Download the full version of the ebook at

https://ebookgate.com

How to Diagnose and Repair Automotive

Electrical Systems Motorbooks Workshop First
Edition Tracy Martin

https://ebookgate.com/product/how-to-diagnose-and-
repair-automotive-electrical-systems-motorbooks-
workshop-first-edition-tracy-martin/

Explore and download more ebook at https://ebookgate.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Bicycle A Repair Maintenance Manifesto 2nd Edition Sam

Tracy

https://ebookgate.com/product/bicycle-a-repair-maintenance-
manifesto-2nd-edition-sam-tracy/

ebookgate.com

Automotive Embedded Systems Handbook 1st Edition Nicolas

Navet

https://ebookgate.com/product/automotive-embedded-systems-
handbook-1st-edition-nicolas-navet/

ebookgate.com

Automotive control systems 1st Edition Ali G Ulsoy

https://ebookgate.com/product/automotive-control-systems-1st-edition-
ali-g-ulsoy/

ebookgate.com

Electrical Distribution Systems 2nd Edition Patrick

https://ebookgate.com/product/electrical-distribution-systems-2nd-
edition-patrick/

ebookgate.com
Digital Restoration from Start to Finish Second Edition
How to repair old and damaged photographs Ctein

https://ebookgate.com/product/digital-restoration-from-start-to-
finish-second-edition-how-to-repair-old-and-damaged-photographs-ctein/

ebookgate.com

Automotive Mathematics First Edition Jason C. Rouvel

https://ebookgate.com/product/automotive-mathematics-first-edition-
jason-c-rouvel/

ebookgate.com

guide to electrical power distribution systems 6th ed

Edition Anthony J. Pansini

https://ebookgate.com/product/guide-to-electrical-power-distribution-
systems-6th-ed-edition-anthony-j-pansini/

ebookgate.com

Automotive Suspension Steering Systems Classroom Manual

5th Edition Don Knowles

https://ebookgate.com/product/automotive-suspension-steering-systems-
classroom-manual-5th-edition-don-knowles/

ebookgate.com

Electrical Machines Drives and Power Systems Fifth Edition

Theodore Wildi

https://ebookgate.com/product/electrical-machines-drives-and-power-
systems-fifth-edition-theodore-wildi/

ebookgate.com
•i B ^ M B ^ B i B ' B ^ M ^ H w o r k s

expert22 a/ia http://rutracker.orq

How To Diagnose ai
Repair Automotiv
Electrical Systei
 T o Leslie, w h o s e love a n d advice is a gift-

First published in 2005 by Motorbooks, an imprint O n the front coven

of MBI Publishing Company, Galtier Plaza, Suite 200. Main: Sometimes a lab scope is the only way to
380 Jackson Street, St. Paul. M N 55101-3885 USA determine if an electrical component is doing its job.
T h e waveform for one of the cighttfuel injectors on
© Tracy Martin, 2005 this Ford F150 looks good. Small: These components
may appear different, but they're all just load dcviccs
All righrs reserved. With the exception of quoting brief with resistance to electron flow.
passages for the purposes of review, no part of this
publication may be reproduced without prior written O n the back cover: A relay has been added to a
permission from the Publisher. driving light circuit. T h e relay now controls the high
amperage load that the driving ligfits need to operate.
T h e information in this book is true and complete to For more on this, see Chapter 8.
the best of our knowledge. All recommendations arc
made without any guarantee on the p a n of the author
or Publisher, who also disclaim any liability incurred in ISBN-10: 0-7603- 2099-3
connection with the use of this data or specific details.
Editors: Jennifer Johnson and IVicr BodenMeincr
This publication has been prepared solely by M B I Designer: Chris Faycrs
Publishing C o m p a n y and is not approved or licensed
by any other entity. W c recognize that some words, Printed in China
model names, and designations mentioned herein
are the property of the trademark holder. We use
them for identification purposes only. This is not an
official publication.

Motorbooks titles are also available at discounts in bulk

quantity for industrial or sales-promotional use. For
derails write to Special Sales Manager at
MBI Publishing Company, Galtier Plaza,
Suite 200, 3 8 0 Jackson Street, St. Paul,
M N 55101-3885 USA.
CONTENTS
Pr«tM« J

SECTION I: THEORY
P.HAPTFR 1 Ohm1. Law 1P
-Three Things* About 12-Volt DC Circuits 11
•Three Things* About 12-Volt DC Circuits 14
Resistance/Amps Relationship 16
DC and AC Circuits 18
Oh No. Math? 19
Rules of Operation for Three Types of Circuits 20

CHAPTER 2: Voltage Drop Testing 28

nnn't I an Ohmmctpr .. P7
How a Voltmeter Measures Voltage 28
Testing Circuits Dynamically 30
Voltage Drop 32
How Mnrh k Tnn Mnr-h? . 33
Locating the Bad Spot 35
Test. Don't Guess 36

SECTION II: TOOLS

CHAPTER 3: Electronic Testing Toolt 37
Test Ughts 38
Multimeters 40
Fluke Multimeter 42
Measuring Amperage 45
Logic Probes 46
Noid Ughts 46
Rhnrt Finder* 47
Jumper Wires and Accessories 49
Coil Testers 50
Spark Tester 51
Ignition Timing Lights 53
Battery Testers 53
Lab Scopes 54
Soldering Tools 55

expert22 fl/ia http://rutracker.org

S E C T I O N III; E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S
CHAPTER 4: Storage Battery 58
Chemical Reactions 59
Discharging 60
Electrolyte Solution 61
Charging 62
Battery Ratings 63
Type ot Batteries . . . .63
Battery T e s t i n g - S t a t e of Charge • • 64
Dynamic Battery Testing 65
Hand-held Battery Testers 67

CHAPTER 5: C h a r g i n g a n d S t a r t i n g Sy»temm 69
n r : n«npratnr<; S3
DC Generator Voltage Regulators 71
Allornatnre ,. Z2
Mechanical Voltage Regulators for Alternators 7S
Transistorized Electronic Voltage Regulators • 76
Internal and Computer-Controlled Voltage Regulators 77
Charge Indicators 78
Alternator Testing • 81
Generic Alternator Testing 83
G M Alternator with External Regulator 85
G M Delcotron Alternator with Internal Regulator 87
Delco-Remy CS Alternator 87
Ford-Altemator with External Regulator 89
F n r r l - M n t n r r f a f t IAR Altarnatnr-i £H
Chrysler Alternator with External Voltage Regulator 90
Chrysler's Computer-Controlled Alternator 90
DC Generator and Regulator Testing 90
Generator Polarizing
Starter Motors 92
Starter Solenoids 93
Starter Testing 93

expert22 fl/ia http://rutracker.org

CHAPTER 6: I g n i t i o n Systems 98
How To Get from 1? Volts 10 100.000 Volts 97
Ignition Coils 97
Generic Coil Testing 99
Points and Condenser 101
Electronic Ignition and Computer Controls 102
Triggers 104
Ignition Modules 107
Generic Ignition Module Testing 107
Ignition Module "Tap" Testing 108
Secondary Ignition Circuit 116

