UNI

T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
INTRODUCTI ONTOCOMPUTERS. Anal oguedat aiscont inuousi nnat ure.I tmustber epresentedinphy si
cal nat
ure
Defi
niti
onofaComput er: i
nor dert obepr ocessedbyt hecomput er.
 AComput erisanel ectronicdevi
cet hatoperates(works)underthecontrolof ­ Anal oguedat aisobt ainedbymeasur ement .E.g.Pr essure,Temper ature,
programsst oredini t
sownmemor yuni t
. Humi dity,Lengt hsorcur rents, etc
 Acomput erisanel ectroni
cmachi nethatprocessesr awdat at
ogi veinf
ormation ­ Theout putisinf orm ofsmoot hgr aphsf rom whi cht hedatacanber ead.
asout put. Dat aPr ocessi ng:
 Anel ectronicdev i
cet hatacceptsdat aasinput,andtransformsitunderthe  I tisthepr ocessofcol lecti
ngal litemsofdat atoget her&conv ert
ingthem i nto
inf
luenceofasetofspeci ali
nstr
uct i
onscall
edPr ograms, topr
oducet hedesired informat i
on.
output(ref err
edt oasI nformati
on).  Pr ocessi ngr eferstot hewayt hedat aismani pulated(orhandl ed)tot urnitinto
Acomput eraut omat i
call
yaccept sdata&i nstr
uctionsasinputf r
om anInputdevice, informat i
on.
stor
est hem tempor ari
lyinitsmemor y,thenprocessest hatdataaccordi
ngt othe Thepr ocessi ngmayi nv ol
v ecalculation, compar i
sonoranyot herlogi
ct opr oducet he
i
nstructi
onsgi v en,andf i
nall
yt r
ansfer
st heprocesseddat a(Inf
ormation)toanOut put requiredr esul t
.Thepr ocessingoft hedat ausual l
yr esult
si nsomemeani ngful
devi
ce. i
nfor mat i
onbei ngpr oduced.
I
nf ormat ion:
Explanati
ons; I
nf ormat ioni sthedat awhi chhasbeenr efined,summar ized&mani pulatedi ntheway
Acomput erisdescribedasanel ectronicdev i
cebecause; itismadeupofel ectr
onic youwanti t,orintoamor emeani ngf ul formf ordeci sion-making.
component sandusesel ect
ri
cener gy( suchasel ectr
ici
ty)tooper at
e. ­Thei nformat ionmustbeaccur ate, t
imel y ,complet eandr el
ev ant.
Acomput erhasani nternalmemor y,whi chstoresdat a&i nst r
uctionst
empor ari
ly Compar i
sonbet weenDat aandI nformat ion.
awaiti
ngprocessing,andev enhol dst hei nt
ermedi ateresult(informati
on)beforeiti
s
communi catedtother ecipi
ent
st hrought heOut putdev i
ces. Dat
a I
nformation
Itworksont hedatausi ngtheinstructionsissued, meanst hat,thecomputercannot 1. Unpr
ocessed(
raw)f
act
sorf
igur
es. 1. I
tist heend-
productofdata
doanyusef uljobonitsown.I tcanonl ywor kaspert hesetofi nstr
uct
ionsissued. processing(
processeddata)
Acomput erwil
lacceptdat ainonef orm andpr oducei ti
nanot herform.Thedat ais 2. Notarr
anged. 2. Arrangedint
oameani ngfulfor
mat.
normallyheldwithint
hecomput erasi tisbei ngprocessed. 3. Doesnothavemuchmeaningt
othe 3. Mor emeaningfult
otheuser .
user
. 4. Canbeusedt omakedeci sions.
Program: 4. Cannotbeusedf
ordeci
si
on-maki
ng.
 Acomput erProgram isasetofr elat
edi nstructionswr i
tteninthelanguageofthe
comput er&isusedt omaket hecomput erper form aspecifi
ct ask(or,
todir
ectthe Charact eri
stics/Feat uresofaComput er.
comput eronwhatt odo) . Before20thcent ury
,mosti nf ormationwaspr ocessedmanual l
yorbyuseofsi mple
 Asetofr elat
edi nstr
uctionswhi chspeci fyhowt hedat aistobepr ocessed. machi nes.Today ,mi l
li
onsofpeopl ear eusingcomput ersinof ficesandathomet o
 Asetofi nstr
uctionsusedt oguideacomput ert hroughapr ocess. produceandst orealltypesofi nformat i
on
Data: Thef oll
owi ngar esomeoft heattri
but esthatmakecomput erswi del
yaccepted&used
Dataisacol lecti
onofr awf acts,f
iguresori nstructionst hatdonothav emuchmeani ng i
nt heday -
to-dayactivit
iesinoursoci et y:
totheuser . 1. Speed.
­Dat amaybei nform ofnumber s,
al phabets/l
et tersorsy mbols,andcanbepr ocessed Comput ersoper ateatv eryhighspeeds, andcanper f
or mv erymanyf uncti
ons
topr oduceinformat i
on. withinav er
yshor ttime.
Theycanper f
orm amuchcompl icatedtaskmuchf asterthanahumanbei ng.
TYPESOFDATA. Thespeedofacomput eri smeasur edinFr act i
onsofseconds.
Ther
earet wot ypes/f
ormsofdat a: Mill
isecond-at housandt hofasecond( 10-3)
Micr osecond -ami ll
ionthofasecond( 10-6)
a). Di
gital (
discret
e)data: Nanosecond -at housandmi l
li
ont hofasecond( 10-9)
Di
gitaldataisdiscr
eteinnat ur
e.I
tmustber epr
esent
edinfor
m ofnumber
s, Picosecond-ami ll
ionmi l
l
ionthofasecond( -
12
10 )
al
phabet sorsy mbolsfori
ttobeprocessedbyacomputer. Thespeedofacomput eri susuallyli
nkedt ot het echnol ogyusedt obuil
dit.
-Digitaldataisobtai
nedbycounting.E.
g.1,2,3… a). 1stGener ationcomput ers(1940s&ear l
y1950s) .
b).Anal ogue( conti
nuous)data: Thecomput erswer ebuiltusingVacuum t ubes, andt hespeedwasmeasur ed

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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
i
nMi l
liseconds.E. g.,acomput ercoul dper for m 5, 000addi t
ions&300 ­Acomput ercanst oredat a&i nst
ructionsf orlateruse,andi tcanpr oduce/
mul tipl i
cat ionspersecond. retri
evet hisdat awhenr equiredsot hatt heusercanmakeuseofi t.
b) . 2ndGener ationcomput ers( 1950s&ear l
y1960s) . ­Dat astoredi nacomput ercanbepr ot ectedf rom unauthor i
zedi ndivi
duals
Wer ebui ltusi ngTr ansi stor s.Thei roper ationspeedsi ncreased&wer e throught heuseofpasswor ds.
measur edi nMi cr oseconds.E. g.,acomput ercoul dper form 1mi l
lion 6. Dili
gence:
addi tionspersecond. Unlikehumanbei ngs,acomput ercanwor kcont i
nuousl ywithoutget t
ingtiredor
c) . Mi d1960s. bored.Ev eni fithast odoami ll
ioncalcul ations, i
twi l
ldothel astonewi tht he
Int egr at edCi r
cui t( IC) ,whi chcombi nedano.oft ransi stors&di odest oget her samespeedandaccur acyast hef i
rstone.
onasi liconchi p, wasdev eloped. 7. Automat ion:
Thespeedi ncreasedt ot ensofmi l
lionsofoper at i
onspersecond. Acomput eri sanaut omat i
cdev ice.Thi si sbecause, oncegivent heinstructions,
it
i
sgui dedbyt hesei nst
r ucti
onsandcancar r yoni t
sj obautomat icall
yuntili
ti s
d) .I n1971, Intel Cor por ationpr oducedav er ysmal l
,si ngl echi pcal l
eda
compl ete.
Mi cr opr ocessor ,whi chcoul dper form al ltheoper ationsont hecomput er’s
Itcanalsoper f
orm av ariet
yofj obsasl ongast her eisawel l-
definedprocedur e.
processor .Thechi pcont ainedabout1, 600t ransi st ors.
8. Versatil
e:
e) .Today’ smi cr oprocessor sar ev erypower f
ul ,cheaper&mor er eli
ableduet o Acomput ercanbeusedi ndi f
ferentplacest oper form alargenumberofdi ffer
ent
theuseoft heLar geScal eI ntegr ation( LSI )&Ver yLar gescal eIntegr at i
on j
obsdependi ngont hei nstructi
onsf edt oi t.
(VLSI )t echnol ogi es, whichcombi neshundr edsoft housandsofcomponent s 9. Imposi t
ionofaf ormal appr oacht owor ki ngmet hods:
ont oasi ngl echi p.Thecomput erspeedsar enowmeasur edi n Becauseacomput ercanonl ywor kwi thast ri
ctsetofi nstr
uct i
ons, i
tidenti
f i
esand
Nanoseconds&Pi coseconds. i
mposesr i
gidrulesf ordeal i
ngwi t
ht hedat ai tisgivent oprocess.
2. Accur acy :
Unl i
kehumanbei ngs, comput ersar ev eryaccur ate, i.
e.,theynev ermakemi st akes. Rev
iewQuest ions.
Acomput ercanwor kf orv erylongper iodswi thoutgoi ngwr ong.Howev er,whenan 1. Whati saComput er?
erroroccur st hecomput erhasanumberofi n-bui l
t, self-checki ngf eaturesi nt hei r 2. Whyi sacomput erreferredtoasanel ect
ronicdevi
ce?
elect roni ccomponent st hatcandet ect&cor rectsucher rors. 3. Definethef ol l
owi ngter msasusedi ncomput ersci
ence.
Usual l
yer rorsar ecommi ttedbyt heuser sent eringt hedat at ot hecomput er, thus a) . Dat a.
thesay ingGar bagei nGar bageOut( GIGO) .
Thi smeanst hat ,i
fy ouent erincor r
ectdat aint ot hecomput erandhav ei t b) . Progr ams.
processed, thecomput erwi llgivey oumi sleadi ngi nf ormat ion. c) . Dat apr ocessi ng.
3. Rel i
abi lity. d) .I nf
or mat ion.
Thecomput ercanber el i
edupont opr oducet hecor rectansweri fitisgi vent he 4. (a) Br ieflyexpl ainthet wof ormsofdat a.
cor r
ecti nst ruct ions&suppl iedwi ththecor r
ectdat a. (b) Gi veTHREEdi fferencesbet weenDat aandInformat
ion.
Ther ef or e, ify ouwantt oaddt wonumber s, butbymi stake, gi vethecomput era 5. Thespeedofacomput erismeasur edi n______
____
_ .
“Mul tiply ”i nst ruct ion, thecomput erwi llnotknowt haty oui ntendedt o“ADD” ; itwi l
l 6. Whatdoest het erm GI GOst andsf or?
mul tiplyt henumber ssuppl i
ed. 7. Listandexpl ai
n4sal ientfeatures/pr opert
iesofacomput er.
Simi larly ,ify ougi v eitt heADDi nst ruction, butmakeami st akeandent eran 8. ListFIVEadv antagesofacomput erizedsy st
em overamanual sy
stem.
i
ncor rectdat a; letsay ,14&83i nst eadof14&38; thent hecomput erwi l
l produce
the“ wr ong”answer97i nst eadof52.Howev er,not et hat , 97i s‘cor r
ect’basedon
thedat asuppl ied.
Ther ef or e, theout putpr oducedbyacomput erisonl yasr eliableast heinst ruct ions PARTSOFACOMPUTER.
used&t hedat asuppl ied. Acomput eri
smadeupofacol lect
ionofdi
ffer
entcomponent
sthatar
eint
erconnect
ed
4. Consi stency : toget
herinordertoworkasasi
ngleenti
ty.
Comput er sar eusual lyconsi stent .Thi smeanst hat ,givent hesamedat a&t he AComput erconsistsoft
hef
oll
owingpart
s/devi
ces:-
samei nst ruct ions, theywi llproducet hesameanswerev er yt i
met hatpar ti
cul ar 1.TheSyst em Uni t
.
processi sr epeat ed. 2.I nputdevi
ces.
5. Stor age:
­Acomput eri scapabl eofst oringl argeamount sofdat aori nstructionsi nav ery 3.Out putdevices.
smal l space. 4.St oragedevices.
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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
System Uni t. canunder stand.
Thisist hecasi ng(unit)thathousesel ectroniccomponent ssuchast br
he‘ ain’ofthe Exampl es:Key boar d, Mouse, Joy st i
cks, Lightpen, Scanner ,
et c.
comput ercal ledtheCent ralprocessi ngUni t(CPU)andst oragedevices. TheKey boar d
Thecomponent sintheSy stem unitinclude: - Thekey boar dl ooksl ikeat y pewr iter, andhasl etter s,number sandot herkey st hrough
 Cent ralProcessingUni t(CPU) ,whi chisal soref
erredtoasPr ocessor. whi chdat aisent eredi ntot hecomput er.
 Mot herboar d. Toent erdat a&i nst r
uct ionsi nt ot hecomput er,theusershoul dpr esst her equir edkey s.
 Powersuppl yunit. TheMouse
 Memor yst oragedev ices. Iti
sapoi ntingdev icet hatenabl est heusert oissuei nstructionst othecomput erby
 Di skdr ives,whichar eusedt ost ore, r
ecor dandreaddat a. cont r
ol l
ingaspeci almousepoi nt erdi splay edont hescr een.
TYPESOFSYSTEM UNI TS Out putdev ices.
Therear et womakesofSy stem units: Out putdev icesar eusedt ogi vet heendr esul tsofdat at hatwasent eredi ntot he
a) Towerst ylesystem uni t comput er .
Thissy stem unitismadet ostandal one.Theyar edesignedtobepl acedont he ­Theyext ract /di ssemi nat epr ocesseddat a( infor mat ion)f rom t hecomput er.
fl
oor . ­Theyacceptdat af rom pr ocessi ngdev ices&conv ertitintohumansensi blef orm.
­Towerst yleunitshav emor espacef orexpansionthanthetypicaldesktopunits. Exampl es:Scr eens( Moni tor s) ,Pr inter s,Gr aphpl ot ters,Speaker s,etc
b) Deskt opsy stem units TheMoni tor
Deskt opuni tsli
eont hedeskwi tht hemoni t
orresti
ngont opoft hesystem unit. Iti
sat elev i
si onl ikescr eenusedf ordi splay i
ngout put .Wheny out ypeal etteror
numberont hekey boar d,itshowsupont hemoni tor .
Not e.Themoni torenabl est heusert omoni tor/trackorseewhati sgoi ngoni nt he
comput er .
Printer
Printersar eusedt ocr eat eper manentcopi esofout putonpaper .
Memor yst or agedev ices.
Thesear edev icesusedt ost or epr ogr ams&dat ai ncomput ers.
• Theyhol ddat a&pr ogr amsunt iltheyar eneededf orpr ocessi ng.
• Theyal sohol dt her esul tsaf t erpr ocessi ng.
Comput erst or agei sdi v i
dedi nto2:
i
) . Pr imar y( mai n)st orage.
Thi sist hest oragef oundwi t hint hecomput eri tself.Itisusedt ohol ddat a,
progr ams&i nst ruct i
onsr equi redi mmedi atel y( orcur r
ent l
ybei ngused)byt he
Processor .
Exampl es: Random AccessMemor y( RAM)&ReadOnl yMemor y(ROM) .
i
i). Secondar y( Backi ng)st or age.
Itisusedbyt hecomput ert ost or ebackupi nfor mat iont hatisnotneeded
i
mmedi at elybyt hePr ocessor .I tisal sousedbyt hecomput ertosuppl ementt he
comput er ’smai nmemor y/i nt ernal memor yi ncaseofmassst oragepur poses.
Featuresoft heSyst em unit. Secondar yst or ageuni tspr ov i
deper manentdat ast oragef aci l
iti
es.Theyal low
­I thousest heCPU. l
ar gequant it
iesofi nfor mat iont obest oredper manent lyonsomef orm of
­I tconnect st oallperipheraldev i
cesusingpor ts. magnet icmedi asuchMagnet ict apesordi sks.
Thepr ogr ams&dat aar et ransf erredt o&f rom t hesecondar ystorageuni tst othe
­I thast hecomput er’
sPowerswi tch. Mai nmemor yonl ywhent heyar erequi red; hencet hei nformat ioni ssai dt obe
TheCent ralprocessi ngunit(CPU) onl i
net ot hecomput er.
Thisisthebr ainofthecomput er,andcar r
iesoutal lthepr
ocessingwit
hinthecomput
er. Exampl esofsecondar yst or agedev ices:
I
nputdev ices. • Har ddi sk*Fl oppydi sks. *Magnet i
cTapes.
Thesear ethedev icesusedt oent er
/putdat aintothecomputer
. • Casset t
et apes. *Punchedcar ds. *Zi pdi sks.
• Theyacceptdat af orprocessing&conv ertiti
ntoasuit
ableformthatthecomput
er • Compactdi sks *Di gital VideoDi sks( DVDs) .

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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Comput erper i
pherals.
Acomput eri sbasicallymadeupofasy st
em uni tandot herdevi
cesconnect edtothe
syst
em uni tcaledPer
l i
pheraldev i
ces.
Peri
pher aldev i
cesar et heelement s(component s)connectedtothesy stem unitsoas
toassistt hecomput ersat i
sfyitsusers.
Peri
pher al devi
cesar econnect edtotheSy stem unitusingspecialcablescalleddata
i
nterfacecabl esthatcar rydata,programs&i nformat i
ont oandfrom thepr ocessor
.
Thecabl esar econnect edtot hesy st
em unitusingconnect orscaledPor
l ts.
Exampl esofper i
pher aldevicesinclude;
­Moni tor, -Key board, -Mouse
­Pr inter.
-Modem. -Speaker s.
­Pl otter.

Rev
iewQuest ions.
1. Listdownt hecomponent sthatmakeupacomput er.
2. Clearl
ydr awandl abelthemai nphysi
calpartsofasimpl
ecomput ersy
stem. AfterAbacus,thefi
rstmachi nethatisusuall
yregar dedast heforerunnerofmoder n
3. Whatar ecomput erperi
pherals? comput erswasnamedt heAnal yt
icalEngi
ne,andwasdev elopedbyanEngl ish
4. (a).Nameandexpl ainthetwomai ndivi
sionsofcomputerstorage. mat hematici
ancaledChar
l l
esBabbage.
(b).Givetwocommonexampl esofsecondarystor
agedevices. In1939, Prof
essorHowar dAkenofHor rar
dUniv ersit
ydesignedt hefir
stcomput er
-l
ike
5. Namet woout putdev i
ces. machi nenamedMar k1.Si ncethen,aseri
esofadv ancement sinelectr
onicshas
6. (a).Explai
nt heterm System uni
t. occurred.Wi t
heachbr eakthrough,thecomputer sbasedont heol derform of
(b).Namesomeoft hecomponent sfoundi ntheSyst
em unit
. electr
onicshavebeenr eplacedbyanew“ generation”ofcomput ersbasedont henewer
(c).Givethreefeaturesofacomput er’
sSy st
em Unit
. form ofelect
roni
cs.
7. Whyi sthescr eenalsocal l
edaMoni t
or?
8. Whati saMousei nr el
ati
ont ocomputi
ng? COMPUTERGENERATI
ONS.

AComput ergenerati
onisagroupedsummar yofthegradualdevel
opment
sint
he
DEVELOPMENTOFCOMPUTERS. computertechnology.Thehi
stori
cal
event
sar enotconsider
edi nter
msofi
ndi
vi
dual
HISTORYOFCOMPUTI NG. year
s,butareclassif
iedi
ndurati
ons(aper
iodofmor ethanay ear)
.
Before1900, mostdat apr ocessingwasdonemanual lyusingsimpletoolsli
kestones&
sti
ckstocountandkeepr ecords. 1STGenerat
ioncomputers(
1946–1956).
Around2000y earsago, Asianmer chantscameupwi thaspecialcalculat
ingtoolcall
ed The1stgenerat
ionofcomputer
susedt
housandsofel
ectroni
cgadget edVacuum
scal
l
Abacust hatcouldbeusedt ocalculatelargefigures. tubesorThermioni
cvalv
estostor
e&processinf
ormat
ion.
AnAbacusi smadeupofar ectangularframeandacr ossbaratthemi ddl
e.Itisfi
tted
withwiresorst r
ingsrunni ngacr ossf r
om thef ramet othecrossbar.
Howt or epr
esentanumberusi nganAbacus.
Eachbeadi nt helowerr owhasav alueof1, whi l
eeachbeadi ntheupperr owhasa
val
ueof5.Tor epresentanumber ,t
hebeadi smov edt othecrossbar.Thosebeads
awayf r
om t hecrossbarr epresentzer os.
TheFigur ebelowr epresentsthenumber6908( Sixthousandninehundr edandeight )
. Vacuum tube
Thetubesconsumedal otpower,andgenerat
edalotofheatduri
ngprocessi
ngdueto
over
heat i
ng.
Thecomput ersconstantl
ybrokedownduet otheexcessi
veheatgener
ated,hencewer
e
shor
t-l
i
v ed,andwerenotv er
yreli
able.
TheyalsousedMagnet i
cdrum memor i
es.
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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Cardswer eusedt oenterdataint
ot hecomput ers.  NCR501, I
BM 300,
IBM 1401,
IBM 7070,
IBM 7094Ser
ies&CDC-
6600Mai
nfr
ame
Theirint ernal memor ycapacitywasl i
mited.Themaxi mum memor ysizewasapprox.2 computer
s.
KB( 2,000by t
es).  ATLASLEOMar kII
I.
Thecomput ersusedbigphy sicaldevi
cesint heircir
cuitry;
hencetheywereveryl
argein  UNI VAC1107.
si
ze, i
.e.t hecomput ercouldoccupysev eralofficeblocks.Forexampl e,
ENIAC  HONEYWELL200.
occupi edanar eaofabout150m2-t hesizeofanav erage3-bedroom house. 3RD Gener
ati
oncomputers(
1964–1979) .
Theywer ev eryslow-theirspeedwasmeasur edi nMill
iseconds.E.g.
,ENIAC(t
he
earl
iestel ect r
oniccomput er)couldperform 5,000addi ti
onspersecond&300 Usedelectr
oni
cdevi edI
cescal
l nt
egratedCircui
ts(
ICs)
,whichwer emadebycombi
ning
multiplicationspersecond. thousandsoft
ransi
stors&diodestogetheronasemiconductorcaledaSi
l li
conchi
p.
Thecomput
erswereverycost
ly-t
heycost
edmi
l
li
onsofdol
l
ars.
esof1STGener
Exampl ati
oncomputers:

 ENI AC( ElectronicNumer i

calInt
egratorAndCal culat
or)buil
tin1946forusei
nWor l
d
WarI I.Itcont ained18, 000Vacuum t ubes. I
ntegr
atedci
rcui
t
 EDVAC( ElectronicDiscr et
eVar i
ableAut omat i
cComput er)devel
opedin1945byDr. Thepr
ocessi
ngspeedincr
easedt
o5Mi
l
li
oni
nst
ruct
ionspersecond(
5MI
PS)
.
JohnVonNeumann.I twast hefi
rstcomput erthatusedinstruct
ionsst
oredi
n
memor y. Thestoragecapaci t
yoft hecomput ers( i
.e.,t
heRAM memor ysi
zes)expandedto2MB.
 UNI VAC( UNIVer salAutomat i
cComput er). Theywer esmal l
erinsizecompar edt o2ndgener ati
oncomput er
s.
 I BM 650. Thecomput ersusedawi derangeofper i
pher aldev
ices.
 LEO( Ly on’sEl ectr
onicOf f
ice). Thecomput erscouldsuppor tmor ethanuseratt hesamet i
me.Theywer ealsoabl
eto
2ND Generat i
oncomput ers( 1957–1963) . supportremot ecommuni cati
onfaci l
i
ties.
The2ndgener ati
oncomput ersusedt i
ny,solid-
stateelectroni
cdev i
cescall
ed Magneticdiskswer edevelopedforst oragepur poses.
Transistors.Thet r
ansistorswer erelati
velysmal ler,
mor estable&reli
abl
ethanvacuum The1stmi cr
ocomput erwaspr oduceddur ingthi
sper i
od(1974).
tubes. Examplesof3rdGener ati
oncomput ers:
 I BM 360, 370;
 I CL1900Ser i
es;
 8- bitMicrocomputers&PDP- 11Mai nf ramecomput er
s.

4TH Gener
ati
oncomput
ers(
1979–1989)
.

The4thgenerati
oncomput ersusedLargeScaleInt
egrat
ed(LSI
)cir
cuits&Ver
yLar
ge
Tr
ansi
stor Scal
eIntegrated(VLSI)ci
rcui
ts.Thesecircui
tsweremadebycompr essi
ngmoret
iny
ci
rcui
tsandt r
ansistor
sintoevensmallerspaceofthesi
li
conchip.
Thecomput ersconsumedl esspower ,producedlessheat,weremuchf aster,
andmor e
rel
iabl
ethant hosemadewi thvacuum tubes.
TheyusedMagnet i
ccorememor i
es.
RAM Memor ysi zeexpandedt o32KB.
Theiroperationspeedi ncreasedt obet ween200, 000–300, 000inst
ructi
onspersecond.
Theirspeedswer emeasuredi nMi croseconds.E. g.
,acomput ercouldperf
orm1 VeryLargeint
egratedcircui
t
mill
ionadditionspersecond, whi
chwascompar ativ
elyhi
gherthanthatofthe1st Thecomput ersweresmall,andv eryf
ast.Thei
rprocessi
ngspeedsincreasedto50
generati
oncomput ers. Mill
i
oninstr
uct i
onspersecond.
Thecomput erswer esmal lerinsize&t herefor
e,occupiedlessspacecompar edtothe Hadlar
gest oragecapaci
ty,i.
e.,
theirmemorysizesexpandedt
osev eralhundr
ed
1stGcomput er s. Megabytes.
Theywer elesscost l
ythant he1stGcomput ers. Memoriesusedi ncl
udedMagnet icdisks,
Bubbl
ememor i
es&Opt i
caldisks.
nd
Examplesof2 Gener ati
oncomput ers: esof4thGener
Exampl ati
oncomput er
s:
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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
 I
BM 308and4300; Four
th D)
.Int
egr
atedCi
rcui
ts
 Amdahl580 gener
ati
on
 Honeywel
lDPS-88
 Bur
roughs7700,andt
he16-
bit&32-
bitmi
crocomput
ers.Thef
ir
stmi
crocomput
er 6. Giv
ef ourcharacter
ist
icsofFi
rstgener
ati
oncomput
er.
wascaledAppl
l eII
. 7. Writ
et hefoll
owingabbrevi
ati
onsinful
l:
(a).ENIAC
(b).VLSI
5TH Gener ati
oncomput ers(1990–Pr esent) . (c).I
C
Inthisgener ationfall today ’
scomput er s. 8. WhatisAr ti
fi
cialI
ntel
l
igence?
Thet echnol ogiesusedar ePar al
lelarchi t
ect ures, 3-Di mensi onalcircuitdesign&super
conduct ingmat er
ials.
Theset echnol ogieshav eledt ot hedev el
opmentofcomput ersreferredt oas
Super comput ers,whi char ev erypower ful,andhav ev eryhighprocessi ngspeeds.Thei r
speedsar emeasur edi nNanoseconds&Pi coseconds.
Theyar eabl etoper form par allel (
ormul t
i-
pr ocessi ng)wher ebyasi nglet askisspli
t
amonganumberofpr ocessor s.
Thememor ysizesrangebet ween1Gi gaby te&1Ter aby te.
Thecomput ersaredesi gnedusi ngVLSIandt heMi crochi ptechnol ogyt hathasgiven
ri
set ot hesmal l
ercomput ers, knownasMi crocomput ersusedt oday .
Thecomput ershav especi alinst ructi
onset sthatal lowt hem tosuppor tcompl ex
progr amst hatmi mi chumani ntelli
genceof tenr efer redt oasAr tif
icialIntel
li
gence.
Suchpr ogramscanhel pmanager st omakedeci sionsandal soprov idecr i
ti
calexpert
servicest ouser sinst eadofr elyingonhumanpr of essi onals.

