UNIT 5

Memory Organization: Types and capacity of memory, Memory Hierarchy, Cache Memory, Virtual
Memory.

What is Computer Memory?

Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information and instructions. It is
a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. It can store both the input and output can be stored here.

Characteristics of Computer Memory

 It is faster computer memory as compared to secondary memory.

 It is semiconductor memories.
 It is usually a volatile memory, and main memory of the computer.
 A computer system cannot run without primary memory.

How Does Computer Memory Work?

When you open a program, it is loaded from secondary memory into primary memory. Because there
are various types of memory and storage, an example would be moving a program from a solid-state drive
(SSD) to RAM. Because primary storage is accessed more quickly, the opened software can connect with the
computer’s processor more quickly. The primary memory is readily accessible from temporary memory slots
or other storage sites.

Memory is volatile, which means that data is only kept temporarily in memory. Data saved in volatile
memory is automatically destroyed when a computing device is turned off. When you save a file, it is sent to
secondary memory for storage.

There are various kinds of memory accessible. It’s operation will depend upon the type of primary
memory used. but normally, semiconductor-based memory is more related with memory. Semiconductor
memory made up of IC (integrated circuits) with silicon-based metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS)
transistors.

Types of Computer Memory

In general, computer memory is of three types:

 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
 Cache memory

Now we discuss each type of memory one by one in detail:

1. Primary Memory
It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store data and programs or
instructions during computer operations. Primary memory is a segment of computer memory that can be
accessed directly by the processor. In a hierarchy of memory, primary memory has access time less than
secondary memory and greater than cache memory. Generally, primary memory has a storage capacity lesser
than secondary memory and greater than cache memory.It uses semiconductor technology and hence is
commonly called semiconductor memory.
Need of primary memory
In order to enhance the efficiency of the system, memory is organized in such a way that access time for the
ready process is minimized. The following approach is followed to minimize access time for the ready
process.
 All programs, files, and data are stored in secondary storage that is larger and hence has greater
access time.
 Secondary memory can not be accessed directly by a CPU or processor.
 In order, to execute any process operating system loads the process in primary memory which is
smaller and can be accessed directly by the CPU.
 Since only those processes are loaded in primary memory which is ready to be executed, the CPU can
access those processes efficiently and this optimizes the performance of the system.

Primary Memory Example

Primary Memory examples are RAM, ROM, cache, PROM, EPROM, registers, etc.

Classification of Primary Memory

Primary memory can be broadly classified into two parts:
1. Read-Only Memory (ROM)
2. Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory stores information based on the
power supply. If the power supply fails/ interrupted/stopped, all the data and information on this memory
will be lost. RAM is used for booting up or start the computer. It temporarily stores programs/data which has
to be executed by the processor.

Any process in the system which needs to be executed is loaded in RAM which is processed by the CPU as
per Instructions in the program. Like if we click on applications like Browser, firstly browser code will be
loaded by the Operating system into the RAM after which the CPU will execute and open up the Browser.
RAM is of two types:

 S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this memory are capable of
retaining their state as long as the power is applied. It has less access time and hence, it is
faster. Static RAM or SRAM keeps the data as long as power is supplied to the system.
SRAM uses Sequential circuits like a flip-flop to store 1 bit and hence need not be
periodically refreshed. SRAM is expensive and hence only used where speed is the utmost
priority.

 D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and stores the data as a
charge on the capacitors. They contain thousands of memory cells. It needs refreshing of
charge on capacitor after a few milliseconds. This memory is slower than S RAM. Dynamic
RAM or D RAM needs to periodically refresh in a few milliseconds to retain data. D RAM is
made up of capacitors and transistors and electric charge leaks from capacitors and DRAM
needs to be charged periodically. DRAM is widely used in home PCs and servers as it is
cheaper than SRAM.
RAM chips are available in a variety of sizes and are used as per the system requirement. The following
block diagram demonstrates the chip interconnection in a 128 * 8 RAM chip.

o A
DRAM SRAM
1. Constructed of tiny capacitors that leak Constructed of circuits similar to D flip
electricity. flops.
2. Requires a recharge every few milliseconds Holds its contents as long as power ia
to maintain its data. available.
3. Inexpensive. Expensive.
4. Slower than SRAM. Faster than DRAM.
5. Can store many bits per chip. Can not store many bits per chip.
6. Uses less power. Uses more power.
7. Generates less heat. Generates more heat.
8. Used for main memory. Used for cache.
128 * 8 RAM chip has a memory capacity of 128 words of eight bits (one byte) per word. This
requires a 7-bit address and an 8-bit bidirectional data bus.
o The 8-bit bidirectional data bus allows the transfer of data either from memory to CPU during
a read operation or from CPU to memory during a write operation.
o The read and write inputs specify the memory operation, and the two chip select (CS) control inputs
are for enabling the chip only when the microprocessor selects it.
o The bidirectional data bus is constructed using three-state buffers.
o The output generated by three-state buffers can be placed in one of the three possible states which
include a signal equivalent to logic 1, a signal equal to logic 0, or a high-impedance state.