CHAPTER 7 Fuel I n j e c t i o n Systems 119

narhi.rotnrQ 120
Electronic Fuel Injection 120
Taking EFI (or a Test Drive 121
Sensor Testing 124
fieneral Motors 128
Ford Motor Company 128
Chrysler 131
MflM Airflnw Spnwrs — 131
Fuel Injectors and injector Pulse 134

SECTION 4: GENERAL ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DIAGNOSIS

CHAPTER 8: W i r i n g Diagrams 136
Reading Wiring Diagrams 137
Wiring Diagram Exercises 141
Answers to Wiring Diagram Questions 142

CHAPTER 9: Troubleshooting Electrical Systems 147

The Starter that Doesn't: A Case Study 147
Bad Grounds 152
Cross over Circuits 153
Parasitic Amp Draw 156

Sources 157
Index 1S9

expert22 fl/is http://rutracker.org ?

 PREFACE
W hile the automotive clectrical field has always
fascinated me. it has taken me about 25 years to get
to the position of writing this book. I have spent years
working in my garage on all makes of vehicles. It has
oftentimes been a long and arduous process of trial and
error, discovering what works and what doesn't, how to
fashion "short-cuts." and most importantly, how to break it
all down into simple, easy-to-undcrstand "sound bites" of
information that a reader or beginning mechanic can
quickly understand and digest. Fortunately, what has made
this process somewhat easier is that I have been taught by
some of the best people in the fields of automotive repair
and training. Many of the instructional methods used to
convey technical information in this book have been
borrowed from colleagues, friends, and fellow mechanics
and then elaborated upon. However, throughout my
experiences I have often been struck by the notion that the
related areas of automotive electricity, electronics, and
diagnostic testing arc needlessly complicated and presented
in a confused manner. I have endeavored to correct this
imbalance in this book.

In the early 1980s I worked as a lab technician at a large

turbocharger manufacturer in Southern California. 'Phis
company was one of the few pioneering innovators in
design and construction of turbochargers for the dicscl and
automotive markets. It also had the largest engine only source of information for how the systems were
dynamometer facility on the West Coast. Many auto supposed to work. And more often than not. the response
manufacturers introduced the advantages of turbocharging from engineers to queries for more information about why
an engine in the early 1980s, and as a technician in the right something didn't work out as cxpcctcd went something like
place at the right time. I was fortunate enough to see new this: "The system couldn't possibly have malfunctioned: it's
and developing automotive technology years prior to its made using state-of-the-art electronics, designed by a
incorporation into production vehicles. This environment qualified electrical engineer. You must have installed it
was the setting in which I received an introduction to some incorrectly." Although this was not the most ideal
of the earliest electronic engine management systems, their environment in which to learn automotive electronics,
modes of operation, and their inherent "teething" problems. some technical knowledge rubbed off on me with the help
Along with fellow technicians, 1 had the opportunity to of fellow technicians.
install test engines into various dyno test cells (soundproof Some years later, the widespread introduction into the
rooms), mounting all the electronics on a plywood board automotive industry of carburetors with wires coming out
next to the engine. As engine testing progressed, the of them and electronic fuel injection systems gave me the
computer-controlled carburetor or fuel injection system opportunity to teach fellow mechanics (now called
would inevitably "crash and burn" and have to be repaired. technicians) what I had learned about how to diagnosis and
Since there were no service manuals available (they aren't repair these systems. I taught classes for many nationwide
written prcproduction), automotive engineers were the corporations, including Sun, Allen, Nissan, and Snap-On.

8
Typically, these instructions occurred in the evenings, after 1964 Corvette. It should have been a portent for her of
everyone had already put in a full day working on cars. Too things to come. However, she was not dissuaded. For this,
often, I was faced with a group of ill-fated students all I am forever indebted to her, especially for her continuing
wishing they were home eating dinner instead of sitting in efforts to p u m p some life into me and make me funny and
class. Keeping these students awake, interested, and open acccssible to humans. I don't know where I'd be without
to learning was a challenge, to say the least. Consequently, her—probably somewhere else sucking engine juice for life
over the years I gained invaluable experience and learned, support and wishing I had a wife just like her.
out of necessity, innovative ways of imparting information If all these experiences have taught me anything, its that
and keeping things moving during class. As a result. I have the more I think I know, the more I realize I don't know
been able to incorporate many of those techniques and much at all. So I'd like to thank some of the people who
ideas into this book. have helped me over the yean, especially with the writing
In addition to teaching. I had the great fortune to of this book.
spend quite a few years working and consulting at a Chief and foremost. I'd like to thank "Teck." H e was my
unique and interesting business called Automotive Data master teacher during my short tenure as a high school
Systems (ADS) in California. A D S is a cutting-edge auto-shop teacher and also the founder of ADS. His
company that provides a telephone automotive diagnostic technical and personal advice over the years has been an
"hotline" that technicians can call in to receive invaluable source of inspiration, development, and practical
immediate, real-person, real-world advice on how to growth, and without him I am sure I would be something
diagnose and repair a specific problem on a car as its less of the person I am today. I'd also like to thank both
being worked on. T h e automotive database compiled, Curt Moore and Dave Bellaver, who allowed me access,
referenced, and stored at this facility is truly amazing, through their contacts, to much of the technical infor-
having (at last count) over 30,000 records, or "tech- mation contained in this book. I'd also like to thank
notes." pertaining to specific years, makes, and models of especially Mike McFJfresh. a former coworker, technical
vehicles and their drivability-relatcd problems. As a scribe, and overall automotive scholar at ADS. Without his
result, ADS technicians have been consistently able to rechnical ediring. and invaluable input, some of the stupid
give correct advice to customers over 95 percent of the things I originally wrote would have wound up printed in
time. With this much confidence in that database and these pages for you to laugh at. Fortunately, his generous
the daily hands-on training I received in diagnostics gift of time and his always-willing-to-help attitude has
and troubleshooting, I was able to synthesize a great deal (hopefully!) saved me from professional embarrassment.
of information about electrical automotive systems and Thanks, Mike, for all your help. lastly and again, there is
their diagnosis and repair. I am forever indebted to the my wife, whose incredible patience, astute editing skills,
great bunch of guys I met at this company who have and sharp-edged advice ( O U C H ! ) made this a better book.
always generously shared (and c o n t i n u e to) their She helped me avoid writing about voltmeters or alter-
knowledge and experience with me. Unfortunately, the nators that "speak" or ground path returns that go
company, although still in business, hxs been swallowed nowhere. I'd like to thank her from the bottom of my heart
up by a large automotive aftcrmarkct "solutions" provider; and promise her that she doesn't have to read this book
many of the employees now work for a large Korean car "just one more time."
manufacturer somewhere in Southern California.
In closing, I'd just like to say that I hope you, the reader,
Hopefully, they've all found diagnostic nirvana there.
are able to gain some practical skills and knowledge, which
Finally, for the last 25 years of my life there has been my will help increase your confidence when faced with
wife. O n our first date, she showed up at my door only to automotive electrical challenges.
find me working in my garage on my recently acquired — Tracy Martin
 SECTION I
THEORY
T his first scction is intended to provide a bare-bones
explanation of general electrical theory and how basic
direct current (IXI) electricity operates in an automobile.
knowledge ot electricity or electronics since this book takes
certain liberties and shortcuts with clcctrical science. For all
electronically challenged mortals, ( rtapter I on I )hm's Law
Its not important to understand electricity inside and is a hot-rod version of how 1 J volt automotive electrical
o u t — a subject many books cover in excruciating detail— systems operate. Then, Chapter 2 on voltage drop testing
but it is important to have a basic understanding of how to cuts to the chase by showing how to apply the information
apply a practical working knowledge of electricity in order learned in the context of solving real automotive ptobleniv
to diagnose and repair electrical malfunctions that show up In fact, all subjects covered in this book relate in some way
in your car or truck. to basic theories discussed in chapters 1 and 2. So. if brain-
An in-depth examination of clcctrical theory is far more fade starts to set in while reading more detailed sections on
complex and cumbersome than the practical "hands-on" wiring diagrams or electronic fuel injection diagnosis, a
premise offered in this book. Therefore, apologies arc revisit to these chapters for an electrical theory "tune-up"
offered in advance to readers with more than a working may prove helpful.

