LOGICAL REASONING: INDIAN LOGICS (ONLINE)

Introduction

● Sources of Knowledge Nasthika Schools

● Epistemology: The study of origin, nature & ● The philosophical schools that reject the
limits of human knowledge existence of a divine or ultimate reality and
● Logic: Study of Arguments & Inference question the authority of the Vedas.

● Philosophy: Interpretation, Analysis, ● The term “Nastika" is derived from the

Assessment & Exposition of all knowledge Sanskrit word "Na Asti," meaning "there is
not.“ (Atheistic approach)
● The means by which true knowledge is
attained ● The major Nastika schools are:

Schools of Indian Philosophy a) Carvaka : Atheistic– denies the existence of

the soul, afterlife, and gods– relies on
empirical evidence and rejects Vedic
authority.
b) Jainism: Rejection of a creator god– revolves
around non-violence (ahimsa), truth, and non-
possessiveness.
c) Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama
(Buddha) – rejects the authority of the Vedas
and does not assert the existence of a
personal god. It focuses on the Four Noble
Truths as a means to attain enlightenment:
Asthika Schools Indriya Njana, Mano Vijnjana, Athma
Samvedana, Yoga Njana
● The philosophical schools that affirm the
existence of a divine or ultimate reality Nyaya School
● They accept the authority of the Vedas ● Formed in 4th Century BCE by Saint Gautama
● The term "Astika" is derived from the Sanskrit ● According to this school, knowledge comes
word "Asti," meaning "there is.“ from Perception, Inference, Comparison
● The six major Astika schools are: and Verbal Testimony

a) Nyaya: Focuses on logic and epistemology. ● The objects of learning are self, body, sense
organs, sense objects, intellect, mind and
b) Vaisesika: Concerned with metaphysics and activity
atomism.
● Knowledge can be termed as the
c) Samkhya: Dualism and Reality. manifestation of the object
d) Yoga: Meditation, discipline, and spiritual ● Knowledge may be valid or invalid– valid
practice. knowledge (Prama) is considered to be the
right apprehension of an object
e) Mimamsa: Interpretation of the Vedas.
● This gave way to the science of knowledge
f) Vedanta: Philosophical teachings \of the
called Pramanasasthra
Vedas and includes various sub-schools like
Advaita Vedanta, Dvaita Vedanta, and ● Nyaya recognises 4 Pramanas: Pratyaksha,
Visishtadvaita Vedanta. Anumana, Upamana, Shabda.

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● Vaisheshika recognises Pratyaksha &
Anumana alone– other two are blended into
anumana
Pramanas ii) Indirect Perception

● Pramāṇa is a Sanskrit word which • Creates knowledge based on memory (Smriti)

means ‘measure’. • Once we have known what an apple looks
like, this gets fed into our memory or stock of
● In Indian philosophy, the word represents all
knowledge.
the means through which true and accurate
• In later instances, whenever we see any red-
knowledge about the world can be obtained.
coloured and round shaped fruit, our previous
● As per Advaita concept in Vedanta, Pramanas memory directs us to categorise it as an
are six in number. apple.
Six Pramanas Stages of Pratyaksha

1) Pratyaksha (Perception) The two stages in perception are:

2) Anumana (Inference) ● Savikalpa: Determinate perception
3) Upamana (Comparison) (something that can be precisely stated or
perceived); with distinguished features
4) Shabda (Verbal Testimony)
● Nirvikalpa: Indeterminate perception
5) Arthapathi (Implication) (admitting no doubt; free from differences)
6) Anupalabddhi (Non-apprehension) The two types of perception are:

● Laukika: Ordinary Perception

1. Pratyaksha (Perception) ● Alaukika: Extraordinary Perception

● Pratyaksha means knowledge gained through

perception.
2. Anumana (Inference)
● Perception takes place with the help of
sensory organs. ● Knowledge that cannot be gained through
sense organs becomes the object of
● Example: A child for the first time sees inference.
honey. It doesn’t know it is sweet. But once it
tastes the honey, it understands that honey is ● We infer knowledge of what we don’t see,
sweet. The child acquires the knowledge that from what we can see.
honey is sweet through one of its five sense,
● This is also considered to be the source of
the sense of taste.
valid mediated knowledge.
● It can be Direct as well as Indirect.
● Example: We can infer fire from the smell of
i) Direct Perception smoke; or we can infer physical or emotional
pain when we see the other person crying,
• The cognition of the sense objects by our etc.
sense organs alone – smell (nose), touch
3. Upamana (Comparison or Analogy)
(skin), form (eyes), sound (ears) and taste
(tongue) ● This kind of knowledge is acquired by the
• Knowledge takes place when the object of perception of similarity between two different
knowledge comes in direct contact with objects of knowledge.
objects of sense
• Direct sensory perception is also referred to ➢ It is different from mere perception and
as anubhava (meaning, experience). inference and is based on a comparison.