Note: The logic 1 and 0 are standard digital signals whereas the high-impedance state behaves like an open
circuit, which means that the output does not carry a signal and has no logic significance.
The following function table specifies the operations of a 128 * 8 RAM chip.
From the functional table, we can conclude that the unit is in operation only when CS1 = 1 and CS2 = 0. The
bar on top of the second select variable indicates that this input is enabled when it is equal to 0.

 ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory stores information
even when there is a power supply failed/ interrupted/stopped. ROM is used to store information that
is used to operate the system. As its name refers to read-only memory, we can only read the programs
and data that is stored on it. ROM includes those programs which run on booting of the
system (known as a bootstrap program that initializes OS) along with data like algorithm required by
OS. Anything stored in ROM cannot be altered or changed. It contains some electronic fuses that can
be programmed for a piece of specific information. The information stored in the ROM in binary
format. It is also known as permanent memory. ROM is of four types:

 MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed collection of data or

instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-cost ROM that works in
this way.

 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is modifiable once
by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the required
contents into the PROM. Its content can’t be erased once written.

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an extension to

PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly
40 minutes.

 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): Here the written
contents can be erased electrically. You can delete and reprogram EEPROM up to 10,000
times. Erasing and programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds).
Any area in an EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.

ROM chips are also available in a variety of sizes and are also used as per the system requirement. The
following block diagram demonstrates the chip interconnection in a 512 * 8 ROM chip.
 o A ROM chip has a similar organization as a RAM chip. However, a ROM can only perform read
operation; the data bus can only operate in an output mode.

o The 9-bit address lines in the ROM chip specify any one of the 512 bytes stored in it.

o The value for chip select 1 and chip select 2 must be 1 and 0 for the unit to operate. Otherwise, the
data bus is said to be in a high-impedance state.

2. Secondary Memory

It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory and used to store a
large amount of data or information. The data or information stored in secondary memory is permanent, and
it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot access secondary memory directly. The data/information
from the auxiliary memory is first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 It is a slow memory but reusable.

 It is a reliable and non-volatile memory.
 It is cheaper than primary memory.
 The storage capacity of secondary memory is large.
 A computer system can run without secondary memory.
 In secondary memory, data is stored permanently even when the power is off.

Types of Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is of two types:
 1. Fixed storage
2. Removable storage
1. Fixed storage
In secondary memory, a fixed storage is an internal media device that is used to store data in a computer
system. Fixed storage is generally known as fixed disk drives or hard drives. Generally, the data of the
computer system is stored in a built-in fixed storage device. Fixed storage does not mean that you can not
remove them from the computer system, you can remove the fixed storage device for repairing, for the
upgrade, or for maintenance, etc. with the help of an expert or engineer.
Types of fixed storage:
Following are the types of fixed storage:
 Internal flash memory (rare)
 SSD (solid-state disk)
 Hard disk drives (HDD)
2. Removable storage
In secondary memory, removable storage is an external media device that is used to store data in a computer
system. Removable storage is generally known as disks drives or external drives. It is a storage device that
can be inserted or removed from the computer according to our requirements. We can easily remove them
from the computer system while the computer system is running. Removable storage devices are portable so
we can easily transfer data from one computer to another. Also, removable storage devices provide the fast
data transfer rates associated with storage area networks (SANs).
Types of Removable Storage:
 Optical discs (like CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, etc.)
 Memory cards
 Floppy disks
 Magnetic tapes
 Disk packs
 Paper storage (like punched tapes, punched cards, etc.)

Following are the commonly used secondary memory devices are:

1. Floppy Disk: A floppy disk consists of a magnetic disc in a square plastic case. It is used to store data and
to transfer data from one device to another device. Floppy disks are available in two sizes (a) Size: 3.5
inches, the Storage capacity of 1.44 MB (b) Size: 5.25 inches, the Storage capacity of 1.2 MB. To use a
floppy disk, our computer needs to have a floppy disk drive. This storage device becomes obsolete now and
has been replaced by CDs, DVDs, and flash drives.

2. Compact Disc: A Compact Disc (CD) is a commonly used secondary storage device. It contains tracks
and sectors on its surface. Its shape is circular and is made up of polycarbonate plastic. The storage capacity
of CD is up to 700 MB of data. A CD may also be called a CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory),
in this computers can read the data present in a CD-ROM, but cannot write new data onto it. For a CD-ROM,
we require a CD-ROM. CD is of two types:
 CD-R (compact disc recordable): Once the data has been written onto it cannot be erased, it can
only be read.
 CD-RW (compact disc rewritable): It is a special type of CD in which data can be erased and
rewritten as many times as we want. It is also called an erasable CD.