Revi
ewQuest ions.
1. Brief l
ydescribethehistoryofcomput ers.
2. (a).Whatdoy oumeanbycomput ergenerat i
ons?
(
b).Descr ibet heFI
VEgener ati
onsofcomput ersint ermsoft echnologyusedand FACTORSTHATDETERMI NETHETYPEOFCOMPUTER.
gi
vean
exampleofacomput erdev el
opedi neachgener ation. 1) Typeofpr ocessor( Central processingunit–CPU)
(c).Compar ecomput ermemor ysi zesduringt heFivecomput ergener at
ionperi
ods. Micr ocomput er susemi cr oprocessor s,whichar emanuf act ur
edonasi nglechip,
3. Whatwast hemostr emar kabledi scoverydur i
ngt hesecondcomput ergenerati
on? ast heirCPU.
4. (a) .Technologyisthebasi sofcomput erclassif
ication.Basedont his,expl
ain Inlargercomput erssuchassuper comput er s,mai nf rame&mi nicomput er
s,the
bri
ef l
ythe processi ngiscar ri
edoutbyanumberofsepar ate, high-speedcomponent s
dif
fer
encebet weent hef i
rstthreecomput ergener ati
ons. i
nst eadofasi ngl eprocessor .
(b).Whati ssopecul i
ari nthef ourthandf i
fthgener ationofcomput er s? 2) Processi ngspeed.
5. Mat chthefollowi
nggener ati
onsofcomput erswitht hetechnologyusedt odevel
op Ever ycomput erhasacl ockt hatdrivesitsoper ations.
them. Largercomput ershav efast erclocksandt her eforecanpr ocessmany
i
nst ructi
onspersecondcompar edt osmal lcomput er s,
whi chhav eslowerclocks.
Generat
ion Technology 3) AmountofMai nmemor y( RAM) .
Fi
rstgenerati
on A) .Ver yLargeIntegrat
edCi r
cui
t Allcomput ershav esomeamountofRAM ( Random Accessmemor y),
whichi s
Second usedt ohol dt hei nstr
uctionsr equiredtoper form at ask.
B).Ther mioni
cv alves(Vacuum
generat
ion Largercomput ershav emor eRAM andt her efor ecanhandl elargev ol
umesof
tubes)
data&al sosuppor tmanyandsophi sti
catedpr ogr amswhi chmi ghtrequir
elarge
Thir
dgener at
ion C).Tr ansi
stor
s memor ysi zes.
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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
4) St
oragecapaci
tyoft
heHar
ddi
sk. arefast
erandthei
rspeedsar emeasur eddependingonthenumberofli
nesor
Thestor agecapacityistheamountofspacet hati savai
lableforst ori
ngthe pagesprint
edpermi nut
e(lpm /ppm) .
i
nstructi
onsr equir
edt omani pul
atedat a. 7) Numberofuser swhocanaccesst hecomputeratt hesametime.
Largercomput ershav ehigherstoragecapaci ti
est hanmi crocomput ers. Mostmicrocomputerscansuppor tonl
y1,2or3user satthesameti
me.
5) Costoft hecomput er. However,t
heycanbenet workedtoshareresources.
Thecostofcomput ersisdi r
ectl
yrelatedt othesize.Mi crocomput ersareless Lar
gercomputerscansuppor thundredsofusersatthesametime.
costl
ycompar edtomi ni
comput ers,mai nframesorSuper comput ers.
6) SpeedofOut putdevices. Rev
iewQuest
ions.
Thespeedofanout putdeviceisdetermi nedbyt heamountofi nformat i
onthat
canbepr i
ntedinaspecifiedamountoft ime. 1. Br
ief
lyexpl
ainf
ivef
act
orst
hatcanbeusedt
odet
ermi
net
het
ypeofacomput
er.
Thespeedofmi crocomput eroutputdev iceislesst hanthatoft helarger
comput ersinthat:
Forami crocomput er,t
hespeedofi tsout putdeviceismeasur edbyt henumber
ofcharact er
sprint
edpersecond( cps).Forl argercomput ers,t
heiroutputdevi
ces

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oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
CLASSIFICATI ONOFCOMPUTERS quickly.
Computer scanbecl assi fiedaccor dingt ot hef oll
owi ngf act ors: Theycansuppor tal argenumberofper ipheralsofdiff
erentt ypes(cansuppor t
1. Physical size&pr ocessi ngpower . between5–300t er
mi nals).
2. Purposef orwhi cht heyar edesi gned. Theycanhandl ehundr edsofusersatt hesamet ime,e.
g.,theycanbeoper atedby
3. Funct i
onal i
ty( Met hod/modeofoper ati
on) . 200user satatime.
A. CLASSI FICATI ONACCORDI NGTOPHYSI CALSI ZE. Mai nfr
amecomput er sar egeneral
-purpose, andcanhandl eal lki
ndsofpr oblems
Comput er scanbecl assi fi
edi nto5mai ngr oupsaccor dingt ot heirsizeas: whet hersci
enti
fi
corcommer cial
.
 Super comput ers. Areaswher emainframecomput ersareused:
 Mai nf ramecomput ers. Mai nfr
amecomput er sar emost l
yfoundi ngov ernmentdepar tments, bi
g
 Mi nicomput ers. organizati
onsandcompani eswhi chhav elargeinformationpr ocessingneeds, e.
g.,
 Mi crocomput ers. theyar eused;
 Por tabl ecomput er s(Lapt ops, Notebooks&Pal mt ops) . InBanks&Hospi talsforprepari
ngbi l
ls,Payroll
s,et
c.
Super comput er s. Incommuni cati
onnet workssuchast heInternetwheret heyactasSer vers.
Super comput er sar et hef ast est,largest ,mostexpensi ve&al sothemostpower ful ByAi r
li
nereservationsystemswher einformat i
onofal l
thef li
ghtsisstored.
comput er sav ai lable.
Theyar ev er yf asti npr ocessi ng.Theycanper for m manycompl excal cul ationsi na Exampl esofMai nframes:
fr
actionofasecond.  I BM 4381.
MostSuper comput er susemul t
iplepr ocessor s.I nt hiscase, asi nglet aski sspl it
 I CL39Ser ies.
amongt hepr ocessor sf orf ast erexecut ion.Howev er ,all t
hepr ocessor sar e
 CDCCy berser i
es.
controlledbyasi nglecent ral processor .
Mini
comput ers.
Super comput er sgener ateal otofheat ,&t heref orer equi r
especi al coolingsy st
ems.
AMi nicomputerisphy sicallysmallerthanamai nframe.Howev er,
itcansuppor t
Somet i
mes, thewhol eCPUi sdeepedi nat ankcont ai ningl iquidFl uorocar bont o
thesameper i
pheral dev icessuppor tedbyamai nframe.
providecool i
ng.
AMi nicomputercansuppor tseveraluser satati
me, e.
g.,
canbeoper atedby6
Super comput er sar ev eryl arge&heav y,andar eusual lykeptunderspeci al
usersatat i
me.Sev eral workstati
ons/t erminal
sareconnectedt oonecent ral
envir
onment al condi ti
ons( i.e.,inaspeci alroom) .
mini
comput ersot hatt heuser sconnect edcanshar eitsr
esources( C.P.Uti
me,
Theyar eoper at edbycomput erspeci alists.ASuper comput ercanbeoper at edby
stor
age, et
c).
over500user satt hesamet ime.
Mini
comput ersar eeasi ertomanuf act
ure&mai ntaincompar edtomai nframes.
Areaswher esuper comput ersar eused:
Mini
comput ersar echeapert hanthemai nfr
ames,butmor ecostlythant he
Super comput er sar emai nlyusedf orcompl exsci entificappl icati
onst hati nvol v
e
microcomput ers.
manycal culat i
ons&r equi real otofcomput at
ional power .Someoft he
Theyhandlesmal lamount sofdata, ar
el esspowerful,
&hav elessmemor ythanthe
appli
cat ionst hatusesuper comput ersincl ude;
mainframes.
Weat herf or ecast ing. Mini
comput ersar esl owcompar edt omai nfr
amecomput ers.
Pet roleum r esear ch.
Def enceandweaponanal ysi
s. Ar
easwher emi ni
comput ersareused:
Aer ody nami cdesi gnandsi mul ati
on. Mi
nicomput ersareusedmai nlyin:
Not e.Theset asksusel ar geamount sofdat a, whi chneedt obemani pul ated Scienti
ficlaborat
or i
es&r esearchinsti
tut
ions.
withi nav er yshor tt i
me. Engineeringplants/fact
oriestocontrolofchemicalormechani
cal
processes.
Exampl esofSuper comput er s: Spacei ndustry.
 CRAYT3D, NEC- 500. Insurancecompani es&Banksf oraccounti
ngpurposes.
Mainf ramecomput er s.
Mainf ramesar el esspower ful &l essexpensi vet hansuper comput ers. Smal l
eror gani
zationsasNet wor kServer
s.
Theyar ebi gi nsi zebutsmal l
ercompar edt oSuper comput ers.
Arepower ful comput er swi thv eryhi ghcapaci t
iesofMai nst orage.Theyal sohav e Exampl
eofMinicomput
er:
alargebacki ngst oragecapaci ty.  PDP-8buil
tin1965byDigi
tal
Equi
pmentCor
por
ati
oni
nU.
S.
Haveav er yhi ghpr ocessi ngspeed, i
.e.,canpr ocessl ar geamount sofdat av ery Micr
ocomput
ers.

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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Microcomput er
sar et hePCsmost l
yfoundt odayinhomes, schools&manysmal l Palmtops.
offi
ces.Theyar ecal edPer
l sonalComput er s(PCs)becauset heyaredesignedt o Palmtopsaresmallenought ofi
tint hepocket ,andcanbehel di
nthepal
m when
beusedbyoneper sonatat i
me. bei
ngused.
Theyconsi stofv eryfewconnect edunits,i.e.cansuppor tveryf ewperipheral ­Hav elimi
tedstor
agecapaci t
ies.
devices(usual l
y1or2) . ­Pal mtopsaremainlyusedasPer sonal Organizers,wi
thsomemini
malprogr
ams
Thedat aprocessi ngi nmi cr
ocomput er
si sdonebyaMi croprocessor(asi ngl
echip forcal
cul
ati
ons,Wor dprocessing,Spr eadsheets, &E-
mail.
containi
ngt heAr i
thmet i
cLogicunit&Cont rol uni
t). ExampleofaPalmtop; Per
sonalDi gitalAssistant(PDA).
Microcomput er
sar esmal l
erinsi
ze&al socheapert hanmi nicomput er
s.Thei r
designisbasedonVer yLargeScaleIntegrat i
on(VLSI)thatconf inesseveral Desktopcomput er .
physicalcomponent si ntoanIC. Thisisthenamegi vent oanycomput erdesi gnedt obeusedwhenpl acedonadesk
Theyar elesspower ful t
hanmi ni
comput ers&t heiri
nternalmemor yissmal l
erthan i
nanof ficeenv ir
onment .
thatofmi nicomput ers. ­Theyar enotpor tabl e.
Examplesofdeskt opcomput ers:
Ar
easwher emi crocomputersareused: 1) Homecomput er.
Mi
crocomputersar ecommonl yusedi n: Thisisal ow- costmi cr ocomput erofl imi tedcapabi li
tydesi gnedf ordomest i
c
Trai
ningandl earni
nginsti
tut
ionssuchasschool
s. use.I thaspr ogr amst hatar eusedt y
pical l
yf orcomput ergamesorcont roll
ing
Smallbusinessenterpri
ses,and fami l
yf inances.
Communi cationcentresasterminals. 2) Per sonal comput er( PC) .
Thisisami crocomput erdesi gnedf orindependentusebyani ndividual atwor k
Mi
crocomput
ershav
ebecomev
erypopul
arbecauseoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easons: orint hehomemai nlyf orbusi nesspur poses.
1) Ar
echeaperthanbot hmi ni
&mai nframecomput er
s. ­APCcansuppor tonl y1useratat ime.
­PCsar emost lyusedi nof fi
ces, school s, businesspr emi ses,andathomef or
2) Ar
everyfast(i.
e.havehighprocessingspeeds)
.
variousappl icat i
onsl i
kecomput erli
ter acy, Games, Dat abasemanagement ,
3) Smal
li
nsi ze,hencetheyoccupylessspaceinanof fi
ce. Account ing, Wor dpr ocessi ng, Tel ecommuni cati
ons, etc.
4) Ar
emor eenergyef f
ici
ent(i
.e.
,consumelesspower )
. ­APCcanbeconnect edt oami ni &mai nframecomput ersoast oenabl et he
5) Ar
emor ereli
ablethantheearlyMainfr
amecomput ers. useraccesst hef aci lit
iesof feredbyt hel argermachi nes.
Exampl
es: 3) Wor kst ation.
 IBM PCssuchasAppl
eMaci
ntosh,
Del
l
s,Compaq,
etc. Awor kst at i
oni susual l
yadeskt opcomput erwi t
hal lthef acil
it
iesbut
int
er l
i
nkedt oanet wor k.
Laptops&Not ebooks. At ypical wor kst ationwor ksinasi mi l
arwayt oaPer sonal comput er.Howev er,
ALapt opisaPCsuf f
ici
entlysmal l&lightsucht hatausercanusei tcomf ortably iti
smor eadv ancedt hanat ypi cal PCi nt hef ollowi ngway s:
onhis/herlap.Itisdesi gnedt obeusedbypl acingitont helap. i). I tisl arger&mor epower ful thanaPC.E. g.,wor kstationsuse32- bit
-Lapt opsar everysmal l
insi ze&ar epor t
able.Theyar esmal lenought of itinsi
de mi cr oprocessor s, whil
ePCsuse16- bitmi cropr ocessor s.
abriefcase;stil
ll
eav i
ngr oom f orot heritems. ii)
.I thasi n-builtcapabi l
it
iesf ori tsint erconnect ion&oper ati
onwi thot her
-ALapt opcomput eroper atesmai nl
yonel ectr
icit
yorbyr echar geablebat teri
es. comput ers, i.
e.,iti sfull
yconnect edt oacomput ernet workasanyot her
-Lapt opsnor mal l
yhav ein-builtdiskdr iv
es&Fl atscreens(LiquidCr ystalDi spl
ays). comput eront henet worki ni tsownr ight.
-Canonl ysuppor tal i
mitednumberofper ipheraldevices.
-Hav el i
mitedst oragecapaci t
ies. iii
).I thashi ghr esol ut i
ongr aphi cs.
Note.Thesmal lercomput er sli
keLapt opst endt obemor eexpensi vethanDeskt op iv).I thasaMul t i
-taski ngoper atingsy stem, i
.e.itisabl et orunmul tiple
comput ersbecauseoft hef oll
owi ngreasons: appl icationsatt hesamet ime.
1) Thet echnologyofpr oduci ngsmal lerdev i
cesisexpensi ve.
AnEmbeddedcomput er.
2) Theyar econv enientbecauset heyar epor table.
Thi
sisacomput ert
hatiswi
thinanotherdev
iceorsyst
em buti
snotaccessed
3) Theyhaveadvancedpowermanagementcapabi li
ties(theyconsumel ess di
rect
ly.E.g.
,thereareembeddedcomput er
soperat
ingwi
thinPet
rolpumps,
powersi nceal aptopcanoper ateonr echar geabl
ebat teries). Watches,Camer as&Videorecor
ders.
B. CLASSIFI
CATIONACCORDI NGTOPURPOSE.
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 UNI
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INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Di
gitalcomputerscanbeclassi
fi
edf
urt
heraccor
dingt
othet
askst
heyper
for
m ReasonswhyaMobi l
ephoneisregardedtobeacomput er
.
ei
theras: I
tisel ect
ronic.
 Gener al
-pur
pose. Hasascr een.
 Speci al
purpose I
thasaKey pad.
 Dedi cat
edcomput er
s. HasaMemor y
.
I
tispr ogrammabl e.
Gener al-pur posecomput ers. Dedicatedcomput er
.
Gener al-pur posecomput ersar edesi gnedt oper form awi dev ari
etyoft asks.They ADedi catedcomput erisageneral-
purposecomputerthatiscommi t
tedtosome
usespeci ficallywr it
teni nst ructions( pr ogr ams)t ocar r
youtt hedesi redpr ocessi ng processingtask; t
houghcapableofperformingavari
etyoftasksindif
fer
ent
tasks. appli
cationenv ir
onments.
Exampl e; E.g.
,thecomput ercanbededicatedtocarry
ingoutWor dprocessi
ngtasksonl
y.
Asi ngl ecomput ercanbeusedt opr ocessdocument s,per f
orm calcul ati
ons,
processt hePay roll,simul at ethel oadi ngonabr idge, processI nsurancepol i
cies, C. CLASSI FICATI ONACCORDI NGTOFUNCTI ONALI TY.
andpl aygames, amongot her s. Usually,therear etwof ormsofdat a; Digit aldata, andAnal oguedat a.Comput ers
Thepr ogr amsusedi nagener al-purposecomput erar eexchangeabl e.Thi smeans canbecl assifi
edaccor dingtothet ypeofdat at heycanpr ocessasei t
her.
that ,t
oper form apar ticul art ask, theappr opr iatesetofi nstruct i
onsr equir edto
per formt hatpar ti
cul artaskar el oadedi nt ot hecomput ermemor y.
 Di gitalcomput er s.
E.g., i
fy ouwantt opl ayagame, theappr opr iat eprogr am i sloadedi nt othe  Anal oguecomput ers,or
comput er’smemor y&t hecomput erisi nst ruct edt oex ecut et heinstructionswhi ch  Hybr idcomput ers.
makeupt hegame. Digit
al comput er
s.
Exampl esofgener al-pur posecomput ers:Mai nframes, Mi ni
comput ers, Thisist hemostcommonl yusedt y peofcomput ers.
Mi crocomput ers&Lapt opsusedi nmostof fices&school s. ADi git
al comput eri sacomput ert hatoper atesondi scretedat aonly .Itcan
Speci al -
pur posecomput er . processbot hnumer ic&al phabeticdat awi thinthecomput er,e.
g.,0, 1,2,3…,A,B,C….
Aspeci al-
pur posecomput erisdesi gnedt ohandl e/ accompl i
shapar ticularspeci fi
c Theiroper ati
oni sbasedon2st ates, “ON”&“ OFF”orondi git
s“1”&“ 0”.Therefor e,
taskonl y . anydat at obemani pulatedbyadi gital comput ermustf irstbeconv ert
edt odigital
Suchcomput er scannotper f
or m anyot hert askexceptt heonet heywer emeantt o form.
do.Ther ef ore, t
hepr ogr amswhi char eusedi naspeci al-purposecomput erare Theirout putisusual l
yinf or
m ofnumber s,alphabet s,&sy mbols.
fi
xed( har d-wi red)att het imeofmanuf act ure. Digit
al comput er
sar eusual l
ygener al-pur posecomput ers;hence,theyar ewidely
Forexampl e; usedi ndi f
ferentar easf ordatapr ocessi ng.
Inacomput erNet wor k,theFr ontEndPr ocessor( FEP)i sonl yusedt ocont rolthe Mostoft hedev i
cesf oundathomest odayar edi git
al i
nnat ur
e.
communi cat i
onofi nf ormat ionbet weent hev ar i
ouswor kstationsandt hehost Di gi
talcomput ersar elessaccur ate, i.e.maynotsol veal lyourproblemssi ncet he
comput er. facil
it
iespr ovidedar egener ali
zed.
ASpeci al-
pur posecomput eri sdedi cat edt oasi nglet ask; hencei tcanper formi t
quickl y&v er yef fi
cient l
y. Examples:
Exampl esofspeci al-purposecomput er s:  ATel evisi
onwi t
habuttonwhichi
spressedtoincreaseordecr
easethevol
ume.
 Robot susedi namanuf acturingi ndust ryf orpr oduct iononl y.
 Mobi l
ephonesusedf orcommuni cat i
ononl y.  Digi t
al watches.
 Cal cul ator sthatcar ryoutcal cul ationsonl y.  Cal culator
s.
 Comput ersusedi nDi gi tal wat ches.  Mi crocomput ers.Theyaresai
dtobedigit
albecausetheypossestheALU.
 Comput ersusedi nPet rolpumps.
 Comput ersusedi nWashi ngmachi nes. Analoguecomput ers.
 AnAut omat i
cpi lot–acomput erdedi catedt ot het askofoper atinganai r
cr af
t. AnAnal oguecomput erisacomput erthatoper
atesonconti
nuousdata.
 AWor dpr ocessor–aspeci al-purposecomput erusedi nthepr oduct i
onof Theycar r
youtt heirdataprocessingbymeasur i
ngtheamountofchanget hat
officedocument s, letter s,etc. occursinphy sicalatt
ri
butes/quantiti
es,suchaschangesinel
ectr
ical
v ol
tage,
speed,currents,pressure,
length,temper at
ure,
humidit
y,et
c.

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 UNI
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INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
AnAnal oguecomput erisusual lyaspeci al-purposedev icet hati sdedi catedt oa Example;
si
ngl et ask.Forexampl e, theyar eusedi nspeci ali
zedar eassuchasi n: I
nahospi t
alInt
ensi
veCar eUnit
,ananaloguedev i
cemaybeusedt omeasur ethe
­Sci ent if
icorengi neer ingexper i
ment s, functi
oningofapatient’
sheart
,temperatureandothervi
tal
signs.These
­Mi lit
ar yweapons, measur ementsmayt henbeconv er
tedintonumbersandsendt oadigi
taldevi
ce,
­Cont rolli
ngmanuf act ur i
ngpr ocessesl ikemoni tor ing&r egul atingf ur nace whichmaysendani mmedi at
esignaltothenurses’st
ati
onifanyabnormal
temper aturesandpr essur es. readi
ngsar edetect
ed.
­Weat herst ationst or ecor d&pr ocessphy si cal quant ities, e.g. ,wi nd, cloudspeed, Compar i
sonbet weenaComput erandCalculator
.
temper ature, etc.
Theout putf rom anal oguecomput ersi si nfor m ofsmoot hgr aphspr oducedbya Computer Cal
culator s
plottingpenorat raceonaCat hodeRayTube( CRT)f rom whi cht hei nf ormat i
on 1. Costl
yduet
othet
echnol
ogy 1. Cheaper–t heyi mi tatesi mpl ecomput er
canber ead. used. technol ogy .
Not e: Anal oguecomput er susual lyuseonechar act eristic, e.g.al engt h, t
ogi ve 2. Compar ati
v elysmal ler .
i
nf ormat ionaboutanot herphy sical char acteristic, suchaswei ght . 2. Biggeri nsi ze. 3. Slowert hancomput ers.
Anal oguecomput er sar ev er yaccur at e&ef fi
cientsi ncet heyar ededi cat edt oa 3. Oper ateatv eryhighspeeds. 4. Lessaccur at e–mostcal cul atorsgi veup
si
ngl et ask. 4. Aremor eaccur ate–t heygi v
e to8dpofaccur acy .
Theyar ev eryf astsi ncemostoft hem usemul ti
pl epr ocessor s. upt oov er10deci mal places 5. Most l
yusedf ornumer i
cal calculations
Exampl esofanal oguedev ices: ofaccur acy . i
nv olvingar ithmet ic/mat hemat i
cal
 Thecomput erusedt ocont rol af lightsi mul at orf ort rai ningpi lots. 5. Flexible–canbeusedi n oper ations
Thecomput err espondst ot heCockpi tsimul atorcont rol mov ement smadeby solvinganypr oblem. 6. Calcul atorsar enon- programmabl e, butif
thepi lottophy sical lychanget heenv i
ronmentsot hatt hepi lotf eel sasi fhe 6. Wor kundert hecont r
ol of progr ammabl e, ther angei slimited.
wer econt rolli
nganact ual aer opl ane. progr ams. 7. Theyonl yuseDi spl ayuni ts&Key boar dsof
 ABat hroom scal e. l
imi t
edcapabi l
ities.
Itusest hewei ghtofaper sont omov eapoi ntersmoot hly/ cont inuousl yov er 7. Suppor tav ar i
etyof 8. theirinternal memor yi sver ysmal l.Most
cal i
br atedscal e, whi chshowst heper son’ swei ght . peripher als,e.g.key boar d, calculat orsonl yuseRegi stersf or
 Ther momet er. mouse, l
ightpen, pri
nter, etc. tempor aryst or agedur i
ngcal culations.
Itusesav olumeofMer cur ytoshowt emper at ure.TheTher momet eris 8. Hav el argei nternal memor yof 9. Somecal cul atorshav egotsomesor tof
cal i
br atedt ogi v eanexactt emper aturereadi ng. sever alKB’ s. fi
xedBacki ngst ore, thoughv eryl i
mi ted.
 Speedomet er. 10.Acal cul atorcanser v eonl y1useratat ime.
InSpeedomet er, ther ot ationoft hewheel isconv er tedt oav oltage, which 9. Suppor tlargeBacki ngst orage
causesapoi nt ert or ot at eov eradi alcalibrat edi nKm/ horMi les/ h. medi a. 11.Hav enot elecommuni cationcapabi li
ties.
 APet rolpumpmeasur est her ateoff l
owofGasol ine( pet rol)&conv ert
st he 12.Donotr equi rewel l-moni tor ed
v olumedel iver edt o2r eadi ngs; oneshowi ngt hev olume&t heot hershowi ng 10.Acomput ercansuppor t env i
ronment al condi tions.
thecost . sever alpeopl eatt hesame
 APost -officescal econv ertst hewei ghtofapar cel del i
v eredi ntoachar gef or ti
me.
post ing. 11.Hav egott elecommuni cat i
on
capabi li
ties.
 AMoni t
orwi thknobst hatar er otat edt oincr easebr i
ght ness.
12.Requi rewel l
-moni tored
 ATel evi
si onwi thknobst hatar er otatedt oi ncr easeordecr easet hev olume.
environment alcondi t
ions.
 ARadi owi thaknobt hatsl i
desi nasl ott oi ncr easev olume.
Rev
iewQuest
ions.
Hybr
idcomputer
s.
Hybr
idcomputer
saredesignedtopr ocessbot hanalogue&digit
aldat
a.They
1. Statethr
eemet hodsofclassify
ingcomput
ers.Ineachcase,
li
stt
hedi
ff
erentt
ypes
combinebot
hthefunct
ionalcapabil
i
tiesoft hedigi
talandanal
oguecomput er
s.
ofcomput ers.
Hybr
idcomputer
saredesignedbyint erconnecti
ngtheelementsofadigi
tal
2. Whati saPer sonalcomputer?
computer&anal
oguecomput erdi
rectlyintooneprocessor,
usingasuit
able
3. Diff
erent
iatethef ol
lowi
ngt ypesofcomput
ers.
i
nter
faci
ngcir
cui
try
.
a).Supercomput erandMainframecomputer.
Hybr
idcomputer
saremor eexpensive.
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 UNI
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INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
b).Minicomput erandaPer sonal comput er.
c).Special
-purpose( dedi
cated)comput ersandGener al
-pur
posecomput
ers. DI
SADVANTAGESOFUSI NGCOMPUTERS.
d).Desktopcomput ersandLapt opcomput er
s 1) Comput ersar ev er ycost l
yinter msofpur chase&mai ntenance.
4. Bri
efl
ydescribet erms“ Analogue”and“ Digi
talcomputers”asusedi
ncomputer 2) Comput erscanonl ybeusedar easwher et herei ssour ceofpower .
sci
ence.
5. Givet
hreeexampl esofSpeci al-
pur posecomput er
s. 3) Requi resski ll
edmanpowert ooper at e,i.
e.,onehast ohav esomeknowl edgesoas
6. NameanyFOURcl assesofcomput er
sbasedonsi zeandcomplexi
ty. tooper ateacomput er.
4) Ther ecor dsar eusual lykepti naf or mt hati snotv i
sibleorhuman- readabl e.Thi s
makesi tdifficul ttocont r
ol t
hecont ent soft hecomput er’
smast erf i
le.
ADVANTAGESOFUSI
NGCOMPUTERS. 5) Acomput er, l
ikeanyot hermachi necanbr eakdown.
6) Informat i
onst oredi ncomput erscaneasi lygetl ostduet opoweri nterrupt ionsor
Comput er
shav emanyadv antagesov erot hertypesofoff
iceandbusi nessequipments machi nebr eakdown.
thatar
eusedf ordatapr ocessingf unctions.Someoft headvantagesar e: 7) Acomput erdoesn’ thav eitsowni nt ell
i
gence, i.e.,
itcannotdoanyusef ul j
oboni ts
1) Comput er
spr ocessdat af aster : own, butcanonl ywor kaspert hesetofi nstruct i
onsi ssued.
Theprocessingspeedofacomput erwhenmeasur edagainstotherdevicesl
ike 8) Installationofcomput erscausesr et raini
ngorr etr
enchmentofst aff/empl oy ees.
ty
pewr i
ter
s&cal culatorsi sfarmuchhi gher.
9) Thecomput ert echnol ogyi schangi ngv eryf astsucht hattheal r
eadybought
2) Comput er
sar emor eaccur ate&r eliable: comput er scoul dbemadeobsol ete/outdat edi nthenextf ewy ear s.
Comput er
spr oducemor eaccur ater esult
sasl ongasthecorrectinst
ructi
ons& Inaddi t
ion, thisr apidchangei nthecomput ert echnol ogymakescomput er s&
dataareentered.Theyal sohav etheabi li
tytohandlenumber swi t
hmanydeci mal relatedf aci l
itiest obecomeout datedv eryf ast, henceposi ngar iskofcapi talloss.
pl
aces.
10)Theemer genceofcomput ershasi ncr easedt her ateofunempl oy mentsi ncet hey
3) Comput er
sar emor eefficient: arenowbei ngusedt oper formt hej obs, whi chwer edonebyhumanbei ngs.
Acomput errequireslessef f
or ttopr ocessdataascompar edt ohumanbei ngsor
othermachines. 11)Comput ershav el edtoi ncreasei ncomput ercr i
mesespeci all
yinBanks.The
comput ercr imi nal ssteallargeamount soff undsbel ongingt ovar i
ouscompani es
byt ransf erringt hem outoft heircompanyaccount sill
egally.Inaddi tion,t hey
4) Computer
scanquickl
yandeff
ect
ivelystore&retr
iev
elargeamountsofdata. dest royv ital dat ausedi nrunningt hecompani es.
5) Theyar
everyeconomical
whensavinginformat
ion,f
oritcanconser
vealotof
space.
6) Comput
ersoccupyveryl
it
tl
eoff
icespace. AREASWHERECOMPUTERSAREUSED.
7) Comput
ershelptor
educepaperworksigni
fi
cant
ly. Thefollowingar esomeoft hear easwher ecomputersareused:
8) Comput
ersarefl
exi
ble: 1.Super mar ket s.
Acomput ercanper f orm av ariet
yofj obsasl ongast her eisawel l-
defi
ned ­Super mar ket sandot herr etail
st oresusecomput ersforstockcontrol
,i.
e.,
tohel
p
pr
ocedure. them managet heirdai lyactivi
ties.
9) Comput ersarecheap: Thest ockcont rol
sy st em keepsr ecordofwhatisinstore,whathasbeensol d,
Theycanbeusedt oper form anumberofor gani zat
ional functi
ons/activit
ies, andwhati soutofst ock.TheManagementi sautomat i
call
yalert
edwhena
whicharemeantf orindividual persons, hencer educingt henumberofempl oy
ees parti
cul aritem ori temsar er unningoutofst ockandneedt obereordered.
&thecost s. ­Forcal culatingcust omer ’schange.
­Forpr oduct ionofr ecei pts.
10)Comput ersenhancesecur it
y&conf i
dent i
alit
y:
­I tcanbeusedasabar coder eader .
Datastoredinacomput ercanbepr ot ectedf r
om unaut hori
zedindivi
duals.
11)Havemadecommuni cat
ioneasi er.
2.I ndust r
ies.
Theuseofcomput ershasmadeI ndust r
iesmoreproductiv
e&ef fi
cient.Theyare
12)Comput ersproducebet t
erinf ormation: used:
Comput eroutputisusual lytidyander ror-
free( accurat e).
Tomoni torandcont r olindustri
al processes.Theindustri
esuser emot e
13)Comput ersreducet hepr oblemsofdat aori nfor mati
ondupl i
cation: controlleddev icescal ledRobot s.ARoboti samachi nethatworkslikeahuman
14)Comput erscanoper at einriskyenv ironment s, e.g.volcanicsites,dangerous being,butper formst askst hatareunpl easant
,dangerous,andtedioustobedone
chemicalplants,wher ehumanl i
feist hr eatened:
-6- ©Al
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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
byhumanbei ngs. Ifcomput erswer enotused, t hel argenumberoff ilesingov ernmentr egistri
es
Formanagementcont rol ,i.e.t okeept rackofor ders, bill
sandt ransactions. woul dmakei nf ormat i
onr ecov er yextremel ydi ff i
cul t.
Bycompani esasacompet it
iv etool .E.g.,t
heyar eusedt oassi stindef ini
ngnew Topr oducebi lls&st atement s.
product s&ser vices.Theyal sohel pindustri
esf or m newr elati
onshi pswi th 8.Educat ion.
suppl iersandt her efore, enabl et hepr oducer smai nt ainacompet it
iveedge Comput er sar ewi del yusedi nt het eachi ng&l ear ni ngpr ocess.Lear ningand
againstt heircompet i
tor s. teachi ngusi ngcomput ersi sr ef erredt oasComput erAi dedLear ning( CAL)and
Foradver t
isementpur poses, whi chenabl eani ndust ryt oattractmor ecust omers. Comput erAi dedTeachi ng( CAT) .
3.Banks/I nsur ancei ndustries Comput er sar eusedi nl ear ningi nst i
tutions( school s&col leges)ast eachingai ds,
Comput er sar eusedbyBanks&I nsur anceindust ri
es: i
.e.t ohel pi nt eachi ngv arioussubj ects.
E.g.,theyar eusedt odemonst rateexper iment si nsubj ect slikeChemi stryor
Tomanagef inanci altransact i
ons.Theyusespeci al cashdi spensi ngmachi nes
Phy sicsusi ngaspeci al progr am t hatcani l
lust rat et hem ont hescr eent hr ougha
call
edAut omat edTel lerMachi nes( ATMs)t oenabl et hem pr ovi
decashdeposi t&
processcal ledSi mul at i
on.
withdr awal ser vices.
Toassi stt heLongdi st ancel ear ninginuni ver sitiesusual l
yr eferr
edt oast heOpen
Forpr ocessi ngofCheques.
Univ ersit yConcept .
Forpr epar ationofPay rol ls.
Toanal yzeacademi cdat a.
Forbet terr ecor dkeepi ngandpr ocessi ngofdocument s.
Comput er sar eusedi nAv iationf ortrainingofpi lots.Fl i
ghtsi mul atorsar eused
Topr ov i
deel ect ronicmoneyt ransf erfacil
it
ies. tomoni tort hecont rol mov ement smadebyt hepi lotwhi l
et hecomput erisused
4.Processcont r ol. tophy sical lychanget heenv ironmentsot hatt hepi lotfeelsasi fhewer e
Comput er sar eusedi npr oduct i
onenv i
ronment ssuchasf actori
est ocont r
ol cont rollinganact ual ai r
cr af t
.
chemi cal &mechani calpr ocesses.Thecomput er sar eusual lyloadedwi th 9.Resear ch.
specializedpr ogr ams&eachcomput erisdesignedt odoaspeci ficjob. Comput er scanbeusedf orr esear chinv ar i
ousf i
el ds.Theyar eusedby :
5.Hospital s. Sci ent istst oanal y set heirexper iment aldat a, e. g., i
nweat herf orecast ing.
Comput er sar eusedi nhospi tals:
Engi neer s&Ar chi tect st odesi gn&t estt heirwor k.
Tokeep&r et ri
ev epat i
ent ’smedi cal r
ecords.
Comput er shav egr eat lyassi st edi nspaceexpl or ation.
Foraut omat icdi agnosi sofdi seasesl i
keCancer ,electro-cardiogram scr eening&  Theyar eusedt ost udyt hemov ementofst ar s.
moni tor ing.  Theyhav emademanned&unmannedspaceexpl orati
onpossi bl e–t heyar e
Theyar eusedt ogetacr oss- sect ionalv i
ewoft hepat i
ent ’
sbodyt hatenabl es usedt ol aunchspacev ehi clesandmoni tort hef li
ght s&act ivi
tiesbot honboar d
physi cianst opr operlydi agnoset heaf fect
edpar toft hebodywi thhighl evelsof andar oundt hem.
accur acy . 10.Communi cat i
oni ndust ry.
Thei nt egr at i
onofcomput ers&t elecommuni cat ionf acili
tieshasmadet he
transmi ssi onandr ecept ionofmessagesv eryf astandef fi
cient.
I
nmedicalequipments,e.
g.bl
oodpr essuremonit
ors,
bloodanalyzer
s,et
c.
Theyar eusedi nt elephoneexchangest oswi tchi ncomi ng&out goi ngcal l
s.
Tocontr
oll
if
e-supporti
ngmachinesint heInt
ensi
veCareUnit
s(ICU).
Forsendi ng&r ecei vingel ect roni cmessages, e. g.f axande- mai l
s, ifconnect edto
Toenabl
emedi calexpert
sindi
ffer
entcount r
iest
osharethei
rexpert
iseorl
abour
, acomput ernet wor k.
t
husr
educi
ngt
het
ranspor
tat
ionofpat
ient
s&pr
ofessi
onal
s. 11.Transpor tindust ry .
6.Off
ices. Comput er sar eusedi n:
Forrecei
ving&sendingofmessagest
hroughe-
mai
l
s,f
ax,
etc. Aut omobi let r
af ficcont rol, e.g.,tomoni t
orv ehi clet raff
icinabusyt own.
Producti
onofdocuments. Rai lwaycor por at i
onst oco- or dinat ethemov ementoft heirgoods&wagons.
Keepingofrecor
ds. Shi ppi ngcont rol .Thecomput ersar eusedf oref f i
ci entmanagementoff leets&
7.GovernmentInst
it
uti
ons. communi cat ion.
Comput
ersar
eusedi
ngov
ernmentmi
nist
ri
es&agenci
es: Ai rpor ts( Ai rl
inei ndust ry )
.Thecomput er sar eused;
Tost
ore/
keepr
ecor
dsandi
mpr
ovet
heef
fi
ci
encyofwor
kwi
thi
ntheCi
vi
lser
vice. Tocont rol themov ementofai rcraft
s, takeof f&l andi ngt hrought heuseofr adar
-7- ©Al
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oM.
 UNI
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INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
equi pment . Forcal
culati
ngandkeepi
nghomebudgets.
Maki ngr eser vat i
ons( booki ngpur poses) .
St or i
ngf lighti nf ormat ion.
Forshoppingpur
poses.Theypr
ovi
depeoplewi
thl
i
stsofshoppi
ngi
temsaswel
l
ast heirpri
ces.Theyal sopr ovideelectroni
cmoneytransferfacil
iti
es.
12.Poli
ce( Lawenf orcementagenci es).
Inhousehol ditems,suchas, Microwav eovens,
Telev
isions,etc.
Comput ersar ewi delyusedi nf ightingcr i
me.ThePol iceusecomput erstokeep
dat abasesonf inger pr i
ntsandal soanal ysedt hem.
16.
Libraryservi
ces.
Comput erscanbeusedi nal ibrary
:
ThePol iceal sousecomput er sf orfacer ecogni tion, scenemoni tor i
ng&anal ysi
s, ­Toenabl ethel i
brar
yper sonnel t
oeasi l
yaccess&keepupdat edrecordsofbooks
whi chhel pt hem t oar restt rafficof fender sandcr imi nal s. andotherli
brarymat eri
als.
Thei nfor mat ionhel di ncomput erssuchasf inger prints, phot ographsandot her ­Tosear chf orbooktitl
esinsteadofusi ngthemanual cardcat al
ogue.
i
dent ifi
cat iondet ai l
shel psl awenf orcer st ocar ryoutcr imi nal i
nv estigati
onsspeedily
.
17.
Empl oyment .
13.Defence. Theemer genceofcomput ershaspr ovidedemploymentoppor tunit
iest
ov er
ymany
Comput ersar eusedi nel ectroni cnewsgat her i
ng, ef fici
entcommuni cati
on, people.
det ectingandt racki ngoft ar get s;inr adarsy stems, war ningsy stems&i nguided
mi ssilesy st ems.
Comput ersar eusedi nmi l
itarydef enceequi pment s, e.g.Fighterj ets,Rockets,
Bomber s,et c.
14.Multimedi aappl i
cat ions. Rev
iewQuest
ions.
Comput ersar eusedt opr epar ebusi nesspr esent ationsf oradv ertisement 1. Explai
nexhaustivel
ytheimportanceofcomputer
sinthefol
lowi
ngareas:
pur poses. i
). I ndustr
ies.
Thepr esent ati
onsar edoneusi ngov er headpr oj ector sat tachedt ocomput ers i
i). Hospitals.
runni ngsl ideshows&di gital videocl i
pst akenusi ngaCamcor der.Anov erl
aid i
ii
). Education
voicei susedt odescr ibet hepr oduct . i
v). Research.
Comput ersar eusedi nmusi cr elatedequi pmentsuchasSy nthesi zer
s. v). Communi cati
onindust
ry.
I nent er tai
nment( i.
e.,games&mov ies) ,
comput ersar eusedt oaddst ereosound vi
). Lawenf orcementagencies.
&di gital videocl ips, whichmakegamesmor er ealistic. vi
i). DomesticandEnt er
tai
nment .
2. Explai
nvari
ousway scomputershavebeenmostlyusedi
nourcountry
.
I nEducat i
on&Tr aining, Mul timedi adi scsar eusedast eachi ngai dsforalltypes
3. Li
stdownandexpl ai
n6usesofcomput er
sinoursoci
ety
.
ofsubj ects.
4. Explai
nthesimilari
ti
esanddiff
erencesbetweenhumanbeingsandcomputer
15.Domest icandEnt ertainmentsy stems. systems.
Comput er sar eusedathomes:
Forwat chingmov ies,play i
ngmusi candcomput ergames.
Forst oringper sonal informat ion.