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➢ For example, if a person knows that an animal
that jumps on the trees is called a monkey in
his city, when this person goes to the jungle
and sees a similar looking animal which jumps
on the trees, he can say that ‘This wild 6. Anupalabdhi (Non-Apprehension)
monkey is like the monkey in my city’ or ‘The ● This is based on the apprehension of a non-
monkey in my city is like this wild monkey’. existent thing based on non-perception–
➢ Such knowledge is possible when there is a knowledge in the absence of something
prior familiarity with a particular thing which ● For example, there is no student in the class.
lets the person compare both the things Because we cannot perceive any student in
based on the known familiarity. the class at the moment, we can conclude
4. Shābda (Word or Verbal Testimony): that it might be a free hour or a holiday

● Knowledge gained through verbal testimony, ● Example: In a college, Mr A has not taken any
lecture today. So it must mean that he is
texts, symbols, or words; it is either uttered or
written. absent.
READY FOR SOME QUESTIONS?
● A verbal testimony must have a valid source
for its object of knowledge to be true. In 1. Which of the following gurus wrote
ancient times, Vedas were considered to be ‘Vaisheshika-sutras’?
the most authentic source of knowledge by
most of the Indian philosophers. Some a) Kanada
western philosophers totally rejected this idea
b) Gautama
and called for context-based knowledge. This
also opened the debate that there can be c) Mahatma Buddha
various sources of knowing objects and its
validity and reliability depends on the source d) Vatsayana
as well as the context. Answer: a)
● In modern days, we rely on newspapers,
books, journals, TV news etc. to form our 2. In its metaphysics, Nyaya is allied to the
object of knowledge or opinion.
a) Patanjali system
5. Arthapatti (Assumption or Implication)
b) Budha System
● Knowledge gained through seeing the relation
between cause and effect is Arthapatti c) Vaisheshika system
Pramana. d) Jain system
● It includes postulation, supposition, and Answer: c)
presumption.
3. Upamana is basically
● This form of knowledge is gained from what
we have seen or heard, and are assuming a) Anumana
rightly.
b) Testimony
● Example: A healthy person says that he
doesn’t walk at night. From this proposition, c) Comparison
we can postulate that this person walks during d) Object of knowledge
the day. Without this assumption, it is not
possible to explain why this person is not Answer: c)
walking during the night.
4. In Nyaya philosophy, what is the role of
Assumption and implication are very useful Shabda as a Pramana?
concepts to make logical arguments about the
a) It represents knowledge gained through
world.
direct sensory perception.
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 b) Shabda is not considered a Pramana in
Nyaya philosophy.
1. Vyapti: When the universal relation is known
c) Shabda refers to knowledge acquired Eg: Smoke comes due to fire
through verbal testimony from authoritative
2. Pakshadharmata: The minor term in which
sources.
presence is inferred
d) It is a term for inference based on observed Eg: The hill where smoke is seen
facts.
3. Hetu (or Linga): The middle term that acts as
Answer: c) the reason or medium
Eg: The Fire that we infer on the hill
5. Which of the following is an example of an
anumānas (inference)? KINDS OF ANUMANA

a) Seeing smoke and inferring that there is fire There are three different classifications, according
to three different principles
b) Seeing a box of apple is empty inferring that
it is out of stock 1. According to Purpose
c) Comparing a new car to an old car to decide 2. According to Casual Relation
which one to buy 3. According to Application

d) Believing that the Earth is round because According to Purpose anumāna is of two
your teacher told you so kinds:

Code: 1. Svarthānumāna or anumāna for oneself

1) A, B, C & D 2. Parārthānumāna or anumāna for others

2) A and B only There are five members of Parārthānumāna
3) A only viz. Pratijῆa, Hetu, Udāharana, Upanaya and
4) A, C & D only Nigamana.

Answer: 3 1. Svarthānumāna

ANUMANA ● In Svarthānumāna a man seeks only to reach

the conclusion for himself.
● The word Anumāna is a combination of two
● This is illustrated in the case of a man who
words ‘ANU’ which means ‘after’ and ‘MANA’
infers the existence of fire in a hill because he
which means ‘knowledge’, so the combined
first perceives a mass of smoke in it and then
meaning of the word is ‘after knowledge’.
remembers that there is a universal relation
● In every anumāna, there are three terms, between smoke and fire.
Sadhya, Paksa and Hetu. These three terms
2. Parārthānumāna
correspond to the major, minor and middle
term respectively. ● The logical process in which we try to
● Hetu is also called linga. Vyāpti is the ground convince others of its truth by stating all the
of Anumāna. (Principle of agreement) members of syllogism in a formal manner.