CHAPTER 1
OHM'S LAW
B ecause billions of electrons flowing through a wire at
the speed of light are difficult to see and—for most
people—hard to even imagine, electronics and clcctrical
year and it's your turn at bat in a game, there's a good
chance you'll strike out. As everyone knows, a little practice
before a game goes a long way toward ensuring success.
repair arc areas of vehicle maintenance most people shy Likewise, the day your vehicle fails to start also should not
away from. Unlike disassembling and cleaning a carburetor, be the first time you switch on .our new digital voltmeter.
changing a flat tire, or bolting accessories onto your vehicle, Simply having basic electrical knowledge is not enough:
repairing electrical systems is a truly cerebral endeavor; you mast practice applying that knowledge by using a
however, it is not impossible or even difficult. Electrical multimeter on an operating circuit. This will provide
systems may seem perplexing while watching a seasoned a better-than-average chance of hitting the ball the first
automotive technician with electronics sawy diagnose an time (electrically speaking) when \omcthing goes wrong
electrical problem in a vchicle, especially when you think with your car. And it's easier than you think.
you may have to repeat the process when faced with an Applying electrical theory to the real world is simply a
clcctrical nightmare at a later point. However, a little secret matter of knowing what reading to expect from
allows you to easily repeat skills needed to diagnose a starter a volt/amp/ohmmeter display connected to a working
motor that goes "click," a dim headlight, an engine that circuit before connecting it to a problem circuit. Antici-
starts and dies, or to find and fix any number of other pating what the reading should be and understanding what
mysterious problems. T h e secret is practice. die numbers mean allows visualization of an otherwise
Most people understand the need for practice, especially invisible problem. By practicing on operating circuits with
when it comes to sports; playing baseball, riding motor- known values, you'll gain the necessary confidence to figure
cycles, shooting pool, bowling—anything requiring a out what to look for in a circuit that isn't doing what it's
specific skill set goes a lot smoother with experience. For supposed to. Ixt's stan by dissecting a common 12-volt IX"
example, suppose you haven't picked up a baseball bat in a circuit—it doesn't get much simpler.

10
i r ^ n ^ x WW / )

Aample 12-vdtlxi3ery. wvrs. and ttftlMbnikgup3baste DCcirtwl

"THREE THINGS" ABOUT fuel injection circuits have an electronic control m o d u l e

12-VOLT DC CIRCUITS ( E C M ) a n d various sensors a n d actuators.
Everything clcctrical in a vchiclc is part of a circuit. Circuits W i t h i n each system are individual circuits that control
arc simply layouts, or designs, of h o w clcctrical c o m p o n e n t s specific clcctrical c o m p o n e n t s . Headlights a n d taillights arc
are powered and controlled. Electrical c o m p o n e n t s f o u n d part of the lighting system, b u t each operates via a separate
in automobiles are usually divided into categories of circuits circuit within that system. Tills system within a system, or
( t h o u g h n o t always). For example, a lighting circuit is subsystem, creates a big s t u m b l i n g block for m a n y "shade
c o m p o s e d of headlights, taillights, r u n n i n g lights, a n d tree" mechanics and professional technicians alike w h o arc
interior lights: a charging circuit includes an alternator (or faced with problems in a u t o m o t i v e clcctrical systems. In
generator), voltage regulator (if used), and battery; typical order to diagnose an electrical problem, a nonoperational

Urheberrechlllch g e s c h u t z t e s Ma'e
v \ mm i p\ i m i m /
LOAD
\ /
GROUND
GROUND SIDE
RETURN
/ " • S

POWER
SOURCE

I
Hg 1-1. Three dements of a
Dw tgtti btfb. irx3(3)Pv black <Mn a Pw ground return

circuit must he separated and isolated f r o m the overall T h i n g s " are easily identified as t h e primary c o m p o n e n t s of
larger system of which it is a p a n . as well as from other every 12-volt D C electrical circuit.
operating circuits w i t h i n that same system. T h e " T h r e e T h i n g s " listed—power source, load device,
W h e n faced with an a u t o m o t i v e electrical repair, most and g r o u n d r e t u r n — a r e all necessary and must be present
people typically turn t o m a n u f a c t u r e r wiring diagrams for in a circuit in order for it to operate
help. T h e y wrongly assume that since the diagrams provide
a blueprint of the electrical system, they will thus help with Power Source
the identification of specific inoperable circuits. However, Ever)- electrical c o m p o n e n t must have a power source in
this approach is like looking for a needle in a haystack. order to operate. All clcctrical energy needed for the circuit
Manufacturers' wiring diagrams don't isolate or identic- to d o its job is provided by a power source. In order for
inoperable circuits; in fact, since they can show the entire electricity to move along a wire, s u b a t o m i c particles called
lighting system with all its circuits, or worse, the complete electrons (invisible t o the naked eye) interact to transfer
electrical system for the whole vehicle, this approach can energy from o n e point to another, they provide power for
prove d a u n t i n g unless you know what to look for. a circuit. Starting at a battery's positive terminal, electrons
T h e abiliry to identify- and isolate a circuit allows you to are pushed t h r o u g h the circuit. Any problems with connec-
simply c o n n e c t a voltmeter properly and anticipate the tions o n the power side of a circuit will afleci the entire
respective readings. T h i s is n o t hard or intimidating if you circuit. T h i s seems like a no-brainer. b u t o f t e n t i m e s techni-
understand the " T h r e e T h i n g s " that m a k e u p all 12-volt cians a n d h o m e mechanics spend countless h o u r s trying t o
D C circuits. W h e n any o n e of the " T h r e e T h i n g s " goes discover w h y something w o n t work only t o find o u t later
missing in action, the circuit stops working. While this may- that a simple blown fuse is the cause.
seem obvious, it is far less so w h e n looking at a complex T h e battery andVor alternator/generator arc the chief
wiring diagram or actual wiring harness u n d e r the h o o d . power sources for all electrical and electronic circuits in a
However, when you k n o w what t o look for. these " T h r e e vehicle. In a d d i t i o n , wires connected t o cither a battery's

12
 «/\IID/E mm mmm /
positive terminal or an alternators o u t p u t terminal arc arc included as p a n of the design of the circuit in which
considered a power source. Consequently, relays, (uses, they f u n c t i o n .
junction blocks, and fusible links also provide power to However, there is o n e type of load device we can all live
electrical c o m p o n e n t s because they connect to the battery's w i t h o u t : unwanted load devices. T"hesc run the g a m u t f r o m
positive terminal. Additional terminology used t o refer to corroded or loose connections to frayed sections of wire to
power sources includes: plus side, power side, hot or h o t dirtv - contacts inside switches or relays. U n w a n t e d load
side, positive ( • ) . and batter}*. devices have resistance t o electron flow, use u p voltage
unnecessarily, and have an undesirable effect o n clcctrical
Load Device circuits. Worst of all. they don't show u p o n wiring
A load device is any c o m p o n e n t that uses u p voltage or has diagrams, so you have t o find t h e m yourself. ( C h a p t e r 2 o n
resistance t o clcctrons flowing through a wire. Most load Voltage D r o p Testing will show you how.)
devices simply a m o u n t t o n o t h i n g m o r e than electrical
c o n d u c t o r s of various lengths, sizes, a n d shapes. For Ground Return
example, motors, relays, lights, solenoids, coils, spark plugs, A ground return provides a route for clcctrons (electricity)
and c o m p u t e r s (black boxes) arc all load devices with some to return t o the battery after use by a load device. T h e s e can
resistance. T h e h u n d r e d s of load do-ices appearing in be wires, metal b o d y panels, the engine block, the trans-
wiring diagrams all p e r f o r m some type of useful work and mission. or a vehicle frame. O t h e r terminology often used

Two power sources found « ar reticles—the sUrage batfery and aatmator lor gemdtot In oldef vetoes}

13
V M H H H H H

TT»»sc componeoa ray appe&r cXlferecl. !xj! meyre jus* load <3evc« resxtaFce to ttectronflowCoutImy '•'oongef Toyota

t o refer t o a g r o u n d return include}: g r o u n d , cold, earth, or energy f r o m the pressurized water extracted via the Itud
negative (-). This sequence of electron (low—power, load device, a return hose (ground rcnirnl sends the ss-ater f r o m
device, a n d g r o u n d r e t u r n — i s k n o w n as a complete circuit. the load device back to the tank where the sequence starts
If any of the " Three Things" is disconncctcd, the circuit is over again.
broken and rendered incomplete. For this process t o work continually, water must be
Bocausc electrons arc invisible when flossing through a returned t o the t a n k at the same rate it's p u m p e d o u t . The
circuit, its hard to get an idea of what's going on inside the flow of electrons t h r o u g h an electrical circuit works in a
system. Consider a basic 12-volt circuit consisting of a batter)', similar manner. Starting f r o m the circuit's power side,
light bulb, and wires. T h e only s-isual confirmation that the electrons floss- to a load device svhere they provide energy
circuit is operating is that the bulb is on. If everything is for s o m e type of work to b e accomplished. From the load
connecrcd and the light bulb Is off. one of the " T h r e e 'Things" device they flow t h r o u g h t h e g r o u n d - r e t u r n svire back to
is missing and the only confirmation a technician receives that the battery.
something is wrong is that the bulb will not turn on.
Let's think of this concept a n o t h e r way. Water flowing "THREE MORE THINGS" ABOUT
t h r o u g h a hose is a user-friendly way t o conceptualize what's 12-VOLT DC CIRCUITS
h a p p e n i n g inside an operating electrical circuit. Visualize a You knesv it couldn't be that simple! O n l y three electrical
tank full of water with an internal p u m p . T h e r e is an inlet concepts t o keep track of) Don't worry; there's not u m
a n d outlet on the tank connccted via hoses to a load device. m u c h more.
W h e n water is p u m p e d o u t of the tank u n d e r pressure, it's T h e power source, load dcvice, and g r o u n d return are
sent t o a load device that docs some f o r m of work. After the physical objects that can actually be seen and touched. In

14
 I ™ . IP\"W~W / J

Fig 1-2. D&incusfy happy wotkjng etectrons ace pumped. ce pushed, out of the battery and travel through atoaddeuce back to the battery ria a ground return—
thus, makng a complete circuit.

addition t o these three physical objects, dicrc arc direc device, a n d back to the negative terminal. Voltage, or
basic, yet less tangible, concepts or principles for a standard electrical pressure, is similar t o pressurized air p r o d u c e d by
12-volt D C electrical system. U n d e r s t a n d i n g their signifi- an air compressor. T h e compressor forces air i n t o a tank
cance a n d interaction is just as i m p o r t a n t as u n d e r s t a n d i n g where it is stored as an energy source. After c o n n e c t i n g an
h o w the three things form a circuit. Fortunately, t o help o u t air-powered tool t o the tank and squeezing the trigger, the
so you're not operating totally in the dark, the net effect of t a n k s high-pressure air is pushed f r o m the tank t h r o u g h
the interaction of the three m o r e things can b e observed. the air hose i n t o t h e tool so the tool can p e r f o r m work. T h e
The "Three M o r e Things'* arc: voltage, amperage, higher the air pressure, the m o r e work the air tool can
a n d resistance. accomplish. T h e same is t r u e of voltage. T h e m o r e voltage,
T h i n k of voltage as electrical pressure, amperage as the or clcctrical pressure present, the harder a n d m o r e forcefully
a m o u n t of electricity used in the circuit, a n d resistance as the electrons arc pushed along a wire a n d t h r o u g h the load
restriction o n t h e flow of clcctrons t h r o u g h the circuit. device. T h e r e are only 12.6 volts w o r t h of push in an
These three concepts represent the electrical values of what s a u t o m o b i l e batter)'. W i t h the engine r u n n i n g , the alter-
actually occurring inside an operating circuit. H a v i n g a nator raises this voltage t o a r o u n d 14.5 volts. W i t h only
clear idea of h o w they interrelate prov ides a concrete image these small a m o u n t s of push present, it's i m p o r t a n t n o t t o
of what's right o r w r o n g with a D C electrical circuit. lose any voltage across a connector o r along a wire.

However, there is a n o t h e r clcctrical system in vehicles

Voltage that d c s r l o p s considerably m o r e clcctrical pressure t h a n the
Voltage can be t h o u g h t of as pressure needed to push 12.6 volts f o u n d at the battery. Ignition systems require
clcctrons f r o m a battery's positive post, t h r o u g h a load high clcctrical pressure because the load device for the

15
Urheberrechtlich geschutztes Material
 I....... 1
enough t o allow for the unrestricted flow of electrons. In
other words, the diameter o f a cable in a starter system has
to be large e n o u g h to offer low resistance to the m a g n i t u d e
of current flow traveling t h r o u g h the system.
Conversely, the process o f illuminating a taillight
requires considerably less energy. Becausc the b u l b used in
a taillight circuit is a low a m p e r a g e load device, the wires
f r o m the power source to the b u l b and returning back to
the negative batter)- terminal are significantly smaller in
diameter t h a n the cablcs in a starter circuit. T h e minimal
AIR PRESURE resistance f o u n d in the smaller wires will not slow the
electrons substantially enough to prevent the transfer of
energy neccssary t o light u p a taillight which is only 2
a m p s . T h e a m o u n t of am|>eragc flosv in a circuit is
independent of the size of the wires used. Using a wire the
size of a battery cable t o construct a taillight circuit would
have n o effect on its operation. I lowevct. using a small
taillight-sized svire as a battery cable for a starter circuit
would not work. T h e small wire would not transfer enough
electrons (high amperage) into the starter motor, and it
ELECTRICAL PRESSURE would overheat a n d melt in half.

Resistance
Rfl l-X Air pressure and voOige (etectncal pressuel are simitarr) that more Reiiitance is the restriction of electron flow in a circuit.
pmh equate mors wcrt produced try a toad dewe Resistance anywhere in a circuit lows the flow of electrons.
By definition, all load devices have r o i s t a n c e t o electron
flow. T h e relationship between voltage, amperage, and
ignition system circuit Is a set of spark plugs. A spark plug resistance was discovered a b o u t 1 "70 years ago by G c o r g
has resistance to electron flow via the small gap of air S i m o n O h m . T h e theory explaining the interaction of these
between two of its p a r t s — t h e center and g r o u n d electrodes. principles is known as Ohm's I .aw. The primary
Ignition voltage needs to be high enough t o overcome the measurement of resistance is expressed as o h m s .
high resistance created by the air gap. The high voltage Automobiles have b o t h high a n d low resistive circuits.
creates a spark as it jumps from the spark p l u g s ccnter For example, a d o m e light bulb m a y have high resistance
electrode to the g r o u n d return elcctrodc. O n older ignition (12 ohms) t o electron flow a n d therefore may use o n l y a
systems. 2 5 . 0 0 0 volts were required to create a spark that small a m o u n t o f current or amperage. By contrast, a starter
would overcome the air gap's resistance. T h e o u t p u t o n m o t o r has a low resistance s-aluc (0.06 o h m ) a n d allows a
newer ignition systems is considerably more, with m a n y greater n u m b e r of electrons (high amperage) to flow f r o m
p r o d u c i n g well over 100.000 volts. If you've ever svorked o n the battery to the starter. Because resistance restricts the
an ignition system with the engine r u n n i n g and been zapped floss- of electrons in a circuit, it affects the path ( t h e wire)
by a spark-plug wire, you k n o w what that push feels like. the electrons travel d o w n . I.ike most o f us, electricity is
lazy—it takes the path of least resistance f r o m o n e p o i n t to
Amperage a n o t h e r in a circuit. For example, if o n e of t w o wires
Amperage, or current, is the a m o u n t (or volume) of connected to tsvo light bulbs has high resistance, the
electricity (amps) flowing t h r o u g h a circuit. A starter m o t o r electrons ss-ill flosv d o w n the other lower resistive svire
with a high amperage d r a w has lots of electrons that must (lighting that bulb only).
tras-el f r o m the battery, through the starter, a n d back to the
battery in a complete circuit for the starter to get e n o u g h RESISTANCE/AMPS RELATIONSHIP
energy t o turn the engine over. As m u c h as 2 5 0 a m p s are Many electrical gremlins found in a u t o m o b i l e s arc
required to crank a large V-8 engine. In a starter circuit, attributable to u n w a n t e d , high resistance svithin a circuit.
b o t h positive and negative battery cables have t o be large T h e presence of t o o m u c h resistance in a circuit slosvs the

16
The tottery cable X rt«a»i»V size atfows fl » carry as much as 250 amps in a sunt* crcut Mtrwuf ov&heatoj The smaller wee wtf accommodate only up to
2$ amps; using ttn a starter circuit wotid men a nhaB.

figure 1 -A. A high-amperage, bvr-rcstsmce starter orcuit reqvrres large cattos to aflow enough energy »reach the starter and return to me tottery However, a
taOighfs tugh-resstaxe. tow-ampenge fesnjn requires onty a smal wre to carry its etecmcai load.

17
v I 1
AS RESISTANCE GOES UP,

AMPS CO DOWN.

(VOLTAGE IS CONSTANT)

AS RESISTANCE COES DOWN.

AMPS CO UP.

(VOLTA6E IS CONSTANT)

Fig 1-5. ft you rerrvmbef notftng etse fromffwcfapter. rem&votnng the rtlatons/xpfiefwreiresistance and ainps and how they .vent? wtifun a craif is worth
its ivfrjfil m QcJd for money'), snce it wti htlp yvu Oagnosc many common dcctncaJ prc&cms tt amps are down. then the cause to be unwanted, hgh
resistance: it h&> amperage is present then the orcut resistance is low

How of electrons, causing low performance or resistance to electron flow becomes too low. T h e fuse heats
n o n o p c r a t i o n of load devices. u p w h e n amperage increases; at some point, amperage gets
T h e r e is a direct relationship between circuit amperage high e n o u g h to melt t h e fuse in half, causing an incomplete
a n d circuit resistance. I t s critical to u n d e r s t a n d this simple circuit. Fuses provide a margin of safety in circuits sincc a
cause-and-eflect relationship because k n o w i n g h o w to b u r n e d wire could cause an electrical fire. A n d a melted fuse
apply this knowledge is key toward providing solutions t o Ls easier to replace than b u r n e d wires.
m a n y a u t o m o t i v e electrical problems. It's i m p o r t a n t t o r e m e m b e r the ins-ene relationship
Both a slow t u r n i n g starrer and a d i m headlight arc the between resistance and amperage. W h e n resistance in a
result of an insufficient n u m b e r of electrons passing circuit is decreased, amperage always increases propor-
t h r o u g h the circuit back to the battery ( f o r m i n g a complete tionally. Conversely, if a circuit has high resistance, the
circuit). Somewhere along the circuit, high resistance has available amperage is decreased.
blocked the flow of current. T h u s , an increase in resistance
causes a decrease in amperage. DC AND AC CIRCUITS
However, the opposite occurs whenever resistance in a In a direct current ( D C ) circuit, the floss- of amps always runs
circuit is t o o low; a decrease in resistance causes an increase in only o n e direction. For ease of explanation (and in confor-
in amperage. For example, if a power source wire comes mance with automotisr publications), all diagrams used in this
i n t o contact w i t h a g r o u n d return (because of a loose book depict dectriciry (electrons) lloss-ing through D C circuits
c o n n e c t i o n , frayed wire, o r another reason), t h u s bypassing in one direction o n l y — f r o m a point of higher (positis-c)
the intended load dcvicc, the low resistance present in the voltage to a lossrr (negative) voltage. EJectron floss- from
g r o u n d return allows high amperage t o flow through t h e positive to negative is called conventional electron theory. (In
circuit. If the wires are t o o small t o carry the increased reality, electron mos-ement at the subatomic lesxl travels only
amperage, they could overheat and melt, which can from negative to positisr in a D C circuit. See Chapter 4 for
possibly cause a Are. Fuses are used to protect circuits when the explanation why.) However, since >1x1 can't sec the

18
 CAiin/E \F\~W W /

VOLTS • A M P S TIMES O H M S

O H M S - V O L T S D I V I D E D BY A M P S

A M P S - V O L T S D I V I D E D BY O H M S

WATTS - AMPS TIMES VOLTS

A M P S - W A T T S D I V I D E D BY VOLTS

Fig 1-6. These ar the Das* formulas needed to ffare out the 'numbers'in any 12-vott DC drcuK. To sobe tor any one unknown value. you onty need to few two
of the three values—volts. amps, or ohms. The unknown variable can be determined by the simple mathematical equations above.

electrons while working o n a circuit, the direction in which Furthermore, wiring configurations and c o m p o n e n t s for A C
the)- travel is irrelevant. T h e important thing to remember for current arc generally not compatible with D C circuits.
practical purposes is that in D C circuits electricity always flows
in only one direction. For purposes of illustration, the "hands- OH NO, MATH?
on" subject matter of this book uses the conventional view, Books o n electronics are always packed full of mathematical
based o n the simple assumption (even if not correct) that formulas. If you get that glazed, far-away look w h e n faced
clcctrons in a 1X2 circuit always flow from positive to negative. with cryptic equations like E • I / R , don't worry, this b o o k
By contrast, alternate current (AC) circuits (the type keeps it simple.
typically used in American homes) reverse the direction of W h e n diagnosing an electrical problem o n a car or truck,
voltage 6 0 times per second. These alternating cycles of understanding the dynamic relationship between
forward and backward electron flow are called h e r n (Hz). resistance, amperage, and voltage is critically more
T h i s voltage reversal, which also reverses current flow, gives i m p o r t a n t t h a n any m a t h skills you m a y (or may not!) have.
this type of electrical power its n a m e — a l t e r n a t i n g current. However, s o m e basic calculations will c o m e in h a n d y if you
A C circuits operate o n higher voltages t h a n D C circuits— i n t e n d to a d d electrical accessories to your car. For example,
cither 120, 2 4 0 , or 4 4 0 volts for an A C circuit versus only d o you have any idea h o w big the wires need to b e t o power
12 or 2 4 volts for a D C circuit. u p that 2.000-watt stereo you bought? Should you install a
Be aware that s o m e clcctrical c o m p o n e n t s in a u t o m o b i l e s larger alternator to a c c o m m o d a t e the stereo's power so you
produce only A C voltage, like the alternator a n d s o m e get the sound you want? D o you k n o w the size of the fuse
c o m p u t e r sensors. However, w h e n an alternator produces needed to protect the circuit f r o m meltdown?
A C voltage, diodes (which are electrical one-way valves that T h e formulas listed in Figure 1 - 6 are designed to provide
allow current to pass in only o n e direction) w i t h i n the alter- the basic math neccssary t o find voltage, resistance,
nator convert it to D C voltage before it reaches the battery. amperage, and watts (power) in any circuit. In general,
N o electrical systems used in vehicles operate on A C voltage. these should cover most c o m m o n circuitry design needs.
 [ < A I I B / C ]

Fig 1 -7. fovto >ott are preset*

on the red we between the
battery and bght but) (toed
dewcet The hght butt uses up an
arx)atie roOage Thus, the
ground return wvv reads 0 votes
ai the way back to the negattve
battery term/nal
SOURCE
12 VOLTS

To determine the a m o u n t of any u n k n o w n voltage, I t s i m p o r t a n t to remember this rule. By keeping it in

amperage, or resistance present within a particular circuit, the m i n d , you'll be able t o d e t e r m i n e what t h e voltage should
values of two of die dircc potentials must be k n o w n — t h e be at any point in a scries circuit. It a voltmeter gives an
third u n k n o w n value can be determined based on the values unexpected result, you'll k n o w where t o look for the
of the other two. Performing a few simple mathematical problem. Here's why:
c o m p u t a t i o n s allows simple calculation of electrical loads. Figure 1 - 7 shows a circuit's p o w e r source as the positive
To find the voltage used in a circuit, just multiply existing battery terminal as well as the wire i o n n c c t i n g it to the light
amps by ohms. Similarly, o h m s c m be calculated by dividing bulb, which is the load device. A full 12 volts f r o m the
amps into voltage, likewise, amps can be determined by power source are present at every point along the wire
dividing o h m s into voltage. If an acccssory you intend to install between the battery and load device (measured using a
is rated in watts and you want to find out how many amps will voltmeter). W h e n 12 volts reach the light bulb, it uses u p
be used in the circuit, just divide watts by volts. Conversely, if all the voltage in the circuit. Since the greedy light b u l b uses
you want to find watts, multiply amps by volts. all available voltage by t u r n i n g o n , n o n e is present o n the
g r o u n d return wire o r at the negative battery terminal. (Not
RULES OF OPERATION FOR quite true! T h e g r o u n d return wire also has a small a m o u n t
THREE TYPES OF CIRCUITS of resistance to current flow, which causes some voltage to
T h r e e types of electrical circuits arc used in cars a n d trucks: be present). C o n s e q u c n d y . the g r o u n d wire will measure
series, parallel, and series/parallel. Series a n d parallel circuits d o s e t o 0 volts. C h a p t e r 2 o n Voltage I ) r o p T e s t i n g provides
are by far the most c o m m o n and can be f o u n d o n b o t h new in-depth explanations of what t o expect from voltage
a n d older vehicles. Each type of circuit follows a set of readings o n g r o u n d return wires. l or now, consider the
operational rules that govern h o w the circuit works. S o m e g r o u n d wire essentially at 0 volts.
rules apply to m o r e tlian o n e type of circuit; others apply T h e second rule of series circuits is: W h e n m o r e than
t o o n l y o n e type. K n o w i n g these rules and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n e load device is present in a scries circuit, the individual
how each circuit operates gives you the advantage you need resistance of each load device divides the available voltage,
to diagnose most electrical problems. t h u s a d d i n g t o the total resistance of the entire circuit.
T h i n k of load dcvices in a series circuit as a strand of
Series Circuits Christmas tree lights along a wire connected in series. Because
Naturally, there arc "three rules" regarding h o w a series each bulb has resistance to current flow, each adds to the total
circuit operates. resistance of the entire circuit. This cumulative increase in the
The first rule of scries circuits is: All available voltage in overall circuit resistance correspondingly decreases the
a series circuit will be used u p by the load device. amperage available for all the bulbs, thus keeping the strand

20
 • • • • • • • • / I
of Christmas tree lights at a nice fire-safe, low-level wattage. true; the load device uses u p all available voltage since all
In addition, each of the bulbs must share the available voltage the individual light bulbs c o m b i n e d cumulatively use u p all
becausc all need some voltage to light up. the available voltage in the circuit (equis-alent t o a single
Voltage in a series circuit is not a constant. It is divided c o m b i n e d load device). T h u s , the g r o u n d return wire at t h e
between all tlx: load devices in the circuit, based upon the last load device will measure d o s e to 0 volts. Figure 1 - 8 also
individual resistance of cadi specific load device. Its important introduces the g r o u n d s y m b o l — t h r e e horizontal lines at
to remember that each load device in a scries circuit requires both the end of the g r o u n d return wire. Anywhere this symbol
a posscr source and a ground return to operate. Because the load is placed indicates the wire is r e t u r n i n g t o the negative
devices are linked together, the power source for one load device battery terminal a n d / o r w h e n a g r o u n d strap, body, or
simultaneously acts as the ground return for another. vehicle frame is used as a g r o u n d . O
l or example, consider three light bulbs connected in a T h e third rule of series circuits is: amperage is the same g
series circuit as in Figure 1-8. T h e first bulb (bulb 1) is at all points t h r o u g h o u t a series circuit. (£
powered by the originating power source—a 12-volt batter)-. T h i s rule is t r u e for b o t h negative a n d positive sides of £
T h e ground return for bulb 1 becomes the power source for a d r c u i t . Figure 1-9 (on page 22) shows three ammeters ^
the second bulb (bulb 2). Bulb 1 uses 4 s-olts of posver from measuring current in a series circuit a n d h o w t h e amperage
the 12-volt posver source (to light up) and then passes the remains constant o n b o t h the power a n d g r o u n d return
remaining 8 volts to its ground return. Similarly, bulb 2 uses sides of the circuit. Rule three illustrates t h e simple concept
u p 4 volts of as-ailablc voltage from the ground return of bulb (but u n w a n t e d result!) that a bad wire or p o o r connection
I (bulb 2 uses the same voltage as bulb 1 to operate). T h e (unsvantcd resistance) will affect d r c u i t amperage n o matter
remaining 4 volts of power pass into its ground return. Bulb w h i d i side of the d r c u i t it's located o n .
3 takes the last 4 volts and uses u p all the voltage left in the
entire circuit; consequently, its ground return has 0 volts. Parallel Circuits
Figure 1 -8 illustrates the division of voltage along a scries Nearly all electrical circuits designed for cars or trucks are
circuit. It also proves the first rule of scries circuits still holds parallel circuits. Fortunately, the rules for parallel circuits

Fig 1-8. Each 12-»ct1 but) (load Oerice) has a cfren. identical, tnayxXiaf resstance, resMng fn eouzl stunng offoeoverall avatiaiJe rottage The difference in
votoje the pchwr source and ground return for each txit) is 4 mfts. Conseoverty. each butb has enfy 4 kji» ofeiectrkaf pressure wiffj wftcft to operate
Smce att the MDs are designed to operate on 12 Wfs and not 4 rotts.frusshortfall n voltage tcr each but) causes alt ct ffvm to be dim

21
 [ 1 FN WW /
SERIES
A M P METERS

Fig 1 -9. Amperage wtibea* same cn both the power an) grow! sties c/ a crcut M three ammeters indicate the same amount of amperage (current' is flowing
throughout Ore circuit

are basically the same as for series circuits, b u t with a couple t o be (because total resistance of the entire circuit decreases
of notable exceptions. as overall amperage increases, as in Figure 1-5).
T h e first exception is: voltage will be equal (the same) T h e second exception is: each additional load device in
everywhere on the positive side of the circuit a n d will not a parallel circuit lowers the total overall resistance o f the
be divided between load devices, like in a series circuit. T h i s circuit a n d increases amperage.
is because each load device has its own wire, or conductor, Figure 1-11 (on page 24) illustrates h o w the addition of
c o n n c c t i n g it to the power source. T h e same is also true on more load devices to a parallel circuit causes the resistance
the g r o u n d return side; each load device has its own g r o u n d of the entire circuit t o decrease and the amperage to increase
return. As a result, the g r o u n d return side of each load (a teeter-totter effect)—unlike what occurs in a series
device registers 0 volts because each individual load device circuit where the resistance of each load device adds to die
uses u p all original source voltage. total resistance of the circuit.
Figure 1 - 1 0 displays 0 volts present on the g r o u n d return To u n d e r s t a n d this concept better, consider the following
side of each individual bulb (load device) because each bulb analog)'. Imagine there are 2 0 people in a room svith only o n e
uses u p all of t h e original power source voltage. T h e g r o u n d exit door, a n d everyone has to exit t h r o u g h the door, thereby
return side of each b u l b operates just like the ground return creating lots of resistance. I h e people represent amperage, the
side at the end of a scries circuit. However, with a parallel room is t h e c i r c u i t , a n d their effort to get o u t is the resistance.
circuit, it is helpful to t h i n k of each load device as a simple Because there is only o n e d o o r from which to leave, people
scries circuit itself—with a separate power source, load slowly get o u t because of the effect of their c o m b i n e d
device, and ground return. Consequently, as more resistance. N o w assume the same 2 0 people ate in a r o o m svith
load devices arc added to a parallel circuit, the greater the 2 0 doors. Everyone is able to exit the r o o m quickly because
amperage f r o m the power source t o the load devices needs each leaves through a separate door. Because there are

22
expert22 fl/i* http://rutracker.orq
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 From Lindsay Sloper, Pianist.
July 31st, 1865.
“Allow me to express to you the interest I felt in your system of
finger-gymnastics as shown to me by you last week. Your inventions
seem to me very likely to produce the results you have sought, and I
should be very glad to see their utility tested in our music-schools.”

From B. Molique, Pianist.

July 22nd, 1865.
“Mr Jackson’s gymnastic invention for the fingers and wrists will be
of great benefit to musical students.”

From J. Balsir Chatterton, Harpist to Her Majesty the Queen.

July 31st, 1865.
“I have taken time to think over your ingenious invention, and am
of opinion that it will be of incalculable service to harp players. I can
only hope that it will become extensively known, and shall be glad to
hear of the publication of your forthcoming work.”

From John Thomas, Harpist, Professor of the Royal Academy of

Music; Pencerdd Gwalia.
July 25th, 1865.
 “I have much pleasure in bearing testimony to the importance of
Mr Jackson’s simple but clever invention for rendering the fingers
independent of each other, and in preparing them for execution
upon any musical instrument, thus greatly facilitating the attainment
of execution; and I sincerely hope that his invention will be made
public, in order that the world may derive the full benefit of it.”

From Jacques Blumenthal, Pianist.

July 25th, 1865.
“I have great pleasure in stating that I consider Mr Edwin W.
Jackson’s new system of gymnastics for the fingers a very ingenious
invention, and as simple as I believe it to be useful to the student;
and if generally adopted would prevent, no doubt, many a headache
engendered by the now prevailing system of exercises for the
pianoforte and violin.”

From Adolf Pollitzer, Violinist, Royal Italian Opera.

July 24th, 1865.
“Mr Jackson deserves the thanks of every instrumentalist for his
clever invention for strengthening the fingers; and those who follow
his very ingenious system must find great benefit from it.”

From R. Sidney Pratten, Flautist, Royal Italian Opera.

July 7th, 1865.
 “I feel satisfied that your very ingenious yet simple invention for
the exercise and strengthening of the fingers to the players of wind
instruments will be of the greatest value, as flexibility and strength
can be obtained even though the instrument may not be at hand;
and I shall have great pleasure in recommending it to all my pupils,
as well as professional brethren, as a thing indispensable for the
purpose for which it is intended.”

From Henry Lazarus, Clarionetist, Royal Italian Opera.

August 9th, 1865.
“I was very pleased indeed this morning to hear you explain your
invention of ‘Gymnastics for the Fingers.’ It is extremely clever, and I
consider it will be of the greatest service to all performers on wind
instruments, as well as to pianists and performers on stringed
instruments. I conceive it will give great facility and lessen the
labour.”

From Alfred Nicholson, Oboist, Royal Italian Opera.

July 24th, 1865.
“The system of gymnastics for the hand, invented by Mr Edwin
Jackson, is, in my opinion, calculated to be of great service to
musical professors and students, from the increased strength and
flexibility the fingers must gain by practice under this method.”

From H. C. Deacon, Pianist.

 July 28th, 1865.
“I think your system of hand-exercise, as explained to me the
other morning, likely to be a useful adjunct to the pianoforte,
inasmuch as it tends to give increased extensions to an important
part of the hand.”

From James Howell, Contrebassist, Royal Italian Opera.

August 25th, 1865.
“It is with great pleasure that I testify to the soundness and
excellence of your system of gymnastics for the hand, as giving
flexibility and power to the fingers. It would prove of great
advantage to any member of the musical profession, if properly
carried out.”

The whole of the Orchestra of the Royal Opera-house at

Stuttgart in Wurtemberg, testified individually as follows:
“That Mr Jackson’s discoveries and his gymnastics for the fingers
and wrist must certainly conduce to a quick and sure attainment of a
solid and a lasting execution upon the pianoforte, as also upon
stringed and wind instruments, that they are new and eminently
practical, and deserve to be everywhere adopted.”

From Edward J. Hopkins, Organist to the Hon. Societies of the Inner

and Middle Temple.
Sept. 13th, 1865.
 “Mr Jackson has been so good as to explain to me —and to
exhibit, his apparatus and course of exercises for developing and
strengthening the muscles and powers of the hand, which I firmly
believe are calculated to be of very considerable importance to all
practitioners upon musical instruments.”
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JACKSON'S
GYMNASTICS FOR THE FINGERS AND WRIST ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying
copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of
Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything
for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund
from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law
in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated
with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this
agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached
full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge
with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the
terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears,
or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning
of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or
expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or
a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original
“Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must
include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in
paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.