STARTI
NG-
UP(
BOOTI
NG)ACOMPUTER. butt
onont heMonitorfi
rst,t
henfoll
owedbyt hatoft
heSy st
em uni
t.
Aft
erthepoweri son,
thecomput erautomatical
lygoesthroughaprocesscal
led
1.Bef
oreswi
tchi
ngonacomput
er,
makesur
ethatal
lthecomponent
sar
epr
oper
ly Booti
ng.Boot i
ngisaterm usedtodescribethest ar
ti
ngupofacomput er.I
tisthe
connect
ed,andt hatthecomput erisconnectedtoanactivepowersource. enti
repr
ocesst hatmakesthecomput erreadyforuse.
2.Turnontheswi t
chatt hesourceoft hepowersupply.Ifyourcomputeris TypesofBooting.
connect
edtoaconst antvol
tageStabili
zeroranUninterr
uptedpowersupply(
UPS)
, Therear
e2t ypesofbooti
ng, namely
;
tur
nitonafterswitchingt
hemai nsupply. a). Coldboot i
ng.
3.Turnontheswi t
chesont heSy stem uni
tandt heMonitor.Swit
chonthepower b). War m booti
ng.

-8- ©Al
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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Col dboot ing. Rev
iewQuest i
ons.
Thi shappenswhenacomput ert hatwasor iginallyof fisswi tchedonbypr essi ngt he 1. (a).Whati smeantbytheterm‘booti
ngup’
?
powerbut tonont hesy stem uni t
. (b).Di
fferent
iat
ebetweencoldboot i
ngandwarm booti
ng.
War m boot i
ng. 2. Wr i
tedownt heproceduretobefoll
owedwhenswi t
chingonacomputer
.
Thi shappenswhenacomput ert hatwasor iginallyoni sf orcedt or est artbypr essing 3. Compl etetheabbrevi
ati
on‘POST’incomput
ertechnol
ogyandexplai
nbri
eflyi
ts
theRest artbut tonont heSy stem uni torbypr essingacombi nat i
onofkey sont he purpose.
key boar d( Ct rl+Al t+Del). 4. Listdownt hestepsthatmustbefoll
owedbefor
eswi t
chingof
fthecomputer.
InWi ndowsoper atingsy stems, onecanuset heRest artopt ionont heShut downdi alog
boxt oper for m awar m boot . KEYBOARD.
WhenPoweri sswi t
chedon, thecomput erst artsbychecki ngal litscomponent st o TheKey boar
di sacomput
erinputdevi
cebywhi
chdata&inst
ruct
ionsisty
pedint
othe
det ermi newhet hert heyar eav ailablef oruseandwhet hert heyar ef unct ioni ngcor rectly
. computermemor y.
Itdoest hisbyexecut i
ngasmal lprogr am cal ledt hePower -On- Sel f
-Test( POST)t hati s Itenabl
estheusertoent
erdata&instr
ucti
onsi
ntot
hecomputerbypressi
ngit
skeys.
per manent lyst oredi nROM. TypesofKey boar
d.
POSTpr epar est hecomput erf orusebyi nst ructingi ttoper for m anumberofdi agnost i
c 1.St andardKeyboar
d–has99key s.
test swhenboot ingup.I tinst ruct sthecomput ert ocheckt hememor y( RAM)t omake 2.EnhancedKeyboar d–hasbet ween102&105keys.
sur ei tisoper at i
ngcor rect ly;checkt heCMOS( BI OS) ,Har ddi skcont roller,Fl oppydi sk
driv econt roller&t heKey boar d. KEYBOARDLAYOUT.
Dur ingt hi spr ocess, somemoni t
or sdi spl ayi nformat i
onshowi ngt hest at usofeach
dev icebei ngt est ed.I fapr obl em isf ound, e.g.,incaseoneoft hedev icesi sf aultyor TheKey boardofacomput erconsistsofkeyssimi
l
artot
hoseofat ypewrit
er.It
mi ssi ng, thepr ocesswi l
l haltanddi splayanappr opr i
ateer rormessageont hescr een contai
nstheusual r
angeofal phabeti
ccharact
ers(A–Z),di
git
s0–9, andother
i
ndi cat i
ngt ot heuserwher ethepr obl em i sl ocat ed.Somet imes, aner rorcodei s symbolsfrequent
lyusedtor epresentdat
aitems.However,
ithassomecommandkey
s
displ ayedwi tht hemessage, oranabnor mal numberofbeepsar esounded. forgiv
ingspecial
instr
uct
ionst othecomput er
.
Thespeci al pr ogr am thatdi r
ect st hePOSTpr ocessi scal l
edt heBasi cI nputOut put
Sy stem ( BIOS) .
Shut t
ingdownacomput er.
Aft erf i
nishi ngwor kingwi tht hecomput er, t
heusermustf ollowt hecor rectpr ocedur e
ofshut tingdownt hecomput eri nor dert oensur et hatlossofdat a,damageof
progr amsandcomput ercomponent sdoesnotoccur .
1.Saveal lthewor kdoneont hecomput er,andcl oseal lpr ogr amst hatmaybe
current lyr unni ng.
2.Removeanyf loppydi sky oumi ghthav einser tedi nt hecomput er.
3.Fol lowt hepr opershut -downpr ocedur er equi redbef oreswi tchingof fthecomput er
.
Forexampl e;
Tot urnof fanycomput err unni ngWi ndowsoper atingsy stems:
a). Cl ickt heSt ar tbut tonont hescr een, thensel ectShutDownf rom t hel ist.
b).I nt hepr omptt hatappear s, sel ectShutdown, thenpr esst heEnt erkeyon
thekey board. Data&pr
ogr
amsareinputi
ntothecomputerbypressi
ngtheappropr
iat
ekeys.When
c). Af teraf ewseconds, themessage“ Itisnowsaf et ot urnof fthecomput er” youty
pedat
aint
otheKeyboarddevi
ces,
itconver
tsiti
ntomachine-
sensi
blef
orms.
appear sont hescr een.Swi tchof ftheSy stem uni t,thent heMoni tor.
Not e.Somesy stem uni t sswi tcht hemsel v esof faut omat i
cally .I nsuchacase, SECTI
ONSOFTHEKEYBOARD.
presst hebut tonont heMoni tort ot urnof ft hescr een. MostKeyboardshav
eatot
alof101key
s,whi
char
edi
vi
dedi
nto5di
ff
erentgr
oups:
-
(a)
. Functi
on/Commandkeys.
4.Pressthebutt
onont hemonit
ort
oturnoffthescr
een.
Thesearethekey
sl ocat
edal
ongthetopoft
heKey
boardmar
kedF1upt
oF12.
5.Switchoffy
ourPri
nterandanyot
heroutputdevi
ces. Theyareusedtoissuecommandsint
othecomput
er.
-2- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Eachofthesekeysisusedtoperfor
m aspecialfuncti
oninvariousapplicati
on √ Usedt oer asechar acterstot helef tofthecur sor( i
.e.
,from righttoleft
packages,
e.g.
,F1isusedinmostapplicati
onsforhelp. onthesamel ine).
Functi
onkeysareuseddiff
erent
lybydiff
erentappli
cati
ons,
i.e.thei
rfunctions Whenpr essed, i
tmakest hecur sormov eonespacebackwar dsandt he
var
ywi t
hdiff
erentpr
ograms,andaretherefor
esomet imescalledProgrammabl e immedi atel ett
erornumbert othel eftiser ased.
Keys. i
i). Del ete(Del)key .
Itisusedt oer asechar acterst other i
ghtoft hecur sor,(i
.e.
, f
rom leftto
(
b). Alphanumer i
ckey s. right).
Thissect i
onconsi st sofal phabet i
c&numer ickey s.Al phanumer i
ckey sare i
ii
).I nser t(
Ins)key .
most l
yusedf ortypingoft ext. √ Usedi nawor dpr ocessort oswi tchbet weent heI nsertmode&Ov ertype
Ithast he26l et
tersoft heEngl ishal phabetmar kedont hem incapi tal l
ett
ers,and
mode.Whenpr essed, ithelpstheusert oi nserttextint hemi ddleofa
Numberkey sar rangedi nt heirnat uralor derf r
om 0–9.Al ongwi tht hesekey sare
sentenceorr eplaceachar acteratt hecur sorposi ti
on( i
.e.,overwri
tethe
Punct uationmar ks( comma, full-
st op,et c)andsomeSy mbol s.
text
).
Att hebot t
om oft heal phanumer ickey s,istheSpacebar ,whichi susedt o
(
e). Speci
al PCoper ati
onkey s.
separ atewor dsorsent encesf rom eachot her(ort ocreat eabl ankspaceaf ter
Theyar eusedi ncombi nationwi ththeot herkey soront heirownt oper form
typingeachwor d).
speci
al functi
ons/ tasks,ort ogivespeci al i
nstructionst ot hecomput er.
(
c). Numer icKey padkey s.
Exampl es;Esc,Tab, CapsLock, Shif t
,Ctrl
, Alt,
Ent er,Num Lock, ScrollLock.
Itisont her ight mostpar toft heKey boar d.I thaskey swi thdi gi
ts( number s)0-9
mar kedont hem i nr owsf rom thebot tom upwar ds.
TABkey( )
.
Thekey padal sohassomemat hemat i
cal symbol smar kedoni t
skey s.They
i
ncl ude: t
hemul ti
plicat i
onsi gn( *)
, subt r
actionsi gn( -
),additi
onsi gn( +)
,divi
sion
Iti
susedi ncert
ainpr ogramssuchasWor dpr ocessor stomov ethetextcursoror
sign( /)&t hedeci mal poi nt(.
).
acer t
aint
extatseti nter
v alsont hesamel i
net other equi
redpositi
onont he
TheKey padi susedf orf astent ryofnumer icdat aintothecomput er.
screen,e.
g.,
10mm, 20mm, etc.
Not e.Thenumber sont heNumer ickey padcanonl ybeusedwhent heNum Lock
ACur sori
sabl i
nkingunder score(_ _)orav erti
cal beam (I)thatshowswher e
keyi sturnedon.
thenextcharactertobet y pedwi llappear.
(
d). Directional (orCur sorposi ti
oning)key s.
CAPSLock.
Theyar eusedt omov et heCur sor( insert i
onpoi nt)withinthewi ndowofan
Usedt oswit
chbet weencapi tal(uppercase)lett
ers&smal l(l
owercase)let
ters.
appl i
cation.
Whenpr essedon, anindicat orwithaGr eenlightappear sont hetop-
ri
ghthand
Theyi nclude; PageUp, PageDown, Home, End, &t hefourAr rowKey s.
corneroftheKey board,andal lthet extty
pedwi llappearincapitall
ett
ers.When
 Ar rowkey s: pressedoff,al
lthetexttypedwi l
l appearinsmal llett
ers.
Tomov et hecur soronechar act ertot her i
ghti naWor dpr ocessi ngdocument ,
presst heRi ghtar rowkey ; t
omov et hecur soronechar actertot heleft,
press SHI
FTkey( ) .
theLef tar rowkey . Thi
sspeci al keywor ksincombi nat ionwi t
hot herkey s.
Tomov et hecur soronel i
neup, presst heUpar r
owkey ;tomov et hecursor √ Itcanbeusedt ogetsi nglecapi tall
etters.Hol ddownt heSHIFTkey&pr ess
onel inedown, presst heDownar rowkey . anal phabetkeyt ogett heletterinitscapitalform.
√ Itisusedt ogetthepunct uati
onmar ksont opoft heNumberkey sort he
 PageUp&PageDown: symbol sont opofcer tainkey sespeci al
lyont heal phanumericsection.
Tomov ethecursoruponepagei ncasethedocumenthasmanypages, pr
ess Togett hepunct uati
onmar kont opofanumberkeyort hesymbol ont opofa
thePageUpkey ;t
omov ethecursordownonepage, pr
essthePageDownkey. certainkey ;press&hol ddownt heSHI FTkeybef orepressingtherequi r
edkey.
 Home&Endkey s: ENTERkey( ↵).
Tomov ethecursortothebeginningofthecurrentli
ne,pr
esstheHomekey; √ ItisusedasaRETURNkey .Whenpr essedatt heendofat extli
neor
tomov ethecur
sortotheendoft hecurr
entli
ne,presstheEndkey. paragr aphi nawor dpr ocessor ,i
tforcest hetextcur sortomov etot hestart
/
Edi
ti
ngkey s. beginni ngoft henextlineorpar agraph.
Theyareusedtodeleteorinsertchar
actersinadocument .Theseare: √ Itisusedt oissuecompl eti
oncommandst ot hecomput er
.Itisusedt o
i
). Backspacekey. instr
uctt hecomput ertocar ryout( execute)acommandt hathasbeent y
ped
I
thasabackwardar r
ow()mar kedoni t. orsel ectedont hescr een.

-3- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Minus(-
)symbol-i susedforsubt
ract
ion,
ESCAPE( ESC)key . Upcarat(^
) -i ndicat
esexponent
ial(
rai
si
ngt
oapower
).
Itgener at esspeci alcodef ort hecomput er.I nsomepr ograms, itisusedwhen Pr
acti
calKeyboar
dskil
ls.
youwantt oqui tdoi ngsomet ask, i.e.escapef r
om ort ocancel at ask.
CONTROL( CTRL)key . Whenusi ngt hekey boar d, obser vet hef ollowi ngt ypingrul es:
Itcont rolsv ar iousf unct ionsi ncombi nationwi t
hot herkey s, e.g.CTRL+” S”isused 1). Situpr i
ghtwi thbot hf eetf irml yont hegr ound, maint aininganal ertpost ure.
togi vet hecommandf orsav ingt het ext/ obj ect. 2). Pl acet hemat er i
al t
obet ypedony ourl eftinaposi tiony oucanr eadwi thout
Commonl yconf usi ngkey s. str ain.
Somekeyshapescausemuchconf usi on.I fy ouuset hewr ongkey ,t hepr ocess
youar ewor ki
ngonmaynotwor kasexpect ed, buti tmaybev erydi fficultto 3). Restbot hhandsont hekey boar dwi thf inger srestingont heHomekey s.
det ermi newhati swr ong. Homekey sar et hekey sonwhi chf inger sr estdur i
ngt ypinginreadinesst opr ess
TheI , 1,l ando, O, 0key s. ot herkey s.Thehomekey sf ort hel efthandst art
ingwi tht hesmal lf
ingerar eA,S,
Lookcl osel yt ospott hedi ff
er encebet weencapi tal “I”
,one( 1)and“ l”(lower case D, Fwi tht het humbont heSpacebar ,whi lethoseoft her i
ghthandar et he
“L”), andbet weensmal l“o” ,capi tal“O”andzer o“ 0”. apost rophe( ‘)
, semi col on( ;),L, Kwi tht het humbont heSpacebar .
TheSl ash( /)andBacksl ash( \ )key s. 4). St artty pingt het extsl owl yatf irst ,maki ngsur ey ouar eusi ngallthetenf i
nger s,
Thesl ash( “/”)isusedas: andt haty oupr esst hekeynear estt ot hehomekey swi tht heclosestfinger,e.g.
,
­Adi visionsy mbol whenwr it
ingaf ormul a. topr essQ, uset hesmal lfingeront hel ef thand, whilet opr essJ, usethei ndex
­Acommandkeyt ogeti ntot hemenusi nLot us1- 2-3. fingeront her ighthand.
­Tosepar atepar tsofapat hi naUNI Xf i
lename. Descr
ipt i
v eQuest ions.
Thebacksl ash( “\”)i sused: 1. Def i
neaKey boar d.
­I nLot us1- 2-3t of i
llacel lwit hachar act er. 2. (a) Gi v et heTWOt ypesofKey boar dsf oundi nthecur rentmar ket.
­I nMS- DOSt osepar atepar tsofapat hinaf il
ename. (
b) St at eandbr i
eflyexpl aint hef unct ionsoff ivecat egor i
esofkey sfoundona
TheSpace, Hy phen(- )andUnder scor e(_)Key s. standar dkey boar d.
TheSpacei sent eredusi ngt heSpacebaront hekey boar d. 3. Stat et heuseofeacht hef ollowi ngsect i
onorcombi nationofkey sont hekey board:
Not e.Abl ankspacei sapr intingchar act er;itt akesupmemor y,hasanASCI Icode, a) .Funct ionkey s.
andi spr i
nt edont hescr eeni nt hesamemannerasanyot herchar act er. b) .Numer ickey pad.
TheHy phenkey( dashormi nus)&t heUnder scor e( under l
ine)ar eont hesame c) .Ar rowkey s.
phy si cal keyt op.Togett heunder scor e, uset heSHI FT.
d) .Cont rol key .
TheUnder scor ei sof tenusedi npl aceswher easpacei sneededt osepar ate
4. Name3mai nsect ionsoft heKey boar dthatar eusedi nt yping.
i
ndi v i
dual wor ds, buti snotl egal int hecont ext .E. g.,thef i
l
enameTAX1990i s
5. Whati st hedi fferencebet weenFunct ionkey sandSpeci al PCoper ati
onkey s?
i
llegal inMS- DOSbecauseoft hebl ankspacebet weenTAXand1990, but
6. Stat et hef unct ionsoft hef ollowi ngkey sont hekey boar d.
TAX_ 1990i sl egal .TheUnder scor et akest hepl acesoft hebl ankspace.
Singl e&Doubl equot e, Accentgr av e, andTi lde. i). CapsLock.
Singl equot e( ‘)&Doubl equot e( “). ii
) . Spacebar .
Bot hsy mbol sar eont hesamephy si cal keyt op.Togett hedoubl equot e,usethe ii
i) .Shi f tKey .
SHI FT. iv) .Ent erKey .
Accentgr av e( `)&Ti l
de( ~)ar ef oundont hesamekeyt op.TheTi ldei susedi n
v) . Backspace.
Mat hemat i
cs, forei gnl anguages, ori nUNI Xoper at i
ngsy st
em t oindi catet hehome
subdi rect ory . vi) .Del ete.
ThePar ent hesi s() ,Squar ebr acket s[] ,&Cur lybr aces{} vii).Escape.
Eachoft hesesy mbol si suseddi ff
er ent l
ydependi ngonwhatpr ogr am y ouar e viii).Num Lock.
runni ng. 7. Giv et wousesoft heSHI FTkey .
Mat hemat i
calsy mbol s( +, -
, *,/,^ )
.
Slash( /) -usedf ordi vision, MOUSE.
Ast er isk( *) -f ormul tipli
cat ion, AMouseisapoint
ingdev
icet
hatenabl
est
heusertoi
ssueinst
ruct
ionstothe
Plus( +)sy mbol -foraddi tion, comput
erbycontr
oll
i
ngaspeci
almousepoi
nterdi
spl
ayedonthescreen.

-4- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
AMouseconsist
sof4par t
s:- quicklyaccompl ishcommont asks.
1)
. ACasing-toassi
stinholdi
ngthemousei nthehand. Cli
cking: -pressi
ng&r el
easingt helef
tmousebutt
ononce.Acl i
ckusuallyselect
san
2)
. ARoll
erball–usedtosli
de/movethemouseonaf l
atsur
face.I
tal
soenabl
est
he object/i
tem ont hescr een.
cur
sortomov eonthescreenasrequi
red. Doubl e-
clicki
ng: -pressi
ngthel eftbut
tontwi
ceinarow(inaquicksuccession)without
3)
. TheSensorButt
ons(Right&Left
)–usedf ormakingsel
ecti
ons. mov ingthemouse.Doubl e-cl
ickingusual
l
yopensaf i
l
eorstart
sapr ogram.
4)
. ACable-connect
sthemouset otheSy st
em uni
t. Right-cl
i
cki ng:-pressingtheri
ghtmousebut tononce(or
,sel
ecti
ngani t
em byuseof
therightmousebut t on)
.

Arightclickusuallydi
spl
aysal
istofcommandsfr
om whicht
heusercanmakea
sel
ection.ThislistofcommandsiscaledaShor
l tcutmenuorContext
-sensi
ti
vemenu.
Thisisbecause; thecommandsont hi
smenuappl
ytothespeci
fi
citem t
hathasbeen
ri
ght-
clicked.

Shor
tcutmenu:

 Al
istofcommandst hatappearswheny
our i
ght-
cli
ckanobj
ect
.
 Amenut hatshowsalistofcommandsspeci
fict
oaparti
cul
arri
ght
-cl
i
ckedi
tem.

Draganddrop:
Thi
siswher
ebyt
heusermov
esani
tem f
rom onel
ocat
ionont
hescr
een
t
oanother.

