Custody Measurement, Fiscal Flow

Metering, Meter Calibration,

Uncertainty Calculations and Loss
Control

Dr. Musaab Mohammed Ahmed

COURSE OUTLINE
Introduction:
 Valve in Loop,
 Actuator,
 Positioner
1- Fluid Dynamics, Accuracy and Process Measurements
 Fluid Dynamics covers basic definitions, such as viscosity,
repeatability, cavitation etc.
 Flow profiles and the effects on measurement
 Volumetric and mass flow rate
 Accuracy is important in terms of the uncertainty of
measurement, calibration, technical specifications, and process
requirements
 Flow Measurement including orifice plate and DP transmitter,
multi-beam ultrasonic flowmeter, Coriolis mass meter, turbine
meters amongst others
 Level Measurement, traditional methods such as capacitance and
hydrostatic techniques are covered together with more modern
technologies such as ultrasonic and radar measurements

2- Custody Transfer
 Examines the requirements of OIML R117
 The subject of Custody Transfer in detail terms, flow
calibration, dynamic and static
 Types of calibration rigs and calibration systems plus prover
systems

3- Terminal & Pipeline Systems

 Included are the terminal tank gauging
 Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT)
 Sediment and water considerations
 Operational issues and associated equipment
 Pipeline considerations including paraffin content
 Pipeline pressure and process characteristics
 Truck custody transfer, marine and aviation, on-loading and off-
loading etc.

4- Monitoring and Controlling Losses

 Loss control systems – an applied approach – model-based
system
 Leak detection/leak testing
 Case studies of marine applications
 Measurement surveys and measurement reports
 Multi-phase flow metering and applications

5- API Standards and Flowmeter Selection

 API measurement standards and volume correction tables
 Temperature compensation
 SG versus API gravity
 Net volume calculation exercise
 Guidelines for flowmeter selection
Introduction
Custody measurement refers to the precise quantification of oil and
gas during transfer between parties to ensure accurate financial
transactions. Fiscal flow metering is the process of measuring the
volume or mass of hydrocarbons, using flow meters, for taxation and
commercial purposes. Meter calibration involves adjusting flow
meters to ensure they provide accurate readings, crucial for reliable
custody measurements. Uncertainty calculations assess the confidence
level of the measurements, accounting for potential errors. Loss
control focuses on minimizing product losses throughout the pipeline
or system, ensuring efficient operations and reducing discrepancies in
measured quantities.
 Valve in Loop,
A Valve-in-Loop (VIL) is a critical configuration in process
control systems, where a control valve is embedded within a
feedback loop to regulate variables such as fluid flow, pressure,
temperature, or level. This system is widely used in industrial
applications to ensure precise control over processes, enhancing
efficiency and safety.

Key Components of a Valve-in-Loop System

1. Control Valve:
o The primary actuator that modulates fluid flow, pressure,
or temperature based on a control signal.
o Different types include globe valves, ball valves,
butterfly valves, and diaphragm valves depending on
application needs.
2. Controller (PID Controller):
o The controller calculates the control signal based on the
difference between the setpoint (SP) and the process
variable (PV).
o Typically, a PID controller is used to provide
proportional, integral, and derivative control for precise
adjustments.
 3. Sensor (Transmitter):
o Measures the process variable (PV) (e.g., flow, pressure,
or temperature) and sends feedback to the controller.
o The accuracy and responsiveness of the sensor are crucial
for real-time control.
4. Feedback Loop:
o The feedback loop ensures continuous adjustment of the
valve position to maintain the process variable at the
desired setpoint.
o This configuration allows for dynamic compensation of
disturbances in the system (e.g., changes in load, pressure).

Working of Valve-in-Loop Systems

1. Setpoint and Measurement:

o The setpoint (SP) is the desired value for the process
variable (e.g., flow rate, pressure).
o A sensor measures the actual process variable (PV) and
sends the data to the controller.

2. Controller Response:
o The controller compares the setpoint with the process
variable to calculate an error.
o It then computes a corrective signal using the PID control
algorithm and sends this signal to the control valve.

3. Valve Actuation:
o The valve adjusts its position (open/close) based on the
control signal to regulate the process.
o For example, if the flow is too low, the valve opens to
increase the flow. If the flow is too high, the valve
partially closes to reduce it.

4. Continuous Feedback:
o The process operates in a closed-loop manner, with
continuous feedback from the sensor ensuring that any
disturbances are corrected in real-time, keeping the process
stable.
Valve in Loop
  Actuator,
An actuator is a device that converts control signals into
mechanical motion or physical action in a system. In industrial
automation and process control, actuators play a key role in
driving physical components such as valves, dampers, or
motors, which regulate processes like fluid flow, pressure, or
movement. Actuators serve as the link between control systems
and physical systems, enabling the automation of industrial
processes.
Types of Actuators

Actuators can be classified based on the type of energy they use or the
kind of motion they produce.

A. Based on Energy Source

1. Pneumatic Actuators:
o Powered by compressed air or gas, these actuators are used
for applications requiring fast, linear motion.
o Common in industries where air is readily available, such
as oil and gas, chemical, and food processing.
o Example: Pneumatic cylinder used to operate valves or
doors.

2. Hydraulic Actuators:
o Use pressurized fluid (usually oil) to produce force and
motion, suitable for applications requiring high force.
o Often used in heavy machinery, such as construction
equipment or in processes where large forces are needed
(e.g., hydraulic presses).
o Example: Hydraulic piston in cranes or injection molding
machines.

3. Electric Actuators:
 o Use electrical energy to produce mechanical motion, either
rotary or linear.
o Common in applications requiring precise positioning and
control, such as robotics, HVAC systems, and industrial
automation.
o Example: Stepper motors or servo motors.

4. Thermal Actuators:
o These actuators use thermal energy (heat) to cause
expansion or contraction of a material, resulting in
movement.
o Commonly used in temperature regulation systems, like
thermostats or thermal valves.
B. Based on Motion Type

1. Linear Actuators:
o Produce linear (straight-line) motion, which is ideal for pushing,
pulling, or lifting applications.
o Common in processes that involve lifting heavy loads, adjusting
conveyor belts, or opening/closing valves.
o Example: Pneumatic cylinder or hydraulic piston used for linear
valve actuation.

2. Rotary Actuators:
o Produce rotational motion, suitable for turning or positioning
components like rotary valves or dampers.
o Widely used in robotics, automated systems, and motor-driven
applications.
o Example: Electric motor used to rotate a valve or adjust machine
parts.
Working Principle of Actuators

Actuators work by converting an input control signal (electrical, pneumatic, or

hydraulic) into mechanical motion. The basic working principle of most
actuators involves the following steps:

1. Input Signal:
o The actuator receives an input control signal from the controller,
which can be electrical (voltage/current), pneumatic (air pressure),
or hydraulic (fluid pressure).

2. Energy Conversion:
o The actuator converts the input signal into mechanical energy. This
energy drives the internal mechanism of the actuator (e.g., piston,
motor, or gear).

3. Motion Output:
o Depending on the type of actuator, the output is either linear (for
linear actuators) or rotational (for rotary actuators). The motion can
be used to adjust a valve, move a load, or change the position of a
mechanical component.

4. Feedback (Optional):
o In some systems, actuators are equipped with feedback
mechanisms (sensors or encoders) to provide real-time position or
 motion data to the controller. This enables closed-loop control,
ensuring accurate motion control and error correction.

 Positioner
A positioner is a device used in control systems to adjust and ensure the
accurate positioning of actuators, particularly in control valves. It receives a
control signal from the controller and adjusts the actuator to achieve the desired
position, providing precise control over the final control element, such as a
valve. Positioners play a critical role in enhancing the accuracy, stability, and
responsiveness of control systems, especially in complex industrial processes.

Purpose and Function of Positioners

Positioners are primarily used to ensure that an actuator (typically a control

valve) reaches the correct position corresponding to the control signal. This is
particularly important in systems where:

 Nonlinear behavior of valves or actuators needs to be corrected.

 Friction, wear, or external forces can cause deviations in the actuator's
position.
 Fast response and accuracy are required in critical control processes.

Positioners improve the overall performance of the control loop by ensuring:

1. Precise Valve Positioning: The positioner monitors the valve's position

and adjusts it based on the controller's signal.
2. Quick Response to Control Signals: It reduces lag or hysteresis in the
actuator, ensuring a fast and accurate response.
3. Correction of Valve or Actuator Errors: Over time, valves can drift
from their set positions due to wear or changes in operating conditions.
The positioner compensates for this drift.

Types of Positioners

Positioners can be classified into various types based on their mode of operation
and signal input.
A. Based on Operation Type

1. Pneumatic Positioners:
o Operated by air pressure and are commonly used in conjunction
with pneumatic actuators.
o Receive a pneumatic control signal (e.g., 3-15 psi) and adjust the
valve accordingly.
o Simple, rugged, and reliable for use in hazardous environments
where electrical devices are not permitted.
o Example: Used in oil and gas plants where explosive gases are
present, requiring air-driven systems.

2. Electro-Pneumatic Positioners:
o Receive an electrical control signal (e.g., 4-20 mA) and convert it
into a pneumatic output to adjust the valve position.
o These positioners combine the accuracy of electrical signals with
the reliability of pneumatic actuation.
o Commonly used in industries where electrical control systems are
integrated with pneumatic actuators.

3. Digital (Smart) Positioners:

o Use microprocessors to control the valve position with high
precision and offer diagnostic capabilities.
o Receive digital signals (e.g., HART, Foundation Fieldbus) and
provide advanced features like self-calibration, automatic tuning,
and valve diagnostics.
o Ideal for modern industrial plants with distributed control systems
(DCS) and high-performance requirements.

B. Based on Input Signal

1. Current-to-Position (I/P) Positioners:

o Receive an electrical current signal (e.g., 4-20 mA) and adjust the
valve or actuator position accordingly.
o Widely used in process industries for integrating modern electrical
control systems with traditional mechanical control elements.

2. Voltage-to-Position (V/P) Positioners:

o Similar to I/P positioners but operate based on voltage signals (e.g.,
0-10V).
o Common in applications where voltage signals are standard for
control communication.
6- Fluid Dynamics, Accuracy and Process Measurements
 Fluid Dynamics covers basic definitions, such as viscosity,
repeatability, cavitation etc.

Fluid dynamics is the study of the motion of fluids (liquids and gases) and the
forces acting on them. It plays a crucial role in many engineering applications,
including fluid flow through pipelines, pumps, and valves. Understanding key
fluid properties and phenomena is essential for analyzing and designing fluid
systems in industries like oil and gas, water management, and aerospace.

1. Viscosity

Definition:
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow. It describes how "thick" or
"sticky" a fluid is. Viscosity arises from the internal friction between fluid
layers as they move past each other.

 Dynamic Viscosity (μ): Measures the internal resistance of a fluid to

flow. Its units are usually in Pa·s or centipoise (cP).
 Kinematic Viscosity (ν): It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity to the fluid’s
density. Its units are m²/s or centistokes (cSt).
 Newtonian Fluids: Fluids whose viscosity remains constant regardless of
the applied shear rate (e.g., water, air).
 Non-Newtonian Fluids: Fluids whose viscosity changes with the applied
shear rate (e.g., ketchup, blood).

Example:
Honey has a much higher viscosity than water, which is why it flows more
slowly when poured.

2. Repeatability

Definition:
Repeatability in fluid dynamics refers to the consistency of measurement results
under unchanged conditions. It indicates the ability of a system (e.g., flow
meter, valve, or pump) to produce the same output when subjected to identical
input conditions over multiple trials.

 High Repeatability: Ensures that the system or measurement device

gives consistent and reliable readings over time.
 Importance: Critical in industries such as oil and gas, where flow rates
must be measured accurately and consistently for custody transfer or
billing purposes.

Example:
A flow meter that consistently measures the same flow rate for a given input has
good repeatability.

3. Cavitation

Definition:
Cavitation is a phenomenon where vapor bubbles form in a fluid due to a
sudden drop in pressure below the fluid's vapor pressure, followed by the rapid
collapse of these bubbles when the pressure rises.

 Formation: Occurs in areas of high velocity and low pressure, such as

around a pump impeller, valve, orifice, or propeller blades.
  Collapse: When the pressure increases, the vapor bubbles collapse,
causing high-pressure shock waves that can erode metal surfaces.

Effects:

 Damage to Equipment: Cavitation can cause pitting, erosion, and noise

in equipment such as pumps and valves.
 Performance Loss: It leads to reduced efficiency in pumps and turbines.
 Prevention: Can be mitigated by reducing fluid velocity, avoiding
excessive pressure drops, and using proper system design to maintain
fluid pressure above its vapor pressure.

Example:
Cavitation often occurs in centrifugal pumps when the suction pressure is too
low, leading to vapor bubble formation at the pump inlet.

4. Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Definition:
The nature of fluid flow can be classified into two main types:

 Laminar Flow: Smooth, orderly flow of fluid particles in parallel layers

with little mixing between the layers. It occurs at low velocities and is
characterized by a low Reynolds number (Re < 2000).
 Turbulent Flow: Irregular, chaotic flow with mixing between fluid
layers. It occurs at high velocities and is characterized by a high Reynolds
number (Re > 4000).

Reynolds Number:

 A dimensionless number used to predict the flow regime (laminar or

turbulent) based on the fluid’s velocity, characteristic length, and
viscosity.
Example:
Water flowing slowly through a small pipe exhibits laminar flow, while high-
speed flow in a large pipe leads to turbulence.

5. Flow Regimes and Boundary Layers

Definition:

 Flow Regime: Describes the behavior of fluid flow, whether it's laminar,
turbulent, or transitional (a mix of both).
 Boundary Layer: A thin layer of fluid near a solid surface (like a pipe
wall) where the velocity changes from zero (due to the no-slip condition)
to the free-stream velocity.

Types:

 Laminar Boundary Layer: Flow in this region is smooth and

predictable.
 Turbulent Boundary Layer: Flow in this region is chaotic and has
higher momentum, which helps reduce drag in certain conditions.

Example:
Airflow over the surface of an airplane wing creates a boundary layer, where the
flow can transition from laminar to turbulent, affecting the drag and lift on the
wing.

Bernoulli's Principle

Definition:
Bernoulli's principle states that in a steady, incompressible flow, the sum of the pressure
energy, kinetic energy, and potential energy per unit volume remains constant along a
streamline.

Equation:
Implication:
As the velocity of a fluid increases, its pressure decreases, and vice versa. This principle is
fundamental in the design of systems like venturi meters and aircraft wings.

Example:
In a venturi meter, the pressure drops as the fluid accelerates through the constriction,
allowing the flow rate to be measured.

7. Compressibility and Incompressibility

Definition:

 Compressible Flow: In compressible fluids (such as gases), the fluid density changes
significantly with pressure variations.
 Incompressible Flow: In incompressible fluids (typically liquids), density remains
constant despite pressure changes. Most fluid dynamics problems involving liquids
assume incompressible flow.

Example:
Air behaves as a compressible fluid in high-speed flows (e.g., in jet engines), while water is
typically treated as incompressible in most flow applications.

8. Flow Measurement Techniques

Definition:
Measuring fluid flow is crucial in many applications, such as oil and gas, water treatment,
and chemical processing. Common flow measurement techniques include:

1. Orifice Plates: Measure flow by creating a pressure drop across an orifice.

2. Venturi Meters: Use Bernoulli’s principle to measure flow based on pressure
differences in a constriction.
3. Turbine Flow Meters: Measure the velocity of the fluid as it passes through a turbine
inside the meter.
 4. Ultrasonic Flow Meters: Use sound waves to measure the velocity of fluid flow,
commonly used in large pipelines.

Basic of Flow Measurement Technique

Example:
In an oil refinery, venturi meters and orifice plates are often used to measure the flow of
various liquids and gases through pipes.

9. Losses in Fluid Systems

Definition:
Losses in fluid systems refer to the reduction in energy or pressure due to friction, turbulence,
and changes in velocity as the fluid flows through pipes, valves, and fittings.

 Frictional Losses: Occur due to the friction between the fluid and the walls of the
pipe.
 Minor Losses: Result from fittings, bends, valves, and sudden expansions or
contractions in the flow path.

Head Loss:

 Describes the energy loss per unit weight of the fluid and is typically expressed in terms of
height (meters) of the fluid column.
 Darcy-Weisbach Equation:

Example:
In long pipelines, frictional losses are a significant factor in determining the required pump
power to maintain desired flow rates.
10. Uncertainty Calculations in Fluid Measurement

Definition:
Uncertainty calculations estimate the possible error or variance in fluid measurement,
accounting for factors like instrument precision, environmental conditions, and operator
error.

 Systematic Errors: Errors that consistently occur in one direction, such as

miscalibration of instruments.
 Random Errors: Errors that vary in magnitude and direction, resulting from
unpredictable fluctuations in the measurement process.

Importance:
Accurate uncertainty calculations are critical in industries where precise flow measurement
impacts production, safety, or billing, such as custody transfer in oil and gas.

 Flow profiles and the effects on measurement

In fluid dynamics, a flow profile describes the variation in fluid velocity across a cross-
section of a pipe or duct. Flow profiles are crucial because they directly affect the accuracy of
fluid flow measurements. Understanding the nature of flow profiles helps engineers design
more efficient fluid systems and choose appropriate measurement techniques.

1. Types of Flow Profiles

Flow profiles are generally categorized based on the fluid's velocity distribution across a
pipeline's diameter. These profiles can be classified into the following types:

A. Laminar Flow Profile

 Description: In laminar flow, fluid moves in smooth, parallel layers (streamlines)

with minimal mixing between the layers. The velocity is highest at the center of the
pipe and decreases towards the pipe walls due to viscous friction.
 Velocity Profile:
o Parabolic-shaped velocity distribution.
o Fluid velocity is maximum at the center and nearly zero at the pipe walls (due to the
no-slip condition).
  Flow Characteristics:
o Predictable and stable flow.
o Low energy loss due to minimal turbulence.

 Example:
Laminar flow often occurs in small-diameter pipes or low-velocity fluid systems, such
as blood flow in capillaries.

B. Turbulent Flow Profile

 Description: In turbulent flow, fluid particles move in a chaotic manner with rapid
fluctuations and mixing. The velocity is more uniform across the cross-section of the
pipe, except near the walls where viscous forces still act.
 Velocity Profile:
o Flattened profile with more uniform velocity distribution in the center of the pipe.
o A thin boundary layer near the pipe walls where the velocity sharply decreases to
zero.

 Reynolds Number:
Re>4000Re > 4000Re>4000
  Flow Characteristics:
o Chaotic motion leads to increased energy loss due to turbulence.
o Turbulent flow is more common in large-diameter pipes or high-velocity systems.

 Example:
Water flowing through large pipelines at high speeds, such as in municipal water
supply systems.

C. Transitional Flow Profile

 Description: Transitional flow occurs between laminar and turbulent flow regimes.
The flow starts to become unstable, and the velocity profile becomes irregular.
 Velocity Profile:
o Intermediate between parabolic (laminar) and flat (turbulent) profiles.
o Fluctuations in flow lead to instability.
  ReynoldsNumber:
2000<Re<40002000 < Re < 40002000<Re<4000
 Flow Characteristics:
o Difficult to predict and control.
o Requires careful analysis to ensure accurate measurements.

 Example:
Transitional flow can be observed in pipelines when the flow rate is gradually
increased from laminar to turbulent conditions.

2. Effects of Flow Profiles on Measurement

Flow profiles significantly impact the accuracy of flow measurement techniques, especially
in systems where high precision is required (e.g., custody transfer in oil and gas). The
velocity distribution across the pipe can introduce errors in various measurement methods if
not properly accounted for.

A. Impact on Flow Meters

1. Orifice Plate Meters

 Effect of Flow Profile:

o Orifice meters rely on creating a pressure drop to measure flow. A non-
uniform flow profile (like turbulent flow) can lead to inaccurate readings
because the velocity distribution affects the pressure drop across the orifice.
 Solution:
o Flow straighteners or adequate upstream and downstream pipe lengths can
help create a more uniform flow profile before the fluid reaches the orifice.

2. Venturi Meters

 Effect of Flow Profile:

 o Venturi meters measure the flow rate by comparing pressure differences in a
converging and diverging section of the meter. Non-uniform flow profiles can
affect the pressure readings, especially if the flow is transitioning or turbulent.
 Solution:
o Adequate flow conditioning before the Venturi meter, such as using straight
pipe runs, can ensure more reliable measurements.

3. Ultrasonic Flow Meters

 Effect of Flow Profile:

o Ultrasonic flow meters calculate flow by measuring the time it takes for sound
waves to travel upstream and downstream. If the flow profile is uneven, the
measured flow velocity can be inaccurate.
 Solution:
o Multi-path ultrasonic meters can be used to account for variations in the flow
profile by averaging the readings from multiple sound paths.

4. Turbine Flow Meters

 Effect of Flow Profile:

o Turbine meters measure flow based on the rotational speed of a turbine placed
in the fluid path. Uneven flow profiles can cause non-uniform loading on the
turbine blades, leading to measurement errors.
 Solution:
 o Installing flow straighteners or increasing the length of straight pipe upstream
of the meter can improve measurement accuracy.

B. Calibration and Flow Profile Sensitivity

 Calibration:
Flow meters are typically calibrated based on ideal flow conditions (fully developed
flow profiles). In real-world applications, the flow profile may differ from the ideal,
leading to measurement errors. Therefore, it's important to consider the installation
and system design to ensure calibration matches operational conditions.
 Flow Profile Sensitivity:
Flow meters designed for specific flow regimes may be sensitive to deviations in the
flow profile. For instance, meters calibrated for laminar flow may give incorrect
readings if the flow becomes turbulent.

3. Minimizing Flow Profile Effects

To minimize the impact of non-ideal flow profiles on measurement accuracy, several steps
can be taken:

1. Flow Conditioning

 Flow conditioners, such as vanes or perforated plates, are installed upstream of flow
meters to straighten and stabilize the flow, producing a more uniform profile.

2. Adequate Pipe Length

 Ensuring sufficient straight pipe length upstream and downstream of flow meters can
help develop a fully developed flow profile. Guidelines for pipe lengths vary by meter
type, but typically, 10 to 20 pipe diameters of straight run are recommended upstream
of the meter.
 3. Proper Meter Installation

 Meters should be installed away from bends, valves, and other obstructions that
disrupt the flow profile. Incorrect installation near these features can lead to
inaccurate measurements.

4. Flow Profile Disturbances

Flow profiles can be disturbed by various factors, which can lead to inaccurate
measurements:

1. Elbows and Bends

 Sharp bends and elbows cause swirling and uneven velocity distributions in the pipe,
disrupting the flow profile.

2. Valves

 Throttling or partially closed valves cause turbulence and pressure drops, altering the
flow profile.

3. Sudden Expansions or Contractions

 Changes in pipe diameter cause rapid velocity changes, leading to flow separation and
reattachment, which distorts the velocity profile.

Flow disturbance compensation calculated with flow simulations for ultrasonic clamp-on
flowmeters

5. Fully Developed Flow

Fully Developed Flow:
Occurs when the flow has traveled a sufficient distance along the pipe, allowing the velocity
profile to stabilize and no longer change along the length of the pipe. In this condition, the
flow profile can be accurately predicted, which is crucial for reliable flow measurement.

 Volumetric and mass flow rate

In fluid dynamics, the flow rate refers to the amount of fluid passing through a
given cross-sectional area per unit time. There are two main types of flow rates:
volumetric flow rate and mass flow rate. Both are critical in fluid system
analysis, as they describe the movement of fluid in terms of either volume or
mass. Engineers use these rates to design, control, and optimize various
systems, including pipelines, pumps, and flow meters.

1. Volumetric Flow Rate

The volumetric flow rate is the volume of fluid that flows through a cross-section per unit of
time.

A. Definition

C. Measurement of Volumetric Flow Rate

Various devices measure the volumetric flow rate, including:

 Orifice plate meters: Measure flow by creating a pressure drop across an orifice.
 Venturi meters: Use differential pressure created by a narrowing pipe section to
determine flow rate.
  Turbine meters: Measure flow by calculating the rotational speed of a turbine inside
the fluid.
 Ultrasonic flow meters: Measure the time it takes for sound waves to travel through
the fluid, with differences in time used to determine the flow rate.

D. Applications

 Water supply systems: Volumetric flow rate is crucial in calculating the capacity of
pipelines.
 Oil and gas industry: Pipelines often monitor the volumetric flow of liquids to
ensure proper distribution and prevent losses.

2. Mass Flow Rate

The mass flow rate is the mass of fluid that passes through a cross-section per unit of time.
A. Definition

The mass flow rate m is defined as:

D. Measurement of Mass Flow Rate

Mass flow rate is commonly measured using:

  Coriolis flow meters: These meters detect mass flow by measuring the deflection
caused by fluid inertia in a vibrating tube.
 Thermal mass flow meters: These rely on the heat transfer from a heated element to
the flowing fluid to measure flow rate.
 Differential pressure flow meters: By measuring the pressure difference across a
restriction, such as an orifice or a Venturi tube, mass flow can be calculated if the
fluid density is known.

E. Applications

 Chemical processing: In industries where reactions depend on specific amounts of

reactants, mass flow rate control is crucial.
 Aerospace: Fuel flow rates are typically measured in terms of mass to ensure precise
calculations of fuel consumption.

3. Importance of Flow Rate in Engineering Systems

A. Design and Sizing

 Pipelines: Engineers need to know the flow rate to properly size pipes and pumps to
avoid pressure drops and ensure sufficient fluid delivery.
 Heat exchangers: Both the mass flow rate and volumetric flow rate are important in
calculating heat transfer rates.

B. Control Systems

Flow rates are critical variables in control systems, as they impact the performance of
processes like mixing, heating, or chemical reactions.

C. Safety and Efficiency

Accurate flow rate measurement ensures safe and efficient operation, especially in systems
like chemical plants or fuel pipelines where even small errors can lead to significant issues.

4. Factors Affecting Flow Rates

Several factors influence both the volumetric and mass flow rates in fluid systems:

 Fluid density: Changes in temperature and pressure can affect fluid density, thus
impacting the mass flow rate.
 Pipe diameter: Smaller diameters restrict flow and reduce the flow rate for a given
pressure.
 Flow profile: Non-uniform flow profiles, such as turbulent or laminar flow, affect
how flow meters measure the rate.
  Accuracy is important in terms of the uncertainty of measurement,
calibration, technical specifications, and process requirements
Accuracy is critical in flow measurement systems as it directly impacts the reliability of the
data used in industrial processes, custody transfer, and system control. Accurate flow
measurements ensure that systems operate efficiently, safely, and in compliance with
technical standards. In this context, accuracy is linked to several factors, including
uncertainty of measurement, calibration, technical specifications, and process
requirements.

1. Uncertainty of Measurement

Uncertainty represents the range of possible values within which the true value of the
measured flow rate lies. It's essential to quantify uncertainty to understand the potential
error in the measurement.

A. Definition

 Uncertainty is the doubt about the exactness of the measurement result.

 In flow measurement, uncertainty is influenced by:
o Instrumentation precision.
o Environmental conditions.
o Installation setup.
o Calibration procedures.

B. Sources of Uncertainty

1. Instrumentation Error
o Measurement devices have inherent limitations and tolerances that affect accuracy.

2. Environmental Conditions
o Changes in temperature, pressure, and humidity can alter fluid properties (such as
density) and impact flow measurement accuracy.

3. Operator and Setup

o Human error during meter installation or calibration can introduce uncertainty.

4. Process Variability
o Variations in the flow profile, fluid properties, or process conditions can lead to
measurement deviations.

C. Expressing Uncertainty

 Absolute Uncertainty: The total range of possible error in the measurement (e.g., ± 1
liter per minute).
 Relative Uncertainty: The uncertainty relative to the measured value (e.g., ± 1% of
the measured flow rate).
Understanding uncertainty is critical for deciding whether a flow measurement system meets
the accuracy requirements of the specific application.

2. Calibration

Calibration ensures that a measurement device gives accurate readings by comparing it

against a known standard. Proper calibration is crucial for minimizing measurement errors
and ensuring compliance with technical specifications and process requirements.

A. Definition

 Calibration involves adjusting a flow meter to ensure that its output matches the
known values of a reference standard under specific operating conditions.

B. Steps in Calibration

1. Comparison with a Standard: A flow meter is tested against a reference meter or a

calibration rig that is traceable to national or international standards.
2. Adjustments: If the meter shows deviations from the known standard, adjustments
are made to correct the readings.
3. Documentation: A calibration certificate is issued, documenting the calibration
conditions, results, and the meter's performance.

C. Frequency of Calibration

 Calibration should be performed regularly depending on the meter type, process

requirements, and operating conditions. Factors like wear and tear or drift over time
can lead to inaccurate readings.

D. Impact on Accuracy

 Without proper calibration, even highly sophisticated flow meters can produce
inaccurate data, leading to significant errors in flow measurement.

3. Technical Specifications

Flow meters come with technical specifications that detail their performance characteristics,
including accuracy, range, and operating conditions. These specifications are critical when
selecting a meter for a particular application.

A. Accuracy Rating

 Accuracy is usually expressed as a percentage of the measured value or the full-scale

reading. For example:
 o A flow meter with an accuracy of ±0.5% of reading is more precise than one
with ±2% of full scale.
 Repeatability and linearity are also part of technical specifications:
o Repeatability: The ability of a meter to give the same reading for repeated
measurements under the same conditions.
o Linearity: How well the meter’s response correlates with the flow rate over its
operating range.

B. Rangeability

 Rangeability is the ratio between the maximum and minimum flow rates that a meter
can measure accurately. Meters with higher rangeability can accurately measure both
high and low flow rates.

C. Environmental Conditions

 Manufacturers provide specifications for operating conditions, such as temperature

and pressure ranges. Operating outside these conditions can reduce the accuracy of
the meter.

D. Choosing Based on Specifications

 Select a flow meter with technical specifications that meet the accuracy and
uncertainty requirements of the process. If the process demands precise control, a
meter with a high accuracy rating and minimal uncertainty is necessary.

4. Process Requirements

The level of accuracy required in a flow measurement system depends on the specific
process requirements. Different industries and applications demand varying degrees of
precision based on the impact of flow measurement errors.

A. Custody Transfer

 In industries such as oil, gas, and water distribution, custody transfer refers to the
transfer of product ownership based on flow measurement. Even a small inaccuracy in
flow measurement can lead to significant financial discrepancies.
o High-accuracy meters are typically used with a detailed calibration
procedure.

B. Process Control

 In manufacturing, chemical processing, or water treatment, flow rates need to be

controlled precisely to maintain product quality, ensure safety, and optimize
efficiency.
o High repeatability is critical in these applications, as slight deviations in flow
rate can cause variations in product composition.
C. Environmental Monitoring

 Accurate flow measurement is essential for monitoring fluid discharges in

environmental applications to comply with regulatory standards.
o Flow meters with lower accuracy but high durability may be sufficient for
basic monitoring, while critical applications require high-precision meters.

D. Safety-Critical Systems

 In safety-critical processes (e.g., in nuclear reactors or aerospace fuel systems), highly

accurate and reliable flow measurement is essential for ensuring operational safety
and preventing system failures.

 Flow Measurement including orifice plate and DP transmitter, multi-

beam ultrasonic flowmeter, Coriolis mass meter, turbine meters amongst
others
Flow measurement is a critical aspect of industrial processes, custody transfer, environmental
monitoring, and safety systems. Accurate flow measurement ensures that fluids—such as
liquids, gases, or slurries—are delivered at the correct rate to meet operational demands.
Various types of flow meters are used depending on the application, fluid properties, and
required accuracy. This section covers common flow measurement devices, including orifice
plates with differential pressure transmitters, multi-beam ultrasonic flowmeters,
Coriolis mass flow meters, and turbine meters.

1. Orifice Plate with Differential Pressure (DP) Transmitter

A. Principle of Operation

An orifice plate is a thin metal plate with a sharp-edged hole in the center, placed in a pipe
through which fluid flows. When fluid passes through the orifice, a pressure drop occurs
across the plate due to the flow restriction. This pressure difference is proportional to the
square of the fluid velocity and can be measured using a differential pressure (DP)
transmitter.
 Differential Pressure Transmitters

B. Key Equations

The relationship between the pressure drop and flow rate is given by:

C. Advantages

 Cost-effective: Orifice plates are relatively inexpensive and simple to install.

 Wide range of applications: Used for gases, liquids, and steam.

D. Disadvantages

 Pressure loss: Permanent pressure drop due to the flow restriction.

 Accuracy: Lower accuracy compared to other flow meters; requires proper
installation and calibration.

E. Applications

 Custody transfer in oil and gas.

 Steam flow measurement in power plants.

2. Multi-Beam Ultrasonic Flow Meter

A. Principle of Operation

Ultrasonic flow meters measure the velocity of a fluid by using sound waves. In a multi-
beam ultrasonic meter, multiple ultrasonic transducers are installed around the circumference
of the pipe. These transducers send and receive sound pulses across the fluid. By measuring
the transit time of the sound pulses between the transducers, the flow velocity can be
calculated.

B. Types of Ultrasonic Flow Meters

1. Transit-time meters: Measure the time difference between upstream and

downstream signals.
 2. Doppler meters: Measure the frequency shift of sound waves scattered by particles or
bubbles in the fluid.

C. Advantages

 Non-invasive: No flow obstruction, reducing pressure loss.

 Highly accurate: Multiple beams provide precise flow profiles.
 No moving parts: Less wear and tear, leading to lower maintenance costs.

D. Disadvantages

 Sensitive to fluid composition: Air bubbles or solid particles in the fluid can affect
accuracy.
 High initial cost: More expensive compared to basic flow meters like orifice plates.

E. Applications

 Water and wastewater management.

 Oil pipelines and gas transmission.

3. Coriolis Mass Flow Meter

A. Principle of Operation

The Coriolis meter measures mass flow directly by detecting the Coriolis force acting on a
vibrating tube through which fluid flows. The fluid moving through the oscillating tubes
causes a phase shift in the vibration, which is proportional to the mass flow rate.
B. Key Equations

C. Advantages

 Direct mass flow measurement: No need to convert from volumetric flow.

 High accuracy: Less affected by temperature and pressure changes.
 Multivariable measurement: Measures density and temperature in addition to flow
rate.

D. Disadvantages

 High cost: Expensive compared to other flow meters.

 Sensitive to vibrations: External vibrations can affect accuracy.

E. Applications

 Chemical processing.
 Custody transfer of oil and gas.
 Food and beverage industry.

4. Turbine Flow Meter

A. Principle of Operation

A turbine meter measures flow rate by using the fluid to spin a rotor (turbine) inside the
pipe. The rotational speed of the turbine is proportional to the velocity of the fluid. The
number of rotations is counted using a magnetic or optical sensor and is used to calculate the
volumetric flow rate.
B. Key Equations

C. Advantages

 Good accuracy: Particularly in steady, high-velocity flows.

 Simple and reliable: Proven technology, widely used.

D. Disadvantages

 Requires clean fluids: Particles or debris in the fluid can damage the turbine blades.
 Pressure loss: Turbine blades cause a slight pressure drop.

E. Applications

 Water distribution systems.

 Natural gas metering.
 Fuel flow measurement in aviation.

5. Other Flow Measurement Technologies

A. Vortex Flow Meters

 Principle: A bluff body is placed in the flow path, causing vortices to form. The
frequency of vortex shedding is proportional to the flow rate.
 Applications: Used for liquids, gases, and steam.

B. Electromagnetic Flow Meters

 Principle: Measures flow rate using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

where a conductive fluid moves through a magnetic field.
 Applications: Water treatment, slurries, and chemical processing.

 Level Measurement, traditional methods such as capacitance and

hydrostatic techniques are covered together with more modern
technologies such as ultrasonic and radar measurements

Level measurement is crucial in various industrial processes where it is essential to

monitor and control the level of liquids, solids, or slurries in tanks, silos, or vessels. It
ensures the safe and efficient operation of processes in industries such as oil and gas,
water treatment, chemical manufacturing, and food processing. Level measurement
techniques range from traditional methods such as capacitance and hydrostatic
techniques to modern technologies like ultrasonic and radar measurements.

1. Traditional Level Measurement Techniques

A. Capacitance Level Measurement

Principle of Operation:

Capacitance level measurement is based on the concept that the capacitance of a

capacitor changes when the dielectric constant between its plates varies. In level
measurement, the sensor acts as one plate of the capacitor, while the tank wall or a
probe in the liquid acts as the other. The liquid between them changes the dielectric
constant, which is proportional to the level of the fluid.

B. Key Equations
C. Advantages

 Non-contact (for some designs): Can measure liquid without direct contact.
 Suitable for various fluids: Can handle different liquids, including corrosive fluids.

D. Disadvantages

 Affected by fluid properties: Changes in fluid conductivity and dielectric properties

can affect accuracy.
 Limited range: Best suited for smaller tanks and vessels.

E. Applications

 Oil and gas storage tanks.

 Food and beverage industry.
 Chemical processing.

B. Hydrostatic Level Measurement

Principle of Operation:

Hydrostatic level measurement is based on the principle that the pressure exerted by a liquid
column is proportional to its height. A pressure sensor installed at the bottom of a tank
measures the liquid pressure, which is then converted into a level reading based on the known
density of the fluid.

B. Key Equations
C. Advantages

 Simple and robust: Reliable method with minimal maintenance.

 Cost-effective: Low-cost measurement solution for various liquids.

D. Disadvantages

 Density dependence: Changes in fluid density can cause errors.

 Not ideal for gases: Designed for liquid level measurement.

E. Applications

 Water tanks.
 Chemical and petroleum industries.
 Environmental monitoring.

2. Modern Level Measurement Techniques

A. Ultrasonic Level Measurement

Principle of Operation:

Ultrasonic level measurement works by sending ultrasonic pulses from a transmitter towards
the liquid surface. The pulses reflect off the surface and are received by the sensor. The time
taken for the pulse to return is used to calculate the distance between the sensor and the liquid
surface, and hence the level.
B. Key Equations

C. Advantages

 Non-contact: No physical contact with the liquid, reducing wear and maintenance.
 Versatile: Can measure both liquids and solids.
 Works in harsh environments: Suitable for corrosive, hot, or hazardous materials.

D. Disadvantages

 Affected by environmental conditions: Temperature, pressure, and humidity can

impact the speed of sound and accuracy.
 Limited range in large tanks: For very tall tanks, signal attenuation can occur.

E. Applications

 Water and wastewater treatment.

 Food and beverage industry.
 Solids in hoppers and silos.
B. Radar (Microwave) Level Measurement

Principle of Operation:

Radar level measurement uses electromagnetic waves (microwaves) to measure the level of a
fluid. The radar sensor emits microwave signals towards the liquid surface, and the signal
reflects back to the sensor. The time delay between emission and reflection is used to
calculate the level.

B. Types of Radar Level Measurement

1. Guided Wave Radar (GWR): Uses a probe to guide the radar signal to the fluid
surface.
2. Non-Contact Radar: Measures level without physical contact with the liquid.

C. Key Equations

D. Advantages

 High precision: Accurate even in extreme conditions such as high pressure or

temperature.
 Non-contact: Ideal for hazardous or corrosive materials.
 Not affected by fluid properties: Works with a variety of liquids, solids, and slurries.
E. Disadvantages

 Higher cost: More expensive than traditional methods.

 Installation complexity: Requires careful setup to avoid signal interference from tank
walls or obstacles.

F. Applications

 Oil and gas industry (for crude oil storage tanks).

 Chemical plants.
 Slurries and solid measurement in mining.

Custody Transfer
Custody transfer is a critical process in industries where the ownership of a product—such as
crude oil, natural gas, refined petroleum products, or other fluids—changes hands between
two parties. This process requires precise and accurate flow measurement to ensure fair and
transparent transactions, as even small errors can lead to significant financial discrepancies.
The measurements must be legally auditable, reliable, and conform to international standards.

Custody transfer systems measure the flow of products in both dynamic (continuous flow)
and static (non-flowing, stored) conditions. The accuracy and reliability of these systems are
ensured through regular flow calibration to reduce measurement uncertainty and comply with
industry regulations.

The subject of Custody Transfer in detail terms, flow calibration,

dynamic and static
1. Overview of Custody Transfer Process

In custody transfer, the measured product is generally a liquid or gas, and the flow rate or
volume must be accurately recorded. The process involves:

 High-precision flow meters: To measure the transferred volume or mass of fluid.

 Strict regulatory compliance: International standards (API, ISO, OIML) guide the
accuracy and procedures for flow measurement.
 Meter calibration and proving: Regular calibration ensures that the meters provide
accurate readings, reducing the uncertainty in the measurement.

Custody transfer requires both dynamic and static flow calibration, depending on whether
the product is flowing or stored.
2. Dynamic vs. Static Custody Transfer

A. Dynamic Custody Transfer

Dynamic custody transfer involves continuous measurement of the product as it flows

through pipelines or other transportation systems. In this case, flow meters record the flow
rate, and the total quantity is calculated over time.

 Flow Measurement Technologies:

o Coriolis mass flow meters: Measure the mass flow rate directly, highly
accurate for both liquids and gases.
o Ultrasonic flow meters: Measure the velocity of the flow using sound waves,
often used for natural gas or large-diameter pipes.
o Turbine meters: Measure volumetric flow by counting the revolutions of a
turbine rotor.
o Orifice plate with DP transmitter: Measures differential pressure across an
orifice to infer flow rate, often used in gas applications.

 Challenges in Dynamic Measurement:

o Flow disturbances: Turbulence or irregular flow patterns can reduce
accuracy.
o Temperature and pressure fluctuations: These can affect both the flow rate
and fluid properties (density, viscosity), which in turn impacts the meter’s
reading.
o Calibration: Flow meters must be regularly calibrated and proved in the field
or in a controlled laboratory to maintain accuracy.

 Dynamic Calibration: In dynamic calibration, the flow meter is verified while the
fluid is in motion, usually using a master meter or a prover.

B. Static Custody Transfer

Static custody transfer refers to the measurement of a stationary, non-flowing product

stored in tanks or containers. Static measurements typically involve the calculation of the
volume of liquid in storage tanks.

 Techniques for Static Measurement:

o Tank gauging: Involves measuring the height of liquid in a storage tank using
technologies like radar, ultrasonic, or hydrostatic pressure sensors.
o Capacitance or hydrostatic measurements: These methods infer the volume
of liquid based on pressure or capacitance readings.
o Manual dipsticks: In some traditional applications, physical measurement
tools are used to gauge the liquid height.

 Challenges in Static Measurement:

o Temperature compensation: Liquids expand or contract based on
temperature, so volume measurements must be corrected using volume
correction factors (VCF).
 o Density variations: The density of stored liquids can vary with temperature,
impacting mass calculations.

 Static Calibration: Static calibration usually focuses on verifying tank volume and
ensuring measurement accuracy using certified volume tables, calibrated tank gauging
instruments, and sensors.

3. Flow Calibration in Custody Transfer

Flow calibration is a vital part of ensuring accuracy in custody transfer. Calibration is the
process of comparing the output of a flow meter with a known reference to ensure that the
meter is reading correctly.

A. Calibration Process

1. Reference Standard: Flow meters are compared to a reference, such as a calibration

rig or a prover (in dynamic calibration), or certified tank tables (in static calibration).
2. Traceability: The reference standard used in calibration must be traceable to
international standards, ensuring that the calibration can be independently verified.
3. Meter Proving: For dynamic flow meters, proving is a common calibration method.
A prover is a device that allows a known volume of liquid or gas to pass through the
flow meter. The reading from the flow meter is compared to this known volume to
assess and adjust its accuracy.
4. Corrections and Adjustments: If discrepancies are found during calibration, a meter
factor is applied to correct the flow meter’s output. This factor compensates for any
deviation in measurement accuracy.

4. Dynamic Calibration Methods

A. Master Meter Calibration

 Process: A master meter, which has been calibrated and certified, is placed in series
with the custody transfer meter. The readings of the master meter and the custody
transfer meter are compared over time.
 Application: Used in pipelines and production facilities where it's impractical to use a
large prover.

B. Ball Prover Calibration

 Process: A prover is a device containing a precisely known volume. A sphere or

piston is used to displace fluid through the prover at a controlled rate, and the volume
of fluid is used to verify the flow meter.
 Application: Used for dynamic calibration of liquid flow meters in pipelines.
C. Volumetric and Gravimetric Calibration

 Volumetric Calibration: Compares the volume of fluid measured by the meter with a
known reference volume.
 Gravimetric Calibration: Measures the mass of the fluid passing through the flow
meter, often used in conjunction with Coriolis meters.

5. Static Calibration Methods

A. Tank Calibration

 Process: Involves verifying the volume of a tank using tank strapping or volumetric
calibration tables. This ensures that static level measurements can be converted
accurately to volume based on the liquid level in the tank.
 Application: Used in the calibration of large storage tanks in refineries, depots, and
chemical plants.

B. Level Measurement Calibration

 Radar and Ultrasonic Gauging: Calibration involves verifying the sensor output at
known levels using certified test equipment. Corrections are applied for variations in
fluid properties, temperature, and pressure.
 Hydrostatic Pressure: Pressure sensors are calibrated by comparing the measured
hydrostatic pressure at known liquid heights with certified reference pressures.

6. Uncertainty in Custody Transfer

Uncertainty is an important concept in custody transfer, as it defines the range within which
the true value of the measured quantity lies. Minimizing uncertainty is crucial in custody
transfer to avoid financial losses. Factors affecting uncertainty include:

 Instrument accuracy: The precision of the flow meter or level sensor.

 Environmental factors: Variations in temperature, pressure, and fluid properties.
 Calibration frequency: Regular calibration is essential to minimize errors over time.
 Installation conditions: Poor installation can cause flow disturbances, leading to
increased measurement uncertainty.

7. Standards Governing Custody Transfer

To ensure fairness and consistency in custody transfer, several international standards govern
the measurement and calibration processes:
  API MPMS (Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards): Covers the use of
flow meters, calibration methods, and calculation procedures in petroleum
measurement.
 ISO 5167: Specifies how to measure flow using differential pressure devices like
orifice plates, venturi tubes, and nozzles.
 OIML (International Organization of Legal Metrology): Sets global standards for
custody transfer metrology, ensuring legal compliance in measurement.

Examines the requirements of OIML R117

OIML R117: Requirements for Measuring Instruments for Liquids Other than Water

The International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) is a global standards

organization that issues guidelines to ensure the accuracy and reliability of measurement
systems in commercial transactions. OIML R117, titled "Dynamic Measuring Systems for
Liquids Other than Water", provides comprehensive requirements for the design,
construction, testing, and verification of flow meters and other measurement systems used in
the custody transfer of liquids, except for water. This standard applies to industries such as
petroleum, chemicals, and food, where precise volume or mass measurement is essential.

1. Scope and Purpose of OIML R117

OIML R117 is primarily focused on measurement systems used in dynamic conditions,

where liquids are continuously flowing through pipelines or other systems. Its purpose is to
ensure:

 Accuracy: Measurements must be reliable and traceable to prevent financial

discrepancies.
 Legal Compliance: Measuring systems must adhere to international legal metrology
standards to support fair trade.
 Safety: In cases where hazardous or volatile liquids are measured (e.g., petroleum),
safety measures must be integrated into the measurement systems.
 Durability and Repeatability: Instruments must maintain their accuracy over time
and repeated use without requiring frequent recalibration.

OIML R117 covers various types of measuring devices, including volume and mass flow
meters (such as Coriolis, ultrasonic, and turbine meters), as well as systems that convert the
measurements into standardized formats for reporting and billing.

2. General Requirements

A. Design and Construction

Measuring instruments covered under OIML R117 must be designed and constructed to
ensure that:
  Accuracy and Precision: The device must operate within specified error limits based
on the classification of the instrument (such as Class 0.3, 0.5, or 1.0), which defines
the maximum permissible error (MPE).
 Integrity: Materials used in construction should be durable, capable of withstanding
the environmental conditions where the device will be used (e.g., exposure to
chemicals, temperature variations, and mechanical stress).
 Safety Features: In cases where hazardous fluids are involved, measuring devices
must incorporate safety mechanisms such as pressure relief valves or explosion-proof
housings.

B. Operating Conditions

The instrument must perform reliably under defined operating conditions, including:

 Temperature and Pressure Ranges: Devices must function accurately within the
specified temperature and pressure ranges, which must be clearly stated by the
manufacturer.
 Flow Ranges: Instruments must be able to measure across a defined range of flow
rates, with accuracy requirements maintained throughout this range.

C. Accuracy Classes and Maximum Permissible Errors (MPE)

OIML R117 defines several accuracy classes, each with a different MPE, depending on the
application:

 Class 0.3: Maximum permissible error is ±0.3% of the actual measured quantity.
 Class 0.5: MPE is ±0.5%.
 Class 1.0: MPE is ±1.0%.

These accuracy classes help ensure that the appropriate instrument is selected for a particular
application based on its required precision.

3. Specific Requirements for Measuring Systems

OIML R117 provides detailed requirements for specific components of measuring systems:

A. Flow Meters

 Type of Meters: The standard includes volumetric flow meters (such as turbine
meters and orifice plates) and mass flow meters (such as Coriolis and ultrasonic
meters). The choice of meter depends on the fluid characteristics and required
measurement accuracy.
 Calibration and Traceability: Meters must be calibrated using traceable reference
standards, and regular recalibration is required to maintain accuracy.
 Data Recording and Display: The device must have a clearly readable display that
shows the measurement result. For custody transfer, the output must be traceable,
secure, and tamper-proof.
B. Temperature and Pressure Compensation

Liquids can expand or contract depending on temperature and pressure, which can introduce
errors in volume-based measurements. OIML R117 requires systems to incorporate:

 Temperature and Pressure Sensors: Measurement systems must include sensors to

monitor the temperature and pressure of the fluid during the measurement process.
 Automatic Compensation: Systems must automatically compensate for temperature
and pressure changes by applying correction factors to ensure accurate results.

4. Verification and Testing Requirements

OIML R117 specifies rigorous procedures for the initial verification and periodic testing of
measuring instruments. This ensures that:

A. Initial Verification

 Instruments must be tested and verified for accuracy before being put into service.
 Tests must simulate actual operating conditions, including temperature, pressure, and
flow variations, to ensure the instrument performs accurately under all circumstances.

B. Periodic Re-verification

 Measuring instruments must undergo regular re-verification, typically annually, to

ensure that the accuracy remains within the permissible limits.
 Re-verification must involve the same testing procedures as the initial verification and
may include in-field calibration using provers or certified reference meters.

