TRAFFIC STUDIES & ANALYSIS
CHB SE 2023, NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022, DSSSB AE 2021
1. Traffic Volume or Flow Study-
It is the number of vehicles passes across a given
transverse line of the road during unit time.
[A] TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTIC- n × 3600
Equivalent hourly flow, q =
Vehicular characteristics- T
UPPCL JE 2022 n = no. of vehicles passing in T second.
Types of vehicles Length Unit-Vehicle/hour, vehicle/day
Traffic Volume Classification-
Motor vehicle other than transport having 9.5 m
not more than two axles Traffic Volume Classification
< 50 Light
Single Unit truck with two or more axle 11.00 m
50 - 300 Medium
Transport vehicles with rigid frame with 11.25 m > 300 Heavy
two or more axles
Method of traffic volume measurement-
Single unit bus with two or more axles 12.00 m 1. Manual method
Semi trailer tractor/Articulated vehicle 16.00 m 2. Mechanical or automatic method
with more than two axles (i) Pneumatic hose (it counts number of vehicle)
Truck/trailer or tractor/trailer 18.00 m (ii) Radar detector
combinations (iii) Magnetic detector
Width (iv) Electronic detector
Motor vehicle other than transport vehicle 2.5 m
Presentation of Traffic Volume Data-
1. Average Annual Daily traffic (AADT)-
Width by IRC 2.44 m
Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021
Transport vehicle 2.7 m It helps in determining importance of road and
Height development of road.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 609 YCT
No. of vehicles passing in a year Speed Study-
AADT = Running speed-
365
DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021
2. Average Annual Week Day Traffic (AAWT)-
Running speed Length of travel
Total week day traffic volume =
AAWT = (excludes stop delays) Total running time of vehicle
260
Journey Speed-
3. Average Daily Traffic (ADT)-
CSE 2003
Journey speed Length of travel
=
(includes stop delay) Total Journey time
No. of vehicle in week/month
ADT =
7/30 Total journey = Running time + Stopped delay time
4. Annual Average Hourly Traffic (AAHT)- 3600
RPSC Tech. Lect. 2021 Travel time = (sec./ km) Where, V in kmph
V
Total no. of vehicle passing in a year
AAHT = Spot Speed Study-
365 × 24
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at
Average. annual daily traffic a specified location.
AAHT = Spot speed can be used to design the geometry of
24
road like horizontal and vertical curves, Super
5. Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT)- elevation etc.
Total No. of vehicle passing in a year Uses of Spot Speed-
AAWT =
52×5 = 260 i). In accidental studies
ii). To calculate the traffic capacity.
Weekday = Monday to Friday on weekend volume is
iii). In planning traffic control & traffic regulation.
considerable reduced.
iv). For deciding design speed for new facilities.
Trend charts- Method of Spot Speed Study-
Trend charts showing volume trends over period of JSSC JE 2022, PPSC JE 2022, UKPSC AE 2022, ESE 2021
years are prepared. (a) Enoscope/Mirror box method
These data are useful for estimating the rate of (b) Pressure contact tubes/Road detector
growth and for planning future expansion, design (c) Direct timing procedure
and regulation. (d) Radar speedometer/Doppler-principle meters
Variation charts- (It is the accurate method)
(e) By time-lapse photographic method
Variation charts showing hourly, daily and seasonal
(f) Loop detector
variations are prepared.
(g) Graphic recorder
Helps in deciding the facilities and regulation
(h) Electronic meter
needed during peak traffic periods.
(i) Photo electronic meter
30th Highest hourly or design hourly volume
(j) Speed meter
It is the hourly volume that will be exceeded only 29 Note-
times in a year & all other hourly volumes of the Spot speed studies cannot be used to find density
year will be less than this value. because measurements are done at one point only.
According to Indian condition 30th highest hourly Types of spot speed-
volume is 8 - 10% of AADT.
(i) Time mean speed-
• Daily factor- It is the arithmetic mean of all speed of the vehicle.
7 days average for 24 hour n
DF =
24 hour count on any particular day ∑V i
Time - mean speed, Vt = i =1
(kmph)
• Seasonal factor- n
Avg. 24 hour traffic vol. count for 1 year Vi = observed instantaneous speed Ith vehicle (kmph)
SF = n = number of vehicles observed
24 hour traffic vol. count for a specific month
(ii) Space-mean speed-
• ADT = Traffic volume count × DF × SF UPPCL JE 2022, GPSC AAE 2021, OPSC Poly. Lect. 2018
It is the harmonic mean speed of all vehicles
• AADT = ADT × DF × WF × SF
occupying at a given section of highway over some
DF = Daily Factor, WF = Weekly Factor specified time period.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 610 YCT
n iii. Interview technique
Space-mean Speed, VS = n
m/s. iv. Elevated observations
1
∑V
i =1
v. Photographic technique
i
Origin & Destination Study (O & D study)-
n = number individual vehicle observations CHB SDE (Building) 2023, UKPSC AE202, DSSSB AE 2021
Note- It gives information on the actual location or zone of
Arithematic mean > Harmonic mean origin of travel of vehicles or individual passenger
trips and their destination.
Running speed > Journey speed More useful for planning of new highway.
Key Points Desire lines are plotted in this method.
■ Control points governing the alignment of the METHODS OF O & D STUDIES-
highways are called– Obligatory points ESE 2022
■ Origin and destination survey helps in identifying– (i) Road-side interview method
Desire lines of vehicular traffic flow (Quick data collection is possible)
■ The traffic signal systems are the cycle length and (ii) License plate method
cycle division automatically varied for– (Useful for small areas)
RPSC Tech. Lect. 2021
Flexible progressive system
(iii) Return post card method
Desired Speed Values for Highways- (most accurate method and useful for heavy traffic)
JSSC JE 2022, NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022
UPPCL JE 2022, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
(iv) Tag-on-car method
th (Useful for continuous small moving heavy traffic)
Upper speed limit 85 60
for regulation or percentile speed (v) Home interview method
kmph
safe speed (vi) Work spot interview method
Lower speed limit 15th 30 Traffic Flow Characteristics-
for regulation percentile speed kmph (i) Greenshield's Method(Linear)
Speed to check 98th 84 (ii) Greenberg's Method(Logarithmic)
geometric design percentile speed kmph (iii) Underwood's Method(Exponential)
15th percentile speed Lower safe limit of speed
85th percentile speed Upper safe limit of speed
98th percentile speed Geometric design speed
50th percentile speed Medium speed limit
Note-
The speed at which maximum number of vehicles
rate moving is called model speed.
98th percentile speed means the speeds at or below
which 98th percent of vehicles are moving and only
2% exceeds that limit.
Various Types of Speed and Their Application-
UPSC AE (PWD) 2021, LMRC AM 2019 Traffic Capacity Study-
Speed Application Traffic Capacity-
• Space mean speed Traffic flow studies CGPSC AE 2022
• Journey speed Delay studies It is expressed as the maximum number of vehicle in
It is the speed with stop or delay a lane or a road that can pass from a given point in
• Running speed Road condition studies unit time, usually an hour i.e. vehicle per hour per
It is the speed without stop or delay lane on roadway.
Regulatory measure Traffic capacity of a roadway depends upon the
• Spot speed
number of prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
Running time = Journey time – Delay
BPSC AE 2022, UPSC AE (PWD) 2021
Method of speed & delay studies- Basic/Theoretical Capacity-
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021, ESE 2019, GATE 2003 It is maximum number of vehicles (PCU) that can
i. Floating car or riding check method pass from a given point on the roadway during one
(Applicable for two way traffic) hour under the most ideal roadway and traffic
ii. License plate or vehicle number method conditions which can possibly be attained.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 611 YCT
Two roads have same physical features will have Thus for max. volume speed should be half of free
same basic capacities irrespective of the traffic mean speed (Vsf).
conditions. Time headway (ht)-
Possible Capacity- ESE Pre 2023
It is the maximum number of vehicles which can The time difference between any two successive
pass a given point on lane or roadway during one vehicles when they cross a given point.
hour under the prevailing roadway and traffic Traffic Volume, q = 1
conditions. In jam condition possible capacity is Average time headway (hr/veh.)
zero.
Space headway (St)-
Jam condition(0)≤Possible capacity≤ Basic capacity
It is the distance between the rear bumper of
Practical/design capacity- successive vehicle.
It is the maximum number of vehicle that can pass a
1
given point on a lane or roadway during one hour, Density per lane =
without traffic density being so great as to cause Average space headway
unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction to the
Max. Theoretical Capacity, C
driver's freedom to manoeuvre under the prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions. A. On the basis of space headways-
JSSC JE 2022
Practical capacity < Basic Capacity
1000V
Traffic Density (k) - C=
UKPSC AE 2022, RIICO Asst. Site Engineer 2021 S
Total number of vehicles per unit km is called C = capacity of a single lane, vehicles per hour per
'Traffic Density'. lane.
1 V = Space mean speed ( kmph)
k= S = Average centre to centre spacing of vehicles.
S
Empirical relation for spacing-
Unit : Vehicle/km/lane (OR) vehicle/km
Note- S = (0.7v + L) = (0.2V + L) m.
When traffic flow motion is zero then traffic density t = Reaction time (assumed 0.70 - 0.75 sec.)
will be maximum but traffic volume will be zero. L= Length of wheel base
Jam Density (kj)- B. On the basis of time headway-
UPPCL AE 2021, UPCL AE 2021
3600
The maximum density obtained at zero speed is C= Ht = Min. time of Headway (in Seconds)
called 'Jam density'. Ht
1000 Passenger Car Unit (PCU)-
kj = UPPCL AE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, RPSC Tech. Lect. 2021
Average spacing b/w vehicle
PCU value of a vehicle class may considered as the
Traffic volume ratio of capacity of roadway when there are
q = k × VS Vehicle/hour or vehicle/day passenger cars only to the capacity of same roadway
when there are vehicles of that class only.
NBCC JE 2022
q = Average volume of vehicles passing a point It is also known as passenger car equivalent.
during a specified period of time Passenger car unit is a measure of the impact that a
Vs = Space-mean speed (kmph) mode of transport has on traffic variables (Such as
k = Traffic density (veh./km) headway, speed, density) compared to a single
standard passenger car.
Vsf .k j DSSB Tech. Asst. 2021
Maximum flow q max =
4 Vehicle Class Equivalency
Vsf = Free mean speed, kj = Jam density Factors
kj Motor cycles, Scooter and pedal 0.5
Density at maximum flow K = cycle
2
Passenger Car, Pick-up van & 1.0
To Find speed at maximum flow (i.e. volume)- Auto Rickshaw, Tempo,
Vsf Agricultural Tractor
V=
2 Cycle Rickshaw 1.5
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 612 YCT
Single unit Truck, Bus & Motor 3.0 Patterns of kerb Parking-
with trailer JSSC JE 2022, RIICO Asst. Engg. 2021
• Parallel Parking
Horse Drawn vehicles 4.0
Minimum number of vehicle parked with equal
Agricultural tractor-trailer Truck- 4.5 spacing facing the same direction.
trailer
Bullock cart-small 6.0
Large bullock cart 8.0
Parking Study-
DSSSB AE 2021
It is done by using video recording. L
i. Number of space or parking vehicle N =
Parking Statistics- 6.6
Parking accumulation- L = Length of kerb in m.
It is defined as the number of vehicles parked at L
given instant of time expressed by accumulation ii. When two car placed closely, N =
6.75
curve.
Note- (L − 0.85)
• 300 Angle Parking N =
Parking survey is done by carbon count method. 5.1
Parking volume-
It is the total number of vehicles parked at a given
duration of time.
Parking Load-
Parking load gives the area under the accumulation
curve between two specific times.(Space - hours)
Average parking duration- (L − 2)
• 450 Angle parking N =
Parking load 3.6
Parking duration =
Parking volume
Parking Turnover-
It is the ratio of number of vehicles parked in a
duration to the number of parking bays available..
Parking Index-
It is also called occupancy or efficiency and it is
defined as the ratio of number of bays occupied in a (L − 2)
time duration to the total space available. • 600 Angle Parking- N =
2.9
Parking load
Parking index = ×100
Parking capacity
Parking facilities are two types–
1. On-street or Kerb Parking
This facility is usually apply at the edge of the
carriageway on the lateral strip parallel to the
roadway. It is two types-
a. Parallel Parking- L
• 900 Angle Parking N =
It is generally preferred when the width of kerb 2.5
parking space and the width of the street are limited. UKPSC AE 2022
b. Angle Parking-
It accommodates more vehicle per unit length than
the parallel parking. It may be at the angle of 30°,
60° and 90.
2. Off-street Parking-
When parking facility is provided at a separate place
away from the road side or kerb, it is known as 'off-
street parking'.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 613 YCT
Note- 1. Traffic/road Signs-
Maximum vehicles parked at 900 angle while the SSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB AE 2021
best angle of parking is 450. Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021, GPHC AE 2018
Height of traffic sign above road surface-2.75- 2.80 m
Types of conflicts at intersection (A) Regulatory Signs (B) Warning Signs
UKPSC AE 2022, JSSC JE 2022, BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021
(C) Informatory Signs
1. Crossing conflicts 2. Merging conflicts
3. Diverging conflicts 4. Weaving conflicts (A) Regulatory/Mandatory Signs-
RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021
Conflicts on cross roads Total No. of Potential DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021, DSSSB AE 2021
with Conflicts All Regulatory/Mandatory signs are circular in
Two-way traffic on both Crossing conflict = 4 shape, with only two exceptions
roads Weaving conflict = 12 i. Stop sign of octagonal shape
Merging conflict = 4 ii. Give way sign in the shape of an inverted triangle
Diverging conflict = 4
(i) Stop and Give Way Sign
NHPC JE 2022, JSSC JE (Civil) 2022
Stop Sign Give way sign
Total - 24
One-way Regulation on Crossing conflicts = 4
one Road Merging conflicts = 3
Diverging conflicts = 1
Weaving conflicts = 3 Background-Red Background-white
Border-White Border-Red
(ii) Prohibitory Signs-
Total - 11
One-way Regulation on Crossing conflicts = 4
both roads Merging conflicts = 2
Total - 6
Number of lanes No. of potential conflicts
Road Road Both road A-One way Both road
(A) (B) two-way B- Two way one-way
2 2 24 11 6 Background-White Border-Red
2 3 24 11 8 Diagonal Line-Red
2 4 32 17 10 (iii) No Parking and No Stopping Signs-
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
3 3 24 13 11
4 4 44 25 18
[C] TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES-
Traffic control device direct , guide and informs to
drivers by offering visual or tactile indicators.
Category of Traffic Control Device
1. Traffic/Road sign 2. traffic signal
3. Road marking 4. Traffic island
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 614 YCT
Background-Blue
Border-Red Colour & oblique red bar an angle of
450 degrees
Direction arrow- White
(iv) Speed Limit and Vehicle Central Signs
RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Background-White
Border-Red
Numerals Indication–Black
(v) Restriction ends sign-
NHPC JE 2022
Distance of Warning Signs along the Road-
Class of Roads Distance
NH / SH 120 m
MDR 80 m
Background-White Colour Broad diagonal black ODR 60 m
0
band at 45 degrees. VR/Urban Roads 40 m
(vi) Compulsory Direction Control Signs- Note-
Compulsory direction control signs indicate by arrows, Distance of warning sign from edge of road- 45 m
the appropriate directions in which the vehicles are Level crossing is a warning sign.
obliged to proceed or the only direction in which (C) Informatory Signs/Guide Signs–
they are permitted to proceed. ODISA PSC AE 2020
Informatory Signs are rectangular in shape with Blue
background and white/black Letters/symbols.