Tomov
eani
tem ont
hescr
eenbydr
aggi
ng;

1.Pointt
otheit
em y
ouwantt odrag.
2.Press&holddownthelef
tmousebut ton.
3.Sl
idethemouseunti
lthepoi
nterreachesthedesi
redposi
ti
onont
hescr
eenwhi
l
e
Usingt heMouse. st
il
lhol
dingdownt
hemousebut
ton.
Touseamouse, hol ditiny ourhandandmov eitacrossaf latsurfaceoront opofa 4.Rel
easet
hemousebut
tont
o‘dr
op’
thei
tem i
nit
snewl
ocat
ion.
tabl
e.Wheny oumov et hemouse, anar row- shapedpoi ntercall
edt heMousepoi nt
er
mov esacr ossthecomput erscreeni nthesamedi rection.Thepoi nterisusuall
y Rev
iewQuest
ions.
controll
edbymov ingt hemouse.
Tosel ectanopt ion/i t
em ont hescr een; 1. Whatmakesamousemov eapoi nt
eronthescreen?
 Posi tiont het i
poft hepoi nter(cursor)ov erthei t
em t obesel ect
ed; 2. Stat
eTHREEadv ant agesofusingaMousei nst
eadofakeyboar
d.
 Pr essabut tonont hemouset omakey oursel ection. 3. Explai
nthemeani ngoft hefol
lowingter
msassoci at
edwi
ththeuseofamouse:
Whenusi ngt hemouse, observet hefollowingr ules:
(a).Mousepoi nter.
a). Pl acet hemouseonaf l
atsmoot hsur f ace.
(b).Cli
cki ng.
b). Gent lyhol dt hemousewi thy ourr i
ghthand, usi
ngt het humbandt hetwo
r
ight mostf ingers. (c).Doubl e-cl
icking.
c). Thei ndexf ingershoul dr estont hel eftbut ton,whi lethemi ddlef i
ngerrestsonthe (d).Right-cli
cking.
r
ightbut ton. (e).Draganddr op.
Termi nol ogiesassoci atedwi t
ht heuseofaMouse. 4. Dist
inguishbet ween:
Point:-t hismeansmov ingt hemouseunt il
t het ipofthepoi nteront hescreenisover (a). Cl ickandr ight-cl
i
ck.
theitem y ouwantt osel ect. (b). Doubl e-cli
ckinganddr agging.
Tosel ectani t
em ont hescr een, pointthei t
em, thenpr essamousebut ton.Uset he 5. WhatisaShor tcutmenu?
Leftbut ton( Pri
mar ybut ton)formostt asksort heRi ghtbut t
on( Secondarybut t
on)to

-5- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
HARDWARE.
Hardwar eisat erm usedtodescr ibeallt
hephy sical&t angi
bledevicest hatmakeupacomput er
system, i.
e.itconsistsoft hepar t
sthatcanbet ouchedandf elt.
Hardwar eincludeal lmechani cal&electroni
celement sfoundinthecomput er,e.
g.,t
heSystem
Unit,Tr
ansi stors,Diodes,bussy stemssuchasel ectronicpaths(channel s),theInputdevi
ces(e.g.
,
Keyboar d,Mouse) ,Out putdevices(e.g.
,Monitor)&t heSt or
agedev ices.
Hardwar edev icesenabl etheusert oenterinf
ormat ionintoacomput er,viewt heoutputon
screen,printoutourwor k,storeandpr ocessthewor k.
Thehar dwar eel ementsofacomput eraregenerallygrouped/sub-dividedi nto4maj orcategor
ies:
-
COMPUTERSYSTEMS.
Theterm Syst
em canbedef i
nedasacoll
ect
ionofi
ndependententi
ti
esthatcol
lect
ivel
ywork
toget
hertoachiev
eadesi r
edgoal.
1)
.I nputdev ices.
Allt
hingscanbev i
ewedasbei ngmadeupofsmalli
ndependentcomponents(subsyst
ems)that
Inputdev icesar eusedt ocommuni catewithacomput er.Theyenabl et hecomput erusert
o
comet oget
hertoform abi
ggermorecomplexsyst
em.
enterdat a,infor mati
on&pr ogramsi ntothecomput er.Theyalsol ett
heuseri ssue
commandst ot hecomput er.
Forexample; AnI nputdev i
ceconv ertsthei nputinformati
oni ntomachine-
sensi bl
e/readableform.
(1). ASchoolcanbeseenasasyst em wit
hstudents,
teachers,
Accountsdepart
ment
, andthe Exampl es.
Admini
strat
ionassubsy
stems.Theschool
sy st
em it
selfi
sasubsystem ofthemi
nistryof *Key boar d. *Mouse.
educat
ion. *Key -t
o-disk. *Key -
to-Tape.
*Scanner . *Lightpen.
COMPUTERSYSTEMS. *Tr ackball *Videodi giti
zers.
*Gr aphicspads( Tablets). *Joy sti
ck/Gamepaddl es.
WhatisaComput ersystem? *SpeechRecogni ti
ondev i
ces. *Digital&Webcamer as.
 Thet erm Comput ersystem r
efer
stot hecompletesetofdevi
cesrequi
redtouse&oper ate *Voi ceinputdev i
ces,e.g.Mi crophones.
thecomput er. *Documentr eader s,suchas, Magnet icInkChar act
erReader(MI CR),Opti
calMar kReader
 Comput ersystem i
sthecompl et
esetofdev i
cesthatmakeacomput erwor kasoneunit. (OMR)&Opt icalChar acterReader( OCR) .
 Acol lecti
onofentit
iesthatworktogethert
oprocessandmanagei nfor
mat ionusi
ng *PointOfSal et erminals,suchas, Barcoder eaders,Ki
mballTagr eaders,Cardreaders,&
comput er
s. Badger eader s.
Acomput ersystem consist
softhecomput erit
sel
f&suppor t
ingdevi
cesforinput,
output
,
pr
ocessing&st orageofdatasuchasdi sks,Monit
ors,Pri
nter
s,et
c 2)
.CentralPr
ocessingunit–CPU( Processor).
TheCPUiscomposedoft heMainMemor y,heALU&t
t heContr
oluni
t.
FUNCTIONALORGANI ZATIONOFTHEELEMENTSOFACOMPUTERSYSTEM. TheCPUperformst henecessar
yoperationsonthedat
aheldwithi
nthememor y
.It
AComput ersystem consist
s(ori
smadeup)of4basi
cel
ement
sthatar
eint
err
elat
edandwor
kin i
nter
pret
s&pr ocessesallt
heinstr
ucti
onsf r
om t
heInputdevi
ces.
uni
son.Thef ourelementsare: TheCPUishousedi nthecomputercasing(Syst
em Unit)
,whi
chcontai
nsal
lthemajor
(1)
.Hardwar e. component
sofacomput ersyst
em.
(2)
.Software.
(3)
.Liv
ewar e(Comput eruser)
. 3)
.Out putdevi
ces.
Outputdevi
cesar eusedt oext ract
/dissemi nat
eprocesseddataf r
om t
hecomput
er.They
di
splaytheresult
sofal lthei nf
ormationthathasbeenpr ocessed.
Theyalsoconvertmachi ne-codedout putresult
sfrom theProcessori
ntoaf
ormthatcanbe
underst
oodbypeopl e.
Examples.
*Screen(Monitor/Visual Displ
ayunit–VDU) . *Pri
nter
s
*AudioResponseuni ts. *GraphPl ott
ers.
*Soundoutputdev i
ces, e.g.Speakers.*Mi crof
orms.

4)
.St or
agedev i
ces.
Thesear
edev icesusedtost
oredata&programsi
ncomputers.Theyi
ncl
ude;Har
ddisks,
Fl
oppydisks,Magnetict
apedri
ves,
Cassett
eTapes,Opt
ical
disks(
CD-ROMs),
andRandom
AccessMemor y(RAM) .
-6- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Note.Al
lthesest
oragedev
icesdi
ff
eri
ntheway(
technol
ogy
)theyst
oredat
a&t
hecapaci
ti
es
ofdatat
heycanhold. LIVEWARE
Livewareisat erm usedt orefertothecomput erend-user.Theyar ethepeopl ewhocoor dinate
thevari
ousact i
vi
ties,whicharenecessar ytogetacomput ersyst
em toper f
or m useful t
asks.
Theyinclude; Dataentryoperators,
Comput erOper at
ors,Programmer s,System Analy sts,Data
ProcessingManager s,DatabaseAdmi nistr
at ors,
Comput erLibrar
ians,andtheot herst affdir
ectl
y
orindi
rectl
yi nvol
v edintherunningofthesy stem operat
ions.
Apartfrom thehar dwareandsof twareelement s,t
heuseri salsoseenasani ntegral
par tofthe
comput ersystem asshowni nthefigurebelow;

Char
act
eri
sti
csofComputerHardware. ELECTRONI CCOMPONENTSOFAMI CROCOMPUTERSYSTEM.
Ami cr
ocomput erconsist
sof4electr
onicpart
s:
1.Hardwareconsi
stsofpart
sthatonecant
ouchandf
eel
.
1).Inputdevices.
2.Hardwaredetermineswhatsoft
war ewil
lbeusedinthecomputer. 2).Cent r
alProcessingUnit(
CPU),al
socall
edt hePr
ocessor
.
3.Computerhardwar ei
sexpensi
vet oacqui
re. 3).Out putdevices.
4).Memor ystoragedevi
ces,whi
chconsistofMainmemor i
es&Secondar
ymemor
ies.
4.Hardwaredevicescanonlybemadebyspeci al
isthar
dwareengineer
s.
5.Noteasytochangepar t
icul
arhardwarecomponents.

SOFTWARE. Cont
rol
Uni
t(CU)
 Thesear etheprograms&dat ausedi nacomput ersystem t
hatenabl eitper
for
m ano.of -I
nter
pret
sst
oredi
nstr
ucti
ons;
specifi
cfuncti
ons. -I
ssuescommandstoall
element
sof
 Sof t
wareisasetofcomput erpr ogramst hatgui
desthecomput erineachandev eryacti
vit
y thecomput
er
I
nputdev
ice Out
putdev
ice
thathappensinsidethecomput erdur i
ngdataprocessingoper at
ions.
I
nputdata& Ar
it
hmet
ic&Logi
cUni
t(ALU) Givesoutinf
ormati
on
Sof
twar ealsoincl
udest heassociateddocument ati
on(descript
ionsoft heprogr
ams) .
i
nst
ructi
ons (r
esultofdatapr
ocessi
ng)
Whenusedi nacomput er,Soft
war ei nstr
uctsthecomputert ocarryoutspecifi
cprocessingtasks, Per
for
msar
it
hmet
ic&l
ogi
coper
ati
ons
e.
g.pr oducetheyearendBal ancesheet .
Bus Bus
Char
act
eri
sti
csofComput
erSof
tware. Mai
nmemor
y(Pr
imar
yst
orage)
1.Theyaretheprogr
ams&datausedinacomput
ersy
stem. -Holdsdat
a,i
nst
ruct
ions&r
esul
tsof
2.AComput
erPr
ogr
am i
susual
l
yasetofcomput
eri
nst
ruct
ionswr
it
teni
nanyoft
hecomput
er processi
ng
programminglanguages, e.
g.BASI C,PASCAL, et
c.
3.Iti
snotpossibletoseeapr ogram i nmemor yasitexistsinmagneticspots,however
,you
cansee&t ouchal i
stingofthepr ogram onthecomput erscr
een.
Secondar
y(Backi
ng)st
orage
4.Softwareenablecomput erhardwar etooperat
eef f
ectively.I
notherwords,soft
wareis Tosuppl
ementMai
nst
orage
meantt oput‘l
i
fe’i
ntot hehardwar e.
Bus
5.Softwarei
sf l
exibl
e,i
.e.,t
hesof t
war eusedinapar t
icularcomputerisrel
ati
velyeasyt
o
change. Fi
g.1.
2:Acomput
ermodel
6.Softwarei
scheapercompar edtohar dwaredev i
ces.
7.Comput
ersof
twar
ecanbewr
it
tenbyt
heuser
,aPr
ogr
ammeroraSof
twar
ehouse.  Data&inst
ruct
ionst
obepr ocessedar
esuppl
i
edt
othecomput
ermemor
ybyt
heuserwi
th
thehel
pofInputdev
ices.
-7- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
 TheCPUper formst hedesir
edoperationsont hedataandt heresultsofcalcul
ati
ons/ Amousei sapoi nti
ngdev i
cethatr
oll
sonasmal l
bal
landisusedtocontr
olthemovementofthe
processingarecommuni cat
edtotheusert hroughtheOut putdevices. cursor(
or,
apoi nter
)ont hecomputerscreen.
 Thedat aand/ orinst
ruct
ionsnotbeingusedi mmedi at
elybyt hecomput erarehel
d Typesofmouse
permanent l
yint heBacki
ngst or
age,forret
rievalanyti
mei tisrequir
edbyt heuser.  Tr aditi
onalmouse
 Opt icalmouse
I
NPUTDEVI CES.  Cor dlessmouse
Beforeacomput ercanprocessanydata,i
tmustbegivent
hedata&program inst
ructionsbyuse Themousei smost lyusedwithGraphi
calUserInt
erf
aces(GUIs)
.Iti
ssuescommandst othe
ofanInputdev i
ce. computerbyact i
vati
ngcertai
nsimplegraphici
magescall
edIconsdi
splay
edont hescr
een.
I
nputisat erm usedtodescri
beall
thatgoesint
othecomputermemory(usuall
yther awdata&
i
nstruct
ions)toawaitprocessi
ng. Adv
ant agesofusingaMouse.
I
nputinvolvesenteri
ngdata&inst
ructi
onsint
othecomputerbyuseofsui
tabledevices.
1.Themousei seasytolear
n&conv eni
entt
ouse.Thi
sisbecause;
iti
susedt
osel
ectopt
ions
(icons)displ
ayedonthescreen.
FUNCTIONSOFI NPUTDEVICES.
Aninputdevi
ceperf
ormsthefoll
owingfunct
ions/tasks: 2.I tisinexpensi
ve.
1.Accept sdat
a&i nst
ruct
ionsfr
om theuserint
ot hecomput
ersy
stem. 3.Mostmodernsoft
wareincl
udesanopt
iont
ouseit
.
2.Readdatafr
om themedium onwhi
chiti
sstored. 4.I
tperf
ormsoperat
ionsmucheasier&muchmor
equickl
ythanakey
boar
d.I
tisv
eryf
astt
o
3.Convert
sthehuman-r
eadabl
edatai
ntoelect
ronic/
machi
ne-
readabl
efor
m(i
.e.af
ormt
hat wor
kwi
thasi
tlet
stheuserpr
ovi
desi
mpl
e“poi
nt”&“
cli
ck”i
nst
ruct
ionst
othecomput
er.
canbeunder
stoodbythecomputer
) 5.Canbeusedi
nar
tanddesi
gnwor
kbecause;
ital
l
owsdi
agr
amst
obedr
awn&modi
fi
ed
4.Accept
scommandsf orr
unni
ng,hal
ti
ngorabor
ti
ngapr
ogr
am f
rom t
heuser
. easi
l
y.

5.Dat
ainputcanei
therbeOnl
i
neorOf
f-
li
ne. Di
sadv
ant
agesofusi
ngaMouse.
Oncet
hedat
aisent
eredi
ntot
hecomput
er,
itf
inal
l
yent
er heMai
st nst
orage.
1.Themousecannotbeusedt
oinputt
exteasi
l
y.
Exer
cise. 2.I
tisr
elat
ivel
ysl
owf
orsel
ect
ingmenuopt
ions.Auserwhoi
sfami
l
iarwi
tht
hekey
boar
d
1. Gi veTHREEmainfunct
ionsofacomputeri
nputdev
ice. commandscansel
ectt
heopt
ionsmor
equi
ckl
y.
2. St atef
ourexampl
esofinputdev
icesy
ouknow. 3.I
tisnotv
eryaccurat
efordrawingpur
poses.

Classi
fi
cati
onofInputdev ices.
4.Themouserequi
resaflatsur
facetooper
ate.
I
nputdev i
cescanbecl assifi
edaccor di
ngtohowt heyareusedt oenterdat
aintoacomputer.
TRACKBALL.
Theseincl
ude.
ATrackbal lworksj
ustli
kethemouse, butinsteadofmov ingi
tonaf l
atsurf
ace,ithasaballfi
xed
(a).Keyingdevi
ces. onitstopwhi chisrol
ledusingthei
ndexfinger.
(b).Pointi
ngdevicessuchast heMouse, Trackball
, et
c. Asthebal lrot
ates,
itmovesapoi nt
eront hescr een.Theusercanthencli
ckitsbuttontoexecut
e
(c).Scanningandotherdat acapturedevi
ces,e.g.,Scanners,Digi
talcameras,
etc. theselectedcommand.
Theadv antageofat r
ackballov
erthemousei st hat,aTr
ackbal
ldoesn’
trequir
eaf latsur
facefor
Dat
acapturedevicesar ethosedev i
cesthataut omaticall
ycapturedatafr
om thesour
ce.
mov ement .
(d).Speechrecogniti
onorVoi ceinputdevi
cessuchasMi crophones. Note.Todaysomecomput erscomewi t
hat rackballontopofaKeyboardandaMouse.
(e).TouchscreenandDi giti
zers.
LIGHTPEN.
KEYINGDEVICES. ALi ghtPeni sahand- hel
ddev icesimil
arinshapet oabal l-pointpen,andhasal i
ghtsensi ti
ve
Typeofkeyi
ngdev i
ces point .Itconsi
stsofapen- l
ikedev i
cecal edast
l y
lusconnect edbyacabl etoacomput erterminal
.
 Tr adit
ionalkey
board ALi ghtpeni susedt oget
herwi thagraphicVDUt hatisablet osensel i
ghtshiningont hescr een
 Fl exi
blekeyboard usingspeci alhardware&sof tware.ALi ghtpendoesnotemi tl
ightbuti
nstead, i
treactstot he
 Er gonomi ckeyboar
d l
ightemi tt
edbyt hedispl
ayusingaphot osensi
ti
vedet ectorati tsbase.
 key pad. Whent hepeni smov edacrosst hescreen, i
tspositi
onissensedbecauseoft helightitproduces.
√ ALi ghtpenpr ov
idesadi r
ectinputmode.I tcanbeusedt oreaddatadirectl
yfrom t hesource
POINTI
NGDEVI CES. document .Itall
owst heusert opointdir
ectl
yt oanobj ectont hescr
een, t
husident i
fyingitto
Thesearethei
nputdev
icesthatent
erdat
aorinstr
ucti
onsbycontr
oll
i
ngapoint
eront
hescr
een. thescreen.
Examplesofpoi
nti
ngdevicesar
e;Mouse,Tr
ackbal
l,Joyst
ick,
andLi
ghtpen. √ Li ghtpenscanbeusedt or eadbar-codesont hedifferenti t
ems.

MOUSE. √I
tcanal
sobeusedt
osel
ecti
temsf
rom agi
venl
i
stof‘
menus’
displ
ayedont
hescr
eenby

-8- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
si
mplypoint
ingthepenatt hei
tem requi
red&thenpr
essi
ngabutt
ononthepen. r
elay
edt
othecomput
er,
whi
chcandi
spl
ayt
hedr
awi
ngsont
hescr
eenorhav
ethem pr
int
ed.
√ Li
ghtpensareusual l
yusedasdesignaids-t
heycanbeusedtodrawi
magesonthescr
een,
whichcanbepr i
nted.Theycanalsobeusedtoindi
cateapoi
ntonascr
eenorpad,
for UsesofGr aphi cTabl et s.
example,
toselectoptionsf
ordrawing. Graphict abletsar emost lyused;
(a).I nEngi neer i
ng&Ar chi
tecturaldesignasi tl
etstheusercr
eatehis/herownimages.I
tis
veryeasyf ort heusert o‘tryout’differentdesigns.
TOUCH- SENSI TIVESCREENS. (b).I nComput er-AidedDesi gnwor kasdi agrams&mapscanbet r
acedordr awn&
ATouch- sensiti
vescr eenusest hehumanf i
ngerast heinputmedium, (
i.
e.onecansel ectit
ems transferredi ntot hecomput ermemor yt obefurtherwor
kedonusingGr aphi
cs
oroptionsfrom agi venlistbytouchi ngthescreenwi thaf i
nger). programs.
Thismet hodofi nputisusuallyusedwi thaVDU, whichi sabletosenset hetouchedpoi ntsonthe
screen. (c).ByBanks&I nsurancecompani estov erifysi
gnatures.Asi
gnaturewr i
tt
enonapadis
Whent heusert ouchest hescr eenwi thaf i
nger,i
tblocksoutt heli
ghtemi tt
edf r
om thatporti
onof compar edagai nstanotherf ormer l
yst oredinthecomputer.
thescreen.Thecomput erdetectst hepositi
onoft hef i
nger.Thescr eencant hendetermine (d).Padsareal sogoodatdet ect i
ngf orgeries.
whichpar ti
sbei ngtouched, andt herefore,
whichsel ect
ionisrequired.
Touchscr eensar emost lyusedi npubl i
cplaceslikebankinghalls,hotel
s,inai
rport
s( t
opr ovide 2.VI
DEODI
GITI
ZERS.
guidanceinformat i
on) ,
etc. Theseconsi
stofspeci
alhar
dware&sof t
ware,whichconv er
tsvi
deosi
gnal
sf r
ame-by-f
rame
Notes. i
ntoadigi
talr
epresent
ati
onincomputermemor y
,whi chcanbesavedondisk,i
fnecessar
y.
•Bot htheLightpen&t heTouchpr ov i
defastinputmodes. Asequenceoffr
amescanhav egraphi
cs,car
toons,textadded,
etc.
•Therei
snot
ypi
ngorpr
int
ingr
equi
red;
howev
er,
theyoper
ateundert
hei
nfl
uenceofcompl
ex
pr
ogr
ams. DIGITALCAMERAS.
ADigitalcamerastoresitsimagesi ndigit
al f
orm.Theseimagescanthenbestr
eamed( entered)
JOYSTI
CKS/GAMEPADDLES. di
rectlyint
oacomput erforedit
ingorpr intingbyconnect
ingthecamerat
oacomput erusinga
specialcabl
e.
Thesear ehand-heldI nputdev ices, whichenabl etheusert ointer
actwithapr ogram.Theyar e Therear e2typesofdi gi
talcamer as;onet hatcantakest
il
l(moti
onl
ess)i
mages,i
.e.
,photographs,
usedf orpl ayi
ngcomput ergames. andanot hert
hattakesmot i
onpi ctures(vi
deo) .
AJoy sticki saninputdev i
cet hatlooksl ikeacargearl ever.Itisananal ogue-to-di
git
alconvert
er
wheret hei nputinvolvesmov ingt hecont rolleversi
deway s,upwardsordownwar dstocontrolt
he VOICEI NPUTDEVI CES( SpeechRecogni ti
onDev ices-SRD) .
mov ementoft hecur soront hescr een. Voicer ecogni tioni satypeofi nputmet hodwher eaMi crophoneconnect edtoacomput er
Justliket hemouse, i
thasabut tonwhi chi susedf orsel
ect i
ngani t
em.I tiscommonl yusedin system ( throughsomeext racircui
try)i
susedt oenterdat ainform ofspokenwor dsintothe
playi
ngv i
deogames. comput er.
AGamepaddl emayconsi stofabut t
on, whichcanbepr essedbyt heusert oinputdatatothe TheSRDaccept sspokencommands&conv ertthem intoelectronicpulses/si
gnals,
whi chcanbe
program.Whent hepr ogram sensest hatt hebuttonhasbeenpr essed,ittakestheappropriat
e processedbyt hecomput er.
acti
on, suchas, firi
ngami ssileorr eversingthedi r
ecti
onofat ank. Theusermustt r
ainthesy stem torecognizehi s/
hervoi cebyrepeat i
ngeachwor dinthe
AGamepaddl ecanal soconsi stofadi al whichwhenr otated;i
tconv ey
si nformat i
ontothe vocabul arysev eralti
mes.Eachwor disanalyzed&f il
edf oridentif
icat
ion.
program.Thepr ogram musti mmedi atelyactont heinformat i
onsuppliedbyt hedial
setti
ng,e.
g. UsesofVoi ceI nputdev ices.
agoal keepermaybemov edacr osst hef aceoft hegoaltoi nt
erceptashot . (a).Voi cei nputi safast&easi ermet hodmost l
ysuitableforthehandi cappedespecial
lythose
Note.Dat apr ocessingshoul dbev eryfast. wi thimpai r
edhands.
(b).I nSecur ity&Accesscont rol–Eachper sonhasauni que‘Voiceprint’
thatcanbeusedf or
DIGI
TIZERS. i
dent ifi
cation.Thi sappr oachcoul dbeusedi n;-
TheDi gitizersar einputdevicesthatconv ertgr aphicaldrawingsori magesont hepaperorot her -El ectronicMoneyt r
ansf er.
material i
nt odi gi
taldataandconv eyt hem tot hecomput ermemor y . -House/Carsecur ityusingv oiceactivatedlocks.
Digi
ti
zer sar esl ow, buteasytohandl eander ror sarehar dl
ypr esent . -Of ficesecur i
tyforroom access.
1.GRAPHI CSPADS/TABLETS. (c).I nVoi ce-activat
edt oy s&games.
Graphi cTabl etsareusedf orenteringdrawi ngsdi r
ectl
yi ntothecomput er.
AGr aphicst abletconsistsofapadort abl et(thatissensitivetot ouch)&apoi nti
ngdev i
ce,
(
d).I
nQual
i
tycont
rol&aut
omat
ion(
comput
eri
zat
ion/
mechani
zat
ion)i
nfact
ori
es.
whi chi ssi milartoaball-
pointpencal edast
l y
lus. Acheckerwhosehandsar ebusydoesnothav et ostopworki
ngtomakeent ri
esinlog
Apaperi splacedont hegr aphicpad&t heusercant r
acel inesanddr awpi ct
uresusingthe books,i
nsteadhe/
shecansi mplygi
vear unni
ng( spoken)commentsont hegoodshe/she
pen.Ast hest y
lusmov esont het abl
et,thet abletsensest hepr essureonit&t ransl
atesit i
sexami ni
ng.Forexample,i
nJapan,speechi nputisusedtoorderr
obotsabout.
i
nt odi gitalsignalsgiv
ingitscorrespondingposi ti
onont hescr een.Itthenconv ert
sthis (
e).I
nAut omatedmateri
alshandli
ng–inairport
s, handl
er’
sgivespokencommandst hatdir
ect
‘
pressur e’ i
ntox-yco-ordi
nates,whi chdescr ibewhati sbei ngdr awn.Thi sdataisthen thel
uggaget ot
heappropri
ateconveyorbelt
.

-9- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI T1: INTRODUCTIONTOCOMPUTERS.
(
f).I
nComput
er-
AidedDesi
gn(
CAD)–Adesi
gner
,e.
g.ofbui
l
dings,
wor
kingatat
ermi
nalcan thei
magescanbemani
pul
atedbychangi
ngt
hecol
ors,
theshar
pnessandcont
rast
.
cal
lupdesi
gnpat
ter
nswhi
char
efr
equent
lyused,
inst
eadofhav
ingt
opunchcat
aloguenos. Ther
eare2mai ntypesofScanners:-
i
ntoaKeyboar
d. (a).Pagescanner:
Thisi
sadeskt opmachinethatlooksl
ikeasmal
lphot
ocopi
er.I
tscansawhol
epageata
Li
mit
ati
ons(
disadv
ant
ages)ofSpeechI
nput
/Recogni
ti
ondev
icesf
oundToday
. ti
me.Anex ampl ei
stheFlatbedscanner.
1.Homophones–somewordshavesamesounds.
Usingt hisscanner ,onecanscant ext,areal objectorapi ct
urebyplacingitonagl assplate
2.Wordseparat
ion. exactlythewayaphot ocopyingmachi newor ks.Thet extorthepi
cturescannedi sdisplayed
Thespeechmustbe“ cl
ipped”i .e.eachwor dmustbef ol l
owedbyashor tper i
odofsi l
ence. ont hescr eenorsav edsot hatonecanedi torpr i
nti t
.
Thisenabl est hedev icet or ecogni zet heendofeachwor d.Ifthisisnotdone, thedev i
ce
mightnotbeabl et ot ellthedi ffer encebet ween‘ Command”and“ Comeand” ,dependingon (b).Handscanner:
theaccentoft hespeaker . AHandscanneri shel dinthehandandpassedov eradocument .
Scannersar ev eryuseful whenlargeamount sofexi st
ingdocument sneedt obeconv ertedinto
3.Speakervari abi l
ity. el
ectronicformf orfeedi ngintoacomput ersy stem.
Thespeed, tone( qual i
tyofsound) ,accent ,loudnessandpr onunciationofani ndividual Forexampl e, ifthecont entsoftheBi blearet obeent eredi ntoacomputersy stem, y
oucanei ther
speakercanv ary ty
peev er y
thingusi ngaWor d-
processor ,orscaneachoft hepagesandi mpor tthem i
ntoawor d-
Voicei nputi scompl ext odev elop, andi tdoesnott akecar eofspeechr elatedpr oblemssuch processor,whi chi sfasterandal somor eaccur ate.
asaccent sandt one.Thi si mpl iest hatthedev icemustl earntheuni quespeechofan Eachchar acteri scompar edtoall knownshapesorpat ternssot hatt
heappr opriat
ecodecanbe
i
ndi vi
dual . enteredintot hecomput er .
4.Limitedv ocabul aryunder stood&t heno.ofspeaker st heycanr ecognize.
Mostspeechsy stemscanr ecogni zeal imited, standar dv ocabul aryofspokenwor ds.The ScannerProblems.
simpl estSRDcanr ecogni zet hev oiceofonl yonespeaker .. 1. Thescanneri sonbutt hereisnoi magewheny ouscan.
Thedev icemustal sobe‘ taught ’thev oicepat ter nsoft hespeaker .Forexampl e, i
fadev i
ce ♦ Makesuret heDMA, IRQandAddr essj umperset ti
ngsont hei nt
erf
aceboar dmatches
canst oreav ocabul aryof25wor ds, t
heuserwi llspeakt he25chosenwor dsintothedev i
ce. t
heset t
ingsy ousel ectedi ntheScanMat ei nstall
ationprogram.
Thedev icet henst orest hepat ternsf ort hespokenwor ds.Lat er,whent heuserspeaksa
wor d,t hedev icecompar est hepat ternoft hewor dspokenwi t
ht hosepat ternsithad ♦ Checkt hebr ightnesscont r
ol dialony ourScanner .Ifthedialisatthebright
estset
ti
ngs,
previousl ystor ed.I famat chi sf ound, thewor di srecogni zed.I fnot,t
hespeakermaybe youmaynotbeabl et oseet heimage.
request edt or epeatt hewor doruseasy nony m( awor dt hatmeansal mostt hesamet hi
ng). 2. Thel i
ghtont hescanni ngwi ndowcannott ur nof f.
Thisshowst hattherei saconf l
ictwi t
hr esidentsof twareonDMAchannel .
5.Theresponserat esoft hesedev icesar est il
l r
elat i
velysl ow.
3. Thei magespr intedlookbl otchy( di
scolour ed/spot ted).
Wheny oucompar etheno.ofwor dsi nEngl ish&t het ot al no.ofwor dst hatcanbesai data Toprev entt
his,donotr escalethei mage.I fy ouscal etheimage, youwilll
osesomeoft he
givenpoi nt ,
showt hatspeechr ecogni ti
oni ssl ow. detai
lswheny oupr int.Ifthei magei stoobi g,scanatl owerr esoluti
on.
6.Speechi nputi scompl ext odev elop&i sstillatt heear lyst agesofdev el
opment . 4. TheScannert urnsof fassoonasy oust artscanni ng.
Thisshowst heremi ghtnotbeenoughRAM t oscant hei mages.
Rev
iewQuestions. 5. Thescannedi mageont hescr eeni smuchl argert hantheor igi
nal.
1. Explainbrief
lyhowt hefol
lowingtypesofdevi
ceswork. Thisoccursifyouri magei sdi splayedatal owerr esolutionthany ouscanned.
(a). Speechr ecogniti
on. Note.TheSi zeofy ourscr eeni magedependsony ourMoni t
or’
ssi ze&y ourVGAcard.
(b). Gr aphic(digiti
zi
ng)tablet
.
(c). Touchsensi tiv
escreen. DOCUMENTREADERS.
(d). Lightpen. ADocumentr eaderi
saninputdevice,
whichcanr eaddatadi
rect
lyf
rom sourcedocument
s,such
2. St at
eTWOadv antagesandTWOdi sadvant
agesofusingSpeechr
ecogni
ti
ondev
ices. asbankcheques,&conveyittothecomputerinform ofel
ect
roni
csignals.
Typesofcodesondocument sthatcanberecognizedbyaDocumentr eader:-
SCANNINGDEVICES. (i
). Marks–shortl i
nesmadebyhand, usuall
yinpencilonadocument .
Thesear
edevi
cesthatent
er(
capt
ure)dat
aint
othecomput
erdi
rect
ly.
(
ii
).Charact
ers–hand-wri
tt
en(e.
g.onmet
er-
readi
ng)orpr
int
edi
nmagnet
ici
nkoncheques.
I
MAGESCANNERS. (
ii
i)
.Pri
ntedli
nes–e.g.t
hebarcodes.
Documentr
eader
scanbecl
assi
fi
edi
nto;
Opt
ical
reader
sandMagnet
icReader
s.
AScannerisusedt oinputpictur
esorphot ographsint
othecomputer.Thisisbecausea
KeyboardoraMousecannotper for
mt heset asks. Opti
calReaders.
Scannersareusuall
yusedt ocaptureexist
ingdocument si
nanelectroni
cformintothecomput er Opti
calreader
suset hepri
nci
plesofl
ighttosensethedocumentcontentsortocapturedat
a.A
forf
urtherprocessi
ngorincorporat
ingintootherdocuments. speci
altypeofconcentr
atedbeam ofli
ghtispassedovert
heobject
,imageort extwhi
chneeds
I
tconvertstext&graphicsi
nt omachinesensi bl
eformat.Oncet
het ext&graphi
csar escanned, tobeenteredi
ntothecomput er
.Ther eaderconver
tst
hedataint
odigitalf
orm, andt
henpasses

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oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
i
ttothecomputerf
orpr
ocessing. OPTI CALMARKREADER( OMR) .
Ther
eare2typesofOpt
icalr
eaders:
Opt
ical
Char
act
erReader(
OCR)&Opt
ical
Mar
kReader Thedocument sar epre-pri
ntedwi t
hpredefi
neddataposit
ions.Theseposi ti
onscant henbe
(OMR). mar kedby
,letsay ,
apenci l.
TheOMRdet ectsthepr esenceorabsenceofamar konaf orm bysensingtherefl
ectedlightof
MagneticReaders. theseposi
tionalmar ks.Ther eaderisthenusedtoconvertthemar ksi
nt ocomputer-
readable
Theyusetheprincipl
esofmagnet
ism t
osenset
hedocumentchar
act
erst
hathav
ebeenwr
it
ten data&sendt hev al
ueoft hesenseddat aint
ot hecomputerinform ofelect
roni
csignals.
usi
ngmagnet i
zedi nk. TheaccuracyofanOMRdependsont hemar ksbei
ngmadepr oper
ly.Ifamar kistoolightornot
Example;MagneticInkChar
act
erReader(
MICR)
. soli
denough, i
tmaybemi sread,gi
vingri
setoerror
s.