3. Digital Versatile Disc: A Digital Versatile Disc also known as DVD it is looks just like a CD, but the
storage capacity is greater compared to CD, it stores up to 4.7 GB of data. DVD-ROM drive is needed to use
DVD on a computer. The video files, like movies or video recordings, etc., are generally stored on DVD and
you can run DVD using the DVD player. DVD is of three types:
 DVD-ROM(Digital Versatile Disc Readonly): In DVD-ROM the manufacturer writes the data in it
and the user can only read that data, cannot write new data in it. For example movie DVD, movie
 DVD is already written by the manufacturer we can only watch the movie but we cannot write new
data into it.
 DVD-R(Digital Versatile Disc Recordable): In DVD-R you can write the data but only one time.
Once the data has been written onto it cannot be erased, it can only be read.
 DVD-RW(Digital Versatile Disc Rewritable and Erasable): It is a special type of DVD in which
data can be erased and rewritten as many times as we want. It is also called an erasable DVD.
4. Blu-ray Disc: A Blu-ray disc looks just like a CD or a DVD but it can store data or information up to 25
GB data. If you want to use a Blu-ray disc, you need a Blu-ray reader. The name Blu-ray is derived from the
technology that is used to read the disc ‘Blu’ from the blue-violet laser and ‘ray’ from an optical ray.

5. Hard Disk: A hard disk is a part of a unit called a hard disk drive. It is used to storing a large amount of
data. Hard disks or hard disk drives come in different storage capacities.(like 256 GB, 500 GB, 1 TB, and 2
TB, etc.). It is created using the collection of discs known as platters. The platters are placed one below the
other. They are coated with magnetic material. Each platter consists of a number of invisible circles and each
circle having the same centre called tracks. Hard disk is of two types (i) Internal hard disk (ii) External hard
disk.

6. Flash Drive: A flash drive or pen drive comes in various storage capacities, such as 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8
GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, up to 1 TB. A flash drive is used to transfer and store data. To use a flash drive,
we need to plug it into a USB port on a computer. As a flash drive is easy to use and compact in size,
Nowadays it is very popular.

7. Solid-state disk: It is also known as SDD. It is a non-volatile storage device that is used to store and
access data. It is faster, does noiseless operations(because it does not contain any moving parts like the hard
disk), consumes less power, etc. It is a great replacement for standard hard drives in computers and laptops if
the price is low and it is also suitable for tablets, notebooks, etc because they do not require large storage.

8. SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used in portable devices like mobile phones,
cameras, etc., to store data. It is available in different sizes like 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8 GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64
GB, etc. To view the data stored in the SD card you can remove them from the device and insert them into a
computer with help of a card reader. The data stores in the SD card is stored in memory chips(present in the
SD Card) and it does not contain any moving parts like the hard disk.

Advantages:

1. Large storage capacity: Secondary memory devices typically have a much larger storage capacity
than primary memory, allowing users to store large amounts of data and programs.
2. Non-volatile storage: Data stored on secondary memory devices is typically non-volatile, meaning it
can be retained even when the computer is turned off.
3. Portability: Many secondary memory devices are portable, making it easy to transfer data between
computers or devices.
4. Cost-effective: Secondary memory devices are generally more cost-effective than primary memory.

Disadvantages:

1. Slower access times: Accessing data from secondary memory devices typically takes longer than
accessing data from primary memory.
2. Mechanical failures: Some types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives, are prone
to mechanical failures that can result in data loss.
3. Limited lifespan: Secondary memory devices have a limited lifespan, and can only withstand a
certain number of read and write cycles before they fail.
 4. Data corruption: Data stored on secondary memory devices can become corrupted due to factors
such as electromagnetic interference, viruses, or physical damage.

Memory Hierarchy:
In the Computer System Design, Memory Hierarchy is an enhancement to organize the memory such that it
can minimize the access time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed based on a program behavior known as
locality of references. The figure below clearly demonstrates the different levels of the memory hierarchy.

Why Memory Hierarchy is Required in the System?

Memory Hierarchy is one of the most required things in Computer Memory as it helps in optimizing the
memory available in the computer. There are multiple levels present in the memory, each one having a
different size, different cost, etc. Some types of memory like cache, and main memory are faster as compared
to other types of memory but they are having a little less size and are also costly whereas some memory has a
little higher storage value, but they are a little slower. Accessing of data is not similar in all types of memory,
some have faster access whereas some have slower access.

Apart from the basic classifications of a memory unit, the memory hierarchy consists all of the storage
devices available in a computer system ranging from the slow but high-capacity auxiliary memory to
relatively faster main memory.

Types of Memory Hierarchy

This Memory Hierarchy Design is divided into 2 main types:

 External Memory or Secondary Memory: Comprising of Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, and
Magnetic Tape i.e. peripheral storage devices which are accessible by the processor via an I/O
Module.
 Internal Memory or Primary Memory: Comprising of Main Memory, Cache Memory & CPU
registers. This is directly accessible by the processor.
 Memory Hierarchy Design

Memory Hierarchy Design

1. Registers
Registers are small, high-speed memory units located in the CPU. They are used to store the most frequently
used data and instructions. Registers have the fastest access time and the smallest storage capacity, typically
ranging from 16 to 64 bits.

In Computer Architecture, the Registers are very fast computer memory which are used to execute programs
and operations efficiently. This does by giving access to commonly used values, i.e., the values which are in
the point of operation/execution at that time. So, for this purpose, there are several different classes of CPU
registers which works in coordination with the computer memory to run operations efficiently.
The sole purpose of having register is fast retrieval of data for processing by CPU. Though accessing
instructions from RAM is comparatively faster with hard drive, it still isn’t enough for CPU. For even better
processing, there are memories in CPU which can get data from RAM which are about to be executed
beforehand. After registers we have cache memory, which are faster but less faster than registers.

These are classified as given below.

 Accumulator:
This is the most frequently used register used to store data taken from memory. It is in different
numbers in different microprocessors.
  Memory Address Registers (MAR):
It holds the address of the location to be accessed from memory. MAR and MDR (Memory Data
Register) together facilitate the communication of the CPU and the main memory.

 Memory Data Registers (MDR):

It contains data to be written into or to be read out from the addressed location.

 General Purpose Registers:

These are numbered as R0, R1, R2….Rn-1, and used to store temporary data during any ongoing
operation. Its content can be accessed by assembly programming. Modern CPU architectures tends to
use more GPR so that register-to-register addressing can be used more, which is comparatively faster
than other addressing modes.

 Program Counter (PC):

Program Counter (PC) is used to keep the track of execution of the program. It contains the memory
address of the next instruction to be fetched. PC points to the address of the next instruction to be
fetched from the main memory when the previous instruction has been successfully completed.
Program Counter (PC) also functions to count the number of instructions. The incrementation of PC
depends on the type of architecture being used. If we are using 32-bit architecture, the PC gets
incremented by 4 every time to fetch the next instruction.

 Instruction Register (IR):

The IR holds the instruction which is just about to be executed. The instruction from PC is fetched
and stored in IR. As soon as the instruction in placed in IR, the CPU starts executing the instruction
and the PC points to the next instruction to be executed.

 Condition code register ( CCR ) :

Condition code registers contain different flags that indicate the status of any operation.for instance
lets suppose an operation caused creation of a negative result or zero, then these flags are set high
accordingly.and the flags are
1. Carry C: Set to 1 if an add operation produces a carry or a subtract operation produces a borrow;
otherwise cleared to 0.
2. Overflow V: Useful only during operations on signed integers.
3. Zero Z: Set to 1 if the result is 0, otherwise cleared to 0.
4. Negate N: Meaningful only in signed number operations. Set to 1 if a negative result is produced.
5. Extend X: Functions as a carry for multiple precision arithmetic operations.
These are generally decided by ALU.
2. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a small, fast memory unit located close to the CPU. It stores frequently used data and
instructions that have been recently accessed from the main memory. Cache memory is designed to minimize
the time it takes to access data by providing the CPU with quick access to frequently used data.

A faster and smaller segment of memory whose access time is as close as registers are known as Cache
memory. In a hierarchy of memory, cache memory has access time lesser than primary memory. Generally,
cache memory is very small and hence is used as a buffer.

Data in primary memory can be accessed faster than secondary memory but still, access times of primary
memory are generally in a few microseconds, whereas the CPU is capable of performing operations in
nanoseconds. Due to the time lag between accessing data and acting on data performance of the system
decreases as the CPU is not utilized properly, it may remain idle for some time. In order to minimize this
time gap new segment of memory is Introduced known as Cache Memory.
Role of Cache Memory
The role of cache memory is explained below,
 Cache memory plays a crucial role in computer systems.
 It provide faster access.
 It acts buffer between CPU and main memory(RAM).
 Primary role of it is to reduce average time taken to access data, thereby improving overall system
performance.

Benefits of Cache Memory

Various benefits of the cache memory are,
1. Faster access: Faster than main memory. It resides closer to CPU , typically on same chip or in close
proximity. Cache stores subset of data and instruction.
2. Reducing memory latency: Memory access latency refers to time taken for processes to retrieve
data from memory. Caches are designed to exploit principle of locality.
3. Lowering bus traffic: Accessing data from main memory involves transferring it over system bus.
Bus is shared resource and excessive traffic can lead to congestion and slower data transfers. By
utilizing cache memory , processor can reduce frequency of accessing main memory resulting in less
bus traffic and improves system efficiency.
4. Increasing effective CPU utilization: Cache memory allows CPU to operate at a higher effective
speed. CPU can spend more time executing instruction rather than waiting for memory access. This
leads to better utilization of CPU’s processing capabilities and higher overall system performance.
5. Enhancing system scalability: Cache memory helps improve system scalability by reducing impact
of memory latency on overall system performance.

In order to understand the working of cache we must understand few points:

 Cache memory is faster, they can be accessed very fast
 Cache memory is smaller, a large amount of data cannot be stored
Whenever CPU needs any data it searches for corresponding data in the cache (fast process) if data is found,
it processes the data according to instructions, however, if data is not found in the cache CPU search for that
data in primary memory(slower process) and loads it into the cache. This ensures frequently accessed data
are always found in the cache and hence minimizes the time required to access the data.
Cache Performance
 On searching in the cache if data is found, a cache hit has occurred.
 On searching in the cache if data is not found, a cache miss has occurred.
Performance of cache is measured by the number of cache hits to the number of searches. This
parameter of measuring performance is known as the Hit Ratio.
Hit ratio=(Number of cache hits)/(Number of searches)

Types of Cache Memory

L1 or Level 1 Cache: It is the first level of cache memory that is present inside the processor. It is present in
a small amount inside every core of the processor separately. The size of this memory ranges from 2KB to
64 KB.
L2 or Level 2 Cache: It is the second level of cache memory that may present inside or outside the CPU. If
not present inside the core, It can be shared between two cores depending upon the architecture and is
connected to a processor with the high-speed bus. The size of memory ranges from 256 KB to 512 KB.
L3 or Level 3 Cache: It is the third level of cache memory that is present outside the CPU and is shared by
all the cores of the CPU. Some high processors may have this cache. This cache is used to increase the
performance of the L2 and L1 cache. The size of this memory ranges from 1 MB to 8MB.

Cache vs RAM
Although Cache and RAM both are used to increase the performance of the system there exists a lot of
differences in which they operate to increase the efficiency of the system.
RAM Cache

RAM is larger in size compared to cache. Memory ranges The cache is smaller in size. Memory ranges
from 1MB to 16GB from 2KB to a few MB generally.

It stores data that is currently processed by the processor. It holds frequently accessed data.

OS interacts with secondary memory to get data to be OS interacts with primary memory to get data
stored in Primary Memory or RAM to be stored in Cache.

It is ensured that data in RAM are loaded before access to CPU searches for data in Cache, if not found
the CPU. This eliminates RAM miss never. cache miss occur.

3. Main Memory
Main memory, also known as RAM (Random Access Memory), is the primary memory of a computer
system. It has a larger storage capacity than cache memory, but it is slower. Main memory is used to store
data and instructions that are currently in use by the CPU.
Types of Main Memory
 Static RAM: Static RAM stores the binary information in flip flops and information remains valid
until power is supplied. It has a faster access time and is used in implementing cache memory.
 Dynamic RAM: It stores the binary information as a charge on the capacitor. It requires refreshing
circuitry to maintain the charge on the capacitors after a few milliseconds. It contains more memory
cells per unit area as compared to SRAM.

4. Secondary Storage
Secondary storage, such as hard disk drives (HDD) and solid-state drives (SSD), is a non-volatile memory
unit that has a larger storage capacity than main memory. It is used to store data and instructions that are not
currently in use by the CPU. Secondary storage has the slowest access time and is typically the least
expensive type of memory in the memory hierarchy.

Hard Disk Drives(HDD) and Solid State Drives(SSD) both are data storage devices. Whereas HDDs are
more traditional storage mechanisms, SSDs are newer and more sophisticated. The primary distinction
between HDD and SSD is in how data is stored and accessed. Let’s look at the fundamental distinctions
between HDD and SSD.

What is a Hard Disk Drive(HDD)?

An HDD consists of a spinning disk (platter) coated with a magnetic material and a read/write head that
reads and writes data on the disk’s surface. The read/write head moves back and forth across the spinning
disk to access different parts of the data stored on the disk. HDDs have been around for decades and are the
more traditional type of storage device.

Features of Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

 High storage capacity: HDDs offer a high storage capacity, with some models capable of storing up
to 16TB of data.
 Lower cost: HDDs are generally less expensive than SSDs, making them a more cost-effective option
for storing large amounts of data.
 Larger size: HDDs are physically larger and heavier than SSDs, making them less suitable for
portable devices.
  Slower performance: HDDs are slower than SSDs when it comes to data access and transfer speeds.
 Mechanical parts: HDDs contain mechanical details that can wear out over time, making them less
durable than SSDs.

What is Solid State Drive(SSD)?

SSDs, on the other hand, use flash memory to store data instead of a spinning disk. SSDs have no moving
parts, making them much faster, more durable, and less susceptible to mechanical failure than HDDs.

Features of Solid State Drive (SSD)

 Fast performance: SSDs offer much faster data access and transfer speeds than HDDs.
 Compact size: SSDs are smaller and lighter than HDDs, making them an ideal option for use in
portable devices such as laptops and tablets.
 Lower power consumption: SSDs consume less power than HDDs, making them more energy-
efficient.
 Higher cost: SSDs are generally more expensive than HDDs, making them a less cost-effective
option for storing large amounts of data.
 No mechanical parts: SSDs have no moving parts, making them more durable and less susceptible to
mechanical failure than HDDs.

Similarities Between HDD and SDD

 HDD and SDD both are used to store data.

 Hard Disk Drive (HDD) and Solid State Drive (SSD) are used to boot the system.
 Hard Disk Drive (HDD) and Solid State Drive (SSD) Both are I/O devices.

Differences Between Hard Disk Drive (HDD) and Solid State Drive (SSD)

HDD SSD

HDD stands for Hard Disk Drive. SSD stands for Solid State Drive.

HDD contains moving mechanical parts, like the SSD does not contains, mechanical parts, only
arm. electronical parts like ICs.

HDD has longer R/W time. SSD has shorter R/W time..

HDD has higher latency. SSD has lower latency.

HDD supports fewer I/O operations per second. SSD supports more I/O operations per second.

HDD is heavier in weight. SSD is lighter in weight.

HDD is larger in size. SSD is more compact in size.

In HDD the data transfer is sequential. In SSD the data transfer is random access.
 HDD SSD

HDD is less reliable due to possibility of SSD is more reliable.

mechanical failure, like head crash and
susceptibility to strong magnets.

HDD is cheaper per unit storage. SSD is costlier per unit storage.

HDD is older and more traditional. SSD is newer to use.

HDD can produce noise due to mechanical

SSD does not produces noise.
movements.

The availability of SSD is limited in terms of variety

The availability of HDD in a variety of capacities.
of storage capacities as compared to HDD.

It is more likely to breakdown after more uses

It is less likely to breakdown as compared to HDD
because of the magnetic platters and moving
because of no moving parts.
mechanical parts.

HDD drives are more established and traditional. A more recent kind of storage drive is an SSD.

SSDs are comparatively less reliable for long-term

HDDs are more reliable for long-term storage. storage due to data leaks that can occur if kept
unpowered for more than a year.

The data accessing speed is slower as compared to The data accessing speed is much higher as
SSD. compared to HDD.

HDD has fragmentation that’s why The SSD does not have fragmentation. The performance
performance suffers because of fragmentation. does not suffer because of fragmentation.

SSDs are suitable for

HDDs are suitable for
 Fast data retrieval
 Extensive storage
 Laptop or desktop because of low power
 Long-term storage
consumption and size.

5. Magnetic Disk
Magnetic Disks are simply circular plates that are fabricated with either a metal or a plastic or a magnetized
material. The Magnetic disks work at a high speed inside the computer and these are frequently used.

A magnetic Disk is a type of secondary memory that is a flat disc covered with a magnetic coating to hold
information. It is used to store various programs and files. The polarized information in one direction is
represented by 1, and vice versa. The direction is indicated by 0.
Magnetic disks are less expensive than RAM and can store large amounts of data, but the data access rate is
slower than main memory because of secondary memory. Data can be modified or can be deleted easily in
the magnetic disk memory. It also allows random access to data.

Figure – Magnetic Disk

There are various advantages and disadvantages of magnetic disk memory.
Advantages:-

1.These are economical memory

2. Easy and direct access to data is possible.
3. It can store large amounts of data.
4. It has a better data transfer rate than magnetic tapes.
5. It has less prone to corruption of data as compared to tapes.

Disadvantages:-

1. These are less expensive than RAM but more expensive than magnetic tape memories.
2. It needs a clean and dust-free environment to store.
3. These are not suitable for sequential access.

6. Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Tape is simply a magnetic recording device that is covered with a plastic film. It is generally used
for the backup of data. In the case of a magnetic tape, the access time for a computer is a little slower and
therefore, it requires some amount of time for accessing the strip.
Magnetic drums, magnetic tape and magnetic disks are types of magnetic memory. These memories use
property for magnetic memory.

In magnetic tape only one side of the ribbon is used for storing data. It is sequential memory which contains
thin plastic ribbon to store data and coated by magnetic oxide. Data read/write speed is slower because of
sequential access. It is highly reliable which requires magnetic tape drive writing and reading data.
 Figure Magnetic Tape Memory

The width of the ribbon varies from 4mm to 1 Inch and it has storage capacity 100 MB to 200 GB.
Advantages :
1. These are inexpensive, i.e., low cost memories.
2. It provides backup or archival storage.
3. It can be used for large files.
4. It can be used for copying from disk files.
5. It is a reusable memory.
6. It is compact and easy to store on racks.
Disadvantages :
1. Sequential access is the disadvantage, means it does not allow access randomly or directly.
2. It requires caring to store, i.e., vulnerable humidity, dust free, and suitable environment.
3. It stored data cannot be easily updated or modified, i.e., difficult to make updates on data.
Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy
 Capacity: It is the global volume of information the memory can store. As we move from top to
bottom in the Hierarchy, the capacity increases.
 Access Time: It is the time interval between the read/write request and the availability of the data. As
we move from top to bottom in the Hierarchy, the access time increases.
 Performance: Earlier when the computer system was designed without a Memory Hierarchy design,
the speed gap increased between the CPU registers and Main Memory due to a large difference in
access time. This results in lower performance of the system and thus, enhancement was required.
This enhancement was made in the form of Memory Hierarchy Design because of which the
performance of the system increases. One of the most significant ways to increase system
performance is minimizing how far down the memory hierarchy one has to go to manipulate data.
 Cost Per Bit: As we move from bottom to top in the Hierarchy, the cost per bit increases i.e. Internal
Memory is costlier than External Memory.
Advantages of Memory Hierarchy
 It helps in removing some destruction, and managing the memory in a better way.
 It helps in spreading the data all over the computer system.
 It saves the consumer’s price and time.
System-Supported Memory Standards
According to the memory Hierarchy, the system-supported memory standards are defined below:
Level 1 2 3 4

Secondary
Name Register Cache Main Memory
Memory

Size <1 KB less than 16 MB <16GB >100 GB

DRAM (capacitor
Implementation Multi-ports On-chip/SRAM Magnetic
memory)

Access Time 0.25ns to 0.5ns 0.5 to 25ns 80ns to 250ns 50 lakh ns

20000 to 1 lakh
Bandwidth 5000 to 15000 1000 to 5000 20 to 150
MB

Operating
Managed by Compiler Hardware Operating System
System

Backing from Main from Secondary

From cache from End User
Mechanism Memory Memory

Virtual memory:

Virtual Memory (VM) Concept is similar to the Concept of Cache Memory. While Cache solves the speed
up requirements in memory access by CPU, Virtual Memory solves the Main Memory (MM) Capacity
requirements with a mapping association to Secondary Memory i.e Hard Disk. Both Cache and Virtual
Memory are based on the Principle of Locality of Reference. Virtual Memory provides an illusion of
unlimited memory being available to the Processes/ Programmers.

In a VM implementation, a process looks at the resources with a logical view and the CPU looks at it from a
Physical or real view of resources. Every program or process begins with its starting address as ‘0’ ( Logical
view). However, there is only one real '0' address in Main Memory. Further, at any instant, many processes
reside in Main Memory (Physical view). A Memory Management Hardware provides the mapping between
logical and physical view.

VM is hardware implementation and assisted by OS’s Memory Management Task. The basic facts of VM
are:

 All memory references by a process are all logical and dynamically translated by hardware into
physical.
 There is no need for the whole program code or data to be present in Physical memory and neither the
data or program need to be present in contiguous locations of Physical Main Memory. Similarly,
every process may also be broken up into pieces and loaded as necessitated.
 The storage in secondary memory need not be contiguous. (Remember your single file may be stored
in different sectors of the disk, which you may observe while doing defrag).
 However, the Logical view is contiguous. Rest of the views are transparent to the user.
 Figure Storage views

Virtual Memory Design factors

Any VM design has to address the following factors choosing the options available.

 Type of implementation – Segmentation, Paging, Segmentation with Paging

 Address Translation – Logical to Physical
 Address Translation Type – Static or Dynamic Translation
o Static Translation – Few simpler programs are loaded once and may be executed many times.
During the lifetime of these programs, nothing much changes and hence the Address Space
can be fixed.
o Dynamic Translation – Complex user programs and System programs use a stack, queue,
pointers, etc., which require growing spaces at run time. Space is allotted as the requirement
comes up. In such cases, Dynamic Address Translation is used. In this chapter, we discuss
only Dynamic Address Translation Methods.
 A Page/Segment table to be maintained as to what is available in MM
 Identification of the Information in MM as a Hit or Page / Segment Fault
 Page/Segment Fault handling Mechanism
 Protection of pages/ Segments in Memory and violation identification
 Allocation / Replacement Strategy for Page/Segment in MM –Same as Cache Memory. FIFO, LIFO,
LRU and Random are few examples.

Segmentation

A Segment is a logically related contiguous allocation of words in MM. Segments vary in length. A segment
corresponds to logical entities like a Program, stack, data, etc. A word in a segment is addressed by
specifying the base address of the segment and the offset within the segment as in figure.
 Figure Example of allotted Segments in Main Memory

A segment table is required to be maintained with the details of those segments in MM and their
status. Figure shows typical entries in a segment table. A segment table resides in the OS area in MM. The
sharable part of a segment, i.e. with other programs/processes are created as a separate segment and the
access rights for the segment is set accordingly. Presence bit indicates that the segment is available in MM.
The Change bit indicates that the content of the segment has been changed after it was loaded in MM and is
not a copy of the Disk version. Please recall in Multilevel hierarchical memory, the lower level has to be in
coherence with the immediately higher level. The address translation in segmentation implementation is as
shown in figure. The virtual address generated by the program is required to be converted into a physical
address in MM. The segment table help achieve this translation.
 Figure Address Translation in Segmentation Mechanism
Generally, a Segment size coincides with the natural size of the program/data. Although this is an advantage
on many occasions, there are two problems to be addressed in this regard.

1. Identifying a contiguous area in MM for the required segment size is a complex process.
2. As we see chunks are identified and allotted as per requirement. There is a possibility that there may
be some gaps of memory in small chunks which are too small to be allotted for a new segment. At the
same time, the sum of such gaps may become huge enough to be considered as undesirable. These
gaps are called external fragmentation. External fragments are cleared by a special process
like Compaction by OS.

Paging

Paging is another implementation of Virtual Memory. The logical storage is marked as Pages of some size,
say 4KB. The MM is viewed and numbered as page frames. Each page frame equals the size of Pages. The
Pages from the logical view are fitted into the empty Page Frames in MM. This is synonymous to placing a
book in a bookshelf. Also, the concept is similar to cache blocks and their placement. Figure explains how
two program’s pages are fitted in Page Frames in MM. As you see, any page can get placed into any
available Page Frame. Unallotted Page Frames are shown in white.
 Figure
Virtual Memory Pages to MM Page Frame Mapping

This mapping is necessary to be maintained in a Page Table. The mapping is used during address translation.
Typically a page table contains virtual page address, corresponding physical frame number where the page is
stored, Presence bit, Change bit and Access rights ( Refer figure). This Page table is referred to check
whether the desired Page is available in the MM. The Page Table resides in a part of MM. Thus every
Memory access requested by CPU will refer memory twice – once to the page table and second time to get
the data from accessed location. This is called the Address Translation Process and is detailed in figure.

Figure: Typical Page Table Entry

Virtual Page Page Frame Presence bit Change bit Access
Address Number P C Rights
A 0004000 1 0 R, X
B 0645728 0 1 R, W, X
D 0010234 1 1 R, W, X
F 0060216 0 0 R
 Figure. Virtual Memory Address Translation in Paging Implementation
Page size determination is an important factor to obtain Maximum Page Hits and Minimum Thrashing.
Thrashing is very costly in VM as it means getting data from Disk, which is 1000 times likely to be slower
than MM.

In the Paging Mechanism, Page Frames of fixed size are allotted. There is a possibility that some of the
pages may have contents less than the page size, as we have in our printed books. This causes unutilized
space (fragment) in a page frame. By no means, this unutilized space is usable for any other purpose. Since
these fragments are inside the allotted Page Frame, it is called Internal Fragmentation.

Additional Activities in Address Translation

During address translation, few more activities happen as listed below but are not shown in figures , for
simplicity of understanding.

 In segmentation, the length of the segment mentioned in the segment table is compared with the
offset. If the Offset exceeds it is a Segment Violation and an error is generated to this effect.
 The control bits are meant to be used during Address Translation.
o The presence bit is verified to know that the requested segment/page is available in the MM.
o The Change bit indicates that the segment/page in main memory is not a true copy of that in
Disk; if this segment/page is a candidate for replacement, it is to be written onto the disk
before replacement. This logic is part of the Address Translation mechanism.
o Segment/Page access rights are checked to verify any access violation. Ex: one with Read-
only attribute cannot be allowed access for WRITE, or so.
 The requested Segment/Page not in the respective Table, it means, it is not available in MM and a
Segment/Page Fault is generated. Subsequently what happens is,
o The OS takes over to READ the segment/page from DISK.
o A Segment needs to be allotted from the available free space in MM. If Paging, an empty
Page frame need to be identified.
 o In case, the free space/Page frame is unavailable, Page Replacement algorithm plays the role
to identify the candidate Segment/Page Frame.
o The Data from Disk is written on to the MM
o The Segment /Page Table is updated with the necessary information that a new block is
available in MM

Translation Look-aside Buffer (TLB)

Every Virtual address Translation requires two memory references,

 once to read the segment/page table and

 once more to read the requested memory word.

TLB is a hardware functionality designed to speedup Page Table lookup by reducing one extra access to
MM. A TLB is a fully associative cache of the Page Table. The entries in TLB correspond to the recently
used translations. TLB is sometimes referred to as address cache. TLB is part of the Memory Management
Unit (MMU) and MMU is present in the CPU block.

TLB entries are similar to that of Page Table. With the inclusion of TLB, every virtual address is initially
checked in TLB for address translation. If it is a TLB Miss, then the page table in MM is looked into. Thus, a
TLB Miss does not cause Page fault. Page fault will be generated only if it is a miss in the Page Table too but
not otherwise. Since TLB is an associative address cache in CPU, TLB hit provides the fastest possible
address translation; Next best is the page hit in Page Table; worst is the page fault.

Having discussed the various individual Address translation options, it is to be understood that in a
Multilevel Hierarchical Memory all the functional structures coexist. i.e. TLB, Page Tables, Segment Tables,
Cache (Multiple Levels), Main Memory and Disk. Page Tables can be many and many levels too, in which
case, few Page tables may reside in Disk. In this scenario, what is the hierarchy of verification of tables for
address translation and data service to the CPU? Refer figure.

Figure Address
Translation sequence in a Multilevel Memory with TLB
Address Translation verification sequence starts from the lowest level i.e.

TLB -> Segment / Page Table Level 1 -> Segment / Page Table Level n

Once the address is translated into a physical address, then the data is serviced to CPU. Three possibilities
exist depending on where the data is.

Case 1 - TLB or PT hit and also Cache Hit - Data returned from CPU to Cache

Case 2 - TLB or PT hit and Cache Miss - Data returned from MM to CPU and Cache

Case 3 - Page Fault - Data from disk loaded into a segment / page frame in MM; MM returns data to CPU
and Cache

It is simple, in case of Page hit either Cache or MM provides the Data to CPU readily. The protocol between
Cache and MM exists intact. If it is a Segment/Page fault, then the routine is handled by OS to load the
required data into Main Memory. In this case, data is not in the cache too. Therefore, while returning data to
CPU, the cache is updated treating it as a case of Cache Miss.

Advantages of Virtual Memory

 Generality - ability to run programs that are larger than the size of physical memory.
 Storage management - allocation/deallocation either by Segmentation or Paging mechanisms.
 Protection - regions of the address space in MM can selectively be marked as Read Only, Execute,..
 Flexibility - portions of a program can be placed anywhere in Main Memory without relocation
 Storage efficiency -retain only the most important portions of the program in memory
 Concurrent I/O -execute other processes while loading/dumping page. This increases the overall
performance
 Expandability - Programs/processes can grow in virtual address space.
 Seamless and better Performance for users.