Informatory signs are used to guide the road users
along routes, inform them of destination and the
distance.
Ex.- 'Public Telephone', Petrol Pump, Hospital,
First Aid Post, Eating Place, Resting place etc.
Traffic Signals-
RIICO AE 2015
Background- Blue
Direction Arrows- White
Note- Dead slow is a regulator sign. Signal timing Design Methods-
(B) Warning/Cautionary Signs 1.Trial cycle Method For Two phase only
GPSC AE 2022, NBCC JE 2022, SSC JE Civil 2022 2. Approximate method
RPSC Tech. Lect. 2022, UPPCL JE 2022, DSSSB AE 2021 (Based on pedestrian For One phase only
It is used to warn the road users of certain hazardous crossing)
conditions that exist on or adjacent to the roadway. 3. Webster method For Any in number of
Warning signs are in the of equilateral triangle with phase
its apex pointing upwards. 4. IRC Method Combination of
Warning signs have a white background, red border approximate & webster
and black symbols. method
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 615 YCT
Webster's Method- Effective Green Time-
Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021 UPPSC AE 2022
It is designed on the basis of optimum cycle length Effective green time,
and total time lost. g i = G i + yi − t L
It is the most Rational Method of design.
Gi = Actual green time
1.5L + 5
Optimum cycle time C o = yi = Yellow time
1− Y tL = Lost time
UPPCL AE 2019
y1
L = Total lost time per cycle (in sec) = 2n + R For Road-1 g1 = [Co − L]
n = Number of phases y
R = All red time or red amber time y2
Y = Sum of normal flow (q) to saturation flow (s) For Road-2 g 2 = [Co − L]
y
q q
Y = y1 + y2 +......., y1 = 1 , y2 = 2 IRC Method-
S1 S2
It is an approximate method where optimum cycle
q1 q 2 time is checked by Webster method.
For two phase, Y = y1 + y2 = +
S1 S2 Minimum green time for vehicular traffic is taken 16
second.
Normal Flow
≤1 Walking speed- 1.2 m/s
Saturation Flow
Initial walking time- 7 sec.
q1 & q2 = Normal flow in the road 1 & road 2 in Green time for traffic is assign based traffic
veh./hour/lane. proportion.
S1 & S2 = Saturation flow in the road 1 & road 2 Lost time =
in veh./hour/lane.
Amber time + inter green time + initial delay
Note-
'Y' 1 Cycle time should be in multiple of 5 second.
Note- Materials used in road markings-
Flexible system > Simple progressive system > i. Thermo-plastic, paint
Alternate system > Simultaneous system. ii. Pre-fabricated sheets
iii. Reflectorised paint
Road Marking-
DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021 Traffic Island-
GPSC AAE (GMC), 2021 It is the raised area on the road to established
Traffic/Road Markings are intended to regulate, physical elements through which traffic is guided.
Control, warn or guide the traffic/road users. Classification-
1. Divisional Islands
Road/traffic markings are made of lines, patterns, UPPCL JE (Civil) 2022
words, symbols or reflectors on the pavement, kerb, It is intended to separate opposing flow of traffic on
sides of islands etc. a highway with four or more lanes.
Note- 2. Channelizing Islands
Traffic lane marking lines on rural highways- UPRVUNL AE 2022
It is used to guide the traffic into proper channel
Width- 100 mm
through the intersection area.
Length- 3 m It is very useful as traffic control devices for
Gap between strip- 6 m intersection at-grade when the area is large.
Gap at curve- 3 m It is generally provided with kerb- 15 - 21 cm high.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 616 YCT
3. Pedestrian Loading Islands- Note-
It is provided at regular bus stops and similar places Diameter of Rotary
for the protection of passengers. D rotary </ 15
4. Rotary Island-
It is the large central island of a rotary intersection. Radius of Central Island (RCI)-
It is larger than central island of channelizing R CI = 1.33 × R entry
intersection.
R exit > R CI > R entry
Width of rotary carriageway
Carriageway width (m) of Radius at Width of
the Approach Road and entry (m) carriageway at
no. of lanes entry and exit (m)
7 2 25-35 6.5
Rotary Intersection or Round About- 10.5 3 7.0
NHPC JE 2022 14 4 8.0
A Rotary intersection or traffic rotary is an enlarged 21 6 13.0
road intersection where all converging vehicles are 7 2 15-25 7.0
forced to move round a large central island in one 10.5 3 7.5
direction. 14 4 10.5
It is provided when intersecting traffic is about 50% 21 6 15.0
or more of total traffic on all intersecting roads.
Width of Carriage way at entry and exit should not
Note-
be less than 5 meters.
Point of conflict about rotary- 8
Weaving-
UPPCL JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022
Weaving is the combined movement of both
merging and diverging movements in the same
direction.
Entry and Exit Angle-
It is desirable that the entry angle should be 60° if
passable.
Entry angle should be > exit angle
Weaving Length (L)-
The weaving operation including merging and
Design speed and radius of curve at entry-
RIICO Asst. Engg. 2021
diverging can take place between the two
Entry radius (Rentry) is provided based on the design channelizing islands of the adjacent intersecting
speed of the vehicle. legs, and this length of the rotary roadway is known
Area Design Rentry (m) Friction as 'weaving length.
speed Coefficient • L 4 × Weaving section/width (w)
(kmph) Speed (kmph) Weaving Length (m)
Rural 40 20-35 0.43
40 45 - 90
Urban 30 15-25 0.47 30 30 - 60
Radius of curve at Exit (Rexit)- Note-
R exit = (1.5 to 2) × R entry Superelevation is not provided on the rotary.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 617 YCT
Width of Rotary/Width of weaving- Adjustment in the capacity of rotary-
Angle Deduction from the capacity
of weaving section
Entry Angle-
0 - 15° 5%
15 - 30° 2.5%
Exit Angle-
60 - 75° 2.5%
> 75° 5%
e + e Internal Angle-
w = 1 2 + 3.5 m
2 > 95° 5%
Where, Design factors of Rotary-
e1 = Entry width, e2 = Exit width Design speed-
Exit width (e2) is more than Entry width (e1). So that 40 kmph for rotaries in rural area.
the vehicles can move fast at the rotary.
30 kmph for rotaries in urban area.
• e 2 ≥ e1
Shape of Rotary Islands
• w = 16 - 18 m
Capacity of rotary-
UPCL AE 2021
e p
280w 1 + 1 −
QP = w 3
(1 + w / L)
QP = Practical capacity of the weaving section of a
rotary PCU/hrs.
e1 + e 2 e e +e
e = = 0.4 to 1.0 ≃ 1 2
2 w 2
L = Length of weaving section b/w the ends of
channelizing islands in metre
w / L = 0.12 to 0.4
p = Proportion of weaving traffic/weaving ratio (i) Circular Rotary-
Weaving/crossing traffic b+c It is provided where all important roads meet at
p= = rotary and traffic in all direction is same.
Total traffic a+b+c+d
(ii) Turbine Rotary-
0.4 ≤ p ≤ 1.0 This Rotary is given where the speed of rotary entry
a = Left turning traffic moving along left extreme of vehicles has to be slowed down and enable the
lane outgoing vehicles to accelerate.
b = Weaving traffic turning towards right while (iii) Tangential Rotary-
entering the rotary It is provided where only one important road at
c = Weaving traffic turning towards left while rotary.
leaving the rotary (iv) Elliptical Rotary-
d = Right turning traffic moving along right extreme It preferred when traffic in one road is significant in
lane. comparison to another road.
Channelizing Islands should be provided at the Note-
entrance and exit of the rotary to prevent Tangential and turbine rotary are not preferred
Undesirable weaving or turning and to reduce area because over speeding and glaring effect of
of conflict. headlight at night.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 618 YCT
04.
HIGHWAY MATERIALS
Bitumen- Apparatus- Orifice type viscometers.
CHB JE 2023, DDA JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022, NBCC JE 2022
Bitumen is a petroleum product obtained by the
fractional distillation of crude oil.
It is viscous liquid, black or brown in colour.
BPSC Asst. Prof. 2021, CSE 2002, GATE 1996
It is soluble in carbon di-sulphide and carbon tetra
chloride but insoluble in water.
HPPSC Lect. 2021
The bituminous materials are mostly employed for
the construction of flexible pavement.
Specific gravity of Pure bitumen 0.97 - 1.02. 3. Ductility Test [IS : 1208 – 1978]
It oxidizes slowly and chemically inert. JSSC JE (Civil) 2022, RPSC ACF & FRO 2021
Bitumen is more resistant to water than tar. Kerala PSC AE 2021, TNPSC AE 2018
TESTS ON BITUMEN Apparatus- Standard briquette.
1. Penetration Test [IS : 1203 - 1978]– To measure the adhesive property of bitumen and its
CHB SDE 2023, ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, GPSC AE 2022 ability to stretch.
JSSC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022, GPSC AE Class-2 (GMC) 2021 C/S area of briquette 10 mm × 10 mm (1 cm2)
Apparatus- Penetrometer. Rate of pull- 50 mm/min.
DSSSB JE (Tier-I) 2022,
NPCIL KAIGA SA 2021
Temperature - 27-C.
DFCCIL Junior Manager 2021 Minimum ductility- 50- 75cm
Object-To determine hardness or softness of ODISA PSC AE 2020
bitumen Ductility values on residue from 'thin film over test'
MPPGCL JE 2023, MESCOM AE 2017 (TFOT) of paving bitumen of viscosity grades (VG),
Needle with 100 gm weight released vertically in should not be less than following data.
sample for 5 second (temperature 25oC). MPPGCL JE 2023
80/100 bitumen denotes that the penetration value of VG -10 75 cm
the binder range between 80 to 100 at standard test VG -20 50 cm
condition. VG -30 40 cm
Common grades are 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100. VG -40 25 cm
In hot climates a lower penetration grade bitumen
(30/40) is preferred.
Note-
This test is not carried out for tar because of its soft
quality.
2. Viscosity Test [IS : 1206 : 1978]
It is the measure of resistance to flow. It is suitable
to test tars and cutbacks.
JKPSC AE 2021, RPSC Edu. Lect. 2021
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 619 YCT
4. Softening Point Test [IS : 1205–1978] Insoluble material is expressed as a percentage (%)
Apparatus- ''Ring and Ball''. by weight of original sample.
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, PGCIL DT 2023 As per IRC , insoluble material ≯1.0%
UPRVUNL JE 2022, UPPCL AE 2021 If black carbonaceous residue is over 0.5%, the
Dia. of steel ball- 10 mm bitumen is considered to be cracked.
9. Spot test-
Aim-To detecting over heated or 'cracked' bitumen.
UPPCL JE 2022, TNPSC AE 2022
This test is more sensitive than solubility test.
10. Water Content Test [IS : 1211 – 1978]
Max. water content in bitumen ≯ 0.2% by weight.
Assam PSC AE 2020, UJVNL AE 2016
Softening point indicates the temperature at which 11. Float Test [IS : 1210 - 1978]-
bitumen passes from solid to liquid consistency. SSC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
Harder grades of bitumen indicates higher softening Time required to pass the bitumen through float in
point. It is preferred in worm climate and lower water indicates the consistency-
temperature. High time - High Consistency
Softening point- 350 - 700C. Less time - Less Consistency
5. Flash and Fire Point Tests [IS : 1209 – 1978] Float value expressed in seconds.
MPPGCL JE 2023, DDA JE 2023 Higher float value, the stiffer is the material.
UPPCL JE 2022
Flash point-
It is the lowest temperature at which the bitumen
catches fire in the form of flash.
Fire point-
It is defined as the lowest temperature at which the
bituminous material gets ignited and burns.
Object-To determine flash and fire point of bitumen
12. Loss on heating Test [IS : 1212 – 1978]
Apparatus- Pensky Marten's closed cup UKPSC AE 2022
DSSSB JE 2022, CIL MT 2020 Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate
Fire point is always > flash point. more than 1% loss in weight, but for bitumen having
penetration values 150-200 upto 2% loss in weight is
allowed.
Cutback Bitumen-
MPPGCL JE 2023, NHPC JE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
It is obtained by reducing the viscosity of bitumen
by diluents or by fluxing asphaltic bitumen in
presence of some suitable liquid distillates of coal tar
or petroleum.
It is prepared by using naphtha or kerosene oil.
Minimum specified flash point for pavement =
Use- Road construction and soil stabilization, cold
175oC
region.
7. Specific gravity test [IS : 1202 – 1978]
Cutback Bitumen are of three types–
Apparatus- Pycnometer
(a) Rapid Curing (RC) Cutback-
Specific gravity for- GSSSB AAE 2021
(i). Bitumen- 0.97 - 1.02 Rajasthan AE Nagar Nigam, 2016, MPPSC AE 2014
(ii). Tar- 1.10-1.25 Recommended for surface dressing and patch work.
(iii). Natural asphalt- 0.92- 1.02 Penetration value- 80 - 120.
8. Solubility Test [IS : 1216 – 1978] It is flux with Petroleum, Naphtha or gasoline.
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022 (b) Medium Curing (MC) Cutback-
Object- To measure the quantity of impurity in Recommended for premix with less quantity of fine
bitumen aggregates.
CS2 and CCl4 is used as reference in this test. Bitumen is flux with kerosene and light diesel oil.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 620 YCT
(c) Slow Curing (SC) Cutback- Wood Tar-
It is obtained by blending bitumen with high boiling It is derived from the wood and roots of pine.
point gas, oil or by controlling the rate of flow and Five grades of Road Tar and Their uses
temperature of crude during the first cycle of NBCC JE 2022, U.K. Combined AE 2012
refining. RT-1: Lowest viscosity and used for surface
Note : painting under exceptionally cold weather
Cutback bitumen used for premix with appreciable conditions, hill roads at very high elevations.
Quantity of fine aggregates. RT-2: For standard surface painting under normal
RC-2 is more thick than RC-1 but RC-2, MC-2 & climatic conditions.
SC-2 have same viscosity. RT-3: For surface painting and renewal coats and
Each group of cutbacks is subdivided into six is also used for premixing chips for top
categories in the increasing order of viscosity. courses and light carpets.
Bitumen Emulsion - RT-4: For Premixing tar macadam in base course.
ISRO Tech. Asst. 2022, GPSC GES 2021
RT-5: It has highest viscosity and used for grouting
It is liquid product in which a substantial amount of
in hot areas.
bitumen is suspended in finely divided condition in
Tar is highly temperature susceptible resulting in
an aqueous medium and stabilized by means of one
great variation in viscosity with temperature.
or more suitable materials.
The Free carbon content is more in tar and less in
Emulsion is the two phase system consisting of two
Bitumen.
immiscible liquid. Bitumen/Tar content in it- 40 -
60% (remains is water) Asphalt-
GPSC AAE 2021
Emulsion is always applied in cold state.
It is a natural or artificial mixture in which bitumen
Types of Bitumen Emulsion -
is associated with inert mineral matter.
Slow setting - Use for fine aggregate mixes
Colour- black or brownish.
Medium setting - Used for premixing with coarse
Asphalt is in liquid state at 50 to 1000C while below
aggregate
500C it is in solid state.
Rapid setting - Used for surface dressing.
It is a thermoplastic material.
Blown bitumen or oxidized bitumen-
It is obtained by passing air under pressure at a high Classification-
temperature through the bitumen. 1. Natural Asphalt
It can be used as roofing and damp-proofing felts, in 2. Residual Asphalt
the manufacture of pipe asphalts and joint fillers. 3. Mastic Asphalt
It has a lower penetration grade and more softening 4. Asphalt Cement
point in comparison to pure bitumen. 5.Cut- back Asphalt
Plastic bitumen- 6. Asphalt Emulsion
It consists of bitumen, thinner and a suitable inert Natural Asphalt or Native asphalt -
filler (40 to 45%). Ex.- (i) Lake Asphalt (ii) Rock Asphalt
It is used for filling cracks in masonry structures for Liquid Asphalt-
stopping leakage. It is the viscous residue obtained by the distillation
Tar- of asphaltic base crude oil to 4250C
NHPC JE 2022 Rock Asphalt-
It is a dark (deep black) viscous liquid produced by It is naturally occurring rock formation, usually
destructive distillation of organic material such as limestone or sandstone intimately impregnated
coal, oil, lignite, wood. throughout its mass with 6-14% bitumen.
It is soluble in toluene- 75 - 95%.
Refined Asphalt-
Types of Tar- It is obtained by heating pitch to drive off the water
Coal Tar-
and draw off the mineral matter by segregating the
It is obtained as a by product in the destructive
impurities.
distillation of coal or in the manufacture of coal gas.
Composition-
Generally it has high specific gravity and good
adhesive properties.
Use- Coating of wooden poles, sleepers, iron-poles,
latrine walls etc.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 621 YCT
Cut-back Asphalt- Test of Aggregate and their Object-
It is derived by distillation of asphalt in a volatile Test Object
solvent. CBR Test Classify and evaluating soil sub-
It contains about 80% asphalt and remainder the grade and base course material for
solvents. flexible pavements
Mastic Asphalt- Plate Evaluate the support capability of
CGPSC AE 2020 Bearing soil for both rigid and flexible
It is a mixture of bitumen , fine aggregate, and filler. Test pavements.
It can absorb vibration and has a property of self Crushing Find out strength of Aggregates
healing of cracks without bleeding. Test
Suitable surfacing material for bridge and deck slab. Abrasion Find out hardness of Aggregates
Artificial Asphalt– Test
It is obtained from an admixture of coal tar , ground Impact Find out toughness of Aggregates
iron slag, sawdust, pitch etc. Test
Composition- Soundness Find out durability of Aggregates
Test
Shape Test Workability and Stability of mix
Key Points
■ The process which is used for obtaining petroleum
Asphaltic Cement- bitumen is– Atmospheric vacuum distillation
It is prepared by oxidizing asphalt at a high ■ As per IRC : 20-1966, the thickness of an
temperature. individual course of bituminous penetration
macadam shall not exceed– 75 mm
Use- Flooring, water proofing and expansion joints
in concrete. California bearing ratio (CBR) test-
Viscosity grades of bitumen and their use- This is penetration test developed for evaluation the
DDA JE 2023, SSC JE 2022 stability of soil sub-grade and other flexible pavement
RIICO Asst. Site Engg. 2021, APPSC Poly. Tech. Lect. 2020 material.
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, RSMSSB JE (Degree) 2022
Viscosity General applications
SSC JE 2022, HPSC Lect. 2022
Grade Apparatus - 150 mm mould and 50 mm plunger
VG-10 Surface dressing, paving in very cold Deflection Standard load Standard pressure
regions in lieu of 80/100 penetration 2.5 mm 1370 kg 70 kg/cm2
grade. 5 mm 2055 kg 105 kg/cm2
VG-20 Paving in cold climatic conditions of
North India and in high altitude regions 2.5/5 mm load sustained
or road construction. at penetration.
VG-30 60/70 penetration grade of bitumen. C.B.R.% = ×100
Load sustained by standard agg.
Maximizes asphalt performance in hot
regions. at corresponding pressure level
VG-40 Use in high stressed areas like Presence of coarse grained material gives poor
intersections, Toll plazas, Truck results . material passing through 20 mm sieve only
terminals, in lies of 30/40 penetration is used in the test.
grade Normally CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration is higher
Viscosity Grade Suitable for 7 day Avg. than at 5.0 mm penetration at higher one is reported
However if CBR at 5 mm penetration is higher, then
(VG) Max. Air Temp (0C)
test is repeated to check, but finally higher one is
VG-10 < 30
reported.
VG-20 30 - 38 For design of bituminous mix. or optimum bitumen
VG-30 38 - 45 content Marshall method is used.
VG-40 > 45 Stripping value of aggregate ≯ 5%
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 622 YCT
05.
PAVEMENT DESIGN
TYPE OF PAVEMENT
1. Flexible Pavement (IS:37-2012)-
UPPCL AE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
CCIL Junior Manager 2021, UPPSC AE 2020
Flexible pavement have low or negligible flexural
strength and transmits load to the sub-grade through
grain to grain.
GPSC AE 2021
Ex.- Bituminous concrete, granular materials with or 3. Semi-flexible Pavement-
without bituminous binders, WBM soil aggregate It is a new pavement technology consisting of open
mixes etc. graded asphalt concrete with a high air void content
Flexible pavements are commonly designed using filled by injecting special grouting materials.
4. Semi-rigid Pavement-
empirical charts or equations.
When bonded materials like the pozzolanic concrete,
It is also use semi-empirical and theoretical method. lean cement concrete or soil cement are used then
Layer of flexible pavement- pavement layer has considerably higher flexural
NHPC JE 2022, SSC JE 2022 strength than the common flexible pavement layers,
Punjab SDO 2021, UPPSC AE 2020, TNPSC AE 2019 such pavements are called 'Semi-rigid pavement'
(i) Soil subgrade Difference b/w flexible & Rigid Pavement
(ii) Sub base course Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
(iii) Base coarse Very less effect of temp. Affected by temp. and
(iv) Binder course stress. frictional stresses.
(v) Surface course Less night visibility Night visibility is good
Less suitable for stage More suitable
construction
Deformation in top layers Deformation is only in
is transferred to inner the top layer of the
layers concrete slab.
Low initial cost but high High initial cost but low
maintenance cost maintenance cost.
Joints are absent Expansion & contraction
joints are provided
2. Rigid Pavement(IS: 58-2012)-
Low or negligible flexural High flexural strength
Rigid pavements are designed using elastic theory, strength
assuming pavement as an elastic resting over an Flexible pavement are Rigid pavement are
elastic or a viscous foundation. commonly designed using designed using elastic
CHB (Building) SDE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022 empirical equations theory.
GPSC AE March 2018, KPSC AE 2016
Rigid pavements have flexural strength or flexural Key Points
rigidity. ■ The type of layer in flexible pavement that fulfill
Load transferred by slab action or layer to layer. the criteria such as strength, filter and drainage
requirements is- Granules sub–base layer
The rigid pavements are used for heavier loads and
■ The recommended minimum thickness of CTSB
can be constructed over poor sub-grade such as (Cementitious or Cement Treated Sub Base) layer
black cotton or plastic soil, peat etc. for flexible pavements, as per IRC: 37–2018, is–
Layer of rigid pavement- 200 mm
(i) Cement concrete slab ■ The design period adopted for structural design of
(ii) Base coarse flexible pavements for State Highways, as per
(iii) Soil subgrade IRC: 37–2018 is– 20 years
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 623 YCT
Layers of Flexible Pavement– Base courses are used under rigid pavements for
1. Seal Coat preventing pumping and protecting the sub-grade
MPPGCL JE 2023, JSSC JE 2022, RPSC Tech. Lect. 2021 against frost action
It is a thin surface treatment used to make water- Min. thickness-100 mm..
proof the surface and to provide skid resistance. 8. Sub-base course-
DSSSB AE 2021
A premixed sand bitumen seal coat is used over
premixed carpet. It is the primary functions to provide structural
supports and improve drainage.
2. Tack coat
Thickness- 100 - 300 mm.
SSC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2022, GATE 1992
It is a very light application of asphalt, usually 9. Sub-grade/Soil Sub-grade-
CHB Sr. Draftsman 2023, SSC JE 2022
asphalt emulsion diluted with water.
It is the bottom most layer of pavement by which
It provides proper bonding between two layer of
pavement load is ultimately taken by soil sub-grade.
binder course and must be thin, uniformly cover the
Minimum thickness- 100 mm
entire and set very fast.
3. Prime Coat
Strength Tests for Soil Sub-grade-
UPPCL JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022, CG Vyapam SE 2022 1. Plate Bearing Test
It is an application of low viscous cutback bitumen 2. Triaxial Compression Test or Direct Shear Test
to an absorbent surface. The main object of priming 3. CBR Test
is to plug in the capillary voids of the porous surface 4. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) Test.
and to bond the loose mineral particles on the (For in-situ condition)
existing surface. Design factors for Flexible Pavement-
It provides bonding between two layers. i. Design wheel load or traffic loads
4. Surface course ii. Pavement component materials
Surface course is the layer directly in contact with iii. Climatic factors
traffic loads and resists pressure exerted by tyres and iv. Sub-grade soil
take up wear and tear due to traffic. v. Drainage and Environmental factors.
These are usually constructed with dense graded vi. Contact pressure.
asphalt concrete.
z3
Purpose- To provide smooth riding surface. Design Wheel Load- σ z = p 1 − 2 2 3/ 2
( a + z )
Thickness- 25 - 50 mm.
5. Wearing course-
The stability of wearing course is estimated by
Marshall stability test where in optimum % of
bituminous material is worked out based on stability
density, VMA and VFB.
Plate bearing test and Banklemann beam test are
also some times made use, for evaluating the
wearing course and the pavement as a whole.
6. Binder Course-
Binder course consists of aggregates having less Contact Pressure-
asphalt and does not require quality as high as the Vertical stress computation under a circular load is
surface course. based on Boussinesq's Theory.
Thickness- 50 - 100 mm. . Load on wheel
7. Base Course- Contact pressure, C.P =
Area of imprint
It provides additional load distribution and
contributes to the sub-surface drainage. Contact Pressure
Rigidity factor, R .F. =
Base and sub-base course are used under flexible Tyre Pressure
pavement to improve load through a finite thickness UPRVUNL SE 2022
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 624 YCT
1 The value of deflection factor (F) is depend upon the
Tyre pressure T .P ∝ ratio of (Z/a) and determine from the charts.
R.F.
2. Group Index Method-
Where,
σ z = Vertical Stress at depth z G.I. = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
Where,
p = Contact Pressure of tyre
a = (P – 35) < 40 b = (P – 15) < 40
z = depth at which σ z is computed
c = (wl – 40) < 20 d = (Ip –10) < 20
a = radius of loaded area
P = Finer % passing through 75µ sieve
Tyre Contact Rigidity
Note-
Pressure Pressure Factor
G.I value- Maximum-20
= 7kg / cm 2 = 7kg / cm 2 =1
Minimum-0
> 7kg / cm 2
< 7kg / cm 2
<1 It is used for sub-grade design and soil classification
< 7kg / cm 2
> 7kg / cm 2
>1 Soil quality based on G.I. value-
Soil Quality G.I. Value
The rigidity factor depends upon the degree of
tension developed in the wall of the tyre. Good 0-1
Key Points Fair 2-4
■ The sequences of laying a plastic road– Poor 5-9
Segregation > Cleaning > Shredding Very poor 10 - 20
■ The method of proportioning mostly used for 3. C.B.R. Method- (Recommended by IRC)-
concrete rigid pavements on road construction is UPMRC AM 2023
called– IRC 44 Pavement thickness,
Flexible pavement design method- 1.75P P 1.75P A
Flexible T= − or −
C.B.R. Pt .π C.B.R π
Pavement Design Example Based on
Method Applicable if CBR < 12%
G.I. Method Where,
CBR Method Physical
Empirical Method P = Wheel load Pt = Tyre pressure
Mc. Load Method Properties 2
Stabilometer Method A = Area of contact (cm )
Semi-Empirical or Stress strain 4. Modified CBR Method-
Triaxial test Method DSSSB AE 2021
semi-theoretical function.
Theoretical Mathematical No. of cumulative standard axle-
Burmister Method
Method Method
r
n
1. 1. Burmister Method- 365 1 + − 1 A.D.F
MH WRD JE 2022 Ns = 100
n
Maximum vertical deflection, r
100
P.a
∆ = 1.5 .F ( for flexible plate )
Es Where,
A = No. of commercial vehicle per day
If rigid circular plate (30cm) is used instead of
x
flexible plate then, r
= P 1 +
P.a 100
∆ = 1.18 .F ( for rigid plate )
Es x = No. of years b/w last count and completion
of pavement construction
a = radius of plate
P = No. of vehicle per day at last count
P = Pressure at deflection
Es= young's modulus of Pavement material. F = Vehicle damage factor
F = Deflection factor n = Pavement design life (10 - 20) year
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 625 YCT
r = Rate of growth of traffic (7.5%) 3. Equivalent area (b) of resisting section for
D = Lane distribution factor interior
MH WRD JE 2022
5. McLeod Method- It is based upon plate bearing test
loading-
P
T = k.log10 i) b = 1.6a 2 + h 2 − 0.675h when a < 1.724h
S
k = Base coarse constant, S = Sub-grade reaction ii) b = a when a > 1.724h
6. California Resisting Value Method- CRITICAL COMBINATION OF STRESSES-
CHB SDE (Building) 2023, UPMRC AM 2023, JSSC JE 2022
k(T.I.)(90 − R)
t= 1. During Summer mid day
C1/ 5
Critical Combination of Stresses at edge region,
T.I = Traffic index 1.35 (EWL)0.11
= Load stress + Warping stress - frictional stress
k = Constant, 0.166
First two are tensile while frictional stresses are
C = Cohesion meter value
compressive.
R = Stabilometer resisting value
2. During winter mid day-
7. Tri-axial Method-
Critical Combination of Stresses at edge,
1/ 3
3p.x.y E = Load stress + Warping stress + frictional stress
T= − a2 s
2πE s .∆ Ep 3. During Summer mid night-
Es & Ep = Modulus of elasticity of sub-grade and Critical combination of stresses at corner
pavement Load stress + Warping stress
y = Rainfall depth, x = Traffic coefficient
The Load stress at edge region is higher than the
Rigid pavement design method- interior.
Rigid pavement have the load carrying capacity Note- Stress at corner > Stress at edge > Stress at interior
mainly due to rigidity and high modulus of
elasticity. Key Points
1. Modulus of Sub-grade Reaction– ■ In Marshall testing of bituminous mixes, as the
GPSC AAE (Class-2) 2021 bitumen content increases the flow value increases
Westergaard used rigid plate of diameter 75 cm to monotonically.
find modulus of sub-grade reaction (K). ■ Low bitumen content causes ravelling in
bituminous pavement.
p p
K= = Kg / cm3 ■ Built–up spray grout is used for strengthening of
∆ 0.125
existing bituminous pavements is.
Where, ■ Reflection cracking is observed in bituminous
p = Contact Pressure overlay over cement concrete surface
∆ = Displacement ■ According to IRC 37–2018, the critical
compressive strain occurs at the top of the sub–
K 75cm = 0.4K 30cm (Theoretically)
grade layer
2. Radius of Relative Stiffness of slab to sub-grad-
Design of Joints in Cement Concrete
1/ 4
E .h 3
Pavement-
l= 2
cm.
12K(1 − µ ) ESE Pre. 2023, SSC JE 2022
DSSB AE 2021
Where,
l = Radius of relative stiffness (cm)
E = Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete
µ = Poisson's ratio of cement concrete (0.15)
h = C.C. slab thickness (in cm)
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 626 YCT
W = Unit wt. of C.C. (2400 kg/cm3)
f = Coefficient of sub-grade friction (taken 1.5)
Case-2 When reinforcement is provided
200A s .Ss
LC =
b.h .w .f
SS = Allowable tensile stress in steel (1400 kg/cm2)
AS = Total Area of steel in cm2
3. Warping or Hinged Joints-
It is provided along the longitudinal direction to
prevent warping of the concrete slab due to
temperature and sub-grade moisture variation.
1. Expansion Joint-
NBCC JE 2022, GPSC AE 2021, DSSB AE 2021
4. Construction Joints-
It is provided across the longitudinal direction to It is provided whenever the construction work stop
allow for expansion of the pavement due to rise of temporarily.
temperature. Construction joint direction could be either along the
transverse or longitudinal direction.
It is provided, if the length of concrete structure
Longitudinal Joints-
exceeds 45 m.
ESE 2023, DSSSB JE 2022
Joint interval-
It is prevent longitudinal cracking in the centre of
If slab is laid in winter- 50 - 60 m the pavement.
If slab is laid in summer- 90 - 120 m provided when CC pavement width > 4.5 m.
Gap width - 20-25 mm It is allow differential shrinking and swelling due to
Purpose of the dowel bar is to transfer the load rapid change in moisture under the edge than the
between two concrete slabs and to keep the two centre of the road.
slabs in same height. Tie bars used across the longitudinal joints of
As per IRC has recommended, for rough interface cement concrete pavement.
the spacing ≯140 m. Longitudinal joints with tie bars as hinges and help
2. Contraction Joint to relieve part of warping stress in CC pavements.
UPPCL JE 2022, SSC JE 2022, NHPC JE 2022 Tie bars are not designed to act as load transfer.
Its purpose is to allow the slab construction due to
2a sSs dSS
fall in slab temperature below the construction Length of Tie Bar- L t = =
PSb 2Sb
temperature.
UKPSC AE 2022, RPSC Tech. Lect. 2021
In this joint movement is restricted the sub-grade
π 2
friction. as = d , p = 2πd
4
As per I.R.C the max. spacing of these joints is 4.5m
SS = Allowable tensile stress
in plain cement concrete slabs and 14 m in RCC slab
Sb = Allowable bond stress in concretes
of thickness 20 cm.
d = diameter of tie bar (cm)
Spacing of construction joint-
P = Perimeter , Lt = Length ,
Case-1 When reinforcement is not provided
aS = Area of tie bar
2 × 104 Sc Stress Plain tie bar Performed bar
LC =
W .f Tensile (Ss) (kg/cm ) 2
1250 2000
Where, Bond (Sb) (kg/cm2) 17.5 24.6
LC = spacing between contraction joint (in meter) In case of pavement design of tie bars are resist
2
SC = Allowable tensile stress in C.C. (0.8 kg/cm ) tensile stress and dowel bars are resist bearing stress.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 627 YCT
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................... 629
2. Rail Joint, Defect and Track Stresses ................................................................................. 631
3. Geometric Design of Track................................................................................................. 635
4. Point and Crossing .............................................................................................................. 638
5. Sleeper, Ballast, Fastening and Fixtures ............................................................................. 640
6. Railway Signal and Station Yard ........................................................................................ 643
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 628 YCT
01.
INTRODUCTION
Introduction- Types of Rails-
On 16th April 1853, the first passenger train in India
run between Boribunder (Bombay) and Thane a
distance of 34 km.
George Stephenson is the father of railway.
First train run in the world on 17th September 1825
between Stockton and Darlington.
UJVNL AE 2012
Total Number of Railway Zones- 18
17th zone - Kolkata metro (Oldest metro in India)
18thzone- Southern coast railway zone
(Vishakhapatnam)
OPSC AE 2016, OPSC AEE 2015
1. Double Headed Rails-
RAILS First rail section designed by Indian railway.
Rails are made up of high carbon steel that resist • It can be inverted and re-used.
wear and tear. 2. Bull Headed Rails-
OPSC AE -2016, OPSC AEE 2015
It transforms axle load to the sub-grade with the help Dimension of bull headed rails is more than its foot.
of sleepers and ballasts. It is most suitable at point and crossing and where
Rails convert the moving load into point load which lateral loads acts.
acts on sleepers. 3. Flat Footed Rails-
Cost varies as depth of rail and strength varies • Known as Vignole's rail.
square of depth of rail. • Bearing plate are used b/w sleepers and rails.
Note- UKPSC AE Civil 2022
Hammer test and falling weight test is compulsory • Now a days used in Indian railway and most popular.
for testing of rails. • Neither chairs nor key is required to fix them with
sleepers.
Manganese steel is used for rail construction.
• Most suitable due to stability, economy and strength.
DSSSB JE 2022
Load transfer step-
Moving load of locomotive → Rails → Sleepers →
Ballast → Soil.
Rail Composition-
Composition For ordinary Rails on point and
rails (%) crossing (%)
Carbon 0.55 - 0.70 0.50 - 0.60
Manganese 0.65 - 0.90 0.95 - 1.25
(Maximum)
Silicon 0.05 - 0.30 0.05 - 0.20
Sulphur 0.05 0.06
Phosphorus 0.06 0.06 Note-
Height is the largest dimension in rail section.
GPSC AE 2018, Chandigarh SDE 2017
Flat footed rails are designated by Weight of
Note- rails/unit length and it is two types.
Ordinary rail are made by high carbon steel. S.N. Types Suitability
Rails on point and crossing is made by medium 1. 52 kg/m or 52 MR Locomotive speed < 130
carbon steel. km/h
Metro and mono rails are made of manganese steel. 2. 60 kg/m or 60 MR Locomotive speed < 160
WBPSC AE 2020, ESE 2018 km/h
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 629 YCT
60 kg/m and 52 kg/m types of rail section are more Types of rail gauge Width or gauge
economical and adopted for B.G. tracks. distance (m)
UKPSC A E 2013, CSE 2009 Broad Gauge 1.676
Length of Rail- Meter Gauge 1.0
Rail joint is the weakest parts in rail path so it Narrow Gauge 0.762
should be kept in mind as soon as possible number Standard Gauge 1.435
of joint should be kept minimum in rail path. Light /Feeder Track Gauge 0.610
Track type Length of rail
B.G. Tracks 12.80 ≃ 13 m UPRVUNL JE (Civil) 2022, NHPC JE 2022
UP Awash Vikas Parishad 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
M.G., N.G. Tracks 11.89 ≃ 12 m CGPSC AE 2017
JSSC JE 2022, JKSSB JE Civil 2022Note-
MH WRD JE 2022, MPPSC AE 2021 In India Metros use standard gauge.
Weight of rail per meter length- • Selection of gauge-
Rail is designed by its weight per unit length which In comparison to meter gauge and narrow gauge,
is found as per the locomotive axle load. broad gauge provides greater stability, greater axle
If any rails has a section XR, it implies that the load and where speed > 100 kmph etc.
weight of rail section per meter length is X kg. Narrow gauge is used in a hilly areas.
Standard rails section with their weight as per Indian UPRVUNL AE 2015
Railway- Cost of construction increase with the gauge width.
Gauge Rail section Weight/m length For heavier loads and high speed wider gauge are
Broad gauge 60 R 60 kg used.
52 R 52 kg Gradient of mountain tracks are very steep which is
45 R 45 kg greater than 3%.
Meter gauge 45 R 45 kg Permanent Way or Railway Track-
37 R 37 kg The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers with the
25 R 25 kg
help of fixtures and fastening and resting on ballast
Narrow gauge 25 R 25 kg
and sub-grade is called permanent way or railway
GPHC AE 2018, UKPSC A E 2013, CSE 2009
Note- track.
Rails are used in India- It is in semi-elastic condition due to ballast cushion.
45 kg - for B.G.
30 kg - for M.G.
Calculation of max. axle load-
Wt. of rail in tonnes W 1
= R =
Wt. of axle load in tonnes WL 510
Maximum axle load in India-
Gauge Maximum axle load On curves superelevation is maintained by ballast.
Formation level of railway track kept 60 cm above
Broad gauge 28.56 tonnes the flood level. The gradient is as gentle as possible.
Meter gauge 17.34 tonnes CGPSC AE 2014
Uttarakhand Combined State AE 2007 Permanent way should have enough lateral strength
Gauge- and shocks absorbing property.
JKSSB JE Civil 20.03.2022, Layers of ballast rest on the prepared sub grade is
KPSC AE 2016, Kerala PSC AE 2015
called the formation.
It is the clear minimum distance between the
Formation width as per Indian standard
inner/running face of rails placed on track. There is
5 types of rail gauge- Particulars Recommended dimension in (m)
B.G. M.G. N.G. Slope
Embankment-
Width of bank:
(a) Single line 6.10 4.88 3.70 2 : 1
(b) Double bank 10.67 8.53 7.32
Cutting-
Width of cutting excluding
side drains
(a) Single line 5.49 4.27 3.35 1.5 : 1
(b) Double line 10.06 7.93 7.01
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 630 YCT
02.
RAIL JOINTS, DEFECT & TRACK STRESSES
It is the most commonly used joints in railway system.
The joint become loose due to hammering action of
locomotive loads.
It provides greater elasticity and cause less
disturbance so it is widely adopted.
According to position of joint-
(i) Square or even rail joint-
Joint in a rail of track is directly opposite to the joint
in a parallel rail.
These joints is provided in straight length of track
but now a days staggered joint are more favored. (iii) Bridge Joint-
At present, such joint are commonly used on railway It is similar to suspended joint. Only difference is, a
lines. sufficient length of metal is used to connect the ends
of two rails so that there is no bending stress in the
rail.
Bridge is placed at bottom of rails and rest on
sleepers. It is not used in Indian railways.
(ii) Staggered joint-
Joint in both rails of a track are not directly opposite
to each other. Mostly it is provided on curved tracks.
It reduces the vertical disturbance of wheels at the
joints.
It produce smooth running. (iv) Compromise/Composite Joint-
UPCL AE 2021, GPSC AE 2019
TNPSC AE 2019, TNPSC AE 2018
It is a types of joint in which two different rail
sections are jointed by fish plate.
According to position of Sleeper-
(i). Supported rail joint-
If an extra sleeper provided below the ends on of
both rails then this types of sleeper is called
supported joint sleeper. Ends of rails rest on the
sleeper.
Welding of Rail Joints-
It is the ideal, strongest and most perfect joint.
Benefits of weld joint-
i. More stability in longitudinal, vertical, and lateral
directions of tracks.
(ii) Suspended joint- ii. Reduce creep
In this type of joint ends of rails are suspended iii. Increase life
between two sleepers. some portion of rail is iv. Reduce maintenance cost
cantilevered at the joint. v. Reduce length of joint or increase in the rails.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 631 YCT
Methods of rail welding-
1. Gas pressure (oxy-acetylene) welding
Use- (Joining of metals)
2. Electric Arc/metal welding
3. Flash butt welding
4. Thermit welding
Use-(Rail joint in railways)
Thermit is the mixture of metal oxide and aluminum
power.
Types of welded rail-
Short Welded 3, 5 or 10 rails are welded together.
Rail (S.W.R.) • Flash but welding is done.
• It contract and expands through out Defects in Rail-
length.
1. Kinks or shoulders-
Long Welded 200 m (for B.G.) and 300 m (for M.G)
This is due to loose packing at joint and defects in
Rail (L.W.R.) rail length are welded (max. up to 1
km). gauge. The end of adjoining rails moves slightly out
• Thermite welding is done. It does of position.
not undergo any longitudinal When the ends of adjoining rails move slightly out
contraction or expansion due to of position "shoulder's "or "kinks" are formed.
temperature variation. Cause-
Continuous Rail welds longer than 1 km. Uneven wear of rail head, loose packing at joints,
Welded Rail • It is a type of L.W.R that continuous defect in gauge and alignment.
(C.W.R) through station yards, including points
and crossing.
Manipur PSC AE 2013
Breathing Length-
It is that min. length of welded rail at each end of
LWR/CWR which is not subjected to
expansion/contraction on account of temperature
variation.
The portion of LWR/CWR that undergoes expansion Kinks of Rail Roaring of Rail
and contraction is known as breathing length.
2. Roaring of rails or corrugated rail-
If there is the corrugation or minute depression on
rail surface then unpleasant roaring noise is caused
due to passing the train over its. This phenomenon is
called roaring of rails.
These defects are usually created where breaks are
applied or train starts.
Total breathing length = 2(n –1).S 3. Buckling of Rails-
Where, Due to insufficient gap in expansion joints of rail
n = Number of sleepers required
there is not possible to provide free expansion in the
S = Sleeper spacing
direction of length of rail. So track has gone out of
Switch Expansion joint (SEJ)- its original position or buckle in lateral direction,
It is an expansion joint installed at each end of this phenomenon is known as buckling of rails.
LWR/CWR to permit expansion/contraction of the
Buckling usually take place on tangent length or at
adjoining breathing length due to temperature
variation. curve. It is also due to excessive creep.
Expansion joints are installed in order to absorb Buckling of track can be corrected by tightening the
stresses in the ballast bed caused by movements of fish bolts.
the bridge frame. CGPSC AE 2014, OPSC Civil Services 2011
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 632 YCT
B.G track-
For straight length and 3 mm tight to 6 mm slack
curves upto 60
For curves 6o- 10o 13 mm slack
M.G track-
For straight length and 3 mm tight to 15 mm slack
Buckling of Rail curves upto 60 13 mm slack
Hogging of Rail For curves 6o- 10o
4. Hogged Rails- (iii) Wear on the ends of rail
Manipur PSC AE 2013
Wheel burn-
Due to battering action of wheels over the ends of UPPCL JE 2022
rail, ends of rails are bent down at the joints. These It is caused by the slipping of the locomotive wheel
rails are called "hogged rail". on the rail surface.
It occurs mainly due to loose packing under the joint Coning of wheel-
and loose fish plate. SSC JE Civil 2022, UKPSC AE Civil 2022
MPPSC AE 2022, JKPSC AE 2021
5. Wear of Rail-
Karnataka PSC AE 2015, UKPSC AE 2013
Surface of wheel are made in cone shape at an
inclination of 1 IN 20 and the same slope is provided
Wear of rail means either the top or side or end of
in the rails, this is known as coning of wheels.
the rail head gets removed. It is one of the prominent This slope of wheel counteract the centrifugal force
defects of the rail. By using less number of rail joint acting on the train.
and good maintenance of track wear of rails may be It enables the train wheel to cover different distance
reduced. along the inner and outer curves simultaneously.
Manipur PSC AE 2013
On Curved Track-
Outer rail distance > inner rail
This extra distance of outer rail is adjusted by
Cause of Wear- coning of wheel. When the locomotive travels on
Slipping, skidding, striking of flange on curves, curve, a centrifugal force acts on it. Due to this outer
large load, high speed, gap at rail joint etc. wheel moves outward and has to travel longer
distance as compared to inner wheel.
Types of wear-
Purpose-
(i) Wear on the Rail Head- UKPSC AE 2022, GSSSB AAE 2021
It is due to abrasion on the moving rails. Rail should i. To keep the train in its central position of the rails.
be changed if the weight of rails reduced upto 5% ii Coning does not provide any lateral movement on a
due to wear. straight track.
(ii) Wear on the side of rail- iii. To avoid discomfort of the passengers
Crushed head is due to slipping of the locomotive iv. To reduce wear and tear of rails on curve
wheel. v. To avoid damage the inner faces of rails.
Maximum Tolerance Including Side Wear for M.G vi. Reduce the slipping of wheels.
Meter Gauge Tolerance
CREEP OF RAIL
UKPSC AE 2022
On straight 3-6 mm UPPSC AE 2022, JSSC JE 2022
3-15 mm It is the longitudinal movement of rails with respect
On curve (radius ≥ 290 m)
to sleepers in a tracks in the direction of motion of
On curve (radius < 290 m) ≤ 20 mm locomotives.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 633 YCT
Cause of Creep-
UPPCL AE 2015
i. Wave action or wave theory
ii. Percussion theory
iii. Drag or dragging theory
iv. Starting, accelerating, slowing down or stopping of
train.
v. Expansion or contraction of rails due to temperature.
vi. Unbalance traffic
vii. Curve
viii. Rail condition
ix. Creep of old rails more than the new rails. Drag or dragging theory-
Wave action or wave theory- According to drag theory, backward thrust of the
UPPSC State Eng. A.E. 2003, 2007 driving wheels of locomotive has the tendency to
According to wave theory a rail creep is caused due push the rail backwards, while the thrust of the other
to formation of the crest curve ahead of the wheels, wheels of the locomotive pushes the rail in the
resulting from the rail deflection under the load. direction in which the locomotive is moving.
Wheel push the wave with tendency to force the Creep measurement-
rails in the direction of train movement, causing Creep measured with the help of creep indicator.
creep. Creep in excess of 150 mm should not be permitted
As the wheel moves the lift in front of the moving on standard track.
load is carried forward by the wheels and causes No creep should be permitted on approaches of
creep, whereas the lift at the rear of the wheel gets points and crossing.
back to its normal position. Prevention of creep-
SSC JE Civil 2022
(i) Pulling back the rails
(ii) By providing anchors or anti-creepers.
Anchors are fixed to rails either-
(i) By wedging action (ii) By clamping
(iii) By a spring grip
Pitch and depth of wave depends on-
(i) Stiffness of track
(ii) Track Modulus
(iii) Stability of formation
Note-
Creep ∝ Depth and pitch
Reduction of creep or wave action-
(i) Increasing track stiffness
(ii) Less sleeper spacing or increasing sleeper density
(iii) Larger rail section
(iv) Angular and heavy ballast with good interlock
Percussion Theory-
MH WRD JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
According to percussion theory creep occurs due to
impact of wheels at the rail end ahead at joint.
Horizontal component of the load (p) pushes rails in
the rail direction, causing creep.
Cause-
(i) Weak and loose fish bolt
(ii) Wide expansion gap and loose packing of joints
(iii) Heavy axle load with high speed moving.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 634 YCT
03.
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRACK
For track to have proper geometric design in order to (b) For high speed trains (speed > 100 km/hr)-
ensure the safe and smooth running of trains at 198L 198L
maximum permissible speeds, carrying the heaviest Vmax = or Which is minimum
Ca Cd
axle loads.
Relation b/w Radius & Degree of Curve-
Safe Speed of trains on Curves-
1720
A. Based on Martins Formula- D= For 30 m chain
R
1. For Transition Curve (For low speed < 100 kmph)
NPCIL KAIGA SA 2022, NBCC JE Civil 2022
(a) For B.G & M.G. V = 4.35 R − 67 1150
D= For 20 m chain
MPPSC AE 2021, UPPSC AE 2020 R
(b) For N.G V = 3.65 R − 6 V is in km/hr. Where, R = Radius of curve
Gauge On Plain Track On Turnout
R = Radius of curve
Max. Min. Max. Min.
DMRC AM 2020
degree radius degree radius
2. For Non-Transition curve- of curve (m) of curve (m)
(For low speed < 100 kmph) B.G. 10° 175 8° 218
(a) For B.G. & M.G. M.G. 16° 169 15° 116
V = 0.80 × Speed Calculated in B.G.& M.G. N.G. 40° 44 17° 103
Group Min. Radius (m)
or V = 3.48 R − 67
A 4000
(b) For N.G. V = 2.92 R − 6 B 3000
C, D, E 2500
3. For High Speed Trains-
Versine of Curve-
V = 4.58 R for BG only. APPSC AEE 2012, ESE 2005
B. Based on Superelevation-
For Transition Curves- L2
V=
8R
(i) For B.G. V = 0.27 (Ca + C d )R
(ii) For M.G. V = 0.347 (Ca + Cd )R Grade Compensation on Curve-
MPPSC AE 2021, KPSC AE 2020, ESE 2003, CSE 2003
Where, In order to avoid resistances beyond the allowable
Ca = Actual cant in 'mm' limits, the gradient are reduced on curves. This
Cd = Cant deficiency in 'mm' reduction is known as grade compensation.
Gauge Per degree of curve, min. of
(iii) For N.G. V = 3.65 R − 6
Broad Gauge 70
C. Speed From the Length of Transition Curve- 0.04% or
R
(a) For speed upto 100 km/hr.
Meter Gauge 52.5
0.03% or
134L 134L R
Vmax. = or (Which is minimum)
Ca Cd Narrow Gauge 35
0.02% or
Where, L = Length of transition curve based on rate R
MPPGCL JE 29.4.2023 Shift-I
of change of cant
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 635 YCT
Superelevation or cant- Equilibrium or Average Speed (Vavg.)-
• Superelevation/Cant (m)- (a) For speed > 50 kmph
LMRC AM 2019, TSPSC Deputy Engineer 2015 3
G = Gauge distance in mm × Vmax
Vav = minimum of 4
GV 2 Safe speed by martins formula
e= V = Kmph
127R
R = Radius of curve in m (b) For speed < 50 kmph
• Equilibrium cant- V
2 Vavg. = minimum or max
GVavg. Safe speed by martins formula
e' = V =Average speed
127R avg.
(c) Weighted average method-
Note-
n1 v1 + n 2 v 2 + ..... ∑ n.v
Curvatures of up to 40° are normally adopted for Vav = =
n1 + n 2 + ....... ∑n
hills or mountain railway.
When a train passes on curves which have no super Where, n1, n2...... are the number of trains running at
elevation it will give thrust on inner side of outer speeds v1, v2 ......
rail. Transition Curve-
Maximum value of cant (emax)- UKPSC AE 2022, MPPSC AE 2022
UPPCL AE 2019, Haryana PSC AE 2010 Transition curve is a easement curve which is a
Type of gauge < 120 kmph > 120 kmph curve of varying radius throughout of its length. It is
B.G. 16.5 cm 18.5 cm usually provided in a shape of cubic parabola at each
ends of circular curve.
M.G. 10.0 cm -
NBCC JE Civil 2022
N.G. 7.60 cm -
Bernoulli's lemniscate satisfy the requirements of
Cant Deficiency- transition curve up to deflection angle of 300.
MPPSC AE 2021, UPPSC State Eng. A.E. 2007 Cubic parabola is used by Indian railway.
Cant deficiency becomes an inevitable consideration x3
on a main line and branch line moving in same • Equation of cubic parabola- y = 6RL
direction.
1
Cant deficiency = X1 – X a • Deflection Angle- θ = tan -1 tan φ
3
x2
• Spiral Angle- φ = tan -1
2RL
L2
• Shifts- S =
24R
• Curve lead = 2GN
Xa = Actual cant as per average speed
• Crossing number, N = cot α
X1 = Cant required for a high speed train.
• Length of transition curve as per Indian railway
e th = eact + D code-
Where, eth = Theoretical cant 0.073Ca .Vmax
eact = Actual cant
L = max .of 0.073 Cd .Vmax
Permissible limit of cant deficiency- 7.20 C
UKPSC AE 2022
a
CGPSC AE Civil 2022, UPPCL AE 2021 OR,
Type of gauge < 100 kmph > 100 kmph Maximum of
B.G. 7.6 cm 10.0 cm (i) As per railway code
M.G. 5.1 cm - Punjab PSC SDE 2016
N.G. 3.8 cm - L = 4.4 R Where, L & R in m
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 636 YCT
(ii) Based on rate of change of radial acceleration
Lap of flange, L (m) = 0.02 h 2 + D.h
3.28V 2
L= V in m/sec. Where,
R
B = Rigid wheel base (m)
(iii) At the rate of change of superelevation of 1 in 360.
For B.G., B = 6 m
(iv) Rate of change of cant deficiency, say 2.5 cm is not
exceeded. For M.G., B = 4.88 m
R = Radius of curve in m.
Extra Lateral Clearance on Curves-
h = Depth of wheel flange below rails (cm)
(a) Over throw or extra clearance needed at centre
D = Wheel dia. (cm)
C2
(i) Crossing Lead-
8R
α+β
(b) End throw or extra clearance needed at end- CL = x cos α + (G − d − x sin α) cot
2
2 2
L C
− G
8R 8R (ii) Radius, R = R 0 −
2
Where,
L = Length of bogie G − d − x sin α
Where, R 0 =
R = Radius of curve cos β − cos α
C = C/C distance b/w two bogie
Cross over-
H.e
(c) Lean, L = Two turn out is provided on two tracks joint with a
G
straight portion between two turnoffs.
Where, H = Height of vehicle
Length of one turn out = CL = 2GN
e = Super elevation
(d) Total extra lateral clearance- Length of straight portion of cross over along the
(i) Required at the outside of curve track.
L2 − C2 S = (D – G)N – G 1+ N 2
end throw, E1 =
8R
Overall length of turnout,
(ii) Required at the inside of curve-
= 4GN + (D – G)N – G 1+ N 2
E 2 = Overthrow + Lean + Sway
Where,
C2 h.e h.e D = C/c distance between two tracks
= + +
8R G 4G G = Gauge
Where, α = Crossing angle
R = Radius of curve in 'mm'.
Hallade Chart-
Gauge Length of Height of C/C Distance of
It is a method related to the track geometry for
Bogie, L (mm) Bogie, h (mm) Bogie, C (mm)
designing , surveying and setting out of curve on
B.G. 21340 4025 14785
railway tracks.
M.G. 19510 3355 13715
Hallade chart is used to record the status of railway
Extra Clearance on platforms- tracks.
(a) If situated inside of curve this method is based on the " versine " or "chord
Ecl = E2 – 41 mm. offset ' system of measurements.
(b) If situated outside the curve Note-
Ecl = E1 – 25 mm. It is method used in track geometry for surveying,
13(B + L) 2 designing and setting.
Gauge widening on curves, We = cm
R Railway tunnels are generally provided in
TNCSC AE 2020 polycentric shapes.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 637 YCT
04.
POINT AND CROSSING
Point and crossing are provided to help transfer 1. Stock Rails-
railway vehicles from one track to another. JSSC JE Civil 2022, GSSSB AAE 2021
Point or Switch- It is a fixed rails in a rail road track against which
Pair of tongue and stock rails with necessary the switch rail operates.
connections and fitting form a switch and the set of Stock rails are fitted against the tongue rails.
switches is called point. 2. Tongue/Switch Rails-
MPPGCL JE 2023, UPPCL JE 2022 JKPSC AE 2021, Karnataka PSC AE 2018
Turnout - It is the tapered movable rail, connected at its thick
JKSSB JE Civil 2022, DSSSB JE 2022
end to the running rail. Ends of tongue rails are
The combination of point and crossing along the thinner towards point.
lead rail by which a train is diverted from one track Pair of tongue and stock rails with the necessary
to another is called turnout. It is provided for safe connections and fittings forms a switch.
movement of trains in either direction on both the 3. Stretcher Bar-
tracks. Toes of both tongue rails are connected together by
It helps to enable the trafficability of rail. means of stretcher bars so that each tongue moves
through the same distance.
Total number of the sleeper at point and crossing
It is used to maintain two tongue rails at exact
depends upon turnout.
distance.
Types of turnout Total no. of sleepers 4. Lead-
1 IN 12 turnouts 70 It is the distance between heel of switch and crossing.
1 IN 8.5 turnouts 62 5. Heel divergence/Clearance-
Tandem or double turnout- It is distance between running face or gauge face of
It is the typical arrangement of point and crossing in stock rail and tongue rail at heel of switch.
which turnouts are staggered and take off from the Type of gauge Heel Divergence(d)
main line at two different direction. B.G. 13.3 - 13.7 cm
It provides adequate distance between sets of M.G. 11.7 - 12.1 cm
switches allow room for the usual throw of the point. N.G. 9.8 cm
Classification of double turnout- 6. Flange way clearance-
Similar flexure Two turnout tack of from the DSSSB JE 2022
same side of track. It is the minimum distance between adjacent faces of
Contrary flexure Two turnouts take off from the stock rail and tongue rail at the heel of switch. It is
different directions of track. less than heel divergence
Arrangement of rails on turnout- For 1:8.5 crossing-6.6 cm, For 1:12 crossing-6.3 cm
For BG - 45 mm, For MG - 44 mm.
7. Switch angle-
UKPSC JE 2022
Angle between the gauge face of stock rail and
tongue rail.
Heel divergence
Switch angle, θ =
Length of tongue rail
8. Throw of switch-
JSSC JE (Civil) 2022, Punjab MCP SDO 2015
Maximum distance by which the toe of tongue rail
can moves sideway is called throw of switch.
Total length of turnout = Distance b/w end of stock Types of track Throw of switch (cm)
rail and heel of crossing. B.G. 9.5 - 11.5
Components Numbers M.G., N.G. 8.9 - 10
Stock rail 2 9. Crossing angle or crossing number-
Tongue or switch rails 2 If crossing angle is more, then permissible speed
Stretcher bars 2 or 4 will be less.
Lead rails 4 Type of Angle of crossing Speed
Check rails 2 crossing (kmph)
Wing rails 2 1 IN 8.5 6°42'35" 16
Heels Blocks 2 1 IN 12 4°45'44" 24
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 638 YCT
Methods of Determine Crossing Number- Types of crossing-
(i) Cole's or right angle triangle method- 1. Square Crossing- Two track cross each other at
right angle. It is avoided because of both wheels of
(mainly used for design in India) N = cot α the axle simultaneously jump.
(ii) Centre line method- 2. Diamond Crossing, D/C-
ISRO Scientist/Engineer 2017
α = 2 cot –1 ( 2N ) When two tracks of the same or different gauge
cross each other at any angle known as diamond
1 α crossing.
N= cot
2 2
(iii) Isosceles Triangle method-
α = 2cosec –1 ( 2N )
1 α
N= cosec
2 2
i. D/C with single slip- Trains from only one track
Note- For Indian rails, N = 1 IN 6 to 1 IN 16 (Generally can slip into another track.
adopted N = 8.5 and N = 12). ii. D/C with double slip- Tracks are changed from
Curve Lead- both direction.
Distance from the tangent point to the theoretical It consist 2 acute and 2 obtuse crossing.
nose of crossing (TNC) measured along the length Mizoram PSC (ASCE) Feb 2021
of main track. 3. Scissors double crossover-
UPPCL JE 2022
Curve lead = GN + G 1 + N ≃ 2G.N For transforming a vehicle from one track to another
Where, G = Gauge length for B.G. track and vice versa.
N = Number of crossing. Scissor crossover b/w two parallel railway tracks
contains a diamond cross over.
Crossing Lead, L- It consists of, 6 acute angle, 2 obtuse angle crossing,
Distance between TNC & heel of the switch 4 pairs of points, check rails and straight length.
measured along the length of main track is called
crossing lead
α +β
L = ( G − d ) cot
2
Crossing lead = Curve lead – Switch lead = CL – SL 5. Gauntlet track- When two tracks of same or
JSSC JE Civil 2022 different gauges are running parallel to each other ,
Switch lead- for economy purpose only single line bridge are
Distance from the tangent point to the heel of the constructed and at the bridge only one track is laid,
switch (TL) measured along the length of the main therefore this is a temporary deviation provided on a
track. double line track.
Switch Lead, SL = 2R c .d Rc = Radius of curve Note-Sequence of train to pass over the turnout from the
facing direction-
R c = 1.5G + 2GN 2 d = Heel divergence Toe of switch → Tongue rail → Lead rail →
Crossing.
Direction of turnout- Key Points
Facing direction One standing at the toe of switch ■ As per Indian Railway standard a diamond
and looks towards crossing. crossing shall consist of ............ noses– 6
Trailing direction One standing at the crossing and ■ The arrangement, where a left– hand rail of one
looks toward the switch. track crosses the right–hand rail of another track or
Facing point of Train passes over switch first and vice–versa at a small angle, is known as–
turnout then crossing. Acute angle crossing
Trailing point of Train passes over crossing first and ■ In a railway line, Identify the turnout that takes off
turnout then switch. towards the direction opposite to that of the main
Crossing or Frog- line curve– Turnout of contrary flexure
Junction where two rails cross to permit the wheel Note-
flange of railway vehicle from one track to another Diamond crossing can also be used on curve.
track. Gauntlet turnout is used to repairs of main track.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 639 YCT
05.
SLEEPER, BALLAST,
FASTENING & FIXTURES
Sleepers- 3. Cast Iron Sleepers-
NBCC JE 2022
Sleepers are member generally laid transverse to the
rails on which the rails are supported and fixed, to Types- Pot or Bowl , Plate box, CST-9 and Duplex.
transfer the loads from rail to the ballast and sub- Central Standard Trail (CST)-9 sleepers are widely
grade. used in India.
JKSSB JE Civil 2022 Pot or bowl sleeper is not suitable for curves.
Sleeper should have anti sabotage and anti theft About 45% of cast iron sleeper used by Indian
features. Railway.
Function of sleepers- Life- 30 - 45 years
MP Vyapam Sub. Engg. 2022 4. Pre-stressed Concrete Sleepers.
UKPSC AE 2022 Pre-tensioning method is used to sleeper
(i) Holding rails to correct gauge and alignment. construction.
(ii) Provides a firm and even support to rails. (Initially these sleepers are costly but cheap in the
(iii) Elastic medium b/w rail and ballast and absorb long term)
vibrations & shocks. For the mass production Hoyer system is used
(iv) Provides longitudinal and lateral stability to the Pre-stressed concrete is the best material for sleeper.
permanent way. Size of Sleeper-
(v) To maintain the track at proper grade. NBCC JE 2022
(vi) Distribute the weight from rails over a sufficient Gauge Size (cm) Bearing Area per
large area of ballast. Sleeper (in sq.ft.)
(vii) Maintain the head of rails in sloppy condition B.G. 275×25×13.0 5.00
according to coning of wheel. M.G. 180×20×11.5 3.33
Types of sleeper- N.G. 150×18×11.5 2.25
1. Wooden Sleepers (It is the best sleeper)
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021 Comparison b/w Different types of sleeper-
Only this types of sleeper can be provided over the Wooden Steel Conc.
Property C.I. sleeper
Sleeper Sleeper Sleeper
rail bridge and also at the rail joint and track
Depends
circuiting. Cost of sleeper Low Medium High upon
Life- 12 - 15 years Design
• Soft wood- Chir, Deodar, etc. 12-15 for
untreated
• Hard wood- Sal, Teak, Kail etc. Life (years)
20-25 for
30-45 40-50 40-60
Composite Sleeper Index (C.S.I.)- treated
Mizoram PSC (ASCE) 2021, PPSC JE 2022 Higher than
Maintenance
It measures the mechanical strength of timber. cost
other Minimum Moderate Moderate
sleeper
S+10H S=Strength Index Not very Not very
CSI = Elasticity Good Not good
20 H = Hardness Index good good
JSSC JE Civil 2022 Scrap value very less Highest next to C.I –
Minimum CSI prescribed in I.R- Sleeper density and spacing-
Punjab PSC SDE 2016, TSPSC Deputy Engineer 2015 TANGEDCO AE 2018, MPPSC AE 2017
Types of Sleeper Min. CSI Number of sleepers used per rail length on the track
Track Sleeper 783 is called sleeper density.
Crossing Sleeper 1352 Number of sleepers per rails varies from
Bridge Sleeper 1455 (M + 3) to ( M + 6)
For B.G it is taken as (M + 5) to (M + 7)
2. Steel Sleepers. Where, M = Length of rail in meter
To prevent creep in rails it is fixed with four anchor DSSSB JE 2022, SSC JE Civil 2022
keys. Minimum spacing-
Life- 40 - 50 years Spacing of sleeper
About 27% of steel sleepers used by Indian Railway. = Width of sleeper + 2 × depth of ballast.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 640 YCT
Sleeper B.G. (mm) M.G. (mm) iv. To resist lateral, longitudinal and vertical
displacements of the track.
Wooden 300 250 v. To protect the surface of formation from direct
Metal 380 330 exposure to the sun, frost or rain.
Standard Size of Ballast for Sleepers-
CHB Junior Draftsman 2023
Maximum spacing- 500 mm Types of Sleeper Size of Ballast
Wooden and CI pot Sleeper 50 mm
Material Required per km. of Railway CST 9 and Through Sleeper 40 mm
Track- Points and Crossing 25 mm
1000 Concrete Sleeper 45 mm
(i) No. of Rails/km = ×2
Length of railin (m) Ballast Ballast provided at the bottom of sleeper.
cushion Minimum cushion (15-20 cm).
(ii) Weight of Rails in Tonn/km Crib ballast Ballast b/w two sleepers.
wt.of rail per m. Shoulder Ballast provided at the ends of sleeper.
= No. of rails ×Length of rails ×
1000 ballast
(iii) No. of Sleeper/km Packing It is the process of ramming the ballast
underneath the sleeper.
1
= No.of rail / km × sleeper density • Min. packing space b/w two
2 sleeper- 30-35 cm
(iv) No. of Fish Plate = 2 × No. of rails/km Boxing It is the process of filling the ballast
• 2 Fish plate per joint around the sleepers.
• 4 Fish bolt per joint Depth of ballast
UKPSC AE 2022
S−W
(v) No. of Bearing Plates = 2×No. of sleeper/km D=
Note- 2
MPPGCL JE 2023, Uttarakhand Combined State AE 2007
A CST–9 sleepers is combination of plate, pot and
Where, S = Spacing of sleeper
box sleeper.
W = Width of sleeper
Adzing of Sleeper- Depth and Quantity of Ballast for Various Gauge-
The process of cutting the wooden sleeper at a slope DSSSB JE 2021, DSSSB AE 2021
of 1 IN 20 at the rail seat before laying is known as Gauge Depth of Width of Quantity
adzing of sleeper. This system provides a cant in Ballast ballast per/m length
rail. B.G. 25 - 30 cm 3.35 m 1.036 m3
Generally adzing is done for wooden sleeper. M.G. 15 - 20 cm 2.25 m 0.71 m3
Adzing is required for smooth and comfortable N.G. 15 cm 1.83 m 0.53 m3
journey. RAIL FASTENINGS AND FIXTURES
It controls lateral bending stresses due to eccentric Introduction-
loading. All those fittings required for connecting the rails
It reduce wear and tear at inner edge of rail and on end to end and for fixing the rails to the sleepers in a
tread of wheel. track are known as track fixture and fastening.
Rails fasten with sleeper by bolts or spikes are called
rigid fastening.
Important fitting and fastening-
Rail to rail jointing Fish plate, bolts-nuts.
Rail to wooden Dog spike, Screw spike, bearing
sleeper fittings plates fang bolts, Chairs.
Rail to cast iron Tie bars, Cotters.
BALLAST sleeper
It is a layer of granular material used under and Rail to steel through Loose jaws, keys & liners.
around the sleepers to distributes the wheel load sleeper
from the sleepers to the formation (subgrade) Elastic fastenings Elastic or pandrol clip, IRN-202
facilitating easy drainage of water. clip, HM fastening MSI insert
Rubber pad and Nylon liners
Ballast suitable for track- Granite (best), Basalt, Trap.
MESCOM AE 2017 Rigid fastening
Function- 1. Fish plates-
UKPSC AE 2022 NHPC JE 2022, UPPCL JE 2022
UPPSC Civil Eng. AE 2013 JKSSB JE (Civil) 2022, UKPSC AE (Civil) 2022
i. Provides, plane and elastic base for sleepers. It is a steel section (45.6 cm length & 20 m thick)
ii. For effective drainage of water. used at rail joint to maintain continuity of rail joints
iii. To prevent the growth of vegetation inside track. and to allow thermal expansion and contraction.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 641 YCT
It hold two rails in horizontal and vertical both Elastic fastening
planes. 1. Pandrol Clips-
Rails are joined in longitudinal direction with the SJVNL ET 2019
help of fish plate (2) and fish bolt (4). It is also known as elastic rail clip/fastening that is
Fish bolts are made of high carbon steel.
fit & forget type fixtures and can be used for all
types of sleeper.
It is made of silico manganese springs steel bar with
20.6 mm dia. and is heat treated.
Widely used for concrete sleeper.
There is no relative movement between rails and
sleeper after using pandrol clip.
2. IRN-202 Clip-
(i) Bone type fish plate- It is used to hold the track gauge in which rail can be
Used to connecting flat footed rails. changed without removing the fastening.
(ii) Increased depth fish plate- Designed to suit two block RCC sleeper.
Used for connecting bull headed rails. 3. Spring steel clip-
2. Bearing plates- Used on pre-stressed concrete sleeper.
It is used only in timber sleeper below the flat footed
rail for load distribution.
3. Keys- Used to fix the rails to chair over the sleeper.
4. Chair-
Uttarakhand Combined State AE 2007
Chairs is made of cast iron and used to support
double headed and bull headed rails on the sleepers.
5. Spikes-
Spikes are used to fix the flat footed rails on the
wooden sleepers.
Tools and its use in railway track-
Tools Use
Shovel and Handing the ballast on the sleeper
ballast rake
Rail tongs For lifting the rails
Claw bars Remove the dog spikes out of
Classification of spikes-
sleepers or for lifting track
Dog pikes Used to holding flat footed rails
Depth-120.6 mm on wooden sleepers. Crow bars To correct track alignment, and lift
Screw/Catch It is costly and has double the track for surfacing.
spikes holding power than dog spikes Cotters To connect CI sleepers to tie bars
Elastic Spikes Holding power is good and Densometer Measure the depression of sleeper or
prevents the creep of rail. packing voids under the sleeper ends.
Round spikes Fixing chair of bull headed to Viseur's Measurement of unevenness of rail
wooden sleepers and for fixing mire top and rectification of alignment
slide chairs of point and crossing.
Jim crow To bend the rails
6. Bolts-
Chisel To cut the rails, bolts, etc.
Types Use
Sleeper To lift sleepers
Fang bolts Fixing side chairs to the sleepers tongs
Rag bolts To connect longitudinal timber Treadle bar, For interlocking
sleeper or concrete sleeper to the point lock &
walls of ash pits. detector
Hook bolts Fixing the timber sleeper to the top ERC For fixing or removing the ERCs on
flange of bridge girders. extractor/ PRC sleepers.
Fish bolts To connect the fish plate to the rails. Applicator
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 642 YCT
06.
RAILWAY SIGNAL & STATION YARD
Detonating signal-
This signal is used when there is foggy and cloudy
weather and visibility is very poor. In foggy
weather, detonator are kept about 90 m ahead of the
signal.
Hand signal-
These signals are in the form of flags (red or green)
fixed to wooden handles that are held by railway
personal assigned this particular duty.
Stop/semaphore signal-
It is a fixed type signal design in such a way that if
there is any failure in working of the apparatus, the
signal will show stop position.
It is placed at height of 7.5 m.
If arm inclined at 45-60o (ON - green) and arm is
horizontal (OFF-red). Note-
Off caution implies proceed slowly and watch for
next signal.
Disc signal-
It is a shunting signal used for low speed moment
during shunting operation.
It is in form of circular disc with a red band on white
background.
Warner signal-
It is similar to semaphore except V-notch is
provided at free end.
In horizontal position it indicates, the signal ahead in
stop position.
Position at 45°, indicates, the signal ahead is at "off" Indication of Red band of the disc signal-
position and the driver may proceed with speed.
Position Indication
Distance from Ist stop signal - 540 m
In horizontal position Stop
Flashing yellow beams are employed as warning
signal. In inclined position Proceed
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 643 YCT
Reception signal-
MPPSC AE 2016
This types of signal controls the
reception of train at the station.
These signal are at two locations
the outer signal and home signal.
It classified as-
(i) Outer signal-It is first stop/Warner
signal seen by driver which
indicates the entry of train from
block section to the station yard.
CSE 2010, CSE 2002
Minimum distance b/w outer and Routing signal-
home signal- 580 m DSSSB JE 2022
(ii) Home signal- When from one main line different lines divert in
JUVNL AE 2016 various direction then it is very difficult to provide
It is provided just before reaching the platform. one signal for each line at diverting point. At such
places various signals for main and branch lines are
Location- ≯ 180 m from the start of point or fixed on the same point, such signals are called
switches. routing signals.
Departure signal-
This signals controls the departure trains from the
station.
Calling on signals-
CSE 2000
It is placed parallel and below home signal at same
post.
(i) Starter signal-
It is the Ist departure signal faced by the driver while
leaving station for destination. No train can leave
platform unless this signal is lowered.
(ii) Advanced starter signal-
JPSC AE 2021
It is the 2nd departure signal which allows train to
enter in block section is called advance starter
signal. It is provided beyond the trailing point and
switches in a railway yard. It is the last stop signal at
the station for train. If home signal is in horizontal position and calling
Also provided to act as a check even if the starter is on signal in inclined then it indicates to train driver,
set off. waiting beyond the home signal to come on the
platform very cautiously.
Repeater or co-acting signal-
Interlocking-
When main signal is not continuously visible due to
It is done to prevent the human error when points are
bridge, tunnels etc. a duplicate signal is provided on set and signals are lowered or raised by means of
the same post at a lower level, such a duplicate levers. Any manipulation in human error can be lead
signal is known as repeater signal. to an accident.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 644 YCT
RAILWAY STATIONS & YARDS Types-
Important Terminology- Hump yard Used when trains are required to be
Crossing It is a single line railway stations, where pushed against a hump. Artificial hump
stations a loop line is provided to allow a train to is provided in this system.
stay and the other to pass. OR Flat yard Where space is limited for the layout of
Station having two lines is called marshalling yards.
crossing station. Gravitational Used in sloppy ground condition.
yard • This is the ideal marshaling yard.
Flag stations The railway stations without sidings,
having no fixed signals to control the
movement of the trains.
Junction The stations where railway lines from
station three or more stations meet. The lines
may be of same or different gauge.
Terminal The station at which railway line or one Railway yard equipment-
station of its branches terminates. Ex.- Howrah. Turn table-
Way-side All railway stations on the way of the Turn table is used for changing the direction of
station track, except the junctions and terminal locomotive. It is provided where available space is
stations are called way-side stations. limited for changing the direction of locomotive.
Triangle-
Cabin It is the station only for the control of the It consists three sides of short length track in triangle
station-s track. form which is used for changing directions of
Gathering A number of parallel siding or branch locomotive.
lines takes off from this track. It is suitable when land area is enough and cheap.
Use- For sorting out the wagons for
different destinations.
Locomotive The driving unit which hauls the trains.
Examination These pits are constructed in the
pits locomotive yards for examination of the
engines from underneath side.
Coaching It deals with the reception and
Yard dispatching of passenger trains.
Yard- Traverser-
It is an equipment used for shift the position of
It is defined as the system of tracks at the station locomotive in sideway i.e. shift the locomotive from
used for storing, sorting and dispatching the trains. on track to a parallel track.
It is used to control the movements by prescribed Catch and slip sidings-
rules, regulation and signals. These are derailing switches used for stopping the
Classification- movement of the out of control locomotive by
1. Passenger yard- derailing then.
It provides all the facilities for the safe movement of Buffer stops/Snag dead ends-
passengers. Across the track of a siding at terminal station a
barrier is provided at the track end so that the
2. Goods yard- locomotive does not go out of track arrangement is
A yard in which goods wagons are shunted and called buffer stop.
sorted for loading and unloading is called a goods Loading gauge-
yards. It is the gauge upto which a vehicle can be loaded in
3. Locomotive yards- order to maintains a minimum clearance b/w the
Locomotives are housed for serving and also for loaded top of the wagon and the underside of the
repairing, watering, reordering, oiling, cleaning etc. structure such as tunnel bridge.
Marshalling yard- Level crossing-
UPRVUNL AE 2022, APDCL Junior Manager 2017
Railway line and a road cross each other the same
level.
A railway yard in which trains and other loads are
Classification of block & non block station-
received breaking up, reforming sorted out and new
trains are formed and dispatched onwards is called Block stations Non-block stations
marshalling yards. 1. Class A station 1. Class D station
Marshalling yard have three function- Reception, 2. Class B station 2. Flag station
sorting, and departure. 3. Class C station
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 645 YCT
1. Bridge Engineering ............................................................................................................... 647
2. Tunnel Engineering ............................................................................................................... 650
3. Airport Engineering .............................................................................................................. 653
Trend Analysis of Questions topicwise from SSC JE/ ESE/ State PSC & other exam
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 646 YCT
01.
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
Introduction- IRC-22 For composite structure
It is a structure built to span the physical obstacles
without closing the way underneath, such as a IRC-78 For foundation design
valley, water body or road for the purpose of
providing the passage over the obstacle. Classification of bridge-
Design of bridges depending on the function of the 1. According to Span
bridge and the nature of the area. GPSC AE 2022, GPSC GES 2021
GPSC AE (GMB) Class-2 2021
Type of Bridge Span (m)
Culvert <6
Minor Bridge 6-30
Major Bridge 30-120
Long span Bridge > 120
2. According to Railway-
Major Total waterways more than 18m or
Bridges having any span of clear waterways of
12m or over.
Minor Total waterways<18m or any span of
It is a structure which maintains the communication Bridges clear waterway <12m.
over a physical obstacle. Ex.-Channel, River, Road,
Railway line, Valley.
3. According to Loading
Bridge Designations- (a) Permanent Bridge-
(i) Bridge- (i) IRC Class A Loading-
It carries road or railway traffic or a pipe line over Karnataka PWD AE 2021
channel or valley. The IRC Class A Loading is based on the heaviest
(ii) Over bridge/fly-over- type of commercial vehicle.
It traffic or pipe carries over a communication (ii) IRC Class 70R Loading-
system like roads or railway is known as over This type loading is adopted on all roads on which
bridge. permanent bridges and culverts are constructed.
(iii) Viaduct- (b) Temporary Bridge
When bridge constructed (small spans) over a (i) IRC Class AA Loading-
valley, dry or wetland, busy locality or forming a GPSC AE 2022, GPSC DEE (GMC) Class-2 2022
flyover to carry the vehicular traffic is known as IRC Class AA Loading is based on the heavy
viaduct. military vehicles likely to run on certain routes.
Stages of bridge site selection- • It is the usual practice to design the structures on
(i) Reconnaissance survey notional & state highway for class AA Loading.
(ii) Preliminary survey (ii) IRC Class B Loading-
(iii) Final or detail survey RPSC LECTURE - 2011
Codes used for bridge Design- This type of loading is used to design temporary
IRC-5 Code of practice for bridges like timber bridge etc.
specification of bridge • Generally the safe limits of velocity under bridges
IRC-6-2010 Loads & stress (L.S.M.) is taken as 3.0 m/s.
4. According to location of bridge flooring-
IRC-6-2000 Loads & stress (W.S.M) Deck bridge Load bearing floor of a bridge
which carries and spreads the
IRC-21 : 2000 Code of practice for cement loads to the main beams.
concrete (L.S.M) • It is either of reinforced
IRC-112 : 2000 Code of practice for concrete or pre-stressed concrete,
concrete bridge welded steel etc.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 647 YCT
Through Bridge flooring is done at the (iii) Water way-
bridge bottom of super structure. MPSC (Mains) Paper-II, 2015
Area where water flows under a bridge super
Semi through Flooring lactated at intermediate
structure is known as water way.
bridge level.
Water way b/w two edges of water flow,
5. According to life of bridge- perpendicular to the abutments is known as linear
Maharashtra PSC 2021 water way.
A. Temporary bridge- Linear water way = Sum of all the clear span
(i) Pontoon bridge Effective linear waterway,
(ii) Boat bridge = 8 × width of river bed – Pier width
(iii) Flying bridge (iv) Afflux-
B. Permanent bridge- MPPSC AE 2022, MPSC (Mains) Paper-II, 2015
(i) RCC bridge Phenomena of heading up of water on the upstream
(ii) Masonry bridge side of the stream is known as afflux.
(iii) Steel bridge Afflux = Increased water level – Normal water level
(v) Free board-
GPSC GES Pre 28.07.2021, MH PSC Mains 2018 Paper-2
It is difference b/w high flood level and low flood
level under the side of bridge deck.
Free board-
Type of bridge Free board (mm)
High level bridge 600
Arch 300
Girder 600 - 1000
GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022, GPSC GES 2021 Navigation streams 2500 - 3000
Key Points (vi) Formation level-
■ In design of bridge, wind and Seismic loads shall The level of flooring of a bridge super structure is
not be considered to act simultaneously. called formation level.
■ IRC Class A loading is adopted on all roads on (vii) Piers-
which permanent bridges and culverts are It transfer the superstructure load to the soil through
constructed. foundation. it divide the bridge length into suitable
■ Suspension bridges bridges have longest span. spans and to resist all horizontal and transverse
■ For a large span & earthquake resistant bridges, forces acting on the bridge.
Pot–PTFE bearing is the most suitable type of It is a vertical load bearing member such as an
bearings. intermediate support for adjacent ends of two
bridge spans.
TERMS RELATED TO BRIDGE-
RCC piers shapes- Rectangular, dumb bell,
(i) Length of bridge- trestle.
It is distance between inner faces of two abutments. Cross section for piers-
Clear distance between two piers or abutment and Rectangular with triangular edges towards
pier is known as clear span. upstream and down stream.
If number of spans in bridge is 'n' then (viii) Cost-
Number of piers , N p = n –1 The cost of supporting system of one span is equal
to cost of one pier.
Length of bridge L = n.l + (n – l)b
Where, l = Clear span Cost of one span (s)
R=
b = Width of span Cost of one pier (p)
(ii) Economic span- Overall cost (c) = n.s + (n –1) × p
It is a span which reduces the overall cost of a Where, n = Number of spans
bridge to be a minimum. n – 1 = Number of piers
For most economic span length, (ix) Abutment-
Cost of the super structure = Cost of the sub- structure GPSC AE (GMB) 2021, GPSC GES 2021
Shorter span bridge is more cost effective when sub At the both ends of bridges to retain the
structure cost is about 25% of total cost. embankment and to carry the vertical and
Longer span are more economical when sub str. horizontal loads from the superstructure to the
cost is about 50% of the total cost. foundation is known as abutment.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 648 YCT
(x) Causeway/Irish causeway-
Roadway Width-
A small submersible bridge at or above bed level GPSC AE (GMB) 2021
which will allows flood to pass over it called
Type of traffic Min. Width
causeway.
(xi) Weep holes- 1. Vehicular traffic
It is provided to drain off water which gets access Single lane 4.25 m
to the earth filling. Double lane 7.50 m
Bearing- Multi lane 3.50 m for every
Bridge bearings are used to transfer forces from the lane over two lane
super structure to the substructure. 2- Cycles
It is a component of a bridge which provides a Without overtaking 2.00 m
resisting surface between bridges pier and bridges With overtaking 3.00 m
deck. Maximum Span for different types of Steel
Functions of bridge bearings- bridge-
Bearings mainly transfer two types of loads- Maharashtra PSC 2021
(i) Vertical loads such as the structures weight & Bridge Types Maximum
vehicle load. span
(ii) Lateral loads including earthquake & wind loads. Steel arch bridge 500 m
MP Sub Engg. 2022
Steel bow- string girder bridge 240 m
It permit movements like, rotation & translation in
Steel cable suspension bridge 1200 m
between girders and pier caps of bridges to
accommodate movements such as thermal Steel plate girder bridge 30 m
expansion. Steel rolled beam bridge 10 m
Bridge bearings depends on- Steel truss bridge 180 m
• Loading condition Impact Factors (I)-
• Bridge span Karnataka PWD AE 2021
For IRC, class A and class B loading-
• Temperature variations
• Performance specification A
I=
Types of Bearings- B+L
GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022 Where, L = Span in (m)
GPSC AE 2018, Rajasthan VP ITI 2018, TSPSC AEE 2017 A, B = Constant
Fixed It allow rotation but restrict translational Types of bridges A B
bearing movements.
RCC bridge 4.5 6.0
• Suitable for spans 12 m
Steel bridge 9.0 13.50
Expansion It allow both rotation and translational
bearing movements. Centrifugal Force -
Sliding Used when rotation occurs due to WV 2
(i) For Road Bridges, C=
bearing deflections at the support are negligible. 12.95R
• Suitable for span 12 - 20 m W = Live load(kN)
Roller It is used tin the construction of
bearing reinforced concrete and steel bridges wV 2
(ii) For Railways Bridges, C =
structures. 12.95R
• Single roller can accommodate both w = Equivalent UDL (kN/m length)
rotation and translation movement in
V = Design speed(kmph)
long direction.
Elastomeric These bearing pads compress on vertical Type of Bridge Freeboard
bearing load and accommodate horizontal Arch bridge 30 cm
rotation and provide lateral shear Girder bridge 60-90 cm
movement. Navigable Rivers 240-300 cm
Rocker and Pin at top, facilates rotation and curved High level bridges 60 cm
pin bearing surface accommodates translation Note-
movement. As per IRC, for high level bridges, the freeboard
• Suitable for span > 20 m should not be less than 600 mm.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 649 YCT
02.
TUNNEL ENGINEERING
Introduction- 2. Linear plate method-
Tunnels are defined as the underground passages Suitable for sub aqueous strata.
that are used for the transportation purpose. 3. Compressed Air tunneling method-
These permit the transmission of passengers and Maharastra PSC II 2021
freights, or transportation of utilities like water, Most suitable for clays.
sewage or gas etc. Free air is provided to keep dry the tunnel.
Note- In compressed air tunneling the volume of free air
A tunnel should not be constructed along strike provided is 20 ft3/min/ft2 of face area.
direction. (b) With Timber-
Atal tunnel, the world's longest highway tunnel 1. Needle Beam method-
(9.02 km) connects Manali with Lahaul spiti GPSC AE 2021, ESE 2019
(Himanchal Pradesh). It is economical method and best suitable for firm
Open cut- ground and brick lining.
Open cut is the cutting of hill/rock to allow Needle beam length- 5 - 6 m.
construction of highway/railway track through it. 2. English method- It uses a large quantity of
It is like a tunnel but not underground and open to timbers.
sky. 3. American method-
For highway tunneling is preformed to open cut if It is best suitable for large size of railway and
open cut depth exceeds 15 m. highway tunnels.
It is economically provided up to depth of 18 m. 4. Fore poling method-
If depth > 18 m (60 feet) tunnel is provided. Maharashtra PSC 2018
It is slow tedious, old method and skilled labor is
required.
Inclined poles are used to roof support.
Suitable for running ground.
5. German and Austrian method
1. Based on alignment- Useful for long tunnels with great depth.
(i) Saddle or base tunnels- 6. Belgium method-
Tunnels constructed in valleys along natural slope is In this method, roof arch is constructed before side
known as saddle tunnels. Its slope do not exceed the wall and inverts are built.
ruling gradient. Suitable for all classes of moderately firm or hard
(ii) Off-spur tunnels- soil.
MPSC 2017 7. Army or case method-
It is a short length tunnels to negotiate minor local GPSC GES 2021
obstacles, which can not be avoided by permitted It is useful for small tunnels and laying
curves. underground sewer.
(iii) Slope tunnels- B. IN HARD ROCK-
Tunnels constructed in steep hills for economic and ESE 2021
safe operation of roads and railway is known as 1. Full face method
slope tunnels.
It is done along the perimeter of the tunnel and best
(iv) Spiral tunnels- suitable for small cross sectional area of tunnel.
This type of tunnel is provided in narrow valley in
2. Heading method-
he form of loops in the interior of mountain so as to
increase the length of tunnel to avoid steep slopes. It is used when tunnel is very large and quality of
rock in not good.
Methods of tunneling- 3. Drift method-
A. IN SOFT ROCK Firstly it is carried out in smaller section and then
GPSC AE 2021, MPSC (ASCE) 2021
widened. It is also useful for ventilation purpose.
(a) Without Timber
4. Pilot method-
1. Shield method-
Karnataka PSC AE 2017 It is used for removing muck from main tunnel and
Suitable for sub aqueous strata also use for ventilation, lightening in main tunnel.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 650 YCT
5. Heading and bench method- (ii) Marking tunnel obligatory points on the
This types of section is used for very large cross topographical maps.
section and for unstable bed of rock. (iii) Driving lines between the fixed obligatory points.
Drilling and mucking both are possible at a time. (iv) Marking portal points with concrete pillars on the
Heading and Benching- ground.
Heading is the top portion of tunnel while benching Sequence of operation in tunnel
is the bottom portion. construction-
Heading provides information during tunnel Drilling → Blasting → Mucking → Placing of
construction. Steel → Placing of concrete
6. Perimeter/German method- Components of shield in tunneling-
In this method excavation carried out along the
1. Skin or outer shell
perimeter of periphery of the section.
2. Cutting edge
7. Cantilever car dump-
Maharastra PSC 2021
3. propelling jacks
Note- 4. Hood, Tail
The explosive used for tunneling in soft rocks is 5. Inner box structure
ammonia dynamite. 6. Pockets
Railway tunnels, are generally polycentric. Trimmers-
Method of tunneling in running ground- GPSC AE 2017, MPSC 2015
1. Needle beam method It is use fort he short holes drilled around the
2. Flying arch method periphery of a shaft or tunnel that break or trim the
3. Linear plate method sides of the excavation to the shape and size
required.
Cross section adopted for tunnels-
Note-
1. D section or segmental roof section
Tunnel alignment is carried out by Triangulation.
Suitable for subways or navigation tunnels.
Weisbach triangle method is used to connect two
Its shape vertical side with a flat floor.
ends of an underground tunnel.
2. Circular section -
In order to maintain desired shape of tunnel the c/s
MPSC 2017
must be checked at regular interval of 2 - 3 m.
Suitable for heavy internal or external radial
pressure. It provides greatest cross sectional area Driving Drift-
for least perimeter. It is the part of tunnel c/s excavated for the entire
It is most desirable section length of tunnel.
3. Rectangular section- Drift provides complete information before tunnel
Suitable for hard rocks. construction.
4. Egg shaped section- Mucking-
Its bottom shape, maintain the required self The process of removing blasted debris or excavated
cleaning velocity in dry and storm weather flow. soil from the tunnel or shaft is called mucking.
It is provided at least cross section area at the There is two methods of mucking (i) Hand mucking
bottom. (ii) Machine mucking.
Used for carrying sewage. Time required for mucking and hauling = (1/2 – 1/3)
5. Horse shoe section - of total time of tunnel construction.
Best suited for traffic purpose and suitable for soft Hauling-
rocks. Hauling is done to avoid undue delay in other
It is used for providing more working space. operations. Now a days it is done by electrically
6. Polycentric section- driven cars.
Useful for railway tunnels Scaling-
7. Elliptical- It is the process of removing of loose pieces of rock
Suitable for softer material and used for carrying adhering to tunnel surface after blasting operation.
water. Tunnel lining-
Surveys of tunnels- GPSC AE (GMC) 2021
For surveying of tunnels following activities Finishing touch given to the cross section of tunnel
involved- is called lining.
(i) Preliminary setting of the tunnel on the Min. thickness - 230 mm.
topographical survey of Indian maps. It is categories in following types-
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 651 YCT
1. Primary lining- 2. Vertical shafts-
It is used to stabilize the tunnel surface before the Easier and more economical than inclined shaft. A
permanent lining. pilot shaft is used in this system.
2. Temporary lining- 3. Circular shaft-
It support the roof and wall of tunnel during It is lined with pre-stressed steel liner plates or
construction. concrete.
3. Permanent lining- Ventilation-
Provided into soft ground. Method of providing fresh air inside tunnel during
Thickness of lining- and after construction is called ventilation.
T = 82D mm METHODS OF VENTILATION IN TUNNELS-
D = Dia. of tunnel A. Natural ventilation-
(a) Permanent ventilation-
Note-
It is given after construction of tunnel
According to thumb rule, thickness is taken as 25
mm/300 mm bore dia. B. Mechanical ventilation-
GPSC DEE (GMC) 2022, GPSC GES 2021
Shaft- (b) Temporary ventilation-
An underground vertical or inclined passageway or Given during the construction.
well dug along the alignment of tunnel is called (i) Blowing air (Blow in) method
shaft. It is also helps in additional access, muck
(ii) Exhausting air (Blow out) method
removal and natural ventilation in tunnels.
(iii) Combination of blow in and blow out method (most
efficient method).
Note
Rate of fresh air provided during construction-
6-14 m3/min./person
Design of shaft support- Lightening-
It depends upon horizontal pressure at several For proper efficiency in working area, satisfactory
depths. intensity of light = 260 lumen/m2.
Ph = k.W.H
Dust Control in Tunnel-
Where, k = constant (depend on type of soil)
SJVNL ET 2019
W = Weight of soil (in pound/ft3) Silicosis is a fatal lung disease caused by breathing
H = Depth in silica dust found in natural rocks.
Patterns of drilling used for shaft- Concentration of dust particles of size 0.5 - 5µ
1. Central wedge cut- adjacent to the working face ≯ 450 particles/cm3
It is most commonly used pattern for square and Dust controlling method-
rectangular section. 1. By using vacuum hood
2. Pyramid/Wedge/End cut- 2. By wet drilling
It is used for circular in section. 3. By using respirators
3. Alternate wedge cut- Note-
This pattern is adopted for very large shaft. For the drainage purpose wells are located at
TYPES OF SHAFT- intervals of 300 - 500 m.
A. According to location and position- NATM-
1. Shaft over centre line New Austrian Tunneling Method.
2. Side shafts It is also known as shotcrete or observational
B. According to alignment- method.
1. Inclined shaft- Caisson Disease-
Muck is removed by gravity with a gradient of ≤ It is caused due to release of nitrogen gas bubbles
45°. after a person makes too rapid a transition from high
It is suitable for less depth of shaft. atmospheric pressure for long periods.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 652 YCT
03.
AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Introduction– PNdB- Perceived noise decibel
Aeroplane was invented by Wright Brother's in PNB- Perceived noise level intensity.
1903. Approach zone-
FAA - Federal Aviation Agency. It is a wide clearance required for either side of
ICAO- International Civil Organization. runway.
Clear zone-
CSE 2005
Clear zone is the most critical aspect from
obstruction point of view provided at the ends of
runway. It is used to indicate the innermost position
of approach zone.
Turning zone-
It is the area of airport used for turning operation
except approach zone.
Airport-
An area regularly used for landing and take off for
the aircrafts is called airport. It is the fastest mode of
transport and comes under heavy construction.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPORT-
1. According to FAA-
(a) Non-primary airport (b) Primary airport
Dimension of runway clear zone in m.-
Handles < 10,000 Handles > 10,000
Passenger per year Passenger per year Types of Runway W1 W2 L
2. According to ICAO- International runway 300 325 750
Assam Engg. College Lecturer 2021 Non-international railway
(a) Based on basic (b) Based on ESWL and (i) Large airport 150 270 600
runway length max. tyre pressure (ii) Small airport 75 135 300
A (Largest Length) A1 (Max. ESWL & T.P.) Wind coverage-
B B2 It is the % of time in a year during which the cross
C C3 wind component remains within the acceptable
D D4
limit.
E (Shortest Length) E5
F6 As per ICOA & FAA, Min. wind coverage = 95%
G7 (minimum) For busy airports - 98% to 100%
ESWL- Equivalent single wheel load. Calm period-
Airport Basic runway length Width of runway It is the period in which the wind intensity remains
type (m) pavement below 6.4 km/h.
Maximum Minimum Calm period = 100 − Wind coverage
A > 2100 2100 45
B 2099 1500 45 Max. cross wind component limit based on size
C 1499 900 30 of aircraft-
D 899 750 22.5 MPPSC AE 2017, TSPSC Deputy Engineer 2015
E 749 600 18 Airport serving Max. limit of CWC
Three controls of aircraft- Small aircraft 15 km/h
Terms Used to control Mixed traffic 25 km/h
Elevator Pitching Big aircraft 35 km/h
Rudder Yawing Wind Rose-
Aileron Rolling GSSSB AAE 07.02.2021, MPPSC AE 14.11.2021
Caster Angle- ESE 2020, UPPCL AE 2019, JPSC Comb. Civil Services Pre-2011
The angle between longitudinal axis of aircraft and Graphical representation of wind data (at least 5
direction of movement of nose gear is called caster years) as direction, intensity and wind duration is
angle. termed as wind rose.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 653 YCT
Condition Types of Width of
airport safety area
Non-instrumental A, B & C 150 m
runway D&E 78 m
Instrumental runway A, B, C, D & E Min. 300 m
Correction for Elevation, Temperature
& Gradient-
1. Correction of elevation-
The best direction of runway is along the direction As per ICAO, basic runway length should be
of longest line on wind rose diagram. increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in
Wind rose diagram is a group of radial lines and circle. elevation above MSL.
Use-
2. Correction for temperature-
(i) For the determination of most suitable runway
orientation. Tm − Ta
Airport reference temperature, T = Ta +
MH WRD JE 2022 3
(ii) For estimating the runway capacity.
Where,
Type of wind rose diagram-
JPSC Comb. Civil Services 2011
Ta = Monthly mean of avg. daily temp.
Type-1 Provides direction & duration of wind. Tm = Monthly mean of the max. daily temp. for
• Circle represents duration of wind. the same month of the year.
• Radial line represent wind direction. Note-
Type-2 Used to showing direction, duration & intensity As per ICAO, the basic runway length after having
of wind. been corrected for elevation, should be further
Runway Geometric Design- increased at the rate of 1% for every 1°C rise of
It deals with the study of runway length and width, airport reference temperature above the standard
width and length of safety area, sight distance, atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
gradient etc. Total correction for (Elevation + Temperature)
Basic Runway Length- It is determined in three cases- should ≯ 35% of basic runway length.
Normal landing Aircraft should stop within 60% of UPPSC AE 2020, KPSC AE 2020
case runway length. 3. Correction for gradient-
MPPSC AE 2021, MPPSC AE 2016
Normal take Min. clearway width should be 150 m
which is free from obstruction. The runway length after having been corrected for
off case
elevation and temp. should be further increased at
Engine failure Basic runway length may consider
the rate of 20% for every 1% of effective gradient.
class either clearway or stop way or both.
Max. limit of longitudinal and effective gradient-
Runway length- MH WRD JE 2022, UPRVUNL AE 2022
It is obtained by applying elevation, temperature and It increases the required runway length.
gradient correction on basic runway length (BRL).
Runway width- 18 - 45 m Types of Longitudinal Effective
airport gradient gradient
Safety area-
It includes runway shoulders on either side of A, B & C 1.5 % 1%
runway and additional length. D & E 2 % 2%
Total length of safety area = Runway length + 120 Rate of change of longitudinal gradient-
Types of Rate of change per 30 m length
Width & length of safety area-
airport (for vertical curve)
L = 60 m from the ends of runway at both end [for
past standards (RSAI)] A & B 0.1 %
= 90 m (As per ICAO) C 0.2 %
D&E 0.4 %
Vertical curve is not necessary if the change in slope
≯ 0.4%.
Transverse gradient-
MPPSC AE 2022
It is provided for the purpose of effective drainage
of surface water.
Types of airport Max. value Min. Value
A&B 1.5 % 0.5 %
C, D & E 2% 0.5 %
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 654 YCT
Sight Distance- Average Landing Delay-
For A, B and C types of airports, any two points 3 m ρ
above the surface of runway should be mutually W= (Bowen & Pearcy equation)
visible from a distance equal to half the runway 2µ (1 − ρ )
length. Where,
For D and E types of runway there should be ρ = Load factor( 1µ), λ = Arrival rate
unobstructed line of sight from any point 3 m above Service rate, µ = 1/b, b = Mean service time
runway and to all other point 2.1 m above runway
within a distance of at least 1/2 of runway length. ρ (1 + C2b )
W= (Pollaczek- Khinchin formula)
Stopway- 2µ(1 − ρ)
A stopway is an area beyond the ends of runway to
decelerating an aircraft in case of an aborted takeoff. Where,
Clearway- Coefficient of variation of service time Cb = σ b / b
An area beyond the end of the runway centrally σ b = Standard deviation of service time
located along the extended centering of the runway Weighted Hourly Capacity-
is called clear way. It increases the allowable
airplane operating takeoff weight without increasing ∑ Capacity × % use × Weighting factor
WHC =
runway length. ∑ % use × Weighting factor
Practical Annual Capacity-
PAC = WHC × Annual utillization × %tage use of airport
Taxiway-
A taxiway is the path for aircraft at airport for
connecting runways with aprons, hangars, terminal
and other facilities.
Airport capacity-
The number of operations (landing & take off)
which an aircraft can process within a specified
period of time is called airport capacity.
Runway capacity-
Maximum number of operations of airplane
accommodated by the runway per unit time is
termed as runway capacity.
Capacity of parallel runway system depends upon
lateral spacing between two runways. Types of taxiway-
Factors affecting runway capacity- 1. Exit Taxiway-
1. Air traffic control measures. IRCON AE 2017
2. Runway configuration it is located at various point along the runway to
3. VFR/IFR operation allow landing aircraft to efficiently exit the runway
4. Aircraft traffic composition after landing.
VFR - Visual flight rule Exit taxiway should be designed for high turnoff
IFR - International flight rule speed.
Gate Capacity- 2. Entrance Taxiway-
It is defined by aircraft parking space adjacent to a Located near the runway threshold. It facilitates
terminal building and used by a signal aircraft for entry on an aircraft to runway for take off position.
the loading and unloading of passengers, baggage. 3. Parallel Taxiway-
It is inverse of the weighted average gate occupancy It is provided parallel to adjacent runway to reach
time for all the aircraft served. the apron area from runway after landing and from
No.of Gate apron area to runway for take off.
G.C. = 4. Bypass Taxiway-
Gate Occupancy Time Provided to give way to aircraft, located at area of
Gi congestion at busy airports.
Ultimate gate capacity, C = GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF TAXIWAY-
∑ Ti .M i
e Longitudinal Transverse
Gi = Number of gate that can accommodate aircraft gradient gradient
of class, i A, B & C ≯ 1.5 % ≯ 1.5 %
Ti = Mean gate occupancy time D&E ≯3% ≯2%
Mi = Fraction of aircraft class-i demanding service.
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 655 YCT
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient- Fillet-
Types of airport Longitudinal gradient Fillet is the extra wide area provided at the curves
for 30 m length and traffic lane intersection so that rear wheel does
A, B & C ≯1% not go off the pavement edge.
D&E Radii of fillet should not be less than the with of
≯ 1.2 %
taxiway.
Horonjeff Equation- Fillet is provided between two or more traffic ways
0.388W 2 like runway , taxiway etc.
Radius of taxiway, R 2 = in m As per ICAO , Radius of fillet should not be less
T / 2 −S
than the width of taxiway.
Where, Separation clearance-
W = Wheel base of aircraft in m It is the distance between parallel taxiway.
T = Width of taxiway As per FAA separation clearance is based on wing
S = Distance b/w midway point of the main gear span (s).
and edge of taxiway in m. • Taxiway to taxiway centre line- 1.255 + 2.1 m
Exit Taxiway Design- • Taxiway centre line to obstacle- 0.755 + 2.1 m
Where,
R1 &L1= Radius and length of entrance curve
R2 &L2 = Radius and length of central curve Hanger-
1. Turning radius (for smooth and comfortable turn)- The covered area for repair and servicing of the
V2 aircraft is called hanger.
R2 = Number of hangers depends on peak hour volume
125f
of aircraft, size of aircraft and turning radius etc.
Where, V in kmph
Apron-
f = Coefficient of friction b/w tyre and surface =
It is the paved area for the parking of aircraft,
0.13
loading, unloading the cargos and passengers etc.
Rmin for- Holding apron is the place, where aircrafts wait for
(i) Subsonic transport - 120 m takeoff.
(ii) Supersonic transport- 180 m Size of apron depends upon-
Exit speed is the most important factor that affects 1. Number of gate position-
the turning radius. No. of gate position depends upon the peak hourly
Radius of entrance curve- aircraft movement and ramp time.
Exit speed in (kmph) R1 (m) No. of gate position,
65 517
Runway capacity
80 731 = × Avg.gate occupancy time
95 941 120
2. Length of the entrance curve- Gate occupancy time for design purpose -
Small aircraft 10 minute
(O.28V)3 V3 C = Factor (0.39) Big aircraft 20 minute
L1 = =
CR 2 45.5CR 2
2. Size of loading area.
3. Stopping sight distance- 3. Aircraft parking system etc.
2 2
(0.28V) V Airport Marking Color-
SD = = MPPSC AE 2022, Kerala PSC AE 2021
2d 25.5d
d =Deceleration in m/s2 Marking Paint color
Note- All runway marking White
Total angle off turn of 30 - 45° can be negotiated All taxiway marking Yellow
satisfactory. Runway and taxiway shoulder Yellow
Width of taxiway- Apron marking Yellow
Wing span of aircraft decide the width of taxiway. boundary of the landing and Amber
It should be less than the runway width. takeoff area of heliports
Civil Engineering Smart Scan 656 YCT
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