Structure Of Anumana ● In parārthānumāna, premises are discovered

by one man and imparted to another through
● Anumana etymologically means ‘secondary the medium of language.
proof’
● Annambhaṭṭa opines that parārthānumāna is
● Knowledge that comes from perception is the syllogistic expression of a thing which a
inferential or relational person employs after inferring for himself. It is
for others’ sake.
● Inference can be grouped into:

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 ● A parārthānumāna is illustrated when a man because it is possible for a mountain to be smoky
having inferred the existence of fire on a hill without being on fire.
lays it down as a thesis and proves it as a
conclusion for others to follow. ii. Kevalavyatireki: An inference is
kevalavyatireki when it is based on a middle
The five-part explanation of understanding term which is only negatively related to the
[Pancha-Avayava-Vakya] major term.
1. Pratijnja ● It is based on the invariable concomitance
between the middle term, which is established
2. Hetu
by the method of agreement in absence
3. Udaharana (Vyatireka) since there can be no positive
instances of agreement in presence between
4. Upanaya the terms.
5. Nigamana Example:
According to Causal relation, anumāna is of
● Sadhya: The mountain is not burning.
three kinds: ● Paksha: The mountain is not smoky.
● Hetu: Smoke is always accompanied by fire.
i) Purvavat: We infer the unperceived effect
from a perceived cause. Here, hetu is only negatively related to the
Example: When from the presence of dark sadhya. The hetu is not positively related to the
heavy clouds in the sky, we infer that there sadhya, because it is possible for a mountain to
will be rainfall. be on fire without being smoky.
ii) Sesavat: Here, we infer the unperceived
iii. Anvaya-Vyatireki: An inference is anvaya-
cause from a perceive effect.
vyatireki when it is based on a middle term
Example: When we see a river in flood and
which is both positively and negatively related
infer that there was heavy rain, we have a
to the major term.
case of Sesavat inference.
The universal relation (vyāpti) in this inference
iii. Sāmānyatodṛsta: This inference is based on is established by the method of agreement in
certain observed points of general similarity. presence (anvaya) and agreement in absence
Example: When we see a rose, we infer that it (vyātireka).
is fragrant. There is uniformity of coexistence
between rose and fragrance. Example:

According to the Application, anumāna is of • Sadhya: The mountain is burning.

three kinds: • Paksha: The mountain is smoky.
i. Kevalānvayi: An inference is called • Hetu: Smoke is always accompanied by fire,
Kevalānvayi when it is based on a middle and smoke is never present in the absence of
term which is only positively related to the fire.
major term.
Example: Here, hetu is both positively and negatively
related to the sadhya. The hetu is positively
• Sadhya (major term): The mountain is related to the sadhya because smoke is always
burning. accompanied by fire. The hetu is negatively
• Paksha (minor term): The mountain is related to the sadhya because smoke is never
smoky. present in the absence of fire.

• Hetu (middle term): Smoke is always READY FOR SOME QUESTIONS?

accompanied by fire.
1. Which of the following is termed as the
Here, hetu is only positively related to the sadhya. statement of reason?
The hetu is not negatively related to the sadhya,
(a) Hetu
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(b) Pratijana i) Vyāpti (invariable concomitance): The hetu
must be invariably present in all instances of
(c) Upanayana
the sadhya.
(d) Nigamana
ii) Pakṣadharmatā (presence of the hetu in
Answer: a) the pakṣa): The hetu must be present in the
paksha.
2. Which type of Anumana is based on the
principle of positive concomitance? iii) Sapakṣāsiddhi (absence of the hetu in the
vipakṣa): The hetu must be absent in the
(a) Vyapti Anumana vipakṣa (negative instance).
(b) Kevalanvayi Anumana If these three conditions are met, then the
inference is valid and the conclusion is
(c) Kevalavyatireki Anumana
true.Nyaya syllogism employs a formal five-step
(d) Upanaya Anumana argument. Kindly match the items in List I with
those in List II.
Answer: b)
4. Nyaya syllogism employs a formal five-step
3. What is the role of Vyapti in Vyapti Anumana?
argument. Kindly match the items in List I with
(a) It is the Sadhya (proposition). those in List II.
List I List II
(b) It is the Hetu (reason).
(c) It is the invariable concomitance between A. There is fire on 1. Pratijna
Sadhya and Hetu. the hill
B. Because there is 2. Hetu
(d) It is the Upanaya (application). smoke on the hill
Answer: c) C. Wherever there 3. Udaharana
is smoke, there
● Explanation: is fire; like a
kitchen hearth
➢ In the Nyaya school of Indian philosophy, and unlike a lake
anumana (inference) is a pramana (source of D. The hill is 4. Upanaya
valid knowledge) that is based on the likewise smoky
invariable concomitance (vyāpti) between two E. Thus there is fire 5. Nigamana
properties. An anumana consists of three on the hill
parts:
Codes:
➢ Sadhya (probandum): The property that is
being inferred. (a) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-5, E-4
(c) A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4, E-5
➢ Paksha (subject): The object or situation to
which the inference is being applied. (b) A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4, E-5
(d) A-5, B-2, C-3, D-4, E-1
➢ Hetu (reason): The property that is used to
infer the sadhya. Answer: (c)

➢ For example, if we see smoke and infer that

there is fire, the sadhya is "fire", the paksha is
"smoke", and the hetu is "smoke is always
accompanied by fire".
➢ In an anumana, the sadhya is inferred from
the paksha on the basis of the hetu. The
inference is valid if the following three
conditions are met:

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