OPTI CALCHARACTERREADER( OCR). UsesofOMR.

OpticalCharacterRecogniti
on(
OCR)i sadatacapt
uretechni
que,whichenabl
est hecomputert
o OMRf or msar eusedi nsituat i
onswher et
hedatatobeinputi
ssi mple,ort
hevolumeofdat ai
s
readprintedorhand- wri
tt
endocumentsdir
ectl
y. l
argeenoughsi nceusi ngot hermet hodswoul dbemoreexpensive.
Thechar acter
sar eformedontothedocumentbyaTy pewrit
erorcomputerPri
nterusinga  Usedi nmar kingMul ti
ple-choiceexami nati
onpaperswheretheanswersaref i
l
ledi
naf orm
specialtypefont.Handwr i
ti
ngcanalsoberecogni
zedifthecharact
ershavebeencareful
l
y/well withspeci alpenci l
s.
formed. TheOMRcansenset hepr esenceofapenorpenci lmark.Theper sontaki
ngt het
estmakes
apenci lmar kint hebox, whichhe/ shethi
nkscorr
espondstotheanswer .An‘OMR’ i
sthen
Ther eadingisdonebyOCR, whichcanbeconnect eddir
ect l
yt othecomput er.AnOCRi sableto usedt o‘read’ t
heanswer sgivenbysensi ngthemarksmade.Thi sdataisthenrel
ayedtothe
dist
inguishonechar acterfrom anot herbyitsshape. comput er,whi chcant hencheckt heanswersgiv
enandgr adethepaper.
AstheOCRr eads/scanst hedocument ,eachchar act
erreflectsdiff
erentamount soflight
,which  I nInsurancepr emi um collecti
on.
i
ssensedbyt heOCRusi ngaphot oelectr
icdevice&conv er t
st heshapesensedi ntoelectr
onic  Tor eadmar kedr esearchquest i
onnaires.
si
gnal s.Thesesi gnalsrepresentapar ti
cularpattern.  I nSuper mar ketsf orstockr ecording.
Note.TheReaderhasamemor ythatst oresref
erencepat ternsforagi vencharactersetorfont.  Tr affi
csur veys.
Thesensedpat ternisthencompar edwi t
ht hestoredpatternsoft hecharacters,
whi chthereader
canr ecognize.Ifamat chi sfound, t
hechar act
ersensedi si denti
fi
ed;otherwise,t
hedocument Comparati
veadv ant
agesofOMRv sOCR.
mayber ejectedbyther eader.
(i
). Speedsupdat ainput.Theyensurefast
er&moreaccurateprocessi
ngofdata.
UsesofOpt ical Char acterRecogni tiondev i
ces. Theyr eaddatadi r
ectl
yf r
om thesour
cedocument&enabledatat obegiv
endi r
ectl
ytot
he
OCRdev icesar eusedbycompani esthatdoal argeamountofpr ocessingonar egularbasis.For comput erf
orprocessing.
exampl e,Publ i
cut i
li
tycompani es,Insurancecompani es,Ai r
li
nes,Banks&t hePost alservi
ce( for Wi t
hanOCRi tispossibletoreadupto10,
000A4sizeddocument sin1hr.
readingpost al codes) . (i
i)
.Theyreaddat adi r
ectl
yfrom thesour
cedocument&therefor
e,nodatapreparati
onis
 Publ i
cut il
i
t i
es–OCRi susedt oprocessdocument sproducedasout putandwhi chcanber e- required.
usedasi nputbyt hecomput er.Forexampl e,anEl ectrici
tybillhasar eturnablesli
p,whichi s (i
ii
).Errorsareeasil
ycor r
ected.
pr i
ntedwi thal lthei nformationrequiredf orre-i
nputi ntoacomput er,i
.e.
,customercodeand
amountowi ng.I fthecust omerpay stheexactamountst ated,thereturnedpor t
ionoft hebi l
l
(
iv)
.Thedocument scanbere-used,thussav i
ngonstati
onery.
isusedf ordi rectinputt othecomput er. (
v).Thecontentsofthedocument sarebot hhuman&machi nesensi
ble,hencer
eli
able.
 Usedi nSal esOr derf orms. (
vi)
.Thesensit
ivi
tyofanOMRcanbeal teredtoal
l
owf ordif
fer
entsurf
ace,penci
l
sandi nks.
Thef or mscanbepr i
ntedbyt hecomput erwi t
hst andar ddat a,e.g.Stockcodes, Accountcode,
etc.TheSal esmant henentersdet ail
soft heor derf orm andr eturnsitforOCRpr ocessing.
(
vii
).OMRhasabet terr
ecogni
tionrat
et hanOCR.
 Usedi nStock- t
akingsheet s. (
vii
i
).Wit
hanOCR, notypi
ngort r
anscri
pt i
on/r
ecor
dingprocessisi
nvolved&ther
efore,not
Thecomput ercanpr intoutstocksheet si nOCRchar acters.Thest ockcheckert henent ers pr
onet
otr
anscr
ipt
ioner
ror
s.
theact ual stockquant i
ti
esont hef ormi ncareful handwr i
ti
ng.Thesheetcant henbeopt i
call
y
readi ntothecomput erforamendi ngt hest ockr ecords. Compar
ati
vedisadvant
agesofOMRandOCR.
(i
). Theyareexpensi
vemet hodsofi
nput,becauset
heyr
equi
respeci
ali
zedt
echni
ques&
Di
sadv
antagesofOCR. equi
pment .
(i
). Thedocumentshouldbehandl
edcar
eful
ly(
e.g.i
tshoul
dnotbefol
dedorcr
eased)f
or (i
i)
.Verifi
cati
onofmar keddataisdi
ff
icul
t.
accurat
ereadi
ng. (
ii
i)
.Documentsmaybedi f
fi
cultt
odesi
gn,under
standandfi
lli
n.
(i
i
).Documentsi ze&typear
eamaybelimit
edforaccur
atereadi
ng.
(
iv)
.Thedocumentreaderwil
lhavet
obereprogr
ammedf oreachnewdocumentdesi
gn.
(
ii
i)
.Itr
equi
resspeci
alt
ypi
ng&char
act
erf
ormat
ionandapaperwi
tht
her
equi
redqual
i
ty.
Theusermustmakesuret
hatchar
actersarewel
l
-for
med;
ift
heyar
enot
,readi
nger
ror
s MAGNETICINKCHARACTERREADER( MI
CR).
mayari
se,maki
ngoutputr
esul
tsunr
eliabl
e. Magnet
icI
nkChar
acterRecogni
ti
on(
MICR)i
sthemachi
ner
ecogni
ti
onofchar
act
erspr
int
edwi
th

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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Magnet icInk. ABarcodereader
,aCredi
tcar
doraKi
mbal
ltagReadercoul
dbeat
tachedt
oaPOSt
ermi
nal
to
Thedocumentchar actersaretypedorpr i
ntedininkcontai ngI
ni r
on( II
)Oxi dethatgi v
est hem a r
educethedataent
ry.
magnet icproper t
y .
Afterformingt hechar actersontot hedocument ,
theinkedchar actersaremagnet izedbypassing BAR- CODEREADER.
thedocumentunderast r
ongmagnet i
cfiel
d. Thisisadev iceusedt or eadt hebar -codespr intedonmanyi temsi nSuper mar kets&Phar macies.
Duringther eadi ngpr ocess,themagnet i
zedcharacterscausecur r
entt oflowt hrought heread Eachi t
em isgi enacodeknownasBar
v -code( aBar -codeisasetofpar al
lelbar sofv aryi
ng
headdependi ngont hemagnet izedsurfaceareaoccupiedbyi ndiv
idual characters. thi
ckness&spacesofv aryi
ngwi dthsr epr esent inganumbercode) .Aspacer epresent sa“0”
Ther eaderdiffer entiat
eschar actersdependingont hemagnet icpatternsthatbr i
ngdi ffer
ent whileabarr epresent sa“ 1”
.Thecodeddat acanber eadbyusi ngt hepr i
nciplesofl ight.
amountofcur rents.TheMI CRr ecognizesthesepat t
erns&conv ey sthem intothecomput eri
n Acomput eri susedt ost orethecodeoft hei tems, i
tem descri
ption, price,amounti nst ock,et
c.
for
m ofel ectrical signals. WhenaBar -coder eaderi smov edacr osst hebar sbyt heCashier,ther eaderscanst hebarcodes
pri
ntedont hei tem usingal aserbeam, whi chgener at esel
ectri
cal pulsescor respondi ngtothe
Uses/appl
icati
onsofMI CR. refl
ectedlightr eceived.Thebarcodei st henconv ertedtoanumber( whi chi sthecodef orthe
 Magnet i
cInkCharacterRecogniti
on(
MICR)isusedinbankstoprocessthemanycheques i
tem) .
bei
ngwr i
tt
eneachday . Thei nt
erpret eddat aissentt ot hecomput ermemor yinfor
m ofsi gnal s.Thesepul sesar e
TheMICRmost lyusesaf ontknownasE13B,whichconsi
stsof14charact
ers(
i.
e.di
git
s0-9, compar edwi thstandar dcodesst oredi nt hecomput erandisusedt olookupt hepr i
ceoft he
&fourspeci
alcharacters)
. i
tem.Thedet ai
lsoft hepr i
ce&descr i
pt i
onar epr int
edoutonar eceiptf orthecust omer .The
StoreInventor ymayal sobeupdat edatt hesamet ime.
Achequei susuall
ypre-
printedwi t
ht heIdent if
icati
onnumberoft hebank, t
heAccount Barcodesar eal sousedi nLi brarylendi ngSy st ems.Eachuseri sgi venal i
brar ycard, whichis
numberoft hecustomer,Serialnumberoft hecheque, Branchnumber ,usi
ngaspeciali
nk codedwi thhi slibraryUserNumber .Ther el ev antdet ail
softheuser ; l
etsay ,Name, Address,
contai
ningpart
i esofI
cl ronOxi de(Magnet icI nk).Whent hechequei spresent
edforpayment, Telephonenumber cat
, egor yofuser( e.g., St afforSt udent)No.ofbooksbor
, rowed, dateofexpi r
y
theamounti swri
ttenonthechequei nmagnet i
cink,usi
ngaspeci aldevi
ce.Thechequecan ofthecar d,et carest oredi naf ileonadi sk.
thenber eadbyaMI CR.Thedat areadist hent ransmitt
eddirect
lytotheCPUf ori
mmedi at
e
processi
ng,orcanbestoredonmagnet icdi skf orl
att
erprocessi
ng. Whent heuserwi shestobor r
owabook, aBar -
codereader‘reads’hi
scard, andtransmit
st he
 InLocalAuthori
ti
esforpay mentofr atesbyi nstal
lment. codetot hecomput er.Thecomput erusesthecodetor et
ri
ev etheuser
’sr ecordfrom di
sk.
TheLibraryAssistantwil
lthenupdatetheuser’
srecordbyent eri
ngtherelev anti
nformati
onsuch
Adv
antagesofMI CRoverOCR. asthename( ornumber )ofthebook,thedateborr
owed&t hedateonwhi chi tistobereturned.
(i
). AnMI CRcanr eaddat
afast
er&accur
atesi
ncet
hei
nfor
mat
ionont
hedocumenti
susual
l
y Note.Bar-codescannotbeusedongoodssuchasFr eshFrui t
s&Vegetabl es.
pre-pr
inted.
Adv
ant
agesofusingaBar -codereader.
(i
i)
.Di ff
iculttof
orge.
(i
). Theyareveryfast&accurat eprovi
dedthatt
hebar-
codehasbeenpri
ntedcl
ear
ly.For
(
ii
i)
.Documentcanst
il
lber
eadwhenf
olded,
wri
tt
enon,
etc.Thi
smeanst
hat
,MI
CRi
smor
e example,
ifthebar-codeissoiledbydir
tyhandsorhasbr
okenbars,
err
orsmayoccur
‘
robust
’. whenanat temptismadet oreadthecode.
(
iv)
.Awi derrangeoffont
scanbeused,i
ncl
udinghandpr
int
ing&normalty
pe.However
,ther
e (i
i)
.I ti
sacost-savi
ngmet hod.
i
snostandard-
typefont
.
(
ii
i)
.Savest
ime.Thepr
icesdonothav
etobeat
tachedt
oeachi
tem i
nthest
orebecauset
he
(
v).FasterthanOCR.I ti
spossi
blet
oreadabout2,
400A4sizeddocument
s1minut
e. i
temsdet
ail
sarealr
eadyhel
dinamasterf
il
e.

POI NT-OF-SALE( Pos)TERMI NALS.

(
iv)
.Doesnotrequi
respeci
alski
l
lst
ooper
ate.
Thisisagener alclassofI nputdev i
cesofwhi chaBar -
coder eaderi sanexampl e. (
v).I
timpr
ovescust
omerconv
eni
ence.
APOSt ermi nalcanbeusedasanI nputdevicewhenonl ineprocessi ngisr equired.Dataar ising
outofat ransact i
on( e.
g.thepurchaseofani t
em)i senter edont het erminal andi simmedi ately Di
sadv
ant
agesofusi
ngaBar
-codereader
.
processedbyt hecomput er. (i
). Requi
resst
andbyf
aci
l
iti
es.
POSt erminal sarewi delyusedint heBanks&comput erizedWhol esaleorr etaili
ndustri
es, such
asSuper mar kets.
(
ii
). Requi
resver
yexpensi
veequi
pment
s.
Eachi t
em int hest orehasacode; UniversalProductCode( UPC)pr intedoni t
, t
hatidenti
fiesthe (
ii
i)
.Thepricesarenotst
ampedontheproduct
,andt
her
efor
e,hi
ghchancesofi
ncor
rectdat
a
i
tem. bei
ngent
ered.
ThePOSt ermi nalconsi st
sofaNumer i
ckey pad&af ewCont r
ol(Funct i
onal )key sforentering
data,aScr eenandaPr int
ertoprintoutthel i
stofi t
emsandpr i
cef orthecust omer . KIMBALL( PUNCHED)TAGS.
TheI t
em code, Quant it
y&Pr i
ceoft hegoodspur chasedbyt hecust omeri sent eredintothePOS Somemanuf act
urer
suseKi mballt
ags;
smal l paperpunchedcar dsattachedtoclothesorother
terminaldirectl
ybyt heoperator.Thet erminalproducest hecustomerr eceipt.Thedet ai
lsoft he commodi t
iesonsalemost l
yinsupermarkets.Thedat aisincorpor
atedinthesmal lpunched
salesarethenent ereddi r
ectl
yintoabacki ngst oragedev iceandt heSt ockl evel i
salso holes.Theholesalt
ernatewit
hspacest orepr esentdatainbinarydi
gits.
automat i
callydecr eased. Anopt i
cal
scanningmet hodisusedtoreadt heKi mballtagandextracttheproductcode&pr i
ce
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 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
f
rom i
t.Thetagsar eremovedatpointofsal
eandtransfer
redtothedataprocessi
ngdepar t
ment  InPr
oduct
ioncontr
ol–Punchedcardscanbeusedtoholddatai
naf act
orysuchas
f
orthei
rcontent
stobeusedi nupdatingthest
ockfil
es. employ
ee’
sdetai
ls,et
c,whi
chisusedforpr
oduct
ionschedul
i
ng(arr
angement),st
ockcont
rol
Not
e.POSt ermi
nals,Bar-
codereaders&Kimball
tagsspeedupcust omerservi
ce&al soensure andj
obcosti
ng.
accuracy.Theymayal sobeusedt omanageinventor
y,account
s&mai nt
ainup-t
o-date
salesinf
ormation. DIRECTINPUTFROM I NSTRUMENTS.
Sensor
saredevicesthatcanbeconnect
edt
ocomput
ers&ar
eusedt
orecor
dphy
sical
quant
it
ies
Adv
ant
ages. l
ikeTemperat
ure,li
ght,humi
dit
y.
(i
). Datai
sal
readycoded,
henceeasyt
opr
ocess.
Examplesofdi recti
nputi nst ruments:-
(
ii
). Not
ranscr
ipt
ionr
equi
rement
s.
( . Sensor
a) susedt or ecordt emperature, l
i
ght,humi di
tyinaGr eenhouset oensurethebest
condi t
ionsforpl antgrowt h.
Di
sadv
ant
ages. ( . Ther
b) mostatsconnect edt oaCent r
al heati
ngsy stem controll
edbyacomput erinorderto
(i
). Dif
fi
cultt
ohandl
ebecauset
heyar
esmal
l
. moni tortemper ature&t ohelpsaveel ectr
icit
y.
(
ii
). St
oresmal
lvol
umeofdat
a. ( . Pr
c) essurepadsonar oadconnect edt ocomput er-
controll
edtraffi
cli
ghtstospeedt raf
fi
c
flow.
CARDS/BADGES. (d)
. Thecont i
nuousl oggingoft emper aturedat ainordertomoni tor&subsequent lycontr
ola
Thesear esmal lrectangul arcardsmadeofpl ast
icthatincor
poratedat ai nbothmachi ne- sensibl
e chemi calprocess.Theaut omaticcapt ureofdat aforusei nsuchprocessesi susuall
y
&human- sensi
blef orms, e.g.Creditcar ds. knownasDat alogging.
Way sofCodi ngdat aont obadges:- Advantagesofusi ngdev i
ces, whichcanr eaddat adi r
ectl
yf r
om sour cedocument s.
 Magnet i
zedmar ks,e.g.ashortst ripofmagnet ict
apesealedi ntot hecard’ssur face. (i)
. Theyensurefast er&accur at
eprocessi ngofdat a.Thi sisbecauset hedataisread
 Opt icalmarks. directl
yfrom thesour cedocument , andnodat apreparati
onisnecessar y
.
 Punchedhol es. (ii
). Not ypingorrecor dingr equir
ed,andt herefore,notpronet otranscr
ipti
onerrors.
Thecar dsarereadusi ngBadger eader s.Thedat arecordermachiner ecor dsdat aont hese
badgesaut omat i
cal l
y, oncemanual lyinser t
ed,usingmagnet i
zedmar ks, opt
icalmar ksor (
ii
i)
.Thedocument scanber e-used,
thussavi
ngonst
ati
oner
y.
punchedhol es. (
iv)
.Thecont ent
soft hedocumentsarebothhuman&machinesensi
ble,
hencer
eli
abl
e.
Forreading,thebadgei sslott
edintot her eadi
nguni twheretheconv ert ermachi ne( ther eader) (
v). Errorsareeasil
ycorr
ected.
acceptst hecontent soft hebadgeandconv eysthem di
rectl
ytothecomput erasi nputf or
processing. (
vi)
.Di ffi
cul
ttoforge.
Thebadgesar eusedi nbanksasCr editandSer vi
cecards,e.g.
,intheAut omat edTellerMachi ne. Rev
iewQuest i
ons.
TheBadgecont entsar eusuallystatic,thoughsomecar dscontent
scanbeal t
eredbyt her eader, 1. (a)
.Whatar edocumentr eaders?
e.
g.,Phonecr editcar dswhosecur rencyv al
uekeepsonchangi ngunt il zer ocurrencyv aluei sleft
. (b)
.Describevari
ouski ndsofdocumentr eaders.
2. (a)
.Whati sthediff
erencebet weenOCRandOMR?
(
a). SMARTCARDS. (b)
.St
at etwoadv antages&t wodi sadv
ant agesofeach.
ASmar tcar
disaspecialt
ypeofbadgewhosedatacanbechangedbyaspecialbadge 3. Thediagram bel
owshowscodeddat athatcouldbeinputi
ntoacomput
er.
reader
.
ASmar tcar
dcanbeusedasaf orm ofel
ect
roni
cmoney .Ast
hecustomerpurchasesan
i
tem, t
hebadger
eadercandeductunitsf
rom t
hecard.Thi
sprocesscont
inuesunti
lthe
cardhasnomorecurrencyuni
tsl
eft.
(
i)
. Whatisthenamegiventotheabovemet hodofinput
?
(
b). CREDITCARDS.
ACreditcardhasastr
ipofmagnetictapefi
xedoni t.Thetapecontainscoded (
ii
). St
ateTWOappli
cat
ionsthatwouldusethismethod.
i
nfor
mat ion,whi
chi
susuall
ytheowner ’
scode.Thecar disinsert
edintoaslotwher
e (
ii
i)
.Foroneoftheappl
i
cationsyouhavegiv
en, st
ateTWOi t
emsofi
nfor
mat
iont
hat
magneticdatamaybepicked.Detai
lsofthetransacti
onarethenrecordedagai
nstthe mightberepr
esent
edbyt hecodeddat a.
cr
editcardno.&theowner’
saccountiscredi
tedwi t
hthetransacti
on. (iv
).St at
ewhathardwareisneededt oent
ert hecodedi
nfor
mat
ioni
ntoacomput
erand
bri
efl
ydescri
behowthishardwar eworks.
UsesofCar ds/Badges. 4. Expl
aint
headvant
agesanddisadvantagesofthef ol
l
owing:
 I nCarpar ks–badgesar eusedtor aisecarbar r
iers,
all
owingentr
ytoorexitfrom acarpar
k.
 I nBanks–Cr editandServicecards,i.e.Automat edTel
lerMachi
nes( ATMs)giveoutcash
(i
). OCR.
automaticall
ywhencust omeri nsertsapl asti
ccar d&foll
owstheinstr
ucti
onsissued. (
ii
). OMR.
 I nAccesscont rol–Accesscont rolcar dsareusedi nmanyoffi
cest ocont
rolaccessto (
ii
i)
.MI CR.
bui
ldi
ngsorr oomsf orsecuri
tyreasons.

-13- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
I
nter
act
ivewhi
teboar
d i
nstr
ucti
ons, andcausest heinstr
uct i
ont obeexecutedbysendingappr
opri
atesignalst
ot he
appr
opriatehar dwaredev i
ces.
Inor
dert oexecut eaninstructi
on, t
heCUmustdot hefol
lowi
ng:
CENTRALPROCESSI NGUNI T(CPU)/PROCESSOR.  Fet ch( get)theinst
ructionfrom theMemor y.
TheCPUi sdescri
bedasthecomput er’
s‘brai
n’thatmoni t
orsall
thecomput eroperations.Iti
s  Decodet heinstr
uction,i.
e.,
det er
mi newhattheinstr
ucti
onissayi
ng.Forexampl e,
whether
theuniti
nsidethecomput erwhereall
softwareinstruct
ions,mathandlogicoperationsare toADDorCOMPAREt wonumber s.
carri
edout .
InMicrocomput ers,
theCPUi si
mplement edi
nasi nglesil
icondevi
cecalledaMi croprocessor
 Gett hedat arequir
edbyt hei nstr
uction.E.g.
,thetwonumbers.
(Comput erchi
p),whichi
smadebycombi ningav erylar
geno.oft r
ansi
storstogetherusinga  Act ivatether i
ghtcircuit
sfort heinstruct
iont
obeobey ed,e.
g.cal
li
ntoacti
ont heci
rcuit
s
technol
ogyr ef
erredtoasVeryLargeScaleIntegrat
ion(VLSI). whichper f
orm additi
on.

Not
es. Not
e.TheCUaut omat i
cal l
yr epeat st hiscy cl eofoper ationsuntileitheri tisinstr uctedt ostopor
 TheCPUi soneoft hemostexpensivecomponentsoft
heMot herboard&alsoavery t
helastinstructionhasbeenexecut ed.
del
i
cat
epi eceofequipment
. I
nordertoenabl et heCont rol Unittocar ryoutt hev ar i
ousf uncti
ons, certainregi st er
sar eused.
 TheCPUhasal abel,
suchas“486”or“Penti
um”toshowi t
stype,andthechip (
a). SequenceCont rol register( alsoknownast hePr ogram Count er)
.
manuf
acturer’
slogoonit
. Itcont rolst heor deri nwhi cht heinst r uctionsar ecar ri
edout .
 I thasalargefan(knownastheHeatsink)screwedontopofit,
thatkeepstheCPUcool Itcont ainst headdr essoft henexti nst ruct i
oni nt hecomput erpr ogr am tobeexecut ed.
whi
let
hesy stem i
son.ThisisbecausetheCPUgetsveryhotwheni ti
sinoperat
ion. Fort henexti nstruct i
ont obeexecut ed, itmustbebr oughtfrom t hememor yintothe
Pr ocessor .Whenani nstructionhasbeenf etchedf r
om memor y
, thePr ogr am Counteri
s
Funct
ionsoftheProcessor(Centr
alpr
ocessingunit)
. increasedby1, andi st henr eadyt of indt henexti nstruct
ion.
1. TocontroltheuseoftheMai nmemoryinst or
ingofdat
a&inst
ruct
ions. Ther ef or
e, theSequenceCont rolregi stersequent ial
l
ypoi ntst otheaddr essoft he
2. Tocontrolthesequenceofoperat
ionswi t
hint
hecomputer
. instruct i
ont obecar ri
edout ,readsi tint ot heI nstructionRegi ster,andaut omat i
call
y
3. Togivecommandst oallpart
softhesystem. mov est ot henexti nstructioni nt hepr ocessi ngsequence.
4. Tocarryoutdataprocessing. (
b). I nstruct i
onRegi ster.
Itstor esacopyoft hei nstruct ionbei ngpr ocessed.
Basicf
eatures(funct
ionalel
ements)ofaMi
cropr
ocessorsy
stem. Not e.Ani nstr uctionhas2par ts;
TheProcessorismadeupof3maj or/mai
ncomponents;  Oper at i
onpar t,e.g. ,Mul ti
pl i
cat ion.
(i
). Cont r
ol Unit(
CU).  Addr esspar t.
(i
i
). Ar i
thmet i
cLogicUnit(
ALU). TheI nstructionRegi sterisconnect edt ot heI nstructionDecoder .
(i
i
i). MainMemor yUnit(
MMU) . (
c). I nstruct i
onDecoder .
Itdecodes( interpr ets)t heinst ructionr ecei vedf rom t heI
nst ructionRegi st er&sends
Ot
hercomponentsi
ncl
ude; signal stot hecont rolswi tchesoft hecomput er.
√ Regist
ers.
√ Accumulator
. (
d). AddressRegi sters.
√ Buses. Eachl ocationinamemor yhasi t
sownaddr ess, whichallowsust ogetdirectlytoany
program inst r
uctionoritem ofdat astoredwi t
hinthememor y.
Note.Theelement
smaki
nguptheComput ersyst
em communicat
ethroughel
ect
roni
cpat
hs Address–Al abel,nameoranumberi dent i
fyi
ngast or
agel ocati
on,oradev i
cef rom
cal
l
edBuses.Thebusescarr
ydata,
inst
ructi
ons,i
nfor
mati
on,contr
olcommandsandpower whichi nformationisrecei vedort owhi chitistransmi t
ted.
bet
weent hecommuni
cat
ingel
ements. AddressRegi stersare16- bitregist
ersusedf ort hestorageofaddr esses.Theyar e
connect edt otheAddr essBus.
TheAddr esspar toftheinst ructi
ongoest otheAddr essRegi ster
,whichretri
ev esthe
requi
reddat aitem intheaddr essindi
cat edandcopi esitintheALUsot hattheoper ation
CONTROLUNI T(CU). i
nstruct i
onmaybeexecut ed.
TheCUact sasthemanageroft hecomputer.Itsmai nworkistocont rol,superv i
se&co- or
dinate Addressmodi f
icati
on–t hepr ocessofchangi ngt headdr esspartofamachi neinstructi
on
alltheactivit
iesofthevari
ousunitsoft
hecomput er,
enabli
ngthemachi net oper for
m useful bymeansofcodedi nstructions.
tasks.
TheCUi susual l
ydescri
bedast heNervecent
reofacomput ersy stem.Itco- ordinates&controls (
e). Sy st
em Cl ock.
theact i
vit
iesoft hedi
ff
erentcomponentsofthecomput ersy st
em i nthesamewayt hatt
hebr ai
n Inordert obeabl etofet
ch&executeinstructi
ons,theCUusesat imi
ngsignalprovi
dedby
direct
st heact i
onsofthebody . aSy stem Clockat t
achedtotheCPU.TheCl ockisanel ectr
onicsyst
em t
hatisusedt o
TheCUcar r
iesoutthefetchi
ng,decodi
ng&execut ionoftheinstructi
ons.I tfetches/select
st he controlthePr ocessoronwhent of
etchthenexti nstr
uctionfrom t
heMainmemor y.
requiredinstruct
ionfr
om Mai nstor
age,st
oresitinano.ofspeci alRegisters,interpr
etsthe TheCl ocksor tsoutallt
heint
ernal
pathsinsidethePr ocessortomakesur ethatdat
agets
from therightplace&goest otheri
ghtplace.
-14- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
TheclockisanOsci l
l
atorthatgenerat
est i
mingpulses(ataf
requencyofseveral f
ormed.
Megahertz)tosynchroni
zethecomput er’
soperat
ions&ensurethattheoperati
onoccur
s
attheri
ghttime. COMPUTERBUS.
TheCUper forms1st epoftheinstr
uctionin1cl
ockpulse.Thespeedofpr ocessi
ngwil
l Acomput erbusconsi st
sofasetofpar al
lel
wi r
esconnecti
ngthePr ocessortot heotherdev
ices
dependon: oft
hecomput er.
(i
). CPUFrequency,i .
e.,t
imedur at
ionof1clockpulse.  I ti
sacommuni cati
onpath/medium wi t
hinthecomputerthatallowsdif
ferentelementsof
thecomput ertocommuni catewi theachot her.
(
ii
). Theno.ofst
epsi
nvolv
edinexecuti
ngaful
li
nst
ructi
on.  Anel ectri
calconnect i
onl
inkinginternalsecti
onsofacomput er,suchasPr ocessor,
(
ii
i)
.TheAccesst i
meofthecomputer,
i.
e.,
thet
imerequi
redtoaccessanyonememor
y Expansioncar ds,andper
ipheralssuchasKey boar
dandot herInputdevi
ces.
addr
ess.  Apar al
lelcol
lecti
onofconduct orsthatcarrydataandcontrolsignal
sfr
om oneuni tt
o
another.
Functionsoft heCont rolunit.
1. I tco-or di nates&cont rolsv ari
ouspar t
soft hecomput ersy stem, namel y;Mainmemor y,ALU
&t hePer ipher aldev i
ces.
2. I tmai nt ainsor der&cont rolsal l
theoper at ionsoract ivi
tiesinsidet hePr ocessor.
TheCUcont rol stheact i
vitiesofal ltheot heruni tsoft hecomput erbyusi ngt heappr opri
ate Ther
ear
e3maj
ort
ypesofcomput
erbuses:
contr ol signal s.Forexampl e,i
tinstructst heALUonwhi char i
thmet i
corlogicaloper ati
ons
aret obeper f ormed.
3. I tconnect sther equiredci rcuitst oenabl et heALUt opr ocesst hedat ainst orage,as (
i)
. Dat
aBus.
speci fiedbyt hepr ogram. Itisabi -directional (
2-way )bust hatcar ri
esi nf ormation&dat at oandf rom t heProcessor ,
4. I tdirect ssequenceofoper at i
ons, i
.e.,
itgener atessy nchr onizati
onsi gnals&manages i.
e.,itcar ri
esdat afrom thePr ocessort ot hememor ydur i
ngWr i
teoperat i
ons&f rom
commandsexchangedbet weent heALU, I/Ouni t
s&t heMemor y. memor ytot hePr ocessordur ingReadoper at i
ons.
5. I tretriev esandi nterpretsi nstructi
onsf rom t heMai nstor age&makest hecomput ert o TheDat abususual l
ycarriesdat aforpr ocessi ng.
execut et hesei nstructionsbygi vingcommandst other estoft hecomput erel ements. Itconsi stsof4, 8or16l i
neseachcar ryi
ng1bi tatat i
me.
6. I tcont rol sthet ransferofunpr ocesseddat at otheMai nst orage&r esul
tsfrom t heMai n Not e.TheDat aBusdet ermi nest heBusWi dt hoft hemi croprocessor .Itssi zeindicat
est he
storage. mov ingcapabi li
tyofi nf ormationoft hechi p.
7. I tstor est her esultsint hememor y. (i
i).AddressBus.
8. I tdet ermi nest hel ocationoft hememor yt hatcont ainst henextinst ructi
ont ober et
r i
eved. Itisauni directional(1-way )busf r
om t hePr ocessort ot heexternaldev i
ces.I tusuall
y
9. I tmoni tor stheCPUoper ations&i denti
fiespr oblems, suchasequi pmentmal functi
on, cont ainst headdr essoft hememor ylocationordev i
cet obeact edonbyt hePr ocessor( i
.e.
i
llogical i
nst ruct i
onsorer roneousdat afindi ngitswayi nt othesy stem, andf l
ashest hem on itconv ey saddr esses).
thecomput erscr een. TheAddr essbusi swi de( usual l
ybet ween4–32l ines)toenabl eittoaddr essasmany
dev i
cesaspossi ble.
ARITHMETI CLOGI CUNIT( ALU). Thesi zeoft heAddr essBust ell
sy ouhowmuchmemor ythechipcanhandl e.
Thi
sisthepar toftheProcessorthatper
formsal
ltheari
thmeticoperati
ons,suchasaddi
ngor (i
ii
) .Cont rolBus.
multi
ply
ingfigures,&l
ogicaloperat
ionsneededt
osolveapar ti
cul
arproblem. It’
sauni directional (
1-way )bust hatcar ri
escommand( i.
e.ti
mi ng&cont rol)signalsfrom
Forexample,ift
wonumber saretobeaddedormul t
ipl
i
ed, t
hisisdonebyt heALU. thePr ocessor .Thesesi gnal sar enecessar yt ocoor dinatetheact i
vit
iesoft heentire
TheALUal soper f
ormsLogi cFuncti
ons,e.
g.,
AND,NOT, OR,TRUE,FALSE&I F. system.Forexampl e,thecommandf orthePr i
ntertopr eparetor eceivedat aisacont rol
signal from t hepr ocessor .
Funct
ionsoftheALU. Theyusual l
yhav e3–10l i
nes.
TheALUhas2mai nfuncti
ons: Note.Busesar ei mpl ement edasact ualcommuni cat i
onlines.TheymaybeI nternal buses,whi ch
1. Itcar
riesoutt
heAr it
hmeti
coperat
ions. ar
eusual lylaiddownasaci r
cuitont hechi pitself, ortheymaybeExt ernalbuses, implement ed
2. Itperf
ormslogicaloper
ati
onsandcompari
sonondat
a. ascables.
Ot
herminorfunct
ionsi
ncl
ude;
√ Itper
for
msout putofv
ari
able(l
ogical
)functi
ons. CLASSIFICATI
ONOFMI CROPROCESSORS.
√ Itper
for
msbr anchi
ngofpref
ixedcondit
ions. Ther
ear e2basicf
actor
s(par
amet
ers/consi
der
ati
ons)usedt
ocl
assi
fyMi
cropr
ocessor
s.
1. Clockspeed.
ACCUMULATOR. 2. WidthoftheDataBus.
 Iti
sast or
agedevi
ceintheA.
L.U,whereal
ltheanswersfr
om bothar
it
hmeti
c&logi
cal
operat
ionsarest
oredtempor
ari
lybefor
ebeingtr
ansfer
redtothememory
. Cl
ockSpeed.
 ARegisteri
ntheALUinwhichoperandsar
eplaced,andinwhichar
it
hmet
icalr
esul
tsar
e Ev
eryMicr
oprocessorhasacl
ockt
hatdr
ivesi
tsoper
ati
on.Cl
ockspeedi
sthespeedatwhi
cht
he

-15- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
processorruns.  SunMicrosystems.
Microprocessorspeedr eferst
oitsClockspeed,whichismeasur edinMegahertz(MHz–1  Hewl
ett-
Packar d,
and
mill
ioncy cl
espersecond) .
TheCl ockspeedv ari
esf r
om onepr ocessort
oanother.Mi cropr
ocessorswit
hf ast
erclocks
 I
BM (
Internati
onalBusi
nessMachi
neCor
por
ati
on)
.
perfor
m oper at
ionsmuchf ast
ercompar edtothosewithslowerclocks.Theref
ore,t
hespeedofa
CISCProcessor
s.
microprocessorgivesit
spower–t hehigherthespeed,themor epowerfult
hemi cr
oprocessor
.
CISCchipsusebet
ween200–300i nst
ructions.Therefor
e,t
hepr
ocessorhasmoreinst
ructi
ons
Note.Thespeedatwhi chacomput ercanprocessdataisalsoaffect
edbythespeedatwhi chthe
tolookup.
memor ycanwor k.
Theinstr
ucti
onsar
eusuall
ybet
ween8- 120bi tsl
ong.Thismeansthat
,aCPUdevotesatleast
partofi
tscir
cui
tti
medetermi
ningwher
ei nstruct
ionsbegi
nandend,makingt
hem r
unslowly.
BusWi dth.
ThesizeoftheDat aBusdeterminestheBusWi dt
hofami cr
oprocessor
.I ti
ndicat
esthemov i
ng
Fact
orst hataff
ectt heperfor
manceofaPr ocessor.
capabil
it
yofinformati
onofthechi p.
- Ov erheati
ng.
HigherBuswi dt
hsprovidehighercomputerper
for
mance.Forex ample,f
etchinga16-bi
t
- I ncor r
ectconfigurat
ion(const
ruct
ion/arrangement)
.
i
nstructi
onfrom memor yusingaDat abuswidt
hof16bitswouldrequir
easi nglef
etchoper
ati
on,
- Fai ledcomponent s.
whereasan8- bi
tDatabuswoul drequir
e2cy cl
estof
etchthesamei nst
ructi
on;henceslowi
ng
- Runni ngthepr ocessoratthewrongspeed.
theexecuti
onoft hei
nstruct
ion.
- Jammedorcl oggedort oosmallheat
-si
nk/coolingfan.
- I ncompat i
bili
ty.
TYPESOFPROCESSORS.
- Pr ocessori nsertedthewrongway .
(i
). Micr
opr
ocessor
s.
(
ii
).RI
SC(
ReducedInstr
ucti
onSetComputer)processors. Exer
cise( a)
.
(
ii
i)
.CI
SC(
CompleteInst
ruct
ionSetComputer)processors. 1. Dr awawel l
-l
abel
eddiagram showi ngthecomponent sofacomputerHardwaremodel
.
2. Compar ewi t
htheaidofadi agram, t
hephy si
calappear
anceandtheelect
roni
ccomponent
s
ofaMi crocomputer.
MICROPROCESSORS.
3. (a).Whati stheCentral
Pr ocessingUnit?
TheMicrocomput er
suseMi cr
oprocessors,
whichusuallyhaveal
lther
equir
edfunct
ionsonone
(b).Whatpar tsmakeupt heCent r
alprocessinguni
t?
chi
p.
4. (a).Definetheacronym A.L.U.
Someoft hemanuf act
urerswhomakemi cr
oprocessorchi
psincl
ude;
(b).Identif
yTWOf uncti
onsoft heabov euni t
.
 I nt
elInc.,
AMD( AmericanDev iceManufact
urers)&Cyrixwhomanufact
uremicr
oprocessor
s
5. Wr it
eshor tnotesonthefollowing:
forI
BM compat i
blemicrocomput er
s.
 Mot or ol
l
af orApplecomput ers. (i). Cont r
oluni
t.
(
ii
). Ari
thmet
icl
ogi
cuni
t(A.
L.U)
.

ADVANCEDCPU’
s.
(
ii
i)
.Mai nmemory.
6. (a).Def
ineRegist
ers.
(b).Li
stTHREEt ypesofRegi st
ersandstatetheirfuncti
ons.
Largercomput erssuchasSupercomput er
s, Mainfr
ames&Mi ni
computersusePr
ocessorsmade
7. (a).WhatisaComput erBus?
ofsepar at
e, hi
ghspeedsophisti
catedcomponent s.Thatis,t
heCPUcomponent sinl
arge
(b).Li
st3typesofcomput erbusesandexplaintheirfunct
ions.
comput ersar enotallononechi
p.
8. Explai
nbrief
lytheMi cropr
ocessoroperat
ioncy cle.
RISCPr ocessor s.
9. StateTWOf actor
st hatdeterminethet
ypeofpr ocessor .
TheRI SCpr ocessorsareusedinmanuf actureofMi nicomput
ers.
RISCmachi nesar emuchfast
erthanMi cro-processorbasedmachines,i
.e.i
nRI
SCmachi nes,t
he
Exer
cise(b).
ti
mer equiredt oexecuteanoperati
onismuchshor t
ercomparedtotheti
meaMi cro-
processor
1. Nameandex plain3mai npar t
s/component softheProcessor.
wouldt aket oexecutethesameoper at
ion.
2. Whati sthef uncti
onofr egist
ersinapr ocessor?
3. Listtheelect roniccomponent sofaMi crocomputer.
RISCchi psgener al
lyuse128orf eweri
nstr
uctionstoexecutetheirtasks.Thismeansthat
,the
4. Dr awabl ockdi agram forasi mpleMicr ocomputershowingitsfourmai
npart
s.Saywhat
processorhasf ewi nstr
uctionst olocat
e.Theycanexecut etheseinstruct
ionsmorequi
ckl
y&ar e
eachpar tdoes.
theref
orev eryfast.
5. Descr i
bet hef unctionsofeachoft hefol l
owinginaProcessor:
Again,eachi nstr
uctionisex actl
y32bi t
slong.So, theprocessordoesnotwast eanypower
(a). Cont rolunit.
determiningwher etheinstruct i
onsbeginorend.Thi smakesRI SCpr ocessorsmoresuper
ior.
(b). Ar ithmet i
cLogi cunit.
Theyar ealsocheapert opr oduce.
(c). Accumul ator.
Mostoft he64-bitRISCmachi nesaremanuf actur
edby :
-
(d). I nter nalRegi st
ers.
 Di gitalEqui
pmentCor poration(DEC). 6. Dr awacar ef ull
ywel ll
abeleddiagram showi ngt
hearchitect
ureofatypi
cal
Micropr
ocessor
.

-16- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
7. Explai
ninasent encethefunct
ionofeachofthefoll
owingcomponent
sinaCont
rol
uni
t. takentobe1,024bytes?
(a)
. Cl ock. (
b). Calcul
atet
hepr eci
senumberofchar
act
erst
hatcoul
dbest
oredi
nthecomput
er.
(b)
. Pr ogram Counter
. Explai
nyouranswer.
(c)
. I nst
ructi
onRegister.
8. Namet he3st ages/phasesofthecomputerprocessi
ngcycle. Exer
cise(
b).
1. WhatisaBy t
e?
Exer
cise( c). 2. Name2st andar
d8-
bitcodesusedi
nter
nat
ional
l
ytor
epr
esenti
nfor
mat
ioni
ncomput
ers.
1. (a).Gi vethemeani ngoftheini
ti
alsCPU,andstatei
tsothername.
(b).Descr ibethe3mai ncomponentsoftheCPU.
(c).St at
et wof unct
ionsoftheCentr
alpr
ocessingunit
. CLASSI
FICATIONOFCOMPUTERMEMORY.
2. Out l
inet heFIVEmai nprocessesunderwhichdataundergoest
obecomei
nfor
mat
ion. Computerst
orageisdi
videdinto2:
1. Mainmemor y(Pri
mar ymemor y)
.
2. Secondaryst
orage(Backing/Auxi
li
aryst
orage)
.
MEASURI NGTHEMEMORYSI ZEOFACOMPUTER.
Thesi zeofacomput er’
smemor yistheno.of‘ unit
sofstorage’i
tcontains.Theuni tofstor
age MAI NMEMORY.
canbeaBi t,aByte,oraWor d. I
tcanal sobedescr ibedasthePr i
mar ystorage,Inter
nal Memor y,
Immedi at
eAccessstor
age,
ABiti st hesmal l
estunitofstorage&canbeusedt ost
orea0ora1. Semi-conduct ormemor i
es,Corememor y,etc.
ABy t
ei stheamountofst orageneeded/r equiredtostore1char act
er. Thisisthestor age(memor y)foundwi thi
nt hecomput eri
tsel
f.
AChar acterisanyletter,
digitorsymbol,whichcanbeobt ai
nedbypr essingakeyont he I
tisusedt ohol ddata,pr
ograms&i nstr
uctionsrequiredimmedi at
ely(orcurr
ent
lybei
ngused)by
Keyboar d. theProcessor .
Note.1By t
ecanbeusedt ostore1character. Acomput ercanonl yobeydat aandpr ogram inst
r uct
ionsthatarestoredintheMainmemory.
AWor di sacollecti
onofbi ts.Itcanalsobedescr i
bedasagr oupofbitsorchar act
ers I
tisOnl i
ne( veryclose)tothecentralProcessor,andt herefor
e,anydat awit
hint
heMainmemor y
consider edasanent i
tyandcapabl eofbeingst oredinonestoragelocation. i
sdi r
ectlyaccessi bl
et ot
hePr ocessor.
Theno.ofbi tsinawor discall
edt heWordSi ze.ThemostcommonWor dsizesare16,32&64. ThePr i
mar yst oragegeneral
lyconsistsoft hefol
lowingf unct
ionalareas:
Onagi vencomput er,aWor distheamountofst oragenormallyneededt ostoreaninstr
ucti
on.
(
a).Program st
oragear
ea.
Memor
ysi
zes. Holdsinst r
uct i
onsf rom bot hSyst
em sof t
ware&Appl icati
onprograms, whichenterthe
Characters centralprocessorf rom anI nputdevice.
1Byte Agroupof8bits 1
1Kil
obyt
e(KB) 1,000( athousand)bytes103 1,
024 (
b).Workingst oragear ea.
1Megabyte(MB)1,
000,000( amill
i
on)by t
es 106 1,
048,
576 Isusedt ohol dthedat abeingprocessedaswel l ast
hei nter
mediateresult
sofsuch
1Gigaby
te(GB) 1,
000,000,000(abil
l
ion)bytes 109 1,
073,
741,824 processing.
1Teraby
te(Ter
a)1,
000,000,000,
000(atril
li
on)byt
es 1012 1,
099,
511,
627,776 (
c).I
nputst oragear ea.
Itt
empor ar i
lyholdsdat athathasbeenr eadfrom anInputdev i
ce.SinceInputdevices
Acomput ermemoryismadeupofmanyst or
agecell
scall
edBy t
es.Eachcel l
(byt
e)iscapableof operateatsl owerspeedt hantheProcessor,partoft
heI nputstor
agear easervesasa
stor
ing8bits(bi
nar
ydigi
ts)andhasauni
quenumericaddress. Buffer.ABuf ferhelpsf reetheCPUt ogetonwi thotherwor kwhil
et heslowerI/O
General
ly,
thememor ysi
zeofacomputeri
susuall
ymeasur edi
nBy t
es.Thepr ef
ixKistakento operati
onsar ecompl eti
ng.
be1,024bytes. (
d).Outputstoragear ea.
Forexample,whenthesi
zeofacomputermemoryisquotedasbeing,say
, 256Kbytes,
this Holdst hefinishedr esultsofprocessingunitrel
easedt otheuser.
i
mpl i
esthat,
ther
eare262,144memorycel
lsort
hecomput erhas(256x1,024)=262,144by t
es
ofmemor y. Gener
alfeat
ures/char
act
eri
sti
csoftheMainmemory.
Exer
cise(a). (i
). I t
soperati
oniswholl
yelect
roni
c,andt
her
efor
e,ver
yfast
,accur
ateandr
eli
abl
e.
1. Howi si nf
ormationstoredinacomput er? (
ii
). Dat
amustbet ransf
err
edtot heMainstor
agebefor
eitcanbeactedonbyt
hePr
ocessor
.
2. (a).Diff
erenti
atebetweena‘ Bit
’anda‘Byte’
. (
ii
i)
.Itprov
idesdi
rectdataaccess,i
.e.
,dat
aisinst
ant
lyaccessi
blef
rom t
heMai
nmemory&
(b).Howmanyby t
eswoul dber equi
redtostor
et hefol
lowi
ngst at
ement? t
hePr
ocessorcanactdi
rect
lyont
hedat
a.
COMPUTERSAREFUNTOUSE!
3. Def i
nethet er
m‘ Character
’asusedincomput i
ng. (
iv)
.Iti
sofl
ow/l
i
mit
edst
oragecapaci
ty.
4. (a).Whati saMegaby t
e? TheInter
nalmemor yofthecomput
eri
sdesi
gnedi
nsuchawaythatitr
eachesacapaci
ty
(b).HowmanyKi lobytesandhowmanychar actersmakeaMegaby t
e? beyondwhichitcannotext
end.
5. Thesi zeofacomput ermemor yisquotedasbei ng256Kbytes. (
v). I
tisvolat
il
e.
(a). Howmanyby tescant hatcomputerholdinit
smemor yatapart
icul
art
ime,
ifKi
s Forexample,
theRAM ( t
hesecti
onoft
heMainmemoryt
hatst
orestheuserpr
ogr
ams,
-17- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTIONTOCOMPUTERS.
appl
i
cat
iondat
a,instruct
ionsandi nt
ermediat
eresul
tsdur
ingpr
ocessi
ng)l
osesi
ts (i
ii
).Itst
oresCont
rol
progr
ams,
usedf
ort
heoper
ati
onoft
hecomput
er&per
ipher
aldev
ices.
cont
ent
simmediatelywhent hepowerisswi t
chedoff
. Forexampl
e,t
heBI
OSi
sst
oredonROM becauset
heusercannotdi
sruptt
hei
nfor
mat
ion.
TheMainmemoryist heref
ore,usedtostoretempor
arypr
ogramsanddata.
(
iv)
.Itst
oresTr
ansl
ati
onpr
ogr
ams(
Codeconv
ert
ers)
,usedf
orconv
ert
ingauser
’spr
ogr
am
(
vi)
.Thespeedofthepr ocessordependsont heMainmemor y
. i
ntoMachinelanguage.
(
vii
).I
tisv
eryexpensi
ve,
duet
othet
echnol
ogyi
nvol
ved&t
heel
ement
susedi
nmaki
ngt
hem. E.
g.,TURBOPASCAL, whichtranslat
esPascal
progr
amswr i
tt
enbyuser
s.
(
v).I
tstoresSpeci
alfunct
ions(f
acili
ti
es)pecul
i
artoagivenmachi
ne.
Quest
ion.I
dent
if
ytheadv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofPr
imar
yst
orage.
(
vi)
.Itst
oresChar
actergener
ator
sforPr
int
ersandVi
deodi
spl
ays.
Functionsoft heMai nmemor y. (
vii
).I
tst
oresROM Lookuptabl
es.
1. I tstoresdat aawai t
ingprocessing.
2. I tstoresinstruct
ionswai t
ingt obeobey ed.
3. I tholdsthepr ogram inst
ructions&t hedat acur
rent
lybeingprocessed. TypesofROM memor i
es.
4. I tstoresintermediateresult
sofpr ocessi ngawai
ti
ngt r
ansfertotheoutputdev
ices,
i.
e.i
t 1. MaskedROM.
storesdat aawaitingoutput. 2. PROM (ProgrammableReadonl
ymemory)
.
5. Thesi zeoft heMai nmemor yaffectst hespeed,power&capabi l
i
tyoft
hecomput er
. 3. EPROM (Erasabl
eProgr
ammableReadonl
ymemor
y)
6. Al linputs&out putsar etr
ansmi tt
edt hroughtheMainmemor y.
I
deally,theMai nmemor yisusedt ost oreal ldatar
equir
ingprocessinginor
dertoachiev
e MaskedROM.
maximum pr ocessingspeed. Thisi
saROM t hatcanonlybepr
oducedbythemanufact
urer
.
Thebitpat
ter
nscor r
espondi
ngtothedesi
redcont
ent
softhismemor
ymustbesuppl
i
edbyt
he
Classi
fi
cat
ionofPri
maryMemor y. useri
nastandardformat..
TheMai nmemorycanbeclassi
fi
edinto3diff
erentsect
ions:
(i
) . ThefastMicr
opr
ocessorI
nternalRegi
ster
s. Programmabl eROM ( PROM) .
ThisisaROM t hatcanbepr ogrammedor“customized”di
rect
lybyt
heuserusi
ngaspecial
(
ii
).Read-
onl
ymemor y(ROM). PROM pr ogrammert osuitt
heneedsofaparticul
artask.
(
ii
i)
.Random Accessmemory(RAM). Customi zi
ngistheprocessbywhi chast
andardproductisadapt
edforusei
napart
icul
ar
si
tuation.
READ-ONLYMEMORY( ROM) .
Thisi
samemor ythatcanonl yber ead,butcannotbewr i
tt
ent o,i
.e.,t
heusercanonl yr eadthe Erasabl
eProgr
ammabl eROM (EPROM).
i
nformati
oni ni t
. ThisisaROM thatcanberepr
ogrammedano.oft
imes.
ROM providesper manentst orageofdat a,i.
e.,t
hecont entsinROM cannotbechangedatwi ll
. Thereare2maintypesofEPROMS:-
Thisi
sbecauset hepr ogram i
nst r
uctionsandt heassoci ateddatast oredint heROM ar e
devel
oped&i nstalleddur i
ngthemanuf actureoft hecomput erhardwar ebyt hecomput er (
a).TheUV-
ErasablePr
ogr
ammabl
eROM.
manufacturers&t herefore,t
heycannotbechangeddur i
ngnor mal comput eroperati
ons; thusthe
ter
m“ Readonl y
” . (
b).El
ect
ri
cal
lyErasabl
ePr
ogr
ammabl
eROM (
EEPROM)
.
ROM isaNon- volatil
ememor y-i t
scont entsareret ai
ned( r
emai nintact)whenpoweri sswitched Iti
salsocal
ledFlashBIOS.ThisROM canber ewri
tt
enthr
oughtheuseofaspeci
al
off
.Theref ore,itcannotbeaf fectedbyswi tchi
ngt hecomput eron&of f. soft
wareprogram,thatusesel
ectr
icalpul
ses.
ROM formsasmal lproport
ionofmai nstorage–i tcontri
butestoabout30%ofI nternal memor y
. Note.Thi
sisthewayFl ashBI
OSoper ate,
all
owinguser
stoupgr
adethei
rBIOS.
ROMsar eusedi nsi tuati
onswher et hedataori nstructi
onsmustbest ored/heldper manent l
y.It
i
susedt ost orev it
al data&progr ams, whichneedt obehel dintheMai nmemor yallthet i
me. RANDOM ACCESSMEMORY( RAM) .
Forexampl e,theyar eusedt ost oreessentialfi
lesespeci al
lythoset hecomput eruseswhi le Itisat y
peofmai nmemor y,whichi susedbyt hecomput ertost or
edata&programst empor ari
ly
booti
ng(starting)up. duringthetimeswhent heyareneededi ntheMai nmemor y.
Thet erm“Random Access”meanst hat,dat
ainanyar eaoftheRAM canber eachedoraccessed
CommonusesofROMs. i
nt hesameamountoft ime.
Themainfunctionsoft heROM ar e: RAM pr ovi
des“Readandwr it
e”f acil
iti
es,i.
e.,i
tal
lowinstructi
onstobewr i
tt
en&r eadout,and
alsot obechangedatwi l
l.Therefore, t
hecomput eruser/programmercancontrolormani pulate
(i
).Itstor esFirmwar e(bootstr
appr ograms)–i.
e.,theessent
ial
fil
esthecomputeruseswhil
e thedat ast
oredinRAM.
booting(starti
ng)up. Forexampl e,i
tisthismemor yt hatisaccesseddur inginstal
lat
ionofprogr
ams;deleti
ng,mov i
ng
(i
i).I
tstor esthesy st
em dat a&instructi
onsthatarenecessar
yforthenormalf
unctioni
ngof &copy i
ngoffil
es.
thecomput ersystem hardware. Readr efer
stother etr
ievi
ng( r
ecov ering)ofinfor
mat i
onfrom memor y,
whileWri
ter ef
erst
ot he
Forexampl e, i
tstorestheOper ati
ngsystem program,whi
chisnecessar
yfortheini
ti
alco- storingofinf
ormationinmemor y .
ordi
nat i
onoft hehar dware&theot herOSpr ograms.

-18- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTIONTOCOMPUTERS.
RAM isaVolat
ilememory,
i.
e.thecont
ent
sofRAM areusuallylost(
rubbedoff
)whenthepower (i
i)
.DRAM chipsar
esmal
linsi
ze.
suppl
yorthecomputeri
sswitchedoff
.
RAM for
mst hemajorpr
oport
ionofMainst
orage–itcontr
ibutesabout70%oftheInt
ernal (i
ii
).ADRAM canst
oreal
otofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nav
erysmal
lspace,
andt
her
efor
echeaper(
less
memor y
.Iti
st hememoryusedinlar
gequanti
ti
esi
nMai nmemor y,
andeverycomput
ermust expensi
ve)t
hatSRAM.Thisi
sthemai
nreasonwhyDRAM isthememor
yusedmost
ly(
or
speci
fyi
tssi
ze. i
nlargequanti
ti
es)ast
heMai
nmemoryinMicrocomput
ers.

UsesofRAM. Di
sadv
antagesofaDynamicRAM.
Thefunct
ionsoft
heRAM are: (i
).I ti
smuchslowerthanSRAM &i
snotabl
etokeeppacewi
tht
heMai
nPr
ocessor
.
(i
). I tstor
esdata&i
nst
ructi
onsawai
ti
ngpr
ocessi
ng. (
ii
).I
trequi
resr
efr
eshi
ngi
nor
dert
oret
aint
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
nit
smemor
ycel
l
s.
(
ii
).I
tal
sost
orest
hei
nst
ruct
ionswhi
char
ebei
ngobey
edorwhosepar
tshav
ebeenobey
ed Thechar gest oredi nt hecapaci torofaDRAM l eaks&mostoft hechar gecannotbe
byt hecomput er. retainedf orlongormaybel ostwi thinaf ewmi ll
iseconds.Topr eservet heinformat
ion,
the
char gemustber ef
reshedev ery1or2mi l
lisecondsbyuseofaRef reshci r
cuit,whi
chcanbe
(ii
i).St orestheint
ermediateresul
ts-theresult
sofcomput erworking/cal
culat
ions,befor
e incor porat edwi thint heCPU.
theyar ecommuni catedtotheusersthroughtheOutputunits. Exer
cise( a) .
Note.TheRAM ar eusuall
yst or
esApplicat
ionprograms(computeruserdev el
opedinstructi
ons 1. Out l
ineTHREEchar act eri
sticsofMai nstorage.
forsolv
ingspeci fi
ctasks),
suchasWor dprocessi
ngorSpreadsheet s. 2. (a).Whatar et hef unct i
onsoft heMai nmemor yoft hecomputer?
I
talsost oresuserdata,tobemani pul
atedbyt hecomputerusingtheuserinputApplicati
on (b).Whydowesayt hatt heMai nmemor yslowsdownt hecomput er’
spr ocessingspeed?
programs.Ther ef
ore,t
heRAM oft heInter
nalmemor yservestheuser . 3. Distingui shbet weent het wot ypesofPr imar ymemor y,st
ati
ngclearlywher eeachonei s
used.
TypesofRAM. 4. (a).Whati saRAM?Whati situsedf or
?
(a)
. Stati
cRAM ( SRAM). (b).St ate3i mpor tantf actsaboutRAM.
ASt at
icRAM isabl
et omaintai
nitsdataaslongaspoweri sprovi
dedtot
hememorychips. (c).Whati smeantby“ Random access? ”
Itdoesnotneedtober e-
writ
tenperi
odical
ly
.Inf act
,theonl
ytimethedat
aonthememor y (d).Br iefl
ydescr ibet het wot ypesofRAM, andst atewhereeachonei sused.
isrefr
eshedorchargediswhenanact ualWr
“ i
te”commandi sexecut
ed. 5. (a).WhatdoesROM mean?Whati situsedf or?
SRAM isv er
yfast&iscurr
entlybei
ngusedint heMainProcessorasasmall
amountofhigh (b).Gi ve3i mpor tantf acts/char acterist
icsofROM.
-speedmemor ycal
ledtheCachememor y. (c).Whatpr ogr amsar est oredi nROM?
6. Def i
net het erm“ Vol atil
e”i nthecont extofcomput ermemory.
(
b). Dynami cRAM ( DRAM) . 7. IdentifyTHREEr easonswhyDy nami cRAMsar ethemostwi delyusedmemor i
esin
ADy nami cRAM usescapaci t
or stostoreinfor
mat i
on.Thei nf ormat i
onisstoredi nthe mi crocomput ersy stemscompar edt oSt at
icRAMs.
Capaci torsasachar ge.Likeanychar ge, t
heelectr
icalchargesi nindivi
dualmemor y 8. Def i
neandexpl ainthef oll
owi ngt erms:
capaci t
or sofaDRAM wi lldri
veaway( l
eak)causingthedatat oei therbelostorchanged
withinaf ewmi l
li
seconds. (i). RAM.
Thismeanst hat,
unlikeSRAM, aDRAM mustunder got heRef reshingprocess, i
.e.,i
tmust (
ii
). ROM.
ber e-writtenconti
nuallyinorderf ori
ttomai nt
ainitsdata.Thi sisdonebypl acingthe (
ii
i)
.PROM.
memor yonaRef reshci r
cuitthatre-writ
esthedatasev eral
hundr edtimespersecond.
Refreshi nginvol
vesr eadingthei nfor
mat i
onoutof ,
andt henwr i
ti
ngi tbackintot hememory, (
iv)
.Co-pr
ocessor
.
thusr estor i
ngafullcharge.
DRAM i susedwi delyformostcomput ermemor i
esbecausei tischeap&smal l
. Exer cise(b).
1. I dentif
yt heTWOt ypesofPr i
marymemor i
esfoundi ntheCentralProcessingunit.
Adv
antagesofSt
ati
cRAM overDy
nami
cRAM 2. St atehowRAMsandROMsar eusedi nthecomput ersystem.
3. Car ef
ull
ydi st
inguishbetweenROM, PROM andEPROM.
(i
). SRAM ismuchfast
ert
hanDRAM &i
tabl
etokeeppacewi
tht
heMai
nPr
ocessor
. 4. Whatt ypeofmemor yisusedt ostorethebootuppr ogram (t
hefirstprogram t
obeexecut ed
(
ii
).I
tdoesn’
trequi
rer
efr
eshcy
clesl
i
keDRAM –canr
etai
nit
sdat
afor
ever
. onswi tchingonacomput er
)?
6.St atethemai ndi f
ferencesbetweenMai nmemor yandBacki ngstorage.
Di
sadv
antagesofSt
ati
cRAMs. Sincet hememor ychipsaretoosmal l,
theymustbecombi nedandputonamedi um thatcanbe
(i
). Theyareofl
owdatadensi
ty,
i.
e.i
tst
oresl
essdat
abi
ts. wor kedwi t
handaddedt oasy st
em.Toachi evet
his,t
hedesi gnerspl
acet hememor ychipsona
(
ii
).SRAM chi
psar
ephy
sical
l
ylar
ge&muchmor
eexpensi
vet
hanDRAM chi
ps. smal l fi
berglasscardt ocreatetheSIMM ( Si
ngleI
nli
neMemor yModul e)orDI MM (DoubleInl
ine
Memor yModul e).
Adv
ant
agesofDynamicRAM overStati
cRAM Thesecar dsar eplacedi nasocketont hemot her
board,andt henfastened/bol t
edin.This
designel i
minatedpr oblemsoft hepast,andmadeupgr adingmemor yasi mpletask.
(i
). DRAM hasamuchhigherpackingdensi
tyt
hanSRAM,i
.e.
,aDRAM chi
pisabl
etost
ore
morei
nformat
iont
hanaSRAM chi pofthesamesi
ze. SECONDARYSTORAGE(
alsocal
l
edAuxi
l
iar
yorBacki
ngmemor
y).
-19- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTIONTOCOMPUTERS.
Secondarymemoryisusedbythecomput ert
oholdprograms,datafi
l
es&backupinf
ormat
ion (i
v).Theyarenon-
vol
ati
le.Secondar
yst
orageunit
sstor
edatapermanent
ly.
thati
snotneededimmediat
ely(notcurr
entl
yinuse)bytheProcessor
.
Howev er
,cont
entsi
nasecondarystoragemediacanbequicklytr
ansfer
redi
ntot
hecomputer
’s (v)
. Usedformassstor
ageofdata&program f
il
esnotcur
rent
lybei
ngoperat
edon,
butwhi
ch
Mainmemor yforpr
ocessi
ngwhenr equir
ed. wi
ll
betransfer
redtothemai
nstoragewhenrequi
red.
Quest
ion.I
dent
ifytheadvant
agesofsecondar
ystor
agedevices.
I
tisal
sousedbyt hecomput ertosupplementthecomputer
’smai
n(i
nter
nal
)memor
yincaseof
massstoragepurposes.
Thi
sstorageisprovidedbylessexpensivedevicessuchas: THENEEDFORSECONDARYSTORAGEI NCOMPUTERS.
1. Theamountofst or
ageneededonat ypi
calMicr
ocomput ersystem mightbegreaterthan
(i
). Magnet icdisks(Har
ddi sks&Floppydiskett
es). thestoragespaceav ai
labl
eintheMainmemor y
.Thisr equir
estheuseofbacki ngstorage
(
ii
).Wi nchesterdisks. devices,whichcanbeusedt ostor
elar
gequantit
iesofinfor
mat i
on.
(
ii
i)
.Magnet ictapes. 2. What everi
si nmemor yisl
ostwhenthecomputerisswitchedoff.Thus, t
her
eisaneedt o
storeprograms&dat ainsecondar
ystoragedevi
cesfrom whichitcanber et
ri
ev edwhen
(
iv)
.Casset t
et apes. needed.
(
v).Punchedcards. 3. Primarystorageisexpensi
ve,t
hustheneedforsecondarystoragedeviceswhichare
(
vi)
.Zipdisks. cheaper.
(
vii
).Opti
caldisks,whichi
ncl
udeCD-
ROMs&WORM ( Writ
eonceReadMany)di
sks,
and FUNCTI
ONSOFSECONDARYSTORAGEDEVI CES.
(
vii
i
).Digit
alVideoDi sks(
DVDs),
whi
chcanbeconnect
edtothecomput
er. (i
). Usedt ostorebackupdat a&i nstr
uctionst hatisnotneededimmedi atel
y(ornotcurrent
ly
i
nuse)byt heCPU.Thi shel psincreatingspacef oranotherdatat obestoredinthe
Mostofthesestor
agemediaaremagnet i
cbased,i
.e.
,theyuset
heprinci
plesofmagnet
ism t
o memor y.
stor
edataandinst
ruct
ionsi
nform ofbinary.
Thedat
ai sst
oredpermanent
lyinDiskdriv
es.Thediskdriv
escaneit
herbef i
xedi
nsi
dethe (i
i). Usedfortranspor
tat
ion&di stri
buti
onofdat a&sof t
ware,i
.e.
,fortransfer
ri
ngfil
esf r
om
computer
,asinthecaseofHarddisks,
orinsert
edanyti
mey ouwanttoreadorwri
teint
hem. onemachinet oanother
.
(i
ii
).Usedt obackupf il
es(keepcopi esofdat a&pr ograms)forsafe-keeping.
Whati
saDiskdri
ve? Whateverisinmemor yislost(orcanbecor r
upted)whent hecomput erorthepower
 ADi skdr
ivei
sacomputerdevi
ceforreadi
ngorwr
iti
ngdat
afr
om ori
ntoast
oragemedi
a. suppl
yisswi t
chedoff.Diskscant her eforebeusedt ostoreprogr ams&dat a,whichcan
 ADi skdr
ivei
sahar
dwareonwhi chfi
lescanbest
ored. beret
ri
evedwhenneeded.
 ADi skdr
ivei
sauni
tthathousesadisk. (i
v).Usedt oinstall
newsof t
war e.
Ex
amples; Exer
cise( a).
Harddi
skdr
ive(
HDDordr
iveC:
). 1. ( a).Whati smeantby‘ SecondaryStor
age’?
Fl
oppydi
skdr
ive(
FDDordr
iveA:
). (b).Explain3r easonswhyi ti
snecessaryforacomput ersystem t
ohavesecondar
ystor
age
faci
lit
ies.
CD-
ROM dr
ive. (c)
.Out l
i
ne3basi ccharact
eri
sti
csofSecondaryst oragedev i
ces.
DVD-
ROM dr
ive. 2. ( a).St at
eTHREEdi f
fer
encesbetweenPr i
marystor ageandSecondar yst
orage.
Tapedr
ive. (b).GiveTWOr easonsforusi
ngsecondar yst
oragedev icesinst
eadofusingPri
mary
storage.
Zipdri
ve. 3. ( a).Givet woexampl esofsecondarystoragedevices.
ADi
skdri
vecanbeusedasanI
nputdev
ice,
Out
putdev
iceorSecondar
yst
oragedev
ice. (b).State4f unctionsofsecondaryst
oragedev i
cesi ncomput ersyst
ems.

Char
acteri
sti
csofSecondar yst oragedev i
ces. Exer
cise(b).
(i
). Theyprovi deslowaccessofi nf
ormation–theypr ocessdataver
yslowlycomparedto 1. Expl ai
nthesal
ientf
eatur
esofcomput ersecondaryst
or age.
primarystorage. 2. Whydoweneedsecondar ystor
ageonacomput ersy
stem?
Moder nsecondarystor agedev i
cesnor mal
lyoperateinmill
i
seconds.Itcantakebet
ween 3. ( a).St
ateanyf
ouradvantagesofsecondarystor
ageov ermainmemor
y.
25–50mi l
l
isecondst olocateinformati
oninadiskdr iv
e. (b).St
ateonepri
marystoragedevi
ceandonesecondar ydev i
ce.
(i
i). Theyhavehi ghdatast oragecapaci t
y.
MAGNETICDISKS.
Disks&Tapescanst orel argeamount sofdataandi nst
ruct
ions;
howev er
,theamountof
AMagneti
cdiskisaroundpl
att
ermadeofapl
ast
icoramet
al&coat
edwi
thamagnet
icmat
eri
al,
storageisli
mi t
edbyt heno.ofdi skpacksortapesy oubuy .
whi
chisusedforst
orageofi
nfor
mati
on.
(i
ii
).Thedevi cesar echeap. Magnet
icdi
skscanbeused:

-20- ©Al
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oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
(
i)
. Stor
ebackupdatat hati
snotbeingusedcurr
ently. Thedi
skscomei ndi
ff
erentdensit
ies.TheLowdensi
ty(
singl
e-si
ded)di
sks,whi
chhol
d720KBof
dat
a&High-densi
ty(
double-
sided)disks,
whi
chusual
l
yhold1.44MBofdat a.
(
ii
). Toi
nstal
lnewsoftware.
(
ii
i)
.Totransf
er/tr
ansportfi
l
esfr
om onemachi netoanother
. UsesofFloppydisket
tes.
(
iv)
.Tobackupsmal lamountsoffi
lesforsaf
ekeeping. Fl
oppydiskett
esareused:-
Magnet icDi skstorage–Ast oragedeviceorsystem consist
ingofmagneticall
ycoateddisks,on (i
). Todi str
ibut
esoftwareonmi
crocomput
ers.
thesur f
aceofwhi chinfor
mat i
onisstoredintheform ofmagneticspotsarrangedinamannert o (
ii
).Tocol
lectori
nputdataf
orsubsequenttr
ansf
erandi
nputt
oanot
hersy
stem.
representbi narydata.Thedataar earr
angedincirculartr
acksaroundthedisksandar e
accessiblet oreadingandwr i
ti
ngheadsonanar m whi chcanbemov edmechani cal
lytothe (
ii
i)
.Asbackupmediaforsmall
harddisks.
desireddi skandt hentothedesiredtr
ackont hatdisk.
Datar ecor dedonamagnet i
cdiskcanber ead/retr
ievedin2way s:- Commont ypesofFl oppydr i
ves.
(a). Sequent ial
lyorSeri
all
y–wher ebydataf r
om agi ventr
ackarereadorwr i
ttensequenti
all
y Thedi sket t
escomei ndi ff
erentsi
zes.
ast hediskr ot
ates. 1). 3. 5-inchdr i
ves, whichacceptthesmal l3.5”disks.
(b). Di rectly. 2). 5¼- i
nchdr ives,whi chacceptthebig5¼”di sks.
3). 8- inchdr iv
es.
Il
lustrat i
on. The3. 5”&5. 25”diskettesareusedi nMicrocomput er
s,whil
ethe8”di sketteisnormal l
yusedin
Supposet her ear e5recordsst oredont rack0, and5r ecordsont r
ack1. Minicomput ers&Mai nframecomput ersnotf orstoragebutasadat acol l
ection/capturemedium.
InSequent i
al access/retri
ev al,ther ecordsf r
om track0ar eread,foll
owedbyt her ecordsfrom Thedi sket t
escanonl yber eadbydr i
vesthatar edesignedtoread/writeontot hem, i
.e.
,alow-
track1, andsoonunt ilal
lrecor dshav ebeenr etr
ieved. density3.5- i
nchdr i
vewi llonlyr
eadandwr i
tet helow-densi
tydisket
tes.
InDi rectdat aaccess/Ret ri
ev al, t
her ecordsar eaccesseddi r
ectl
y,inanyor der
,mov ingthe Howev er,mosthi gh-densitydri
vesareabletor eadandwr i
tebothlow- densit
y&hi gh-densit
y
Read/ writeheadst othetrackt hatcont ainsthedat arequir
ed. di
skett es.
Forexampl e, supposey ouwantt or eadrecord99, f
oll
owedbyr ecord20, thenfol
lowedbyr ecor
d
43.I ft her ecor dsarelocatedont racks19, 3&8r especti
vel
y,thenther ead/wr
iteheadwi l
lmove
tot r
ack19, thenbackt otrack3&t hent otrack8.
Inor dert or eadr ecord99, t
her ei snoneedt oaccessr ecor
ds1t o98; theheadcanpr oceed
directlyt owher erecord99i sl ocat ed.
Thest oragecapaci ti
esofdi sksar ecommonl yexpressedintermsoft heno.ofby tesofdat athey
canhol d.
AMagnet i
cdi skcanbeof2f orms: -
(i
). Fl oppydi sket
tes(Softdi sks).
(i
i). Har ddi sks.

FLOPPYDI SKETTES.
AFl oppydi skisadi skt hatcanbei nser t
edi n&r emov edf rom adi skdr ive.
The3. 5-i
nchdi skisi nser tedviaasloti nfrontoft heSy stem uni t/cabi net.
Floppydi skuni tsar esi ngle-dr
iveunitsabl etohol dasi ngledisk.Thedi skunitisincorporated
physicall
yi ntot hebodyofPCs.Suchdi skdr i
vesar ecal ledInt ernal diskdr i
ves.
AFl oppydi skismadef rom at hin,f
lexibleplasticcircularmat erial.Thepl asticmat er
ial i
scoated
withamagnet icsubst ance( usuall
yI r
onOxi de) ,whichenabl esdat at ober ecordedont hedisk.
Thepl asticdiski spr otect edinar i
gidsmoot hlylinedpl ast i
cenv elope; thatsafeguardst he Phy sicalAppear anceofa3. 5-
inchFloppydisk.
recordingsur faceagai nstext ernali
nfluences, e.g.,touchanddustaccumul ati
onont othe (
i)
. Permanentl abel.
recordingsur face. -I ti sincorporatedont hedi skett
ewheni tisbought .
Floppydi skettescanbendeasi ly.
Thedi skettesar er elativelycheapandconv enientlyhandl ed.Howev er,theyar eonlysuitableas -I thasoni tanarrowi ndi
cat i
ngt hedi
recti
onofi nserti
ngt hedi
skett
eintoi t
sdr i
ve,
storagemedi ai nMi crocomput ersystemsbecause, theyst orer elati
v elylowv olumesofdat aand i
nf ormat i
onaboutt hedi skette,
suchast heno.oft racksperinch,t
hev ersi
onoft he
haveashor tl
ife. diskette,e.g.
,Singl
e-sidedSi ngl
edensi t
y( 1S1D)&t het radenameoft hedi sket
te.
Thest oragecapaci tyi sinf l
uencedbyt heno.ofsi desoft heplast icbasecoat edwi thmagnet i
c (
ii
). Temporaryl abel.
mat eri
al&t hest or
agedensi ty,
measur edinby tes.Thecommonst oragecapaci t
iesare360, 720, Thisi sthelabel,whichisat tachedontot hedi skett
ebyi tsusertospecif
y,e.g.thenameof
&1,440by tes. theowner ,nameofpr ogramsmai ntai
nedont hediskette,etc.
Insingle-sideddi sks, dat acanonl yber ecordedononesi de, wher easi ndoubl e-si
deddi sks,data (
ii
i)
.Securi t
ytags.
canbest oredonbot hsi des.
Areusedt osaf eguardthecont ent
softhedi skette.Whent heholeiscoveredbyt he
-21- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
shutter(apl ast
icband) ,
t hediskett
ecannotbewr it
tentoorit
scont entsal t
ered.
(
iv)
.Spi ndlehol e. HARDDI SK.
Iti
sthehol eusedbyt hedi skdr i
vetohold/clumpthediskett
eov eritsturntabl
eforthe Harddi skismadeofmet al
&i susual l
yrigid/f ir
m.
dri
vemot ort ospi
nt hedi skett
epasttheRead/ Wri
teheadssot hatther eadingorwr i
ti
ng Harddi skisnotr emovabl eli
ket hefloppydi sk, butitisfixedi nsidethecomput er.Howev er,i
t
operationscanbeper formedont herecordi
ngsurface(
s)ofthedi skett
e. worksont hesamebasi cpr i
ncipl esast hef loppydi sk.
Ahar ddiski smadeupofoneormor epl atter s(di
skpl ates),arrangedoneont opoft heot herto
(
v). Read/Wri teregion(Read/ wr i
teheadslot) form adiskpack.Thepl att
ersar emadef rom amet al
licmat er
ial,
usuall
yanAl uminum alloyor
Thisiswher ethediskette’srecordi
ngsurfaceisexposed.Iti
susedt ogivet heheadsof Glassinor dertomaket hem l i
ght .
thediskdr iveaccesstot hedi sk. Thegl asspl att
ershaveenoughCer amicwi thi nittoresistcr acking&alsotheycanbet terresist
theheatpr oduceddur i
ngoper at i
on.
Eachpl att
eri scoatedonbot hsi deswi t
hamagnet icmat eri
al,usuall
yIr
onOxi de,whichenabl es
datatober ecordedont hepl atter.Thisi swhymanypl att er
sar ebrownishorangei ncolour.
Themi xt
ure( ofthemagnet icall
ysensi t
ivesubst ance)ispour edont heplat
ter,thenspinnedt o
evenlydistri
butet hefi
l
m ov ert heent ir
epl att er.

Compar
isonbet
ween5¼-
inchand3½-
inchdi
sket
tes.

5.
25-i
nchFl
oppyB: 3.
5-inchFl
oppyA:
Densi
ti
es Low- High- Low- High-
densi
ty densi
ty density densi
ty
Capacity 360KB 1.
2MB 720KB 1.
44MB
(Bytes)
Thedi skpackpl atesar ehel donar otat
ional Spi
ndle,whichisusedbyt hedri
vemot ortor otate
Tracks 40 80 80 80
theplat esur f
acespastt heRead/ writeheadsi norderfortheread&wr it
eoperati
onst obe
Sectors 9 15 9 18 performedont her ecordingsur f aces.
Heads 2 2 2 2 Datai swr itt
enon&r eadf r
om t hedi skusi ngRead/ writ
eheadsi nthediskdri
ve,underthe
Type Fl
exi
ble Fl
exi
ble Ri
gid Ri
gid i
nf l
uenceoft hecomput er’
scommandsi gnal s.
Theheadsar eat t
achedt oadev iceoranaccessar m call
edtheHeadAct uator,
whichi susedt o
DS–Doubl
e-Si
ded.HD-Hi
gh-
Densi
ty. mov et her ead/writeheadsacr osst hepl atterstothedest i
nati
ontrack.
Therei susual ly1Read/ writeheadoneachsi deofapl att
er&al l
theheadsar eatt
achedt oa
• Bot
hty
pesar
eei
therofl
owdensi
tyorHi
ghdensi
ty. singleact uatorshaf tsot hattheheadsmov einunison.Eachheadhasspr i
ngstoforcei tintothe
• The5.
25i
nchdi
sket
tesar
efl
exi
ble,
whi
l
ethe3.
5inchar
eri
gid. platt
eri tr eads.
Whenof f,theheadsf l
oatbet weent hesur facesoftheplatter
s,whichareheldinav acuum t hat
• 5.25inchdisket teshav eamax.of15sect ors,whi l
e3.5inchdisket
teshav eamax.of18 enablesi ttospi n/r otat
ear oundv eryqui ckl y.
sectors. Whent hedr iveisrunni ng,thepl at tersrot atecausingairpressurethatli
ft
stheheadssl ightlyoff
• The3. 5-
inchdi sksst or
emor edata,andarebet terprot
ected.Theyhav enowr eplacedthe theplat tersur face.Thedi skr ot ates&t heheadscanmov ein&outov erthesurf
acet or ecordor
5.25-i
nchdi skettes,whichar eonl
yusedonexi sting8088PCs. readdat aont hev arioustracks.
Thedisksur faceisdi videdintoconcentricci
rcl
escal ledTracks.TheTr acksar ef
urt
hersub-
di
v i
dedi nt
oSect ors,whi char eusedfordatastorage.Dat aorinfor
mat i
oni srecor
dedont he Not
es.
Tracks&sect or
s.Ty pi
cally
, eachsectoris512by tes.  TheRead/ Wri
teheadsdonott ouchthediskplate’
sr ecor
dingsurface.Theyf l
yovertoavoi
d
Thet r
acksar edescr ibedasconcent ri
c,becauset heyal l
owt hemov i
ngar oundonetrackfrom a theR/ W head’
s‘ cr
ash’,whi
chmayr esul
tinthewear ingawayoft hemagnet i
ccoatingovert
he
gi
v enstartpointandendupatt hest
arti
ngpositi
on. recordingsurf
acest hatmaycausel ossofther ecordingproper
tyoft hemagnetism.
 Thedi stancebetweent hehead&t heplatt
erisv er
ysmal lsuchthatthedri
v emustbe
assembl ed&r epair
edinav erycleanroom becauseonedustpar ti
clecanthrowthewhole
driv
eof f.

DATASTORAGEI NAHARDDI SK.

Thesurf
aceofeachdiski
sdi
videdint
oano.ofconcent
ri
ccircl
escal
l
edTracks,eachtr
ackbei
ng
di
vi
dedintoSect
ors.
Thestor
agecapaci
tyofahar
ddi ski
smuchhighert
hanthatofafl
oppydi
sk,&istheref
oreabl
e

-22- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
tostoremuchmor edat athanafl
oppydiskofthesamesizebecauseoftechnicaldi
ffer
ences. whichthedatast
artsiscal
ledRot ati
onaldelay(latency)&ismeasuredinMi l
li
seconds.
Thestoragecapaci t
yoft heharddi
skisdeter
mi heno.ofr
nedbyt ecordi
ngsur f
aces,no.oftr
acks Thefastert
heharddrivespins,t
heshor t
erther otati
onallat
encytime.
persurface&t herecordingdensi
ty.  Thet imetakentoread&t r
ansmi tthedatatot hecomput eriscal
ledtheTransmissi
on
Thecomput eridenti
fiestherecor
dsoughtforbyusingi
tstr
ackno.,orcyl
inderno.&thesector Time.
no.foritsdi
rectretr
ieval
. Foramov ingheaddri
ve,theti
met akent oaccessdat a( i
.e.
,AccessTime)usuall
yranges
between25–100Mi l
l
isecondsf oraharddisksy stem &100–600mi l
li
secondsforafloppy
di
sksy st
em.
HARDDI SKACCESSMECHANI SMS.
Inorderforadr i
vetoreadorwr i
tetoadi sc, i
tmustbespi
nningataconst antspeed.Floppydisk AdvantagesofMagnet icDisks.
driv
esonl ybeginrot
atingwheyt heyarerequiredtor
eadorwr i
tedata.Howev er,
Harddisksspin Magneticdisks(Floppydisks&Har ddi sks)arethemostcommonl yusedmedi um foronline
continuousl
y,oftenat3,000r ev
ol ut
ionspersecond. secondarystorageinmi cr
ocomput ersy stemsbecauseofthefoll
owingreasons:-
TheRead/ writeheadsar ecapabl eofcrossingthedi
sksurf
acef rom onetracktoanothervery (i
). Theyar echeap( Lowcost )
.
fast,makingitpossibl
et olocateadat afil
eorev enapar
ti
cularrecord/i
tem withi
nafil
eont he Althoughdiskdrivesareexpensiv e,theuseofremovabl
ediskpacksenablesst orage
discv er
yquickly
. capacitytobeincreasedv er
ycheapl y.
E.g.,t
oimpr ovethestoragecapabi li
tyofafl
oppydisksyst
em, yousimplyneedt obuy
additi
onaldisksatlowcost .
ThecostofHar ddiskshasdecr easedmaki ngthem t
obewi delyusedonmi crocomput er
s.
Termsusedt odef i
neAccessTi mesi nHar ddi sks. (i
i)
. Hav erelat
ivel
yfastaccesst i
mesf ordatast
oredanywhereonthedi sk.
TheHar ddi ski saDi rectAccessSt orageMedi a(DAS/ m).I tsAccessTi mei sobtainedi nsame
mannerast hatf orthedi sket te.Howev er,theAccessTi mei sinf l
uencedby : Forhard-dri
ves,thedat aTransferratebetweenmemor y&di skis300,000–2mi l
l
ion
 Thear r
angementoft heRead/ Writeheads. charact
erspersecond, whilet
hatoff loppydi
sksi sbet
ween30, 000–150, 000cps.
 Ther otat i
onal speed, whi chi sfast erthant hatoft hedi skette. (
ii
i)
. Hav ehi
ghst oragecapaci ti
es.
Ifthediskpacki sremov ablef r
om t heuni t,thedi skdr i
veoruni tisr eferredtoasanExchangeabl e Har ddi
skscanst or
et ensofmi l
lionstohundredsofmi l
li
onsofchar act
erswhil
efloppy
DiskUni t(EDS) .I fthedi skpacki sper manent lyhel dinauni t
,thedi skdr iveoruniti sr
ef err
edt o diskscanstorebet ween100KB–2MBofdat a.
asaFi xedDi skUni t(FDU) . (
iv)
. Theyarer e-
usable-t hediskspacecanber e-usedbysimplyrecordingnewdataov erol
d
Diskunit-i st hedev icei nwhi cht hedi skpacki spl aced. data.Also,thedat astoredinamagnet icdi
skcanbeeasi l
ycorrectedorupdated.
FeaturesofaFi xedDi skuni t. (
v). TheyareNon- volati
le-informationisstoredpermanentl
y.
√ Theuni thousesano.ofnon- remov abledi sks.
Disadv
antagesofMagnet icDisks.
√ I thasamot ort hatr otatest hedr i
v eatahi ghcont actrate.
(i
). Dat astor
edonmagnet i
cdi skisnothuman- r
eadabl e,i
.e.
,toverif
yt heaccur
acyofdata
√ I naFi xed- Headdr ive,ther ei susual l
y1r ead/ writeheadf oreacht rackonagi vensur face. stor
edont hedisk,acomput errunhast obemade, whichreadst hecontent
sont hedi
sk.
Forexampl e,iftherear e200t racksperr ecor dingsur face,thent her ewi l
lbe200R/ W heads (i
i
) . Adiskissusceptibl
e(prone)todust,stroke&magnet i
cfiel
ds; whichcandistor
t
servingeachsur face, sucht hat,whenaccessi ngdat a, t
herei snoheadmov ementi nr eading (def
orm/disf
igure)dat
aont hediskcausingdisk-
readingerrors.
dataf rom onet rackf ollowedbydat afrom anot hertrack.Thi smeanst hatdur i
ngt heRead (i
i
i). Requir
eenoughski l
lstomanaget hediskseff
ecti
v ely
.
andWr iteoper ations, theR/ W headsdoesn’ thav etomov ei nor dert olocatetherightt rack
because, eacht racki sal readyl ocat ed,hencet heseekt i
mei szer o.Thi simpliesthatt he Di
ff
erencesbet
weenHar
ddi
sks&Fl
oppydi
sket
tes.
accesst imef ort hedi skpackofaf i
xedheaddr iv
eisr educed.
√ Fi xedheaddr ivesar emor eexpensi vethanmov ingheaddr i
v es. Fl
oppydi
sket
te. Har
ddi
sk.

Mov i
ngHeadDr ive.
1)
.Canbei
nser
tedi
n&r
emov
edf
rom a 1)
.Iti
snotr
emov
abl
eli
ket
hef
loppydi
sk,
♦ Ther ecordingsurf
aceofeachdiskplateissuppli
edbyonl y1Read/Wri
te,regar
dlessoftheno. di
skdr i
ve.I
tcanal sobet r
ansferr
ed butper
manent
lyhousedi
nadi scuni
t
oftrackst hesurf
acecont
ains.Therefore,duri
ngthereadandwr i
teoperati
ons,t
heR/ W head betweencomput er
s. i
nsidet
hecomputer
.
servi
cingt hesurf
acemustmov einordertol ocat
etherightt
rackcont
ainingthecontent
s 2)
.Madeofafl exi
bleplasti
cmaterial&can 2)
.Madeofamet al&isusual
lyr
igid/f
ir
m.
requested. bendeasil
y.
3)
.Consi st
sofasi ngl
epl at
ter
/disk. 3)
.Madeofmoret
han1pl
att
erar
ranged
Exampl e: oneont opoftheothert
oform adisk
Supposet heR/W headispositi
onedov ertr
ack20&t hedatarequi
redisontrack20.Thent hi
s
datacanber eadast hediskrot
atespastthehead.
4)
.Cheaper. pack.
Supposet hedatarequir
edisont rack64.Thent heaccessar m mustfi
rstmov etheR/W head 5)
.Fl
oppydiskdr
ivesonl
ybegi
nrot
ati
ng 4)
.Rel at
ivel
yexpensi
vethanfl
oppydisks.
fr
om track20t otr
ack64.Oncet heheadisposi t
ionedovertr
ack64,thedataisthenread. whent
heyar
erequi
redt
oreadorwr
it
e 5)
.Harddi
skdr
ivesspi
ncont
inuousl
y,i
.e.
,
 Af tertheheadispositi
onedov erthedesi
redtrack,i
thastowai tf
ortheri
ghtsector.The dat
a. theystartr
otat
ingwhenacomput
eri
s
ti
met akenforthedisktorotatefrom i
tspresentposi
ti
ont otheposit
iononthetrackat switchedon.
-23- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
6)
.Haveaspi
ndl
ehol
e. 6)
.Havearot
ati
ngspi
ndl
ethathol
dst
hedi
sk
platestogetherinadi skpack&i susedt o
rotatethediskpackwhenr eadingorwr i
ti
ng
ont othedisk.
7)
.Lowst oragecapaci
ti
escompar edt ohard7 )
.Harddi skshaveamuchhi gherst or
age
disks,
e.g.aFloppydisksstor
ebetween capaci t
ythanfloppydi sks, e.g.canstore
100KB–2MBofchar acter
s. between10-80mi l
l
ionchar acters.
8)
.Sl oweraccesstimes,e.g.t
hedatat ransf
er8)
.Havefast eraccesst i
mesf ordat astoredin
ratebetweenmemor y&t hediskis i
tt hanaf l
oppydi sk,e.g.thedat at r
ansfer
between30,000–150, 000charactersper ratebet weenmemor y&t hedi skisbetween
second. 300, 000–2mi lli
oncps. Thewi dthoft hetapeisdi vi
dedi ntoTracks,whi l
ethel engthi
sdividedi ntoverti
cal columns
calledFr ames.Eachf ramei smadeupof7st orageuni tar
eas(bitpositions).Thesef ramesare
ZIPDI SKS. usedt ostor ei
ndivi
dual charactersacrossthet apewi dth.
Zi
pdr ivesactasei therexternalori nt
ernal devices. Ther ecordingsurfaceofat apehas7or9t racksr unningalongit
sl ength.Eachr ecor di
ng
 TheZi pdiski sf oundinahar dplast i
ccase, andli
kethedi sket
te,i
tusesamagnet i
cmat er
ial posi ti
ononat rackcanbemagnet izedtorepresenta‘ 1’,whil
ethatwhi chisnotmagnet ized
fordoubl e-sidedr ecor
ding&r eading. represent sa0.Thusf ora9- tracktape,eachf ramecont ai
ns9bits&i susedt orepr esent1
char acter.
 Zi pdr ivesar elar ger&theirread/ writ
eheadscanoper atemor eeffi
cientl
ythant
hoseona
At apei susual l
y½( 0.5)inchwi de&2, 400-f
eetl ong.Thechar actersarer ecordedacr ossthe
regularf l
oppydi skdr i
ve.
tracksont hetape.
 Zi pdi sksar eusual l
yportable.
 Eachdi skcanhol dupto100MB. Adv
antagesofMagnet i
cTapesassecondar ystoragemedium.
MAGNETI CTAPES.
Thesear et hest oragemedi amost lyusedi nMi ni andMainframecomput ers.
(i
). Tapeshaveahi ghstoragecapacity(orhighdat ar
ecordi
ngdensity
) ,
i.e.t
heycanst
orel
ot
ofinformati
oninasmal lspace.
AMagnet icTaper eel i
smadeofapl asticribbon/bandcoat edononesi dewi t
hamagnetic
Usually1-i
nchofthetapecanst or
ebet ween1, 600–6,400characters.Thisal
someans
mat eri
althatenabl esdat a&i nst
r ucti
onst ober ecorded/storedont hetape.
that,
at apecanall
owacompl eteharddisktobebacked- upwit
houtt heneedtochange
Magnet icTape–at apewithamagnet icsur f
aceonwhi chdat acanbest oredbysel
ect
ive
mediadur i
ngtheprocess.
polari
zationofpor tionsoft hesur face.
(i
i)
.Tapesarecheapercomparedt ootherremov ablest
oragemedia.
Thereel
soft
heTapear estoredinaprotect
ivecase,
whi chsafeguardstherecor
dingsurf
aceof (
ii
i)
.Havehi
ghdat
atr
ansf
err
ates.
ther
eelfr
om env
ironment
al dest
ruct
ions,e.
g.,t
ouch,dust,di
rectsunli
ghtr
adiati
ons,et
c. Reelsofamagnet ictapehav eatransf
errateofappr ox.10,000–1mi l
l
ioncps,
wher easi
n
cassett
etapes,thetr
ansf errat
eisabout1,000cps.
(
iv)
.Tapesarere- usabl
e.Wheni nformati
ononat apeisnol ongerrequi
red,i
tcansi
mpl ybe
wr
‘ i
tt
enover’withnewi nf
or mati
on.
(
v).Thedomest i
ccassettescanal sobeusedasst oragemedi ainsmallhomecomput ers
wherethespeedofr etri
evalisnotanecessityandt hevolumeoft hecapacit
yofthe
cassett
eisenough.Thi sisbecausedomest iccasset t
esoper ateonthesameprincipl
esas
themagnetictapes.

Disadv
ant agesofst ori
ngr ecordsonMagnet icTapes.
(i
). Dat ast oredonat apemustber ead/accessedsequent iall
y ,onerecor dafteranother.
Usuall
y,aplasti
cring(t
hePer mi tri
ng)isaf f
ixedont hePermitRingGroove,whi chisonthecase, E.g.,ify ouneedt oupdat et he100threcor d,allthepr evious99r ecor dsmustber ead,pass
beforet
het apeismount edinit
sdeck.ThePer mitri
ngisusedtopr ot
ect/safeguardthe undert heRead/ Writehead( oratleastski ppedov er)tor eacht her ecordtheuseri s
content
soft hetape. sear ching.Hence, slowdat a,inst
ructionandi nformat i
onr etri
eval.
Ift
heper mitri
ngisaffi
xed, t
hetapesur facecanbewr it
tento&r eadfr
om, hencei ti
spossibl
eto Thismeanst hat,i
fy ouneedt oprocessr ecordsi nadi fferentor der,letsay,record100
alt
erthecontentsofthet ape.Ifthepermi tringisnotaffi
xedontoitsgroove,thetapesurf
ace foll
owedbyr ecord5, f
ollowedbyr ecor d50, thepr ocessi ngwoul dbesl oweddownal ot
canber eadbutcannotbewr i
tt
ent o;hencet het apeusercannotalt
erthetapecont ent
s. becauset het apewoul dhav etomov eback&f orth.Howev er,i
fther ecordshav etobe
processedi nsequence, i.e.from thef i
rsttothel ast,i
twoul dbef ast.
(i
i
) . Dat ast oredonmagnet ict ape( &disk)isnothuman- r
eadabl e.
E.g.,ify ouwishtov eri
fyt heaccur acyofdat ast oredont het ape,acomput errunwoul d
hav et obemade, inordert or eadthecont entsont hetapeandpr intit.
-24- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTIONTOCOMPUTERS.
(
ii
i)
. Tapeshav eshortli
fespans( averageofabout2y rs)
. 1).Consi
stofast
ri
pofpl
ast
ic,
i.
e.,
r sof 1
eel )
.Consi
stofr
oundpl
att
ersmadeofpl
ast
ic
(
iv)
. At apeissuscepti
ble(prone)todust ,
str
oke&magnet i
cfiel
ds;
whi
chcandist
ort(
def
orm) tape. ormet al.
dataont hetapecausingtape- r
eadingerr
ors.
(
v). Tapesdonotf ul
l
yuset heirrecordi
ngsurface. 2)
.Onl y1si deofthetapeiscoatedwi tha 2)
.Bot hsi desoft hepl atterscanbecoat ed
Ani nchoftapemayhol d1, 600-6,400character
s&t heIRGmaybe0.
5-i
nch.Thismeans magnet i
cmat eri
alforrecor
dingdat a. wi t
hamagnet i
cmat erialforr ecording
that,al
mosta⅓ oft heunusedspaceont hetapeiswasted. 3)
.1t r
ackoft hetapeisnotusedf ordata data.
storage,butforpar
itycheck,i
.e.,t
o 3)
.Thewhol edi sksur facecanbeusedf or
MAGNETICTAPECARTRI DGE&CASSETTETAPES. ensurethatdatarecorded&t ransmi t
ted recor dingdat a.Howev er,inhar ddi sks,
Theyoperat eonthesamepr incipl
eas½- i
nchreel-
to-r
eeltape. i
saccur ate. thet opmostsur faceoft he1stpl ate&
Thedomest i
cCasset tetapesar everysimil
artomagnet ictapes.Theonl ydiffer
enceisthat bot t
om mostsur faceoft hel astpl ateare
Magneti
ct apesar ewi der&l ongert hanthedomest iccassettes. notusedf orr ecordingdat aast heycan
Manycartridgesaredesi gnedt oovercomet hebotherofloadi ngandunloadingtapes. easilybescr atched.
Atapecartridgegivesgr eaterpr ot
ectionagainstdust&di r
tandt henmakest hetapetr
ouble-
free. 4)
.Requi
rest
apedr
ivest
owr
it
e 4)
.Requi redi skdr ivest or eadorwr i
tedat a
Tapecart
ridgespr ovideanef fecti
vewayt ocopyt hecontentsofdi skstoguar dagai
nstdataloss. i
nf ormationto&r eaddatafrom the i
nt hedi sks.
Oncassettest apes,character sarestoredserial
lydownt helengthoft hetape,oneatatime.
Thi
sslowsdownt hepr ocessingspeedoft heinformati
onst oredont hetape.
tape. 5)
.Dat aisst oredont hedi sksi nf i
les,
5)
.Dat aisstoredonat apeinform of folder sordi rectories.
Adv
antagesofCassetteTapes. recordst hatareorgani
zedinblocks. 6)
.Havenobl ankspacesbet weent he
(i
). Theyareverycheap&convenient,
makingthem t
obeawi
del
yusedf
orm ofsecondar
y 6)
.HaveI nter-Bl
ock/RecordGaps(blank tracksont her ecordingsur faces.
storageinmanyhomecomput ers. spaces)separ ati
ngt wosuccessive Howev er,theyusear ecor dingmet hod
blocksorr ecords. knownasTunnel Erasur e;whi chi sused
(i
i)
.I tcanstorehundredsoft
housandsofbyt
esofdata.
tokeepeacht r
ackofdat asepar atefrom
(
ii
i)
.Canbere-
used. theot her s.
7)
.Therecordsonat
apear
eread 7)
.Dat ar ecor dedonadi skcanber ead
(
iv)
.Anordi
nar
ycasset
tepl
ayercanbeusedt
orecor
d&pl
aybackt
hedat
aont
het
apes. sequential
ly,
i.
e.onerecordafter sequent iall
yordi rectly.
Ther
efor
e,noexpensi
veI
nput
/Out
putdev
iceneedst
obebought
. anotherintheordertheyoccuronthe
tape. 8).Dat ai
srecordedonconcentr
icci
rcl
eson
8).Dat aisrecordedacrossthetrackson t
hediskscal
ledtr
acks.
COMPARI SONBETWEENMAGNETI CDI SKS&MAGNETI CTAPES. thetapeorser i
all
ydownt helengt
hof
Simil
ari
ties. thetape.
(i
). Bot har ecoat edwi thmagnet i
cmat erials. PUNCHEDCARDS&PUNCHEDPAPERTAPES.
(i
i)
. Hav ehighdat ast oragecapaci ties, i.
e.canst orehundredsoft housandsofby t
esofdat a. Thesearepapermedi a,whi
chwer eusedasstor
agemediabytheearl
ycomputers.
(i
ii
). Hav ehighdat at ransferr ates. Theybeenreplacedbyt hemagneticmedia,
duetot
hefol
lowi
ngreasons:
(i
v). Hol ddat aper manent l
y ,i
.e.ar eNon- volatile.
(v)
. Cheapandconv enient;hence, ther easonwhyt heyaremost lyusedf orsecondarystorage (i
). Theyarebul ky.
inPCs. (
ii
). Provi
desl
owinput
.
(vi
). Requi r
edr ivesi nor dert or eadorwr i
tedat afrom orintoadi skort ape. (
ii
i)
.Theyarenon-r
eusable.
(vi
i)
. Dat ast oredamagnet ict ape&di ski snothumanr eadable, i
.e.
,toverifytheaccur
acyof
dat ast oredont hetapeordi sk,acomput errunwoul dhav et obeper formed. (
iv)
.Theycanbedestroyedduetodust
.
(vi
ii
).Bot har eadv erselyaf fectedbydust ,st r
oke&magnet icfields,whichcandi stor
tdatastor ed (
v). Costl
ytopr
oduce-thepunchi
ng&v er
if
icat
ionar
etedi
ousandexpensi
ve.
int hem causi ngdat areadi nger r ors.
(i
x). Tapesordi sksdonotf ullyuset hei rrecor dingsurfaces.TheI nter
-BlockGapsi ntapes OPTICALDI SKS.
occupyal argespace; whi leindi sks, aspacehast obel eftforpurposessuchascopy i
ng& Opti
caldisksuseLaser storeadorwri
tedat
a.Whenwr i
t i
ng,al
aserbeam i
susedtoaligna
mov ingoff iles, defragment ationoft hedi sk,etc. permanentdat apatternonthedi
sksurf
ace.Whenreading,t
hedatacont
entsaresensedbythe
(x)
. Bot ht apes&di sksar er e-usabl e.Wheni nf or
mat i
ononat apeordi skisnolongerrequired, patt
ernoflightrefl
ectedfr
om thebeam byt
hedat
aont hedisksurf
ace.
itcansi mplybe“ writt
enov er”wi thnewdat a. Thereare2t ypesofOpt i
caldi
sks:
(xi
). Dat ai nthem canber eadsequent iall
y ,e.g.,whenpl ayi
ngmusi corwat chi
ngamov i
eona 1. CD-ROMs( Compactdi scRead-
OnlyMemory)
disk. 2. WORM ( Wr i
teOnceReadMany )di
scs.

Di
ff
erences. CD-
ROMs(
CompactDi
scReadOnl
yMemor
y).
Magneti
cTape Magnet
icDi
sk

-25- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
WhatisCD-ROM ( Dat aCD)? Progr
ammer spackMul t
imediaintheCD-ROMsenabli
ngconsumer
st oenj
oythewor
kof
ACD-ROM ( alsoknownasadat aCD)i sacompactdi scusedt ostorecomput erdat
a. multi
mediainv enti
ons.
 CDs( Compactdi scs)wereor i
ginall
ydev el
opedforthemusi ci
ndust r
y.Theyusesmal ldi
sks (
vii
). Toprovi
der eferenceworks,
catalogues,
dir
ect
ori
es,
encycl
opedi
as,soft
waref
ront
identi
cal t
ot heonest hathol
dmusi ct ohol
dcomput erinf
ormat i
on. descr
ipt
ions,gr aphi
cal
imagesandsound.
 Theyhav ehigherstoragecapaci t
iesthantradi
ti
onalMagnet i
cdisks.
Thecur rentCDscanhol dabout650MBofdat acompar edtot he3.5”fl
oppydisket
te,
which TypesofCompactDiscs:
canonl yhol d1.44MBofdat a. Thereare2typesofCompactDi
scs(
CD-
ROMs)
:-
Thisstoragecapabi li
tyenablespr ogrammer sandotherdatadistri
butor
stowr it
emore  CD- Recor
dable(
CD-R)di
scs.
sophisti
cat edprogramsf orcomput erusers,becausetheyarenol ongerli
mitedbydata  CD- ReWri
tabl
e(CD-RW)di
scs.
storagespace.
CD-R(Recordable).
TheCD- ROM Technol ogy ACD-Rhol dsdatapermanently, i
.e.,oncewr i
tten,itcannotbeerasedoroverwr
itt
en.
ACDi smadebyhav inginformationburntintothePolymermat eri
alusingal aser.The CD-Rcanbeusedt ostoreorbackupal otofdata( about650MB) ,t
husmakingitsui
tabl
efor
i
ndent ationsappearasf i
necirculartr
acksint heCD. busi
nessesthatneedt orecord/st oreal otofinformat i
on.
Dat aiswr it
tenont heCDi nacont i
nuousspiralrunni
ngf r
om thecenteroft heCDt oi t
soutsi
de AdvantagesofCD- R
rim.Al lthebi t
sinaf i
learewr i
ttenoneaftertheot herfr
om beginni
ngt oend, thenthenextfi
lei
s (i
). Goodf orpermanentdatast orage.
wr i
tten,andsoon. (i
i
). Lessexpensi veperdisct hanCD- RW disc(CD- RdiscsarecheapercomparedtoCD-RW).
Al ogicalformat(orfilesystem)st r
uctur
est herawbi t
sont heCDi nav i
rtual t
reeofdirect
ori
es (i
i
i). Readableonv ir
tual
lyal
l CD- ROM andCD- Rdr iv
es.
andf il
es, whichmakesi teasierforbothhumansandcomput erstouset hei nfor
mat i
on. (i
v). Usewheny oudonotneedt oeraset hedata.
ISO9660i sawor ldwidest andardspecif
yingthel ogi
calformatforfi
l
esanddi rect
oriesonaCD- (v
). CD- Rdr i
vescanwr it
efastert hanmostCD- RW drives.
ROM.
DisadvantagesofCD- R.
(i). Thedi sccanonl ybewr i
ttenonce, (i.
e.oncesomet hinghasbeenr ecordedonaCD- R,i
t
can’tbeer asedorwr i
ttenov eragain).
(ii
).Thefut ureofCD- Rdrivesseemst obei ndoubtsinceCD- RW drivescanaccompl i
shthe
samet hingasCD- Rdrives.
Note.I naCD- Rdr ive,t
herear e2speedsl isted.
Thef asteroft het wospeedsi st hespeedatwhi chthedriv
er eadsinformat i
onfrom adi
sc,whil
e
thesloweronei sthespeedatwhi cht hedriverecor
dsinformat i
onont oaCD- R.
CD-RW ( ReWr iteable).
I
tispossi blet orecor ddataonaCD- RW mor ethanonce.Wi thCD- RW driveyoucanalsoerase
thecont entsofaCDandr e-writenewi nf
ormat i
ontoit.
Touset
heCD-
ROM di
scs,
aCD-
ROM dr
ivei
sneeded. I
naddi ti
on, CD- RW dr i
vescanpl ayaudi oCDs, usetheregularCD-ROMs&r eadCD-Rdiscs.This
makesCD- RW dr iv
esv erydesirable.
Thedev i
cesi naCD-ROM dr iv
eareonlyabl etoreadbackpr e-r
ecordedsoundordat abyusi nga MostCD- RW dr ivescanal sorecor dt oCD- Rdiscs,makingitpossibletouseCD- RdiscswithaCD
l
aseranddet ecti
ngt hepatter
nofli
ghtr ef
lectedfrom i
tsbeam. -
RW dr ive.
Thecur r
entCD-ROM dr i
v esuseMulti
-session&Mul ti
-speedtechnologiesduet otheint
ense
requir
ement sofmostmul t
imedi
aappl i
cations.TheMul ti
-sessiontechnologyall
owsdat at
obe Advant
agesofCD-RW.
wr i
tt
entoaCDagai n&agai nunti
li
treachesi tsmaximum capaci ty(650MB) . (i
). Usedwheny ouneedt oerasethedataandre-writ
enewinformati
on(e.
g.,
updati
ngfi
les)
.
TheMul ti
-speedtechnologyincr
easesther otati
onalspeedoft hedisk,thusincr
easingthedata Dat
awr i
tt
entoaCD- RW i
snotpermanent,i.
e.itcanbeoverwri
tt
enorerased.
transf
errateofaCD- ROM dr i
ve. (i
i
). Usedt omakeapr act
iceCDort ot
estthecontentsofaCDbef oremaki
ngaper manentone.
(i
i
i). Morecostef
fect
ivefornearl
inedatastor
ager equi
rement
sthanCD-R.
UsesofCD- ROMS( CDs) .
Typi
calusesf orCD-ROMsi ncl
ude: Di
sadv
ant
agesofCD-RW.
(i
). Ar chivi
ngdata.
(i
i
). Backi ngupahar ddri
veorot
hermedi a. (i
). CD-
RW dr
ives&mediaar
eexpensi
ve/
mor
ecost
lyt
hanCD-
Rdr
ives.
(i
i
i). Creati
ngat estcopyofaCDbef orehav ingitfactory-
dupli
cat
ed. (
ii
).CD-
RW ar
esl
owert
hanCD-
R&CD-
ROM dr
ives.
(i
v). Disseminati
ngi nf
ormati
ontofi
eldoffices. I
ttakesabout1hrt
oformatCD-RW di
scs&about½anhourt ocopy250MBofdat
atot
he
(v
). CDsar etheprimarymethodsofinstall
ingsof tware. di
sc,whil
eCD-Rdiscst
akeafewmi nut
estoformatandhav
et hesamewri
tet
ime.
Mostsof twarecompaniesdi
stri
buteappl icat
ionsof t
wareinCD- ROMs. (
ii
i)
.Dat acanbereadandwrit
tent
oCD-RW discsonl
ybyCD-RW driv
es.
(v
i). CDsar eusedi nMulti
media(t
heintegrat i
onoft ext,
mot i
onvideo,gr
aphi
cs,
&sound)
.
-26- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNIT1:I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
(
iv)
.CD-
RW dr
ivesar
ecur
rent
lyf
aci
ngst
if
fcompet
it
ionf
rom t
heDVD-
Recor
dabl
e(DVD-
R)
becausetheDVD-
Rcanstor
emor ei
nfor
mati
ont
hanCD-
RW. DVD( Di gitalVideoDi scs).
Not
e.BothCD-RW &CD-Rcanbereadbyst
andar
dCD-
ROM dr
ives. ADVDl ooksl i
keaCD- ROM.Howev er,aDVDcanst oremuchmor einformat i
on.
Forexampl e:
WORM ( WriteOnceReadMany )discs. Asi ngl e-sidedDVDcanhol d4. 7GBofi nformat i
on( a133mi nutesoff ull
-mot ionvideo),whilea
AWORM di sclookslikeaCD.Al so,dataisreadfrom thediskinasi mi
larwayt othatonaCD. doubl e- sidedDVDcanhol d17GBofi nformat i
on( theequi valentof8hr sofst udioqual i
tyvi
deo);
TheWORM di scsurfacehas40, 000Tr acks,25Sectorsandat ot
al stor
agecapacityof1GB. enabl ingmostmov iest obest oredonasi ngledisc.
Dataiswr i
ttenint
othedi scbybur ningaper manentpat t
ernintothesur faceofthediscbymeans Thi samountofst oragegi vessof twar eprogrammer sflexi
bilit
ywheni tcomest odesigni ng
ofahighpr ecisi
onlaserbeam. progr ams.Theyar eabl et ost oreall t
hehi gh-qualitygraphi cimages, digit
al sound&t ool sthey
TheWORM di scsareexchangeabl e. wanti nasi ngleDVD.
WORM di scsar enon-erasable&ar elesspronetodatal osscompar edtoMagnet i
cdisks. Cur rent l
y ,DVDsar eusedpr imar il
yformov i
es.TheDVDv ideosof f
ersuper iorpi ct
ures&sound,
AccessspeedofaWORM di scisslowert hanthatofMagnet icdisks. theabi l
ityt oplayaudi oCDsi naDVDpl ayer,andpi ctur
est hatareshar p&cl earthanVHS
Touset heWORM di scs,aWORM di skunit/dr
iveisneeded.Thedr ivei
ssi mil
artomagneticdi
sk videot apes.
uni
t. TouseaDVD, yourcomput ershoul dhav eaDVD- ROM.Tor eadtheDVD- ROM, aDVD- ROM dr i
ve
Anexampl eofaWORM dr iveistheCD- R,whichusesthesamesi zeofdi sksasCDsandonce i
sr equi r ed.
wri
ttenusingt heCD-Rdr iv
e,itcanber eadinaCD- ROM di skdriv
easwel lasinaCD- Rdri
ve. Inor dert oenjoyal l
t hef unct ionalit
yofaDVD, t
hecomput ermusthav eaMot i
onPictureExpert
Gr aph( MPEG)decodercar dorMPEGsof tware.Thi senabl estheusert oviewf ullscreenv i
deoor
UsesofWORM di
sks. videocl ipsf r
om aDVDv ideodi sc.
√ WORM dri
vesstor
elar
geamount
sofdata. DVDdr ivesar ereasonabl y/f airlypri
ced.
√ Theyar
eusedtoputdataonl
i
nef
orref
erencepur
poses. DVDdr ivescanr eadal lot herROM f or mat s-audioCDs, CD-ROMs, CD- R, CD- RW &DVD- ROM
discs.
Adv
ant
agesofOpticaldi
scsassecondarystor
agemedia. Thecur rentDVDsar enotr ecor dable, i
.e.theydon’ thav etheabi l
it
ytor ecordi nf
ormation.
(i
). Haveveryhighstoragecapaci
ti
es.Thisenabl
esthem t
obeusedf
ormul
ti
medi
a HANDLI
NGPRECAUTIONSFORMAGNETICMEDIA.
appl
icat
ions.
(i
). Shoul
dbestor
edinopt
imum t
emper
atur
eranges,
e.g.10oC–52oCf
ordi
sket
tes.
(i
i)
. Haverel
ativel
yhighaccessspeeds.
(
ii
). Shoul
dbepr
otect
edi
nthei
rcaseswhennoti
nusei
nor
dert
osaf
eguar
dthei
rrecor
ding
(
ii
i)
.AreNon-
vol
ati
l
e,i
.e.i
nfor
mat
ionkepti
nthem i
sper
manent
.Ther
efor
e,t
heyar
emor
e surfacesagai nstenv i
ronment al infl
uencessuchasdust ,touch, di rectsunlight ,
radiati
ons,
secur
eagainstal
terat
ion. etc.
(
iv)
.Arecosteffecti
ve(cheap)especi
all
yifusedf
orl
argest
oragev
olumes. (iii).Whenl oading/mount i
ngt hemedi ai ntoitsr eading/ wr iti
nguni t,car eshoul dbet akent o
(
v). Theyarerobust–t
heyr
esi
stt
emper
atur
e,el
ect
romagnet
icf
iel
ds,
andnotaf
fect
edby avoidbr ushingt her ecor dingsur f
acesagai nstt hemechani cal component soft hedr ive.
wat
erordust
. (iv ).Shoul dnev erbebr oughtnearmov i
ngormagnet icbodi es.Suchbodi esmi ghtcauset he
(
vi)
.Haveveryhi
ghdat
atr
ansf
err
ates. demagnet izati
onoft her ecor di ngsur faces( i
.e.,remov et hemagnet icproper tyfrom the
Moder
nCD-
ROM dr
iveshav
edat
atr
ansf
err
atesofbet
ween150–4,
800KB/
second. surfaces)maki ngr ecordi ngi nt er msofmagnet i
sm i mpossi ble.
(
vii
).SomeOpt
ical
discsal
l
owdat
atobewr
it
tent
othem ano.oft
imes,
e.g.
,CD-
RW. (v ). Putont hepowerbef oremount ingt hemedi aandof faf terr emov ingt hemedi afrom the
driv
e.Thi sisbecauset hef luct uat i
oni npowermi ghtal socausede- magnet izati
on.
ReasonswhyOpt i
caldi
scs(CD-ROMs)ar enotmost l
yusedi nmi
crocomput ersystemsas Phy sicalstor ageconsi derat i
ons.
secondar
ystor
agemedi a. Recor dingdensi ty–Theno.ofusef ul storagecel l
speruni tofl engt horar ea.
1).CD- ROMsr equi
respecialwr
it
erstowr i
tetothedisk.TheCDWr i
tersareusuall
yexpensi
ve, Forexampl e,
thusli
mit
ingtheuti
li
ty/usef
ulnessofCD-ROMsascomput erstoragedevices. - Theno.ofchar actersperi nchonamagnet i
ctapeorpunchedcar d.
- Theno.ofbi tsinasi nglel i
neart rackmeasur edperuni tofl engt hoft her ecordingmedi um.
2).Areexpensi v
e(noteconomical)especi
all
yifusedforlowstor
agev olumes. Vol ume-At erm usedf oranyi ndi vidual physi calstor agemedi um t hatcanbewr i
ttent oorr ead
3)
.Requi
reCD-
ROM dr
ivest
ouset
hedi
scs,
whi
char
enoti
nst
all
edonmostdeskt
op from.E. g.,af i
xedhar ddi sk, fl
oppydi sk, CD- ROM, adi skcar t
ridgeort apecar t
ri
dge.
comput
ers. For mat ti
ng-Bef oreadi sket tecanbeused, i
tmustbef ormat ted.Thi spr epar esthedi sksot hat
4)
.MostCD-
ROMsar
epr
oducedbyt
hemanuf
act
urerorcanonl
ybewr
it
tenonce.Ther
efor
e, thedr ivecanusei t.
theyarenotreli
abl
eespecial
lyforbusinessesthatmayneedtore-
progr
ammet heCDsto Initi
ali
zat i
on-Bef oreadi ski srecor ded, i
thast obei niti
alized, i.
e.,wr it
ingzer ostoev erybyteon
suitt
heirneeds. ev erytrack.Thi selimi natesal lt raceofanyexi sti
ngdat a.
Fragment ation-Whendat ai swr itt
enonanewl yformat teddi sk, i
tisusual l
ywr i
ttent ounused
5)
.Aresl owt oprepar
e,i
.e.
,i
ttakest i
metof ormat&alsotocopydatai
ntothedi
scs,e.
g.CD- cont agioussect ors.I fdat aiser ased, thent hedel et edsect orsmayl eav espacesamongused
RW diskstakeabout1hrtoformat&about½anhrt ocopy250MBofdat at
othedisc. sect ors.Ov ert
ime, aftermanyi nser tsanddel etes,thesef reesect orsmaybescat teredacr oss
6)
.TheAccessspeedofanOpt i
cal di
skislow. thedi sk.I nsuchaphenomenon, thedi skissai dtobef ragment ed.
-27- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
Exer
cise( a). (
d).Dr
awadi agram t oshowt heconst ructi
onofONEbacki ngstoragedev i
ce.
1. ( a) .Whati saDi sk? 2. Af l
oppydi skdriveisanauxi l
iarystoragedr i
ve:
(b) .Explaini ndet ailtheusesofadi ski nacomput ersy stem. (a)
. Wi thwhi chty peofcomput erwoul dyounor mallyassociatethisdevi
ce?
(c) .Statet het wobasi ct ypesofmagnet icdisks. (b). Whydoest hist ypeofcomput ercommonl yhavediskdr i
vesaswel lasMain
(d) .GiveTHREEdi fferencesbet weent het wot ypesofmagnet icdisksidentifi
edin1( c)
. memor y?
(e) .Give3r easonswhymagnet icdiskshav ebecomet hemostcommonl yusedmedi um for (c)
. I fonechar acterisst oredinan8- bitbyte,andaf loppydiskissaidtostor
e360KB.
onli
nesecondar yst oragei nmi crocomput ersy st
ems. Calculatethepr ecisenumberofchar actersthatcouldbest oredinthedi
sk.
2. ( a) .Whati saDi skdr ive? Explainyouranswer .
(b) .StateFOURdr ivesofacomput er. (d). Compar ethet woty pesofdi skettesusedi ntermsofsi ze,capacit
yandwhether
3. ( a) .Whati sahar ddi skandwhati si tmeantf or? theyarel oworhi ghdensi ty
(b) .Whatar et hecomponent sofahar ddi sk. 3. Defi
nethef ol
lowingt ermsasusedi nMagnet i
cdi sks:
4. Thedi skpackofahar ddi skhas6di skpl ates. (i
). Accesst ime.
(a) .Calculat ethenumberofsur facest hatcanbeusedf orrecordi
ngdat a.Expl ainyour
answer . (
ii
).Seektime.
(b) .Apar tfrom t henumberofr ecor dingsur faces, i
dentifyTWOot herfeat uresthatcanbe (
ii
i)
.Rotat
ionaldel
ay.
usedt odet ermi net hest oragecapaci tyoft heharddi sk. (
iv)
.Datatransf
erti
me.
5. ( a) .Whati saFl oppydi sk? 4. (
a).Li
stTHREEexampl esofOpti
calstoragedevi
ces.
(b) .Howmanyt ypesoff loppydi sksar et herei ntermsofsi ze?Namet hem andst at
etheir (
b).Giv
eTHREEr easonswhyOpticaldisksarebet
terst
oragedev
icescompar
edt
ofl
oppy
features. di
sks.
(c) .Drawawel l
-label eddi agram ofa3. 5-i
nchf loppydiskshowi ngi t
spar ts. 5. Wri
teshortnotesont hefol
l
owing:
(d) .HowdoesaFl oppydi skdi f
ferfrom aHar ddisk?
(e) .StateFOURpr ecaut ionst hatshoul dbet akenwhenhandl ingdiskettes. (i
). Di skett
es.
6. Di stinguisht hef ol lowing: (
ii
). Harddi
sks.
(a) . Magnet i
ct apeuni tandMagnet i
ct ape. (
ii
i)
.Magnetictapes.
(b) . Opt i
cal diskdr i
v eandOpt i
cal disk.
7. Whati smeantby : (
iv)
.Opt i
cal
disks.
(a) . Anev enpar i
tycheck? 6. (a)
.Expl
aint
heterm“Accessti
me”andhowi tcanbecalcul
ated.
(b) . Anoddpar i
tycheck? (b)
.Drawalabel
eddiagr
am ofMagneti
ctapedeck/uni
t.
8. Expl ainwhyt heuseofbl ocksofr ecor dscanenabl edat at obest oredmor eeffi
cientl
yon 7. Expl
aint
hefoll
owingter
mswithregar
dtomagnet i
ctapesystems:
magