Reproduction in flowering


12 plants
12.1 Types of reproduction
1 Reproduction refers to the production of offspring (後代) by organisms to ensure the
continuation of a species. There are two types of reproduction: asexual reproduction
(無性生殖) and sexual reproduction (有性生殖).
2 Differences between asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction:

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

Number of parents One Usually two

(a male and a female)

Fusion of gametes No Yes

Type of cell division involved Mitotic cell division Meiotic and mitotic cell
divisions

Genetic make-up of offspring Identical to the parent Different from the parents

12.2 Asexual reproduction

1 Binary fission (二分裂) in bacteria and vegetative propagation (營養繁殖) in flowering plants
are two forms of asexual reproduction.
2 In binary fission, a parent cell divides into two daughter cells by mitotic cell division:
1 Binary fission starts
with a parent cell.

chromosome cell membrane cell wall

(a circular DNA
molecule)
2 The chromosome
replicates and the
cell grows.

3 The cell membrane

grows inwards and
a new cell wall is
formed to divide the
cell into two parts.

4 Two daughter cells

are formed. They are
genetically identical
and similar in size.

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3 Since the number of bacteria doubles with each binary fission, the growth of a bacterial
population occurs in an exponential (指數式) manner under favourable conditions.
4 In vegetative propagation, the vegetative parts (e.g. leaves, stems or roots) of flowering
plants develop into new plants. They act as storage organs with a lot of stored food that allows
the plant to survive under adverse conditions (惡劣的環境).
5 The general process of vegetative propagation:

 In winter

 aerial part dies

food store in
bud (芽) storage organ
new storage
remains
organ
dormant (休眠)
old storage
organs

 new plants are formed  In spring

new aerial shoot
(地上莖) develops

 green leaves
develop
storage organ storage organ
dries up provides food
for growth

Key: adventitious roots

(不定根) absorb
winter water and minerals
next growing season
flow of food
 In winter, aerial part of the plant dies. The underground storage organ remains dormant.
 When conditions become favourable, new aerial shoots develop from the buds. The
storage organ provides food for the growth of the shoots.
 Adventitious roots are formed. They absorb water and minerals from the soil. Green leaves
start to develop.
 The shoots develop into new plants. The storage organ dries up as food is used up.
 The plants carry out photosynthesis to make food. Some food is transported to and stored
in the new storage organs.

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6 Examples of storage organs involved in vegetative propagation:

Storage organ Description Example

Stem tuber (塊莖) Swollen end of underground stem with ‘eyes’ on Potato
the surface; each ‘eye’ consists of a bud and a
scar of scale leaf (鱗葉)

Bulb (鱗莖) Short vertical underground stem with layers of Onion, tulip (鬱金香),
fleshy (肉質的) scale leaves that store food lily (百合), daffodil (水仙)

Corm (球莖) Short vertical underground stem with fleshy Gladiolus (劍蘭),
stem tissues that store food; surrounded by water chestnut (馬蹄),
protective scale leaves taro (芋)

Rhizome (根莖) Horizontal underground stem Ginger (薑), lotus (蓮)

7 Artificial vegetative propagation (人工營養繁殖) is commonly used in agriculture and

horticulture (園藝) because it can produce plants with desired characteristics quickly.
Cutting (插枝) is one of the methods of artificial vegetative propagation.

12.3 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

1 The general structure of a flower:
Longitudinal section Transverse section
stigma
(柱頭)
style
carpel
(花柱)
(心皮)
ovary
(子房)
anther
(花藥)
stamen
filament (雄蕊)
(花絲)
petal
receptacle (花瓣)
(花托) (make up the corolla (花冠))

flower stalk sepal

(萼片)
(make up the calyx (花萼))

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2 Different parts of a flower and their functions:

Floral part Function

Calyx - Protects the inner parts of the flower bud

(consists of sepals)

Corolla - May be brightly coloured and scented to attract insects

(consists of petals) - May have nectaries (蜜腺) to produce nectar (花蜜) for insects to feed on
- May have nectar guides (蜜源標記) to lead insects towards the nectaries

Carpel - Carpel is the female reproductive part

(consists of stigma, - Stigma receives pollen grains
style and ovary) - Style supports the stigma
- Ovary produces ovules (胚珠) which contain ova (卵)

Stamen - Stamen is the male reproductive part

(consists of anther - Anther produces pollen grains (花粉粒) which carry male gametes
and filament) - Filament supports the anther at its tip

3 The general structure of a carpel and an anther:

stigma top part of
anther cut
away
style

ovary wall
pollen
sac (花粉囊)
integuments pollen
ovary (珠被) grains
ovum ovule
funicle (珠柄) filament
micropyle (珠孔)
Carpel Anther

4 Pollination (傳粉) is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of flowers.
5 Some flowering plants are pollinated by insects. Their flowers are called insect-pollinated
flowers (蟲媒花). Some flowering plants are pollinated by wind. Their flowers are called
wind-pollinated flowers (風媒花).

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6 Differences in the characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers and wind-pollinated flowers:

Insect-pollinated flower Wind-pollinated flower

 


 
mouthpart of 
 the bee

 Petals - Large and brightly coloured - Reduced, green or dull-coloured
- Nectar guides and scent are often - Scent is often absent
present

 Anthers - Located inside the flower - Hang outside the flower

- Firmly attached to the filaments - Loosely attached to the filaments

 Pollen - Smaller in number - Larger in number

grains - Larger and heavier; rough and sticky - Small and lighter; smooth and dry

 Stigmas - Located inside the flower - Hang outside the flower

- Broad and sticky - Long and feathery

 Nectaries - Present - Absent

7 Comparison between self-pollination (自花傳粉) and cross-pollination (異花傳粉):

Self-pollination Cross-pollination

Meaning Transfer of pollen grains to the stigma Transfer of pollen grains to the stigma
of the same flower or to the stigma of of a flower on a different individual
another flower on the same of the same species
individual plant

Genetic variation Smaller Greater as the offspring are produced

in offspring from gametes of two different
parents

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8 Events leading to fertilization (受精) in the carpel of a flower:
germinating
pollen grains 
stigma

pollen tube
style
male gamete


ovary female gamete

(ovum)


micropyle ovule

 Pollen grains land on the stigma of the same species.

 Sugary solution on the stigma stimulates germination (萌發) of the pollen grain. A pollen
tube (花粉管) develops from the pollen grain.

 The pollen tube secretes enzymes to digest the tissues of the style. This allows the pollen tube
to grow down the style and then into the ovary. The pollen tube carries the male gamete
towards the ovule in the ovary.

 The pollen tube grows through the micropyle. The tip of the pollen tube bursts to release the
male gamete into the ovule.

 The male gamete fuses with the female gamete. Fertilization takes place and a zygote is
formed.

9 Fate of various floral parts after fertilization:

Floral part After fertilization

Ovary Fruit

Ovary wall Fruit wall

Ovule Seed

Female gamete (ovum) Embryo

Integuments Seed coat

Sepals, petals, stamens, stigma, style Wither and fall off

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10 Fruits protect the seeds and help disperse (散播) them.
11 Importance of seed and fruit dispersal:
- It allows the species to colonize (佔據) new areas.
- It reduces overcrowding and competition for resources among daughter and parent plants.
- It allows the daughter plants to escape from pests and diseases associated with the parent
plants.
12 Seeds and fruits can be dispersed by wind, water, animals and ‘explosion’.

12.4 Significance of asexual and sexual reproduction

Advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction in flowering plants:

Asexual reproduction by Sexual reproduction by producing

vegetative propagation flowers and seeds

Advantages Disadvantages
- Desirable characteristics can be retained in - Desirable characteristics may not be retained
the offspring in the offspring
- No external agents are required - External agents are required for pollination,
seed and fruit dispersal
- Allows rapid growth in population under - Occurs at a relatively slow rate because
favourable conditions pollination and fertilization are involved

Disadvantages Advantages
- Offspring show no genetic variations. As a - Offspring show genetic variations which
result, the species is less adapted to changes may help the species adapt to changes in the
in the environment environment
- Overcrowding and competition of resources - Seeds can be dispersed over long distances
occur among offspring and parents to reduce overcrowding and competition of
resources among offspring and parents
- Transmission of diseases from parents to - Transmission of diseases from parents to
offspring is more likely offspring is less likely

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