C. Field Testing and Calibration

Field testing procedures are outlined to validate the instrument’s accuracy under real-world
operating conditions. For custody transfer, OIML R117 requires:

 Use of Provers: In the case of liquid hydrocarbons, proving is often required. A

prover is a device that passes a known quantity of liquid through the meter to verify
its accuracy.
 Master Meters: These are high-accuracy meters used as reference devices to verify
other meters during calibration.

5. Sealing and Security Features

To ensure the integrity of custody transfer measurements, OIML R117 mandates:

 Sealing Devices: Flow meters and measurement systems must include tamper-proof
sealing devices. Any unauthorized access or tampering with the system (e.g.,
adjusting the calibration without approval) must be clearly detectable.
  Software Integrity: For digital meters and systems, software used in the
measurement and calculation process must be secure. It should include protections
against unauthorized modification of stored data.

6. Environmental Considerations

OIML R117 outlines how the environment can affect measuring instruments and their
performance. Devices must:

 Withstand Harsh Environments: Instruments used in the oil and gas industries often
face extreme conditions such as high temperature, corrosive environments, and high-
pressure operation. The instrument's design must account for these factors.
 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC): Instruments must be resistant to
electromagnetic interference to prevent measurement errors caused by electrical
disturbances in industrial environments.

7. Documentation and Reporting

The standard mandates comprehensive documentation, including:

 Installation Instructions: Detailed guidance on how the instrument should be

installed, ensuring proper alignment and conditions for accurate measurement.
 User Manuals: Manuals must include instructions on calibration, maintenance, and
operation under typical conditions.
 Test Certificates: After each verification or calibration, the system should generate a
test certificate that includes the accuracy of the measurement system, any adjustments
made, and details about the testing conditions.

8. Applications of OIML R117

OIML R117 applies to a wide range of industries, especially those involving high-value
liquids where accurate measurement is critical for financial transactions. These include:

 Petroleum and Petrochemical: Used for crude oil, refined petroleum products, and
liquefied gases.
 Chemical Industry: For the transfer of bulk chemicals, solvents, and additives.
 Food and Beverage: In processes involving large-scale liquid transfers, such as
juices, oils, and dairy products.

Types of calibration rigs and calibration systems plus prover systems

In industries where precise fluid measurement is critical (such as oil, gas, and chemicals),
calibration systems and prover rigs are used to ensure that flow meters provide accurate and
traceable measurements. Calibration systems range from simple devices used in laboratories
to sophisticated rigs capable of calibrating industrial-grade flow meters in the field.
1. Calibration Rigs

Calibration rigs are specialized setups used to validate the accuracy of flow meters. These
rigs are built to replicate operating conditions and can use various methods to compare the
flow meter’s reading against a known reference standard.

A. Gravimetric Calibration Rigs

 Principle: Based on comparing the measured volume or mass of the liquid passing
through the flow meter to the weight of the liquid collected in a container.
 Components: A precision balance (scale) and a collection tank are used to weigh the
fluid after it passes through the meter.
 Advantages: Provides very high accuracy and is traceable to national standards of
mass.
 Applications: Ideal for low- and medium-flow rates and is widely used in laboratories
and testing facilities.

B. Volumetric Calibration Rigs

 Principle: Based on comparing the flow meter reading with the actual volume of
liquid collected in a calibrated container.
 Components: A calibrated tank with known volume and a system to measure the
fluid displaced.
 Advantages: Simple to operate and widely used in industries with medium to high-
flow rates.
 Applications: Suitable for high-volume calibration, especially in industries like
petroleum refining and distribution.

C. Piston Prover Calibration Rigs

 Principle: Uses a piston to displace a known volume of fluid through the meter.
 Components: A precision piston prover, which moves fluid through the meter under
controlled conditions, and a device to measure the displacement.
 Advantages: High accuracy, particularly in low-flow applications, and can be
automated for continuous testing.
 Applications: Often used in calibrating smaller flow meters and for liquids with low
viscosities.

D. Hydrostatic Calibration Rigs

 Principle: Uses a static head of fluid to create a known pressure, which is then used
to calibrate pressure-based flow meters.
 Components: A reservoir of fluid, pressure transducers, and a system to control the
fluid level.
 Advantages: Cost-effective for basic calibration.
 Applications: Primarily used for liquid level and pressure calibration in systems like
tanks or reservoirs.
2. Calibration Systems

Calibration systems combine various techniques and technologies to ensure the accuracy of
flow meters. These systems can be portable for field calibration or fixed for laboratory
settings.

A. Portable Calibration Systems

 Principle: Allow flow meters to be calibrated directly in the field under actual
operating conditions.
 Components: A compact setup including a master meter, portable prover, and data
acquisition system.
 Advantages: Convenient for industries where equipment cannot be easily removed,
such as pipelines or offshore installations.
 Applications: Oil and gas pipelines, remote calibration in chemical plants.

B. Fixed Calibration Systems

 Principle: Installed permanently in facilities and used for routine calibration of

meters.
 Components: A prover, a master meter, and various instrumentation to ensure
consistent measurement conditions.
 Advantages: Continuous monitoring and calibration with minimal disruption to
operations.
 Applications: Large processing plants, refineries, and distribution terminals where
flow meters must be recalibrated regularly.

3. Prover Systems

Prover systems are used specifically for high-accuracy calibration of flow meters, especially
in custody transfer and fiscal metering applications. The prover system compares the meter
under test to a reference standard, often referred to as the "master meter."

A. Pipe Provers

 Principle: A section of piping is used to contain a known volume of liquid that is

pushed through the meter.
 Components: A calibrated pipe section, valves to control flow, and a device to
measure the displacement of fluid.
 Advantages: Highly accurate and suitable for high-flow rates.
 Applications: Custody transfer in oil pipelines and large-scale industrial applications.

B. Small Volume Provers (SVP)

 Principle: Similar to pipe provers but designed for smaller volumes, often with a
movable piston.
 Components: A small calibrated section of piping, a piston to displace the liquid, and
sensors to detect the movement.
  Advantages: High accuracy in a compact system, ideal for verifying flow meters
without requiring large volumes of fluid.
 Applications: Suitable for petroleum products, refined fuels, and low-flow
applications.

C. Tank Provers

 Principle: Uses a large storage tank to measure the total volume of fluid transferred
over a longer time period.
 Components: A large calibrated tank and a flow control system.
 Advantages: Useful for high-volume applications where long-term accuracy is
essential.
 Applications: Calibration of large flow meters used in storage and distribution
facilities.

D. Master Meters

 Principle: A highly accurate, pre-calibrated meter is used as a reference to check

other meters' accuracy.
 Components: The master meter itself, installed in-line with the meter under test.
 Advantages: Portable and easy to use for in-field calibration.
 Applications: Oil and gas pipelines, fuel distribution networks, and other industries
where accurate flow measurement is critical.

E. Ball Provers

 Principle: A ball displaces a known volume of liquid through the meter, and the
meter's reading is compared to the volume displaced.
 Components: A prover tube, a ball that moves through the fluid, and sensors to detect
the ball's position.
 Advantages: Can be used in a wide range of flow conditions and with different types
of fluids.
 Applications: Widely used in the oil and gas industry for calibrating high-volume
flow meters.

4. Dynamic vs. Static Calibration

Calibration of flow meters can be performed under dynamic or static conditions, depending
on the nature of the flow and the application.

A. Dynamic Calibration

 Principle: The meter is calibrated while fluid is actively flowing through the system.
 Advantages: More closely mimics actual operating conditions, leading to more
accurate results for meters used in dynamic environments.
 Applications: Custody transfer, real-time measurement in pipelines, and continuous
processing systems.
B. Static Calibration

 Principle: The meter is calibrated in a controlled environment where the flow is held
constant or measured in discrete volumes.
 Advantages: Easier to control and highly repeatable in laboratory settings.
 Applications: Laboratory-based calibration, low-flow applications, or systems that do
not require continuous measurement.

Terminal & Pipeline Systems

Included are the terminal tank gauging
Overview and Tank Gauging

Terminal and pipeline systems play a crucial role in the storage, transfer, and distribution of
liquids such as crude oil, refined petroleum products, chemicals, and other fluids. These
systems ensure the efficient and accurate movement of products from production facilities,
refineries, or bulk storage areas to distribution points or end users. A critical component of
terminal operations is the measurement and monitoring of stored and transferred liquid
volumes, which is accomplished through tank gauging systems.

1. Terminal Systems
Terminals are large facilities where liquids are stored and transferred between different
transportation modes (such as pipelines, ships, trucks, or rail). Terminal systems include a
range of infrastructure and processes:

A. Storage Tanks

 Types of Tanks: Terminals use various types of storage tanks, including floating roof
tanks, fixed roof tanks, and pressurized tanks, depending on the nature of the liquid
being stored.
 Capacity: Tanks are typically large, capable of holding millions of gallons of liquid,
and are designed for safe storage over long periods.
 Safety Systems: These include fire suppression, vapor control, and spill containment
systems to prevent environmental damage and ensure operational safety.

B. Pipelines

 Transfer Mechanisms: Pipelines connect terminals to refineries, other storage

locations, or distribution networks. They facilitate the movement of liquids over long
distances with minimal loss or leakage.
 Flow Measurement: Pipeline systems use highly accurate flow meters to measure the
volume of product transferred to and from the terminal, which is essential for custody
transfer (the legal transfer of ownership of the product).

C. Loading/Unloading Facilities

 Tank Trucks and Railcars: Terminals are equipped with loading and unloading
facilities for transferring liquids to and from trucks and railcars.
 Marine Loading: Some terminals include docks for transferring liquids between
storage tanks and ships for transportation by sea.

2. Pipeline Systems

Pipelines are one of the most efficient and economical means of transporting large volumes
of liquid products over long distances. Key components of pipeline systems include:

A. Mainline Pumps

 Purpose: Pump stations are installed at intervals along the pipeline to maintain
product flow and overcome friction losses.
 Types: Centrifugal or positive displacement pumps are used depending on the liquid
type and flow requirements.

B. Metering Stations

 Flow Measurement: Metering stations are located at various points along the
pipeline, typically at entry and exit points. They use flow meters (e.g., turbine,
 ultrasonic, or Coriolis meters) to measure the volume or mass of product being
transferred.
 Custody Transfer: Accurate flow measurement at metering stations is critical for
custody transfer agreements between parties, ensuring both the seller and buyer are
confident in the product quantity being transferred.

C. Pressure Control and Monitoring

 Pressure Sensors: Monitor the pressure in the pipeline to ensure safe operating
conditions and to detect potential leaks or blockages.
 SCADA Systems: Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems
provide real-time monitoring and control of pipeline operations, allowing for remote
adjustments to flow rates, pressure, and other parameters.

3. Tank Gauging Systems

Tank gauging is the process of measuring the volume of liquid stored in large storage tanks.
It is a critical aspect of terminal operations, particularly for inventory control, custody
transfer, and ensuring operational safety. Traditional and modern tank gauging technologies
are used depending on the accuracy required and the nature of the liquid being measured.

A. Traditional Tank Gauging Methods

 Manual Dipping/Strapping: The oldest method, which involves manually inserting a

dipstick or gauging tape into the tank to measure the liquid level. While simple, this
method is labor-intensive and prone to errors.
 Float & Tape Systems: A float rests on the liquid surface, and the tape connected to
it indicates the liquid level as it rises or falls. This system is more automated than
manual dipping but still requires physical maintenance.

B. Modern Tank Gauging Technologies

With advancements in technology, tank gauging has become more precise, automated, and
integrated into terminal management systems. Some of the modern tank gauging methods
include:

1. Hydrostatic Tank Gauging (HTG)

o Principle: Measures the pressure at the bottom of the tank to determine the
liquid height and thus the volume. The measurement is corrected for fluid
density.
o Advantages: Simple and accurate, especially for liquids with a constant
density.

2. Capacitance Gauging
o Principle: Measures the capacitance between electrodes installed in the tank.
As the level of liquid changes, so does the capacitance, which is converted
into a level measurement.
o Advantages: Suitable for a wide range of liquids, including non-conductive
liquids such as oils.
 o Disadvantages: May require recalibration if the liquid's dielectric constant
changes.

3. Ultrasonic Gauging
o Principle: Uses ultrasonic pulses to measure the distance between the sensor
and the liquid surface. The time taken for the pulse to return is used to
calculate the liquid level.
o Advantages: Non-contact, making it suitable for measuring aggressive or
hazardous liquids.
o Disadvantages: Accuracy may be affected by temperature, pressure, and the
presence of vapors.

4. Radar (Microwave) Tank Gauging

o Principle: Uses radar waves (microwave signals) to determine the liquid level
by measuring the time delay between the emitted signal and its reflection from
the liquid surface.
o Advantages: Highly accurate, non-contact, and suitable for a wide range of
liquids, including those with varying densities and temperatures.
o Applications: Frequently used in the oil and gas industry for accurate
measurement of large tank volumes.

5. Servo Gauging
o Principle: A servo gauge system uses a small displacer that floats on the
liquid surface. The movement of the displacer is controlled and monitored by
a servo motor, which accurately tracks the liquid level.
o Advantages: Very precise, especially for custody transfer applications.
o Disadvantages: More complex and costly compared to other gauging
methods.

C. Tank Calibration

 Importance: Regular calibration of tank gauging systems ensures accuracy and

compliance with legal metrology standards. Calibration involves verifying the tank's
volume at various levels and adjusting the gauging system as necessary.
 Methodologies: Calibration may involve manual dipping for verification, the use of
calibration charts, or the introduction of known volumes of liquid into the tank for
comparison.

D. Inventory Control and Management

 Integration with SCADA: Modern tank gauging systems are often integrated into
SCADA or Terminal Management Systems (TMS), allowing operators to monitor
tank levels remotely and manage inventory in real-time.
 Data Logging: Gauging systems continuously record liquid levels, temperatures, and
pressures, providing a historical record for inventory control and auditing purposes.

4. Custody Transfer in Terminal & Pipeline Systems

Custody transfer refers to the legally recognized handover of liquid product ownership from
one party to another, and it requires highly accurate measurement of the product being
transferred.

 Flow Meters: Highly accurate flow meters (e.g., Coriolis, ultrasonic) are used in
custody transfer applications. These meters must be certified and regularly calibrated
to ensure that the volume or mass of liquid being transferred is measured within the
required error limits.
 Prover Systems: Provers are used to verify the accuracy of flow meters. These
systems involve passing a known volume of liquid through the flow meter and
comparing the measured value to the actual value.
 Tank Gauging for Custody Transfer: In some cases, custody transfer may be based
on tank levels before and after transfer, requiring accurate tank gauging systems.

Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT)

Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) systems are specialized setups designed for
the automatic measurement and transfer of oil or gas from production facilities to
transportation pipelines, storage tanks, or other facilities. LACT systems play a crucial role in
ensuring accurate measurement and accountability in custody transfer transactions,
minimizing discrepancies between the parties involved.

1. Overview of LACT Systems

A. Purpose

 Custody Transfer: LACT systems are primarily used to measure and transfer
hydrocarbon liquids, ensuring that the correct volume and quality are accounted for
during the transfer process.
 Automatic Measurement: The systems automate the process of measuring flow rates
and total volumes, reducing human error and increasing efficiency in transfer
operations.

B. Components of LACT Systems

LACT systems consist of several key components that work together to facilitate accurate
and reliable custody transfer:

1. Flow Meters
o Types: Typically, LACT systems use either Coriolis or positive
displacement flow meters due to their high accuracy and reliability.
o Function: Measure the flow rate and total volume of liquid transferred.

2. Prover System
o Purpose: Ensures the accuracy of the flow meter by periodically validating its
measurements.
 o Types: Can include piston provers or sphere provers that move a known
volume of fluid through the meter for calibration.

3. Automatic Control Valve

o Function: Controls the flow of liquid through the system, ensuring that the
transfer occurs under specified conditions and preventing overflow or leakage.

4. Temperature and Pressure Sensors

o Role: Monitor the temperature and pressure of the liquid, as these factors
influence its density and thus its volume.
o Importance: Data from these sensors are used to make adjustments to flow
measurements based on real-time conditions.

5. Control Panel
o Components: Includes a programmable logic controller (PLC) or distributed
control system (DCS) for managing operations.
o Functionality: Provides a user interface for operators to monitor system
performance, configure settings, and review data.

6. Data Acquisition System

o Purpose: Collects and stores data from flow meters, sensors, and other
components for reporting and compliance.
o Features: May include data logging capabilities for audit trails, regulatory
compliance, and performance analysis.

7. Filtration and Conditioning Equipment

o Function: Removes impurities and particulates from the liquid before
measurement to ensure accurate flow readings and protect equipment.

8. Sample Probes
o Role: Collect samples of the liquid for quality testing, including density and
viscosity measurements.
o Importance: Ensures compliance with contractual quality specifications.

2. Operational Principles of LACT Systems

LACT systems operate on a series of well-defined processes to ensure accurate custody

transfer:

A. Flow Measurement Process

1. Initial Measurement: The system measures the flow of the liquid as it enters the
custody transfer point.
2. Density Compensation: Flow measurements are adjusted based on real-time
temperature and pressure readings to compensate for changes in density.
B. Prover Verification

 At regular intervals, a known volume of liquid is passed through the prover to verify
the accuracy of the flow meter. If the meter is found to be outside the acceptable
range, adjustments can be made.

C. Data Recording and Reporting

 All measurements, including flow rate, total volume, temperature, pressure, and
prover results, are recorded and stored in the data acquisition system. This data is
crucial for billing, regulatory compliance, and operational analysis.

D. Transfer Control

 The automatic control valve regulates the flow of liquid during transfer. The system
can be programmed to initiate, pause, or stop the transfer based on predefined
conditions or operator input.

E. Sample Collection

 Samples of the liquid are taken periodically to ensure that quality specifications are
met. These samples are analyzed for various properties, including composition,
density, and contaminants.

3. Benefits of LACT Systems

A. Accuracy and Reliability

 LACT systems provide highly accurate measurements, reducing discrepancies

between parties involved in custody transfer transactions.

B. Automation

 Automating the measurement and transfer processes minimizes human error,

increases operational efficiency, and enhances safety.

C. Compliance

 LACT systems help organizations comply with regulatory requirements and industry
standards, ensuring that all transactions are documented and verifiable.

D. Reduced Operational Costs

 By streamlining the custody transfer process and minimizing losses due to

inaccuracies, LACT systems can significantly reduce operational costs.
E. Improved Data Management

 The integration of data acquisition systems allows for comprehensive tracking and
analysis of flow data, aiding in decision-making and operational planning.

4. Challenges and Considerations

A. Maintenance

 Regular maintenance of LACT components, including flow meters, control valves,

and prover systems, is crucial to ensure ongoing accuracy and reliability.

B. Calibration

 Regular calibration of flow meters and prover systems is essential to maintain

measurement accuracy, requiring a scheduled maintenance plan.

C. Environmental Factors

 Changes in temperature, pressure, and fluid characteristics can impact measurement

accuracy; systems must be designed to account for these factors.

D. Regulatory Compliance

 LACT systems must meet industry standards and regulations, such as those set by the
American Petroleum Institute (API) and other governing bodies.

Sediment and water considerations

In custody transfer operations, particularly in the oil and gas industry, managing sediment
and water content is crucial for accurate measurement, regulatory compliance, and
maintaining product quality. This section will outline the significance of sediment and water
in custody transfer, methods for their measurement, and management practices to minimize
their impact.

1. Importance of Sediment and Water Management

A. Impact on Measurement Accuracy

 Volume Discrepancies: The presence of water and sediments can lead to inaccuracies
in volume measurements. If not accounted for, these contaminants can inflate the total
volume transferred, resulting in financial discrepancies between buyers and sellers.
 Flow Meter Calibration: Sediment and water can affect the calibration of flow
meters, leading to inaccurate readings. For instance, the presence of water can alter
the density and viscosity of crude oil, impacting the flow meter’s performance.
B. Quality Control

 Product Integrity: Sediment and water can compromise the quality of the product
being transferred. For example, excess water can lead to corrosion and degradation of
equipment and pipelines, while sediments can cause blockages and equipment wear.
 Specification Compliance: Many contracts stipulate acceptable levels of water and
sediment in the product. Exceeding these levels can lead to contractual disputes and
financial penalties.

C. Regulatory Compliance

 Environmental Regulations: Regulatory bodies often impose strict guidelines on the

amount of water and sediment allowed in products. Non-compliance can lead to legal
issues and fines.

2. Measurement of Sediment and Water Content

Accurately measuring sediment and water content is essential for effective custody transfer.
Various methods and technologies are employed to achieve this:

A. Water Content Measurement

1. API Gravity and Water Cut Measurement

o API Gravity: The density of crude oil relative to water is measured using
hydrometers or densitometers to estimate water content. Changes in API
gravity can indicate water contamination.
o Water Cut Measurement: This involves calculating the percentage of water
present in the total liquid volume. Techniques such as centrifugation, where a
sample is spun to separate water from oil, can be used.

2. Electromagnetic Methods
o Capacitance Sensors: These sensors measure the dielectric constant of the
fluid, which changes with water content. They are often used in conjunction
with flow meters for real-time water measurement.
o Microwave Sensors: Microwave technology can also be employed to measure
water content, offering real-time and non-invasive measurements.

3. Optical Methods
o Infrared Spectroscopy: This technique analyzes the absorption spectra of
liquid samples to determine water content based on specific absorption
characteristics of water.

B. Sediment Measurement

1. Gravitational Settling
o Settling Tests: A known volume of liquid is allowed to settle, and the
sediment is measured after a specified period. This method is simple but time-
consuming.
 2. Centrifugation
o This technique involves spinning samples at high speeds to separate sediments
based on their density. The sediment volume is then measured to quantify the
amount present.

3. Automated Sediment Analysis

o Laser Diffraction: Some modern systems utilize laser diffraction to analyze
sediment particle size and concentration, providing real-time data on sediment
levels.

3. Management Practices for Sediment and Water

To minimize the impact of sediment and water on custody transfer operations, several
management practices can be employed:

A. Pre-Transfer Sampling and Analysis

 Sampling Protocols: Implement rigorous sampling protocols before custody transfer

to analyze water and sediment levels. This ensures that both parties have accurate
information about the quality of the product being transferred.

B. Filtration and Separation

 Filtration Systems: Installing filters or separators in the transfer lines can help
remove sediments and water before they enter the flow meter or storage tanks.
 Hydrocyclones: These devices use centrifugal force to separate water and sediments
from the oil. They are particularly effective for handling larger volumes of liquids.

C. Regular Maintenance and Cleaning

 Tank Cleaning: Regular cleaning of storage tanks is essential to prevent the

accumulation of sediments and water. This can involve physical cleaning or the use of
cleaning agents.
 Pipeline Maintenance: Implementing a routine maintenance schedule for pipelines,
including inspections and cleaning, helps prevent sediment build-up and ensures the
integrity of the transfer process.

D. Monitoring and Control Systems

 Real-Time Monitoring: Utilizing SCADA systems to monitor sediment and water

levels in real-time allows for immediate corrective actions if contamination levels
exceed acceptable limits.
 Automated Alerts: Setting up automated alerts for deviations in sediment and water
content can help operators respond promptly to any issues during custody transfer.

Operational issues and associated equipment

In custody transfer operations, various operational issues can arise that impact measurement
accuracy, product quality, and overall efficiency. Understanding these issues and the
associated equipment can help mitigate risks and enhance operational performance. This
section outlines common operational challenges and the equipment typically used to address
these challenges.

1. Common Operational Issues

A. Measurement Accuracy

 Flow Meter Calibration: Inaccurate flow measurements can occur due to improper
calibration of flow meters, leading to financial discrepancies between the buyer and
seller.
 Environmental Conditions: Temperature and pressure variations can affect the
density and viscosity of liquids, influencing flow meter performance.

B. Product Quality

 Contamination: Sediment and water contamination can lead to product quality issues
and regulatory non-compliance, affecting customer satisfaction and contractual
obligations.
 Temperature Fluctuations: Changes in temperature can alter fluid properties,
impacting the accuracy of flow measurements and leading to quality control issues.

C. Equipment Reliability

 Wear and Tear: Continuous operation can cause wear and tear on valves, flow
meters, and pumps, leading to failures or inaccurate measurements.
 Obstruction: Sediment build-up and blockages can restrict flow and cause pressure
drops, affecting the performance of custody transfer systems.

D. Operational Efficiency

 Downtime: Equipment failures or maintenance can lead to downtime, impacting

overall operational efficiency and productivity.
 Human Error: Manual operations may introduce human error in monitoring,
measurement, and data recording, leading to inaccuracies and inefficiencies.

2. Associated Equipment

To address the operational issues faced in custody transfer, several key pieces of equipment
are employed:

A. Flow Measurement Equipment

1. Coriolis Flow Meters

o Function: Measure mass flow rate and density of liquids with high accuracy.
o Advantages: Can account for changes in fluid properties due to temperature
and pressure variations, providing real-time compensation.
 2. Positive Displacement Meters
o Function: Measure volumetric flow rates by capturing fixed amounts of fluid.
o Advantages: Highly accurate and reliable for low to medium flow rates.

3. Ultrasonic Flow Meters

o Function: Use sound waves to measure the flow rate of liquids.
o Advantages: Non-invasive, providing accurate measurements without
obstructing the flow.

B. Proving Equipment

1. Piston Provers
o Function: Validate the accuracy of flow meters by using a known volume of
fluid.
o Advantages: High accuracy and reliability for periodic calibration.

2. Sphere Provers
o Function: Utilize a spherical device to verify flow meter accuracy by moving
a known volume through the meter.
o Advantages: Effective for larger pipelines and can handle higher flow rates.

C. Quality Control Equipment

1. Water Cut Analyzers

o Function: Measure the percentage of water in hydrocarbon liquids.
o Advantages: Essential for ensuring compliance with contractual
specifications.

2. Sediment Sampling Equipment

o Function: Collect samples for laboratory analysis of sediment content.
o Advantages: Helps in assessing product quality and compliance with
standards.

3. Temperature and Pressure Sensors

o Function: Monitor real-time temperature and pressure of the liquid during
transfer.
o Advantages: Enable corrections for density and viscosity variations, ensuring
accurate measurements.

D. Flow Control Equipment

1. Control Valves
o Function: Regulate the flow of liquid through the system based on
predetermined conditions.
o Advantages: Ensure stable flow rates and prevent overpressure situations.

2. Automatic Shut-off Valves

o Function: Automatically close in the event of an emergency or equipment
failure.
 o Advantages: Enhance safety and reduce the risk of spills or leaks.

E. Monitoring and Data Management Systems

1. SCADA Systems
o Function: Provide real-time monitoring and control of custody transfer
operations.
o Advantages: Facilitate data acquisition, visualization, and alerting for
deviations in system performance.

2. Data Loggers
o Function: Record measurement data from flow meters and sensors for
analysis and reporting.
o Advantages: Provide an audit trail for compliance and operational analysis.

3. Best Practices for Operational Efficiency

A. Regular Maintenance

 Implement a preventive maintenance program for all equipment to minimize wear and
tear, reduce downtime, and ensure consistent performance.

B. Calibration Procedures

 Establish routine calibration schedules for flow meters and quality control equipment
to ensure measurement accuracy and compliance with regulatory standards.

C. Operator Training

 Provide comprehensive training for operators on equipment operation, monitoring,

and emergency procedures to reduce the risk of human error.

D. Data Analysis

 Utilize data analysis tools to identify trends in measurements, detect anomalies, and
optimize operational performance.

Pipeline considerations including paraffin content

In the transportation of crude oil and petroleum products through pipelines, paraffin content
poses significant challenges that can affect the efficiency, safety, and integrity of the pipeline
system. This section outlines the implications of paraffin content in pipelines, the factors
contributing to paraffin deposition, and strategies for managing paraffin-related issues.

1. Understanding Paraffin Content

Paraffin, also known as alkanes, is a class of hydrocarbons found in crude oil and other
petroleum products. These compounds have a waxy consistency and can solidify at lower
temperatures, leading to various operational challenges in pipeline systems.

A. Sources of Paraffin

 Crude Oil Composition: The paraffin content varies significantly based on the
source and type of crude oil. Heavier crude oils generally contain higher levels of
paraffins.
 Temperature Variations: Changes in temperature during transportation can
influence the solubility of paraffins in crude oil, causing them to precipitate out of the
liquid phase.

2. Implications of Paraffin Deposition in Pipelines

A. Flow Assurance Issues

 Reduced Flow Rates: Paraffin deposition can restrict the internal diameter of
pipelines, leading to reduced flow rates and increased pressure drops. This can hinder
the efficient transport of fluids.
 Complete Blockage: In extreme cases, paraffin can completely block the pipeline,
necessitating costly interventions such as pigging (the use of pipeline inspection
gauges) or manual removal.

B. Increased Energy Consumption

 Pump Efficiency: The presence of paraffin buildup increases resistance to flow,

requiring more energy to maintain the desired flow rates. This leads to higher
operational costs and increased wear on pumps.

C. Corrosion and Equipment Damage

 Accelerated Corrosion: Paraffin can trap moisture, leading to localized corrosion of

the pipeline and associated equipment. This can reduce the lifespan of the
infrastructure and increase maintenance costs.
 Equipment Failures: The added stress from paraffin deposition can lead to
equipment malfunctions or failures, resulting in unplanned downtime and repair
expenses.

D. Environmental Concerns

 Spills and Leaks: Blockages caused by paraffin can lead to overpressure scenarios,
increasing the risk of spills and leaks. This poses environmental hazards and can
result in regulatory penalties.

3. Factors Contributing to Paraffin Deposition

Several factors contribute to paraffin deposition in pipelines, including:

A. Temperature

 Cooling of Crude Oil: As crude oil cools, the solubility of paraffins decreases,
leading to their precipitation and subsequent deposition on pipe walls.

B. Flow Rate

 Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow: Low flow rates can lead to laminar flow conditions,
which are more conducive to paraffin deposition. Higher flow rates can help keep
paraffins suspended in the liquid phase.

C. Crude Oil Composition

 Molecular Weight and Composition: Crude oils with higher molecular weight
paraffins or higher wax content are more prone to deposition.

D. Pipeline Design

 Diameter and Configuration: The design of the pipeline, including diameter and
bends, can influence flow patterns and contribute to paraffin deposition.

4. Management Strategies for Paraffin Issues

To mitigate the challenges posed by paraffin content in pipelines, various strategies can be
employed:

A. Temperature Control

 Insulation: Insulating pipelines can help maintain higher temperatures, reducing the
likelihood of paraffin precipitation.
 Heating Systems: Employing trace heating systems or heat exchangers can help keep
the oil above its pour point, preventing wax formation.

B. Chemical Additives

 Pour Point Depressants: Adding chemicals that lower the pour point of paraffins can
help maintain their solubility in crude oil, preventing deposition.
 Wax Dispersants: These additives can help break down wax crystals, keeping them
suspended in the liquid phase.

C. Regular Pigging

 Pipeline Inspection Gauges (Pigs): Implementing a regular pigging schedule can

help remove accumulated paraffin deposits, ensuring optimal flow conditions and
reducing the risk of blockages.
D. Flow Rate Optimization

 Increasing Flow Rates: Adjusting operational parameters to maintain higher flow

rates can help reduce the risk of paraffin deposition by promoting turbulent flow
conditions.

E. Monitoring and Inspection

 Real-Time Monitoring: Utilizing sensors to monitor temperature, pressure, and flow

rates in real-time can help identify potential paraffin-related issues before they
escalate.
 Regular Inspections: Conducting routine inspections and maintenance can help
identify and address paraffin buildup before it affects operations.

Pipeline pressure and process characteristics

Understanding pipeline pressure and its associated process characteristics is crucial for the
efficient and safe transport of fluids in pipeline systems. This section covers the fundamentals
of pipeline pressure, the factors affecting it, and the implications for process characteristics in
various applications.

1. Pipeline Pressure Basics

A. Definition of Pipeline Pressure

 Pipeline Pressure: The pressure within a pipeline at any given point, typically
measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or pascals (Pa). It is a critical parameter that
influences flow rates, fluid behavior, and operational safety.

B. Types of Pressure in Pipelines

1. Static Pressure
o Definition: The pressure exerted by a fluid at rest within a pipeline, influenced
by the height of the fluid column and the density of the fluid.
o Application: Important for calculating hydrostatic pressure in vertical
pipelines and determining the required pump pressure for fluid movement.

2. Dynamic Pressure
 o Definition: The pressure associated with the fluid in motion, often calculated
using the Bernoulli equation.
o Application: Reflects the energy of the moving fluid and is essential for
understanding flow rates and pressure drops in systems.

3. Total Pressure
o Definition: The sum of static and dynamic pressure within a pipeline.
o Application: Total pressure is used to assess the overall pressure condition of
the fluid system.

2. Factors Affecting Pipeline Pressure

A. Fluid Characteristics

1. Density
o Impact: Higher density fluids exert greater static pressure due to the weight of
the fluid column. This can affect the overall pressure profile in the pipeline.

2. Viscosity
o Impact: Increased viscosity leads to higher resistance to flow, resulting in
pressure drops along the pipeline. It is crucial for calculating pump
requirements and flow rates.

3. Temperature
o Impact: As temperature increases, the density of the fluid typically decreases,
which can lower static pressure. Additionally, temperature affects viscosity,
impacting flow characteristics.

B. Pipeline Configuration

1. Length and Diameter

o Impact: Longer pipelines generally experience greater pressure losses due to
friction. The diameter of the pipeline influences flow velocity; smaller
diameters lead to higher velocities and increased pressure drops.

2. Bends and Fittings

o Impact: Changes in direction (bends) and fittings (elbows, tees) can introduce
additional resistance to flow, causing localized pressure drops.

C. Flow Rate

 Impact: Higher flow rates result in increased dynamic pressure but also lead to higher
friction losses, which can cause significant pressure drops along the pipeline.
D. Pump Characteristics

 Impact: The type, size, and operational settings of pumps determine the pressure
generated in the system. Pump performance curves illustrate how flow rate and
pressure are related.

3. Process Characteristics Related to Pipeline Pressure

A. Flow Characteristics

1. Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow

o Laminar Flow: Occurs at low velocities, characterized by smooth, orderly
fluid movement. Typically found in low-viscosity fluids and smaller pipe
diameters.
o Turbulent Flow: Occurs at higher velocities, characterized by chaotic fluid
motion. More common in larger pipelines and can lead to increased pressure
drops.

2. Pressure Drop Calculation

o Darcy-Weisbach Equation: Used to calculate pressure drops in pipelines
based on friction losses, fluid velocity, pipe diameter, and length.

B. Operational Efficiency

 Energy Consumption: Understanding the relationship between pressure, flow rate,

and pump performance is crucial for optimizing energy consumption in fluid transport
systems.
 Control Strategies: Maintaining optimal pressure levels is essential for effective
process control, ensuring desired flow rates and preventing system failures.

C. Safety Considerations

1. Pressure Relief Systems

o Importance: Systems must be in place to manage overpressure conditions,
including pressure relief valves and rupture disks to prevent pipeline failure.
2. Monitoring and Alarming
o Importance: Continuous monitoring of pressure allows for early detection of
anomalies, enabling prompt corrective actions and enhancing safety.

Truck custody transfer, marine and aviation, on-loading and off-

loading etc.
Custody transfer in the transportation of petroleum products involves the accurate
measurement and accounting of liquids during loading and unloading processes. This section
provides an overview of custody transfer in truck, marine, and aviation operations, focusing
on on-loading and off-loading procedures, equipment, and best practices.

1. Truck Custody Transfer

A. Definition

Truck custody transfer refers to the process of loading or unloading petroleum products from
tank trucks, ensuring that the volume delivered or received is accurately measured and
accounted for.

B. On-Loading Procedures

1. Preparation
o Equipment Inspection: Check the integrity of hoses, valves, and meters.
o Calibration: Ensure flow meters are calibrated according to applicable
standards.
o Safety Checks: Verify that safety equipment (PPE, spill kits) is available and
functional.

2. Loading Process
o Connect Hoses: Securely attach the loading hoses to both the truck and the
storage tank.
o Open Valves: Gradually open the valves to allow the flow of product into the
truck.
o Monitor Flow: Use flow meters to monitor the volume being loaded, ensuring
it matches the expected quantity.

3. Documentation
o Delivery Tickets: Generate and review delivery tickets that detail the
quantity, product type, and loading time.
o Quality Checks: Conduct any necessary quality checks (e.g., checking for
contamination) before sealing the truck.

C. Off-Loading Procedures

1. Preparation
o Inspection: Inspect the receiving tank and piping for any leaks or
obstructions.
o Calibration: Confirm that receiving meters are calibrated and functioning
properly.

2. Unloading Process
o Connect Hoses: Attach unloading hoses from the truck to the storage tank.
 o Open Valves: Gradually open the unloading valves to start the transfer
process.
o Monitor Flow: Use flow meters to measure the volume being off-loaded
accurately.

3. Documentation
o Receiving Tickets: Record the quantities received and verify against delivery
tickets from the truck.
o Quality Control: Conduct quality checks as necessary.

2. Marine Custody Transfer

A. Definition

Marine custody transfer involves the transfer of liquid petroleum products between ships and
shore facilities (e.g., terminals, storage tanks), ensuring accurate measurement and
compliance with regulations.

B. On-Loading Procedures

1. Preparation
o Equipment Check: Inspect hoses, manifolds, and loading arms for leaks or
damage.
o Safety Protocols: Ensure compliance with marine safety regulations,
including firefighting equipment and emergency response plans.

2. Loading Process
o Connect Hoses: Securely connect hoses or loading arms between the terminal
and the ship.
o Start Loading: Gradually open valves to allow product flow, monitoring for
any leaks.
o Use Flow Meters: Employ shore-based and ship-based flow meters to
measure the quantity of product being loaded.

3. Documentation
o Bill of Lading: Generate documentation detailing the quantity, product type,
and loading time.
o Quality Sampling: Take samples for quality analysis and verification.

C. Off-Loading Procedures

1. Preparation
o Inspection: Inspect receiving tanks for integrity and compliance with safety
standards.

2. Unloading Process
 o Connect Hoses: Attach hoses from the ship's manifold to the receiving
terminal.
o Start Unloading: Gradually open valves to initiate the transfer, monitoring
flow and pressures throughout the process.

3. Documentation
o Receiving Report: Record quantities off-loaded and verify against shipping
documentation.
o Quality Assurance: Conduct necessary quality tests on the received product.

3. Aviation Custody Transfer

A. Definition

Aviation custody transfer refers to the process of loading or off-loading aviation fuels (e.g.,
Jet A, Avgas) to and from aircraft, ensuring accurate measurement and quality control.

B. On-Loading Procedures

1. Preparation
o Equipment Inspection: Check hoses, pumps, filters, and meters for
operational integrity.
o Safety Measures: Ensure that fire safety equipment is available and
operational.

2. Loading Process
o Connect Hoses: Securely connect the fuel delivery hose to the aircraft’s
fueling point.
o Start Loading: Gradually open the valve and monitor flow rates using fuel
flow meters.
o Monitor for Contamination: Use filters to ensure that the fuel is free from
contaminants.

3. Documentation
o Fuel Load Sheets: Record the quantity of fuel loaded and ensure it matches
operational requirements.
o Quality Testing: Conduct tests to verify the quality of the aviation fuel.

C. Off-Loading Procedures

1. Preparation
o Inspection: Check storage tanks for integrity and readiness for receiving fuel.

2. Unloading Process
o Connect Hoses: Attach hoses from the delivery vehicle to the storage tank.
o Start Unloading: Open valves to begin the transfer, closely monitoring for
any leaks or discrepancies in flow rates.
 3. Documentation
o Receiving Reports: Record the quantity of fuel received and cross-verify with
loading documents.
o Quality Control: Ensure the received fuel meets quality specifications
through testing.

4. Best Practices for Custody Transfer

 Training: Ensure that personnel involved in custody transfer operations receive

comprehensive training on procedures, safety, and equipment operation.
 Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): Develop and adhere to SOPs for on-
loading and off-loading to ensure consistency and compliance with regulatory
requirements.
 Regular Maintenance: Schedule routine maintenance and calibration of
measurement equipment to maintain accuracy and reliability.
 Safety Protocols: Implement safety protocols to mitigate risks associated with
flammable materials and ensure environmental compliance.
 Data Management: Utilize automated systems for data recording and management to
minimize human error and streamline reporting.

Monitoring and Controlling Losses

Loss control systems – an applied approach – model-based system
Loss control systems are essential in various industries, especially in oil and gas, to mitigate
financial losses due to leaks, theft, measurement inaccuracies, and operational inefficiencies.
A model-based approach to loss control systems incorporates mathematical modeling,
simulation, and predictive analytics to identify, quantify, and manage losses effectively.

1. Introduction to Loss Control Systems

A. Definition

 Loss Control System: A framework designed to minimize and manage losses in a

process or operational environment through the implementation of monitoring,
measurement, analysis, and corrective actions.

B. Importance of Loss Control

 Financial Impact: Losses due to measurement inaccuracies or leaks can significantly

affect profitability.
 Operational Efficiency: Effective loss control improves overall system efficiency
and resource management.
 Regulatory Compliance: Many industries face strict regulations regarding loss
management, necessitating robust control systems.
2. Model-Based Approach to Loss Control

A. Definition of Model-Based Systems

 Model-Based System: A methodology that utilizes mathematical and simulation

models to represent, analyze, and optimize system behavior and performance.

B. Benefits of a Model-Based Approach

1. Predictive Analytics: Enables forecasting of potential losses and system behavior

under various scenarios.
2. Data-Driven Decisions: Facilitates informed decision-making based on quantitative
data analysis.
3. Optimization: Assists in optimizing operational parameters to minimize losses
effectively.

3. Key Components of a Model-Based Loss Control System

A. Data Acquisition

 Sensors and Instruments: Use of flow meters, pressure sensors, and temperature
gauges to collect real-time data on system performance.
 Data Logging: Automated systems to log data for analysis and reporting.

B. Model Development

1. Mathematical Modeling: Develop models to represent system dynamics, including

fluid flow, pressure losses, and material balances.
o Example Models:
 Mass and Energy Balance Models: To track the flow of materials and
energy in the system.
 Statistical Models: To analyze historical data for trends and patterns.

2. Simulation Models: Use of software tools to simulate system behavior under various
operational scenarios, allowing for testing of loss control strategies.

C. Analysis and Interpretation

 Statistical Analysis: Application of statistical methods to identify anomalies and

potential sources of loss.
 Sensitivity Analysis: Evaluating how changes in system parameters affect overall
performance and loss metrics.
4. Methodologies for Implementing Model-Based Loss Control Systems

A. Risk Assessment

1. Identify Loss Sources: Conduct assessments to identify potential sources of loss,

including equipment failure, operational inefficiencies, and external factors (e.g.,
theft).
2. Quantify Risks: Use historical data and statistical analysis to quantify the likelihood
and impact of identified risks.

B. Implementation of Control Strategies

1. Monitoring Systems: Implement automated monitoring systems to track key

performance indicators (KPIs) related to loss.
2. Feedback Loops: Create feedback mechanisms that allow for real-time adjustments
based on model predictions and system performance.

C. Continuous Improvement

 Iterative Modeling: Regularly update models based on new data and changing
conditions to enhance accuracy and relevance.
 Benchmarking: Compare system performance against industry standards and best
practices to identify areas for improvement.

5. Best Practices for Model-Based Loss Control

A. Integration with Operational Systems

 Holistic Approach: Integrate loss control systems with broader operational

management systems for enhanced data sharing and analysis.

B. Training and Awareness

 Personnel Training: Provide training to employees on loss control strategies, model

interpretation, and data analysis.

C. Regulatory Compliance

 Adhere to Standards: Ensure that loss control measures comply with industry
regulations and standards for measurement and reporting.

D. Stakeholder Engagement

 Collaboration: Engage stakeholders (e.g., management, operational staff, regulators)

in the development and implementation of loss control strategies to ensure buy-in and
compliance.
Leak detection/leak testing
Leak detection and leak testing are essential processes in various industries, particularly in oil
and gas, chemical processing, and manufacturing, where leaks can lead to significant safety
hazards, financial losses, and environmental damage.

1. Introduction to Leak Detection and Leak Testing

A. Definition

 Leak Detection: The process of identifying the location and size of a leak in a
system, such as pipelines, storage tanks, or industrial equipment.
 Leak Testing: A systematic method used to determine whether a system is leaking,
how much it is leaking, and to ensure the system integrity is intact.

B. Importance of Leak Detection and Testing

1. Safety: Prevents hazards such as explosions, fire, and toxic exposure by detecting
leaks early.
2. Environmental Protection: Minimizes the release of harmful substances into the
environment.
3. Operational Efficiency: Ensures the system is operating correctly without loss of
product or pressure.
4. Regulatory Compliance: Meets legal and industry standards for emissions and
containment.

2. Types of Leaks

 Visible Leaks: Leaks that can be visually detected (e.g., liquid dripping, pooling).
 Invisible Leaks: Leaks that are not immediately visible, often requiring specialized
detection methods (e.g., gas leaks).
 Intermittent Leaks: Leaks that only occur under certain conditions (e.g., at high
pressure or temperature).
 Continuous Leaks: Leaks that occur constantly regardless of operating conditions.

3. Methods of Leak Detection

A. Visual Inspection

 Description: The simplest form of leak detection where visual cues like puddles,
stains, or corrosion indicate leaks.
 Advantages: Inexpensive, quick to perform.
 Disadvantages: Only effective for easily visible leaks, unsuitable for gases or internal
system leaks.
B. Pressure Decay Test

1. Method:
o A system is pressurized, and the pressure is monitored over time. A decrease
in pressure indicates a leak.
2. Applications: Common in pipelines, tanks, and closed systems.
3. Advantages: Simple and widely applicable.
4. Disadvantages: Not effective for small leaks or in systems with high volumes that
naturally lose pressure over time.

C. Ultrasonic Leak Detection

1. Method:
o Leaks produce high-frequency sounds (ultrasound) that are inaudible to the
human ear. Ultrasonic detectors can pick up these frequencies.
2. Applications: Gas pipelines, pressure vessels.
3. Advantages: Effective for detecting high-pressure gas leaks.
4. Disadvantages: Requires specialized equipment and is less effective in noisy
environments.

D. Bubble Test

1. Method:
o A liquid solution (e.g., soapy water) is applied to the area under test, and
bubbles will form at the leak points.
2. Applications: Low-pressure gas systems, plumbing.
3. Advantages: Simple, inexpensive, and visual confirmation.
4. Disadvantages: Only effective for accessible areas and not for detecting very small or
internal leaks.

E. Tracer Gas Method

1. Method:
o A harmless tracer gas (e.g., helium or hydrogen) is introduced into the system,
and specialized sensors detect the presence of gas escaping from leaks.
2. Applications: High-precision leak testing in sealed systems (e.g., vacuum systems,
electronics).
3. Advantages: High sensitivity, effective for small leaks.
4. Disadvantages: Expensive, requires specialized equipment and gases.

F. Mass Spectrometry

1. Method:
o A mass spectrometer is used to detect trace amounts of gases that escape from
leaks, often used in conjunction with the tracer gas method.
2. Applications: High-precision testing in industries like aerospace, pharmaceuticals,
and electronics.
3. Advantages: Extremely sensitive, can detect very small leaks.
4. Disadvantages: Expensive and complex setup.
G. Hydrostatic Testing

1. Method:
o The system is filled with water or another incompressible fluid and
pressurized. Leaks are detected by the drop in pressure or visible water
escaping from the system.
2. Applications: Pipelines, pressure vessels, and tanks.
3. Advantages: Highly effective for large systems, reliable.
4. Disadvantages: Requires a large volume of water, unsuitable for gas systems, and can
damage fragile components.

H. Thermal Imaging

1. Method:
o Infrared cameras detect temperature differences caused by escaping gas or
liquid, allowing identification of leaks.
2. Applications: Gas pipelines, chemical plants, and HVAC systems.
3. Advantages: Non-intrusive, can scan large areas quickly.
4. Disadvantages: Requires specialized equipment and may not work well for all types
of fluids.

4. Leak Testing Standards and Regulations

A. Industry Standards

 API 570: Covers the inspection and testing of pipelines and piping systems in
petroleum and chemical industries.
 ASME B31.3: Specifies leak testing for process piping.
 ISO 20485: Specifies non-destructive testing methods for leak detection, including
the use of tracer gases.

B. Regulatory Compliance

 Leak testing is often required by environmental regulations such as the EPA Clean
Air Act in the U.S. to minimize fugitive emissions of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs).
 Pressure vessels and storage tanks must comply with testing standards from bodies
like OSHA, EPA, and international standards to ensure the safety and integrity of
systems.

5. Common Leak Detection and Testing Equipment

 Ultrasonic Leak Detectors: Used for detecting high-frequency sounds from leaks.
 Pressure Gauges: To monitor pressure changes over time.
  Mass Spectrometers: For highly sensitive leak detection, particularly for tracer gas
testing.
 Infrared Cameras: For thermal imaging of leaks.
 Tracer Gas Detectors: Specialized devices for detecting specific tracer gases like
helium or hydrogen.
 Bubble Test Kits: For simple visual confirmation of leaks.

6. Leak Prevention and Mitigation

A. Regular Maintenance

 Regular inspection and maintenance of equipment, pipelines, and seals can prevent
leaks from occurring.

B. Real-Time Monitoring Systems

 Installing continuous monitoring systems can provide real-time leak detection,

allowing for immediate response to minimize damage.

C. Training and Best Practices

 Personnel should be trained on proper handling, inspection techniques, and safety

protocols to prevent leaks during operation and maintenance.

Case studies of marine applications

1. Case Study: Leak Detection in an Offshore Oil Pipeline

A. Background

An offshore oil and gas company operated a network of subsea pipelines for transporting
crude oil from production platforms to onshore facilities. In one instance, a minor leak in one
of the oil pipelines was suspected due to a drop in system pressure, but no visible signs of
leakage were present on the surface.

B. Challenges

 The pipeline was located hundreds of meters below the sea, making visual inspection
impossible.
 The harsh marine environment could potentially accelerate corrosion or material
degradation, increasing the risk of undetected small leaks.
 Quick response was crucial to avoid oil spill hazards.
C. Solution

The company employed a mass balance leak detection system integrated with acoustic
sensors:

1. Mass Balance Detection: The system calculated the difference between the oil
entering the pipeline and the oil arriving at the endpoint. Any discrepancy indicated
potential leaks.
2. Acoustic Sensors: Deployed along the pipeline, these sensors detected the noise
generated by leaking oil as it escaped the pipeline under high pressure.

D. Results

 The acoustic sensors identified the exact location of a small crack in the pipeline
caused by corrosion.
 Quick repair work was conducted using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), and oil
leakage was minimized to prevent environmental contamination.
 This early detection saved the company from a potentially catastrophic spill and
averted penalties.

2. Case Study: Leak Detection on a Cargo Ship Fuel System

A. Background

A large cargo vessel was found to have higher-than-expected fuel consumption during transit,
raising concerns about a potential fuel leak within the ship’s propulsion system. The
challenge was identifying the leak without causing operational delays or stopping the vessel
in busy shipping lanes.

B. Challenges

 Detecting fuel leaks in a complex system involving multiple fuel tanks, pumps, and
engines is difficult while the ship is operational.
 Fuel leaks pose serious fire hazards and environmental pollution risks if spilled into
the sea.
 Fuel vapor can lead to dangerous air quality issues for the crew.

C. Solution

The crew installed a pressure decay testing system in combination with ultrasonic leak
detectors:

1. Pressure Decay Testing: The fuel system was pressurized, and any decrease in
pressure indicated a potential leak. Testing was performed while the ship was docked
for a brief inspection.
2. Ultrasonic Detection: Portable ultrasonic detectors were used to locate the leak by
identifying high-frequency sound waves generated by the escaping fuel.
D. Results

 The ultrasonic detectors pinpointed a small crack in a fuel line leading to one of the
ship’s auxiliary engines.
 The fuel line was replaced promptly during a routine port stop, avoiding further fuel
loss.
 The detection system helped maintain safety standards and ensured compliance with
marine fuel management regulations.

3. Case Study: Leak Detection in LNG Carriers

A. Background

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers transport highly volatile and hazardous materials,
requiring precise control and monitoring of leaks. One such LNG carrier detected small
fluctuations in tank pressure, suggesting a possible vapor leak. Due to the hazardous nature of
LNG, even small leaks posed a serious threat.

B. Challenges

 Detecting vapor leaks from cryogenic tanks carrying liquefied natural gas requires
sensitive and specialized equipment.
 LNG leaks can lead to explosions or severe environmental consequences.
 Early detection is critical as LNG vapor can form flammable mixtures with air.

C. Solution

The shipping company used a combination of vapor detection systems and thermal
imaging cameras:

1. Vapor Detection Systems: Sensors designed to detect methane, a key component of

LNG, were installed throughout the tank’s containment system.
2. Thermal Imaging Cameras: Infrared cameras were used to detect temperature
anomalies on the tank's surface caused by evaporating LNG.

D. Results

 A small vapor leak was detected at a tank valve due to improper sealing.
 The valve was repaired, and the tank was vented in a controlled manner to ensure no
hazardous buildup of methane vapor.
 This early intervention prevented potential safety hazards, including the risk of
explosion, while ensuring the safety of the crew and cargo.

4. Case Study: Leak Detection in Underwater Power Cables for Offshore Wind Farms
A. Background

In a project involving an offshore wind farm, the underwater power cables that connect wind
turbines to the shore experienced an unexpected drop in electrical performance. A small leak
in the cable insulation was suspected, leading to water ingress and subsequent power loss.

B. Challenges

 Identifying the precise location of a leak in miles of subsea power cables is

technically challenging.
 Leaks in cable insulation can result in short circuits, power losses, and equipment
failure.
 The system had to remain operational while identifying and addressing the issue to
avoid costly downtime.

C. Solution

An electrical resistance testing method was combined with diver-assisted visual

inspections:

1. Electrical Resistance Testing: Specialized equipment was used to measure insulation

resistance in different sections of the cable, indicating where the water had penetrated.
2. Diver-Assisted Inspection: Divers were deployed to visually inspect the cable along
the sections identified as problematic, looking for external damage.

D. Results

 A small tear in the cable’s insulation, caused by anchor drag, was identified, allowing
seawater to infiltrate the cable.
 Repairs were carried out using underwater sealing techniques, restoring the electrical
integrity of the system.
 The combination of electrical and visual inspections minimized downtime, saving the
wind farm operator significant costs.

5. Case Study: Leak Detection in Marine Hydraulic Systems

A. Background

A cruise liner experienced hydraulic system failures that affected the operation of critical
equipment such as stabilizers and thrusters. Hydraulic oil leaks were suspected, but
identifying the source in a complex system of lines, valves, and pumps proved difficult.

B. Challenges

 Hydraulic systems are highly pressurized, and leaks can occur in inaccessible areas
such as engine rooms or under-deck compartments.
  Oil leaks can cause environmental pollution if released into the sea and can lead to
equipment failure.
 Leak detection had to be performed while the vessel was operational, to avoid
disruption to the cruise schedule.

C. Solution

The vessel used dye injection and visual inspection combined with pressure sensors:

1. Dye Injection: A fluorescent dye was injected into the hydraulic system, making any
oil leaks visible under UV light.
2. Pressure Sensors: Pressure monitoring throughout the system identified areas with
unusual pressure drops, helping to narrow down the possible locations of the leak.

D. Results

 The dye highlighted several small leaks in seals within the hydraulic pump system.
 The faulty seals were replaced during a scheduled port stop, and no further hydraulic
oil leaks occurred.
 This approach reduced potential environmental impact and prevented the possibility
of complete hydraulic system failure during operations.

Measurement surveys and measurement reports

Measurement surveys and measurement reports are essential tools used across various
industries to ensure the accuracy, integrity, and compliance of process systems, particularly
in sectors like oil and gas, chemical processing, and manufacturing. These documents provide
critical data for validating the performance of instrumentation, control systems, and overall
operational efficiency.

1. Measurement Surveys

A. Definition

A measurement survey is a systematic approach to collecting data from a process or system

to assess the accuracy, performance, and functionality of the measurement instruments or
equipment in place. The survey is used to ensure that measurements are consistent with the
design specifications and regulatory requirements.

B. Purpose

 Verification: To verify the accuracy and reliability of the measurement instruments

(flow meters, pressure sensors, temperature gauges, etc.).
 Calibration: To check whether the instruments are properly calibrated and
functioning within the expected tolerances.
  Compliance: To ensure that the system meets industry standards and regulations.
 Optimization: To assess system performance and identify areas for process
improvement.

C. Types of Measurement Surveys

1. Flow Measurement Surveys: Assessing the accuracy and functionality of flow

meters, typically in pipelines or process systems.
2. Temperature Measurement Surveys: Checking temperature sensors in critical
processes to ensure they are reading correctly.
3. Pressure Measurement Surveys: Evaluating pressure sensors to confirm they are
measuring accurately and consistently.
4. Level Measurement Surveys: Verifying the accuracy of level measurement devices,
particularly in storage tanks or vessels.

D. Steps in Conducting a Measurement Survey

1. Planning: Define the scope of the survey, identify the equipment or instruments to be
tested, and set performance benchmarks.
2. Data Collection: Gather readings from the instruments under both normal and
controlled conditions, using secondary measurement devices if necessary.
3. Analysis: Compare collected data with reference standards, operational specifications,
and manufacturer guidelines.
4. Reporting: Compile a detailed measurement survey report that includes findings,
deviations, and recommendations for corrective actions if required.

2. Measurement Reports

A. Definition

A measurement report is a documented summary of the findings from a measurement

survey. It records the results of the survey, including data analysis, system performance
evaluation, calibration status, and any deviations from the expected standards.

B. Purpose

 Documentation: To create an official record of the measurement data and survey

findings.
 Accountability: Provides a clear audit trail of measurement practices for internal
reviews and regulatory inspections.
 Decision Support: Helps management and engineers make informed decisions
regarding maintenance, recalibration, or system optimization.
 Regulatory Compliance: Ensures that the process systems meet the legal and
industry standards for measurement accuracy and reliability.

C. Components of a Measurement Report

1. Introduction and Objective: A summary of the survey's purpose, the equipment

tested, and the scope of the measurement survey.
 2. Methodology: Description of the measurement methods used, including the
instruments or reference devices involved in the testing process.
3. Data Summary: Tables or charts displaying the collected measurements, along with
their comparison to reference values or standards.
4. Analysis and Findings: Interpretation of the measurement data, identification of any
deviations or errors, and root cause analysis.
5. Recommendations: Suggestions for recalibration, maintenance, or equipment
upgrades if necessary.
6. Conclusion: A final summary of the overall system performance, including key
takeaways from the survey.

3. Importance of Measurement Surveys and Reports

A. Accuracy and Reliability

 Regular measurement surveys help ensure the accuracy and reliability of

instrumentation, which is crucial for process control and operational efficiency.

B. Calibration and Maintenance

 Surveys identify instruments that require recalibration or maintenance, preventing

potential process disruptions or costly inaccuracies.

C. Compliance with Standards

 Measurement surveys and reports help organizations comply with industry

regulations, such as those set by ISO (International Organization for Standardization),
OIML (International Organization of Legal Metrology), and other regulatory bodies.

D. Optimization of Operations

 The data from measurement surveys can be used to optimize process conditions,
reduce wastage, and improve overall system performance.

E. Risk Mitigation

 Regularly scheduled surveys reduce the risk of catastrophic failures, such as leaks,
overpressure incidents, or product losses, by identifying issues early.

4. Examples of Measurement Surveys and Reports in Practice

A. Flow Measurement Survey in an Oil Pipeline

 Objective: To verify the accuracy of flow meters and ensure proper crude oil flow
rates in a long-distance pipeline.
 Methodology: Using a calibrated prover to compare the flow meter readings with
reference standards under different operational conditions.
 Findings: The survey identified a 2% deviation in flow measurement, likely due to
wear in the meter’s internal components.
  Recommendation: Immediate recalibration of the meter and replacement of worn
parts.
 Report Conclusion: The recalibration brought the meter within acceptable accuracy
limits, ensuring the integrity of the custody transfer process.

B. Temperature Measurement Survey in a Chemical Processing Plant

 Objective: To assess the accuracy of temperature sensors in a reactor to ensure proper

reaction temperatures are maintained.
 Methodology: Secondary temperature sensors were temporarily installed to compare
against the existing equipment.
 Findings: Two out of five sensors displayed drift in readings due to calibration issues.
 Recommendation: Recalibration of the two faulty sensors and periodic checks to
prevent future drift.
 Report Conclusion: Accurate temperature control was restored, preventing potential
inefficiencies in the chemical process.

Multi-phase flow metering and applications

Multi-phase flow metering is the process of measuring the flow rates of individual phases
(such as gas, oil, and water) in a mixture that passes through a pipeline or a process system. It
is a critical technology in industries like oil and gas, where accurate measurement of different
phases is essential for production management, allocation, custody transfer, and operational
optimization.

1. Introduction to Multi-Phase Flow

A. Definition

Multi-phase flow refers to the simultaneous flow of two or more phases, such as:

 Gas-Liquid: Natural gas mixed with oil or water.

 Liquid-Liquid: Oil and water flowing together.
 Gas-Liquid-Solid: Gas and liquids with entrained solids.
B. Phases in Oil and Gas Applications

 Oil: The hydrocarbon phase, which can exist as crude oil or condensate.
 Gas: The gaseous phase, typically natural gas, which can contain vaporized
hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons.
 Water: Produced water, often a byproduct of oil production.
 Solids: In some cases, sand or other particles are present in the flow.

C. Challenges in Measuring Multi-Phase Flow

 Separation of Phases: The flow is typically unseparated, with phases mixing, making
it difficult to measure each component individually.
 Flow Patterns: Different flow regimes such as slug flow, bubble flow, or annular
flow can affect measurement accuracy.
 Varying Phase Compositions: The ratios of gas, oil, and water change dynamically,
making it hard to maintain consistent measurements.

2. Principles of Multi-Phase Flow Metering

A. Measurement Techniques

1. Differential Pressure (DP) Meters: Measure pressure drop across an obstruction

(like a Venturi) to infer total flow rate, often combined with density measurements for
phase fractions.
2. Gamma Ray Densitometry: A gamma ray source and detector measure the density
of the fluid, which helps distinguish between oil, gas, and water phases.
3. Electrical Impedance: Uses differences in electrical properties (conductivity and
permittivity) between phases to determine phase fractions.
4. Ultrasonic Meters: Measures the speed of sound through the mixture, which varies
with phase composition, enabling flow and phase fraction measurements.

B. Key Parameters Measured

1. Phase Fraction: The proportion of each phase (oil, gas, water) in the total flow.
2. Total Flow Rate: The combined flow rate of all phases.
3. Individual Phase Flow Rates: The calculated flow rates of oil, gas, and water based
on phase fractions and total flow.

C. Flow Patterns in Multi-Phase Flow

Understanding the flow regime is essential for interpreting multi-phase flow data:

 Slug Flow: Large liquid slugs interspersed with gas.

 Bubble Flow: Small gas bubbles dispersed in liquid.
 Annular Flow: Gas flows in the center, with liquid flowing along the walls of the
pipe.

3. Types of Multi-Phase Flow Meters

A. Venturi-Based Multi-Phase Flow Meters

 Working Principle: Uses a Venturi tube to create a differential pressure that

correlates with the total flow rate. Additional sensors (gamma rays, electrical
impedance) determine phase fractions.
 Advantages: Simple and reliable for measuring total flow, but may require calibration
for accurate phase separation.

B. Coriolis Multi-Phase Flow Meters

 Working Principle: Measures the mass flow rate directly by detecting the Coriolis
force exerted by the flowing fluid. Can provide phase-specific mass flow with
advanced signal processing.
 Advantages: High accuracy and sensitivity to changes in phase composition.

C. Ultrasonic Multi-Phase Flow Meters

 Working Principle: Utilizes ultrasonic waves to measure the velocity of the flow and
infer the phase fractions based on the speed of sound in the mixture.
  Advantages: Non-intrusive and capable of handling varying flow patterns.

D. Gamma Ray Meters

 Working Principle: Uses gamma rays to determine fluid density, which is used in
conjunction with flow models to estimate phase fractions.
 Advantages: Provides real-time measurement of phase composition and works in
challenging flow regimes.

4. Applications of Multi-Phase Flow Meters

A. Oil and Gas Production

1. Wellhead Monitoring: Multi-phase flow meters are installed at the wellhead to

measure the flow rates of oil, gas, and water as they are produced. This eliminates the
need for phase separation equipment at the site.
2. Reservoir Management: Provides real-time data on production rates, allowing
operators to adjust well operation strategies, optimize reservoir performance, and
extend the life of the field.
3. Subsea Production: In deepwater or remote subsea fields, multi-phase meters are
crucial for monitoring flow without requiring complex and costly surface separation
facilities.

B. Custody Transfer

1. Unconventional Custody Transfer: In some cases, multi-phase meters are used in

custody transfer applications where traditional single-phase metering systems (for oil
or gas) would be impractical.
2. Production Allocation: Multi-phase meters help allocate production among different
wells, owners, or production units in shared facilities.

C. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)

 Water Injection Monitoring: During enhanced oil recovery, water is injected into
reservoirs to increase pressure and stimulate production. Multi-phase meters monitor
the flow of water, oil, and gas to optimize injection rates and production efficiency.

D. Flow Assurance

 Multi-phase flow meters assist in flow assurance, ensuring that the flow is
maintained without blockages caused by issues like hydrates, wax deposition, or sand
production.

5. Advantages of Multi-Phase Flow Meters

 1. Real-Time Data: Provides immediate feedback on well performance and flow
conditions, enabling quicker decision-making.
2. Reduced Infrastructure: Eliminates the need for bulky and expensive phase
separators at the well site.
3. Remote Monitoring: Allows for monitoring of offshore and remote locations, where
manual measurement and phase separation are impractical.
4. Production Efficiency: Helps optimize production by providing accurate and
continuous data on oil, gas, and water flows.

6. Limitations of Multi-Phase Flow Meters

1. Calibration Requirements: Some meters require frequent recalibration to maintain

accuracy, particularly if the composition of the phases changes.
2. Complex Flow Regimes: Accurate measurement becomes challenging in flows with
irregular or highly transient patterns (e.g., slug flow).
3. High Costs: Advanced multi-phase meters can be expensive to install and maintain,
especially in remote or offshore environments.
4. Uncertainty: The inherent complexity of multi-phase flow introduces uncertainties
that may be difficult to eliminate, especially in varying flow conditions.

7. Advancements in Multi-Phase Flow Metering

 Machine Learning and AI: Machine learning algorithms are being developed to
improve the accuracy of phase detection and flow rate prediction by analyzing large
datasets from the meters.
 Compact Subsea Meters: Newer, more compact multi-phase meters are being
developed for subsea applications, reducing the size and cost of installation.
 Improved Flow Models: Advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and flow
modeling are helping refine the interpretation of data from multi-phase meters,
improving their accuracy and reliability.

API Standards and Flowmeter Selection

API measurement standards and volume correction tables
API (American Petroleum Institute) measurement standards and volume correction
tables are critical tools used in the oil and gas industry for ensuring the accuracy of volume
measurements, particularly in custody transfer and fiscal metering. These standards define the
methods and practices for measuring hydrocarbons and correcting volumes to account for
varying conditions, such as temperature and pressure.
1. API Measurement Standards Overview

A. Purpose of API Standards

The API measurement standards are developed to:

 Provide consistent and accurate methods for measuring crude oil, refined products,
and natural gas.
 Ensure fairness in transactions, particularly for custody transfer, where precise
measurements determine the amount of product exchanged.
 Establish guidelines for volume correction based on temperature, pressure, and other
physical variables affecting hydrocarbon properties.

B. Key API Standards for Liquid Hydrocarbons

1. API MPMS Chapter 11.1: Temperature and Pressure Volume Correction Factors
for Crude Oil and Refined Products.
o This standard provides the method for correcting liquid volumes based on
changes in temperature and pressure.
2. API MPMS Chapter 12.1: Calculation of Static Petroleum Quantities.
o Defines the methods for calculating static quantities of liquid hydrocarbons in
tanks and pipelines.
3. API MPMS Chapter 21.1: Flow Measurement Using Electronic Metering Systems.
o Focuses on the electronic flow measurement of liquids, addressing custody
transfer accuracy.
4. API MPMS Chapter 3.1B: Standard Practice for Manual Gauging of Petroleum
and Petroleum Products.
o Covers manual measurement techniques using devices like gauge tapes for
determining tank volumes.

C. API MPMS Series (Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards)

 The API MPMS series comprises several chapters that provide detailed
methodologies for measuring different petroleum products and operational conditions,
ensuring uniform practices across the industry.

2. Volume Correction Factors (VCFs)

A. Definition

Volume correction factors (VCFs) adjust the measured volume of a liquid hydrocarbon to a
standard reference condition, typically 60°F (15°C) for temperature and a fixed pressure
value. Hydrocarbons expand or contract depending on temperature and pressure, and without
correction, the measured volume can lead to errors in custody transfer or inventory
management.
B. Importance of VCF

 Temperature and Pressure Effects: Changes in temperature cause oil and refined
products to expand (at higher temperatures) or contract (at lower temperatures).
Similarly, pressure changes can compress or expand the volume of a liquid.
 Standard Reference Conditions: The VCF allows the volume to be corrected back
to standardized conditions (usually 60°F and 1 atmosphere of pressure), ensuring fair
and accurate transactions.

C. Key Variables in Volume Correction

1. Temperature: The volume of hydrocarbons expands as temperature increases, and

contracts as it decreases.
2. Pressure: Pressure has a lesser effect compared to temperature but is critical in high-
pressure systems, particularly for natural gas and LPG.
3. Density/Specific Gravity: The density of the liquid at the operating temperature and
pressure must be known to apply the correct VCF.

3. API Volume Correction Tables

API provides several tables (often called Volume Correction Tables or VCF Tables) for
adjusting the measured volume of hydrocarbons based on temperature and pressure. These
tables are designed for different types of liquids, including crude oil, refined products, and
LPG. They are used in conjunction with specific gravity or density measurements to calculate
corrected volumes.

A. Common API Tables

1. Table 5A and 5B: Temperature correction factors for crude oil and refined products.
o Table 5A is used when the density is measured in API gravity.
o Table 5B is used when the density is measured in specific gravity or relative
density.
2. Table 6A and 6B: Combined temperature and pressure correction factors for crude
oil and refined products.
o Corrects volumes for both temperature and pressure deviations from standard
conditions.
3. Table 23: Volume correction factors for natural gas liquids (NGLs) and liquefied
petroleum gases (LPG).
4. Table 24: Volume correction factors for LNG and other cryogenic liquids.

B. How to Use Volume Correction Tables

1. Measure Volume at Operating Conditions: Take an initial volume measurement

using appropriate metering equipment.
2. Determine Temperature and Pressure: Record the temperature and pressure at
which the volume measurement was taken.
3. Find the Correction Factor: Use the appropriate API table to find the VCF based on
the liquid type, temperature, pressure, and density.
4. Calculate Corrected Volume: Apply the VCF to the measured volume to get the
corrected volume at standard conditions (typically 60°F and 1 atmosphere).
4. Applications of API Standards and Volume Correction

A. Custody Transfer

In custody transfer operations, accurate measurement of hydrocarbon volumes is critical to

determine the quantity of product being sold or purchased. Volume correction ensures that
both the seller and the buyer are working with standardized, accurate volumes, preventing
disputes and financial discrepancies.

B. Production Allocation

For multi-well oil and gas fields, where hydrocarbons are produced from multiple sources,
API standards help allocate production volumes accurately to different stakeholders. Volume
correction accounts for temperature and pressure variations across wells.

C. Inventory Management

API volume correction standards are used to accurately track and report the amount of oil or
gas stored in tanks, pipelines, and terminals. This prevents errors due to temperature-related
volume expansion or contraction.

D. Flow Meter Calibration

API standards are used to ensure that flow meters, whether for crude oil or refined products,
are accurately calibrated to provide correct flow measurements. Flow meters often require
periodic recalibration to account for changes in temperature and pressure.

5. Dynamic vs. Static Volume Corrections

A. Static Volume Corrections

 Applied when measuring liquid hydrocarbons in storage tanks or in pipelines where

the fluid is static or near-static.
 Use of API tables is common, where the temperature and pressure are relatively
constant or averaged over a period of time.

B. Dynamic Volume Corrections

 Applied in flowing conditions, such as pipeline transport or during custody transfer

through metering stations.
  Flow meters dynamically calculate volume correction factors in real-time, adjusting
for temperature and pressure as the product moves through the system.

Temperature compensation
A. Manual Temperature Compensation

In some systems, operators manually apply the correction factor after measuring the flow.
This method is often used in simpler systems where the fluid temperature remains relatively
constant, or where high precision is not critical.

B. Automatic Temperature Compensation

Modern flow measurement systems often have built-in temperature sensors and
compensation algorithms that automatically adjust the volume or mass flow based on real-
time temperature data. Some examples include:

1. Coriolis Mass Flow Meters: These meters measure mass flow directly, and although
they are not directly affected by temperature changes, they use temperature sensors to
provide accurate density and flow measurements.
2. Ultrasonic Flow Meters: Multi-path ultrasonic flow meters often have built-in
temperature compensation to adjust for the effects of fluid temperature on the speed
of sound and overall flow measurement.
3. Differential Pressure (DP) Flow Meters: In DP meters (e.g., orifice plates),
temperature compensation adjusts the calculated flow rate, as the differential pressure
changes with temperature, affecting the density of the fluid.

4. Applications of Temperature Compensation

A. Custody Transfer and Fiscal Metering

In custody transfer operations, temperature compensation ensures accurate and fair

measurement of hydrocarbons being traded. Fluids, particularly crude oil and refined
products, are often measured at different temperatures, and without temperature
compensation, the measured volume could vary, leading to financial losses.

B. Process Control

Accurate flow measurement is critical in process industries, where fluid temperature may
fluctuate due to environmental factors or process conditions. Temperature compensation
helps maintain consistent flow control and product quality, avoiding under- or over-delivery
of materials.

C. Pipeline Transportation

In pipelines, where fluids like natural gas and crude oil are transported over long distances,
temperature changes along the pipeline can cause significant variations in fluid volume.
Temperature compensation helps account for these changes, ensuring accurate flow
measurement and inventory tracking.
5. Examples of Temperature Compensation in Flow Meters

A. Orifice Plate with DP Transmitter

In an orifice plate flow meter system, the pressure differential across the plate is measured to
determine flow rate. Temperature affects the fluid density, and therefore, a temperature
transmitter is used in conjunction with the DP transmitter to provide real-time compensation
and accurate flow measurement.

B. Coriolis Flow Meter

A Coriolis flow meter directly measures mass flow, which is independent of temperature.
However, the meter still requires temperature compensation to provide accurate density
readings and ensure the correct volume is calculated.

C. Ultrasonic Flow Meter

An ultrasonic flow meter uses the speed of sound in the fluid to determine the flow rate. The
speed of sound is temperature-dependent, so temperature sensors are included to adjust the
flow calculation based on the current fluid temperature.

6. API Standards for Temperature Compensation

Several API standards provide guidelines on how to apply temperature compensation in

different flow measurement applications:

 API MPMS Chapter 11: This chapter defines temperature and pressure correction
factors for petroleum liquids.
 API MPMS Chapter 21: Addresses flow measurement using electronic metering
systems and includes guidelines for real-time temperature and pressure compensation
in custody transfer.

SG versus API gravity

Specific Gravity (SG) and API Gravity are two commonly used methods to express the
density of crude oil and other hydrocarbons, helping determine their quality and market
value. While both describe a fluid's density relative to water, they are calculated differently
and are used in distinct contexts in the petroleum industry.

1. Specific Gravity (SG)

A. Definition
B. Interpretation

 SG > 1: The fluid is denser than water (e.g., heavy crude oil, some refined products).
 SG < 1: The fluid is less dense than water (e.g., light crude oil, gasoline).

C. Usage

Specific gravity is widely used in industries to compare fluid densities. It is important in

refining, transportation, and determining the type of crude oil or petroleum product. For
example:

 Heavy crude oils have a high SG (> 1).

 Light crude oils have a lower SG (< 1).

2. API Gravity

A. Definition

API gravity is a measure specifically developed by the American Petroleum Institute (API)
to express the relative density of petroleum liquids in comparison to water. Unlike SG, API
gravity is inversely related to density; higher API gravity means lower density, and vice
versa. API gravity is calculated as:

Where:

 SG is the specific gravity of the liquid at 60°F.

B. Interpretation

 API gravity > 10: The fluid is lighter than water (it will float on water).
 API gravity < 10: The fluid is heavier than water (it will sink in water).
 API gravity = 10: The fluid has the same density as water.
C. Classification of Crude Oil Based on API Gravity

1. Light Crude Oil: API gravity above 31.1° (SG < ~0.87). This oil is valuable and
easier to refine into products like gasoline.
2. Medium Crude Oil: API gravity between 22.3° and 31.1° (SG ~0.87 to 0.92).
3. Heavy Crude Oil: API gravity between 10.0° and 22.3° (SG ~0.92 to 1.00). Heavy
crude is denser and more challenging to refine.
4. Extra Heavy Crude Oil: API gravity less than 10.0° (SG > 1.00). These oils are very
dense and require more complex processing techniques.

4. Practical Applications

A. Crude Oil Classification

In the petroleum industry, API gravity is a more common metric for classifying crude oil.
Lighter crude oils (higher API) are more desirable because they contain a higher proportion
of valuable hydrocarbons like gasoline and diesel.

B. Refining

Specific gravity and API gravity are used to optimize refining processes, determine the
potential yield of refined products, and assess the quality of crude oil and petroleum products.
Lighter oils generally require less energy and cost to refine.

C. Custody Transfer and Trading

During custody transfer or trade agreements, crude oil quality is often specified in terms of
API gravity. Contracts and financial exchanges are based on this measurement, as it directly
affects the price of the oil.

Net volume calculation exercise

Net volume calculation is essential in custody transfer and inventory management, especially
in the oil and gas industry. The net volume is the volume of fluid corrected to standard
temperature and pressure (often 60°F and 1 atmosphere). This correction ensures consistent
measurement, regardless of temperature or pressure changes during measurement.

Let's walk through an example to calculate the net volume of crude oil.

Example Problem

You are tasked with determining the net volume of 10,000 barrels (bbl) of crude oil
measured at 80°F. The specific gravity of the crude oil at 60°F is 0.85. The goal is to correct
this measured volume to standard conditions (60°F and 1 atmosphere) using a temperature
correction factor (CT) from the ASTM Petroleum Measurement Tables.

Steps for Net Volume Calculation

1. Determine the Temperature Correction Factor (CT)

The temperature correction factor (CT) is based on the specific gravity (SG) of the fluid
and the temperature at which the volume was measured. This factor corrects the volume of
crude oil measured at a certain temperature to the equivalent volume at the standard
temperature (60°F).

For this exercise, we will use an approximate CT value of 0.991 for crude oil with a specific
gravity of 0.85 at 80°F, derived from the API MPMS Chapter 11.1 Volume Correction
Factors table.

2. Calculate the Net Volume

The net volume can be calculated using the formula:

Summary of Calculation Steps

1. Start with the gross volume at the measured temperature.

2. Determine the specific gravity of the crude oil at 60°F.
3. Find the temperature correction factor (CT) using ASTM/API tables (for this
example, we used 0.991).
 4. Calculate the net volume by multiplying the gross volume by the temperature
correction factor.

This process ensures that temperature-induced volume variations are accounted for, providing
a consistent and fair measurement.

Guidelines for flowmeter selection

Selecting the right flowmeter for a particular application is critical to ensure accurate and
reliable flow measurement. The choice of flowmeter depends on several factors such as the
type of fluid, the required accuracy, installation constraints, and process conditions. Below
are key guidelines to consider when selecting a flowmeter.

1. Type of Fluid

 Gas, Liquid, or Steam: Different types of flowmeters are designed for specific fluid
states.
o Gas Flow: Use thermal mass, differential pressure (DP) meters (e.g., orifice
plates), vortex flowmeters, or ultrasonic meters.
o Liquid Flow: Consider positive displacement, turbine, Coriolis, ultrasonic, or
electromagnetic (mag) flowmeters.
o Steam Flow: Typically, DP meters (orifice, venturi), vortex flowmeters, and
steam-specific Coriolis meters are used.
 Fluid Properties:
o Viscosity: For highly viscous fluids, positive displacement or Coriolis meters
may be more suitable than turbine meters, which are best for low-viscosity
liquids.
o Clean vs. Dirty Fluids: Electromagnetic or ultrasonic flowmeters handle dirty
fluids better, while turbine meters perform better with clean fluids.

2. Accuracy and Precision Requirements

 High Accuracy: If the application requires highly accurate measurements (e.g.,

custody transfer), use Coriolis, ultrasonic, or turbine meters, which typically offer
accuracy better than ±0.1%.
 Moderate Accuracy: DP flowmeters (orifice plates) and vortex flowmeters provide
moderate accuracy (±0.5–1%).
 Low Accuracy: For less critical applications, rotameters or variable area flowmeters
might suffice.

3. Flow Rate Range

 Consider the flowmeter's operating range and ensure it can measure both the
maximum and minimum flow rates accurately.
o Turbine meters have a limited range but are very accurate within that range.
o Coriolis meters handle a wide range of flow rates, especially for low flow
applications.
o Orifice plates and DP meters can handle high flows but might not be
accurate at low flow rates.
4. Installation Environment

 Pipe Size: Ensure the flowmeter is compatible with the pipe size, as some meters
require straight pipe sections upstream and downstream to ensure accurate readings
(e.g., DP meters, ultrasonic meters).
 Orientation: Some flowmeters (e.g., magnetic, ultrasonic) can be installed in any
orientation, while others (e.g., turbine, vortex) may have specific installation
requirements.
 Space Constraints: In cramped or difficult-to-reach areas, consider compact meters
like Coriolis or clamp-on ultrasonic meters.

5. Process Conditions

 Pressure and Temperature:

o Ensure the flowmeter can withstand the operating pressure and temperature.
For extreme conditions, select meters designed for high pressures and
temperatures (e.g., vortex or DP meters).
 Pressure Drop: Some flowmeters, such as orifice plates and turbines, create a
significant pressure drop. For low-pressure systems, select meters with minimal
pressure drop (e.g., ultrasonic or magnetic flowmeters).

6. Corrosiveness of the Fluid

 Material Compatibility: The flowmeter’s materials (sensor, housing) must be

resistant to corrosion if the fluid is aggressive or abrasive.
o Corrosive Fluids: Magnetic or Coriolis meters with non-metallic liners (e.g.,
PTFE) or corrosion-resistant alloys may be required.
o Non-corrosive Fluids: Standard materials such as stainless steel may suffice.

7. Cost and Maintenance

 Initial Cost: Consider the flowmeter’s initial cost and compare it to the required
accuracy and reliability.
o High-cost Flowmeters: Coriolis and ultrasonic meters have higher upfront
costs but offer exceptional accuracy and low maintenance.
o Lower-cost Flowmeters: Orifice plates, variable area (rotameters), and DP
meters are lower in cost but may require more frequent calibration and
maintenance.
 Maintenance Requirements:
o Low Maintenance: Magnetic and ultrasonic meters have no moving parts and
are ideal for applications where maintenance access is difficult.
o High Maintenance: Turbine and positive displacement meters require regular
maintenance due to moving parts that wear over time.

8. Regulatory and Industry Standards

  Compliance: Ensure the flowmeter complies with industry standards and regulations
(e.g., ISO, AGA, OIML, API) relevant to your industry. Custody transfer
applications, for example, often require meters certified by standards such as API or
ISO.

9. Environmental Factors

 Hazardous Locations: For applications in explosive or hazardous environments,

select flowmeters with appropriate certifications (e.g., ATEX, IECEx).
 Temperature Variations: Some meters (like ultrasonic) are less sensitive to
temperature changes, making them suitable for outdoor installations where ambient
conditions vary widely.

10. Signal Output and Integration with Control Systems

 Digital Output: Flowmeters like Coriolis or ultrasonic offer advanced digital outputs
and diagnostics, which are beneficial for integrating with modern control systems
(SCADA, PLCs).
 Analog Output: Simpler flowmeters (rotameters, turbine) may only offer analog
output (4-20 mA) or mechanical readouts, which may limit their application in digital
control systems.