Unit 1: Introduction

Network as an Infrastructure for Data Communication

Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver via
form of transmission media such as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the
communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a combination
of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs).
Data Communication Networking:

Data communications refers to the transmission of digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that
allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked
computing devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-
known computer network is the Internet.

The communication system that consists of the interconnection between two or more
devices is referred to as a Network. A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
A Basic Communication Model:
A data communications system has five components.

Fig: Data communication model

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices.
Characteristics of Data Communication System:
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.

Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered
in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.

Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they
are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant
delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in
the delivery of audio or video packets.

Data Transmission Modes

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way

street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard
can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can
use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa. In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken
over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and
CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems. The half-duplex mode is used
in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same
time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
 Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at
the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity
of the link: with signals going in the other direction. One common example of full-
duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The
full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two
directions.

Network Criteria

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these
are performance, reliability, and security.

Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time

and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an
inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of
factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.

Reliability: Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it

takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

Physical Structures:

TYPES OF CONNECTIONS: A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link
is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. There are two
possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.

1. Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two

devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those
two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are
also possible. When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you
are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the
television's control system.
 2. Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the
capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can
use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take
turns, it is a timeshared connection.

Network Topology:
The term network topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. One
or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a
network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking
devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible:
mesh, star, bus, and ring.

1. Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between
the two devices it connects. To find the number of physical links in a fully connected
mesh network with n nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to
every other node. Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to
n – 1 node, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1)
physical links. However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions
(duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in
a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links. To accommodate that many
links, every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output ports to be connected to
the other n - 1 stations.

Advantages:

 The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load,
thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple
devices.
 A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.

 There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travel along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users
from gaining access to messages.

 Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed
to avoid links with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to
discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
Disadvantages:

 Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling because every device must
be connected to every other device.

 Installation and reconnection are difficult.

 The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or
floors) can accommodate.

 The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive.

2. Star Topology: In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to
a central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one
another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another,
it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected
device.
Advantages:

 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only
one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.

 Easy to install and reconfigure.

 Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.

 Other advantage includes robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other
links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation.
As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective
links.

Disadvantages:
One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one
single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead. Although a star
requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. For this
reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring
or bus).

3. Bus Topology: A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable act as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A
drop line is a connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a
connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to
create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its
energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels
farther and farther. For this reason, there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support
and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages:

Advantages of a bus topology include ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along
the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various lengths. In this
way, a bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies. In a star, for example, four
network devices in the same room require four lengths of cable reaching all the way to the
hub. In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated. Only the backbone cable stretches through the
entire facility. Each drop line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the backbone.

Disadvantages:

Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed to
be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal
reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled
by limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable. Adding
new devices may therefore require modification or replacement of the backbone. In
addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on
the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of
origin, creating noise in both directions.

4. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring
incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
Advantages:
A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its
immediate neighbours (either physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires
changing only two connections. The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices). In addition, fault isolation is simplified.
Generally, in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a
signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the network
operator to the problem and its location.

Disadvantages:

Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as
a disabled station) can disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using
a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break. Ring topology was prevalent
when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-
speed LANs has made this topology less popular.

5. Hybrid Topology: A network can be hybrid. Hybrid topologies combine two or more
different topology structures—the tree topology is a good example, integrating the bus and
star layouts. Hybrid structures are most commonly found in larger companies where
individual departments have personalized network topologies adapted to suit their needs
and network usage.

For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch consisting of several
stations in a bus topology as shown below.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

The main advantage of hybrid structures is the degree of flexibility they provide, as there
are few limitations on the network structure itself that a hybrid setup can’t accommodate.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

However, each type of network topology comes with its own disadvantages, and as a
network grows in complexity, so too does the experience and know-how required on the
part of the admins to keep everything functioning optimally. There’s also the monetary cost
to consider when creating a hybrid network topology.

6. Tree Topology: It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a
hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the
hierarchy.

In this topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. The data flows from top to bottom i.e., from the central hub to
secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e., devices to secondary hub and
then to the central hub.

Advantages:

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it increases the
distance that is travel by the signal to come to the devices.

• It allows the network to get isolate and also prioritize from different computers.
Disadvantages:

• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

• The cost is high because of cabling

Applications of Computer Network

Networking of computers provides a communication link between the users, and provides
access to information. Networking of computers has several applications, described as
follows:

• Resource Sharing—In an organization, resources such as printers, fax machines and

scanners are generally not required by each person at all times. Moreover, for small
organizations it may not be feasible to provide such resources to each individual.
Such resources can be made available to different users of the organization on the
network. It results in availability of the resource to different users regardless of the
physical location of the resource or the user, enhances optimal use of the resource,
leads to easy maintenance, and saves cost too.
• Sharing of Information—In addition to the sharing of physical resources, networking
facilitates sharing of information. Information stored on networked computers
located at same or different physical locations, becomes accessible to the computers
connected to the network.
• As a Communication Medium—Networking helps in sending and receiving of
electronic-mail (email) messages from anywhere in the world. Data in the form of
text, audio, video and pictures can be sent via e-mail. This allows the users to
communicate online in a faster and cost-effective manner. Video conferencing is
another form of communication made possible via networking. People in distant
locations can hold a meeting, and they can hear and see each other simultaneously.
• For Back-up and Support—Networked computers can be used to take back-up of
critical data. In situations where there is a requirement of always-on computer,
another computer on the network can take over in case of failure of one computer.
• Server-Client Communication- One can imagine a company's information system as
consisting of one or more databases and some employees who need to access it
remotely. In this model, the data is stored on powerful computers called Servers.
Often these are centrally housed and maintained by a system administrator. In
contrast, the employees have simple machines, called Clients, on their desks, using
which they access remote data.
• eCommerce- A goal that is starting to become more important in businesses is doing
business with consumers over the Internet. Airlines, bookstores and music vendors
have discovered that many customers like the convenience of shopping from home.
• Interactive entertainment- Interactive entertainment includes:
o Multi-person real-time simulation games.
o Video on demand.
o Participation in live TV programs likes quiz, contest, discussions etc.
In short, the ability to merge information, communication and entertainment will
surely give rise to a massive new industry based on computer networking.
• Retrieving Remote Information− Through computer networks, users can retrieve
remote information on a variety of topics. The information is stored in remote
databases to which the user gains access through information systems like the World
Wide Web.
• VoIP − VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized telecommunication
systems.
Through this, telephone calls are made digitally using Internet Protocols instead of
the regular analog phone lines.
Network Architecture
Network architecture is the design of a computer network. It is a framework for the
specification of a network's physical components and their functional organization and
configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as communication protocols
used.

There are two major types of network architectures:

• Peer-To-Peer Architecture
• Client/Server Architecture

Peer-To-Peer Architecture

• In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device on the network.

• Furthermore, there is no real hierarchy in this network, all computers are considered
equal and all have the same abilities to use the resources available on this network.
• Instead of having a central server which would act as the shared drive, each
computer that’s connected to this network would act as the server for the files
stored on it.

Advantages:

• It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.

• If one computer stops working but, other computers will continue working.
• It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.
Disadvantages:

• In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system.
Therefore, it cannot back up the whole data as the data is different in different
locations.
• Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.
• As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network; performance, security,
and access become a major headache.
Client/Server Architecture

• Client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in which many clients

(remote processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host
computer).
 • In a client/server network, a centralized, really powerful computer(server) act as a
hub in which other computers or workstations(clients) can connect to. This server is
the heart of the system, which manages and provides resources to any client that
requests them.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories,
printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if
client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the
server for the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate
its communication with the client 2.

Advantages:

• Resources and data security are controlled through the server.

• Not restricted to a small number of computers.
• Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages:

• Can become very costly due to the need of a server as well as networking devices
such as hubs, routers, and switches.
• If and when the server goes down, the entire network will be affected.
• Technical staff needed to maintain and ensure network functions efficiently.

Key Differences between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network

• The key difference between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer network is that there is
a dedicated server and specific clients in the client-server network model whereas,
in peer-to-peer each node can act as both server and client.

• In the client-server model, the server provides services to the client. However, in
peer-to-peer, each peer can provide services and can also request for the services.

• In the client-server model, sharing information is more important whereas, in

peer-to-peer model connectivity between peers is more important.

• In the client-server model, data is stored on a centralized server whereas, in peer-

to-peer each peer has its own data.

• In peer-to-peer model, the servers are distributed in a system, so there are fewer
chances of server getting bottlenecked, but in the client-server model, there is a
 single server serving the clients, so there are more chances of server getting
bottlenecked.

• The client-server model is more expensive to implement than peer-to-peer.

• The client-server model is more scalable and stable than peer-to-peer.

Types of Computer Networks

There are two primary types of computer networking: wired networking and wireless
networking.

1. Wired networking requires the use of a physical medium for transport between
nodes. Copper-based Ethernet cabling, popular due to its low cost and durability, is
commonly used for digital communications in businesses and homes. Alternatively,
optical fiber is used to transport data over greater distances and at faster speeds,
but it has several tradeoffs, including higher costs and more fragile components.
2. Wireless networking uses radio waves to transport data over the air, enabling
devices to be connected to a network without any cabling. Wireless LANs are the
most well-known and widely deployed form of wireless networking. Alternatives
include microwave, satellite, cellular and Bluetooth, among others.

As a general rule, wired networking offers greater speed, reliability and security compared
to wireless networks; wireless networking tends to provide more flexibility, mobility and
scalability.

There are several different types of computer networks which can be characterized by their
size as well as their purpose. The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area
they occupy and the number of computers that are part of the network. Networks can cover
anything from a handful of devices within a single room to millions of devices spread across
the entire globe.
Some of the different networks based on size are:

• Personal area network, or PAN

• Local area network, or LAN
• Metropolitan area network, or MAN
• Wide area network, or WAN

Personal Area Network (PAN):

The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a
computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one
building. These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences, and are
managed by one person or organization from a single device.

Local Area Networks (LAN):

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a
single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely used to
connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and organizations to
share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information. LANs are distinguished from
other kinds of networks by three characteristics:

(1) Their size,

(2) Their transmission technology
(3) Their topology.

LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded
and known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs
that would not otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management. Traditional
LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.
Characteristics of LAN:

• LANs are private networks, not subject to external control

• Simple and better performance
• Work in a restricted geographical area

Advantages:
• Resource sharing
• Software applications sharing
• Easy and Cheap communication
• Data Security
• Internet sharing
Disadvantages
• Restricted to local area
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. A MAN is a computer network that
interconnects users with computer resources in a geographical area or region larger than
that covered by a LAN. It can be an interconnection between several LANs by bridging them
with backbone lines.

Characteristics:

• Generally, covers towns and cities (up to 50km)

• Transmission medium used for MAN is optical fiber, coaxial cable etc.
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications
Advantages

• Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such
as fiber optic cables
• Good backbone for larger networks and provides greater access to WAN

Disadvantages

• Complex, more cabling required and expensive

The best-known example of a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities.
This system grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-
the-air television reception. In these early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a
nearby hill and signal was then piped to the subscribers' houses. At first, these were locally-
designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies began jumping into the business, getting
contracts from city governments to wire up an entire city. The next step was television
programming and even entire channels designed for cable only. Often these channels were
highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all gardening, and so on. But from
their inception until the late 1990s, they were intended for television reception only. Cable
television is not the only MAN. Recent developments in high-speed wireless Internet access
resulted in another MAN, which has been standardized as IEEE 802.16.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.
It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs.
These machines are called as hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication subnet, or
just subnet for short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal
computers), whereas the communication subnet is typically owned and operated by a
telephone company or Internet service provider. The job of the subnet is to carry messages
from host to host, just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener.
Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the
application aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the complete network design. In most wide
area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and
switching elements. Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of
copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links. WANs are typically used to connect two or
more LANs or MANs which are located relatively very far from each other.
In most WANs, the network contains numerous transmission lines, each one connecting a
pair of routers. If two routers that do not share a transmission line wish to communicate,
they must do this indirectly, via other routers. When a packet is sent from one router to
another via one or more intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate
router in its entirety, stored there until the required output line is free, and then forwarded.
A subnet organized according to this principle is called a store-and-forward or packet-
switched subnet. Nearly all wide area networks (except those using satellites) have store-
and-forward subnets. When the packets are small and all the same size, they are often
called cells. The principle of a packet-switched WAN is so important. Generally, when a
process on some host has a message to be sent to a process on some other host, the
sending host first cuts the message into packets, each one bearing its number in the
sequence. These packets are then injected into the network one at a time in quick
succession. The packets are transported individually over the network and deposited at the
receiving host, where they are reassembled into the original message and delivered to the
receiving process. Not all WANs are packet switched. A second possibility for a WAN is a
satellite system. Each router has an antenna through which it can send and receive. All
routers can hear the output from the satellite, and in some cases, they can also hear the
upward transmissions of their fellow routers to the satellite as well. Sometimes the routers
are connected to a substantial point-to-point subnet, with only some of them having a
satellite antenna. Satellite networks are inherently broadcast and are most useful when the
broadcast property is important.

Characteristics

• Covers large distances (states, countries, continents)

• Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are
connected by routers

Advantages

• Covers large geographical area

• Shared software and resources with connecting workstations
• Information can be exchanged to anyone else worldwide in the network
Disadvantages

• Data security
• Network is very complex and management is difficult
• As size increases, the networks become more expensive
Controller Area Network (CAN):
A Controller Area Network (CAN bus) is a robust vehicle bus standard designed to allow
microcontrollers and devices to communicate with each other's applications without a host
computer. It is a message-based protocol, designed originally for multiplex electrical wiring
within automobiles to save on copper, but can also be used in many other contexts. For
each device the data in a frame is transmitted sequentially but in such a way that if more
than one device transmits at the same time the highest priority device is able to continue
while the others back off. Frames are received by all devices, including by the transmitting
device.

Storage-Area Network (SAN)

As a dedicated high-speed network that connects shared pools of storage devices to several
servers, these types of networks don’t rely on a LAN or WAN. Instead, they move storage
resources away from the network and place them into their own high-performance
network. SANs can be accessed in the same fashion as a drive attached to a server. Types of
storage-area networks include converged, virtual and unified SANs.

Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

These types of networks are built and owned by businesses that want to securely connect
its various locations to share computer resources.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

By extending a private network across the Internet, a VPN lets its users send and receive
data as if their devices were connected to the private network – even if they’re not. Through
a virtual point-to-point connection, users can access a private network remotely.

Protocols and Standards

Protocol is the set of rule and standard is agreed upon rules. These are the two widely
used terms in networking.

Protocols:

In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An

entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot
simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to
occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and
when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
 • Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the
first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the
address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message itself.

• Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is
a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that
interpretation? For example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the
final destination of the message?

• Timing: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and
how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but
the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the
receiver and some data will be lost.

Standards

Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of
data and telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to
manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the
kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in international
communications. Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning
"by fact" or "by convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").

• De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have
been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto standards. De facto
standards are often established originally by manufacturers who seek to define the
functionality of a new product or technology.

• De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body
are de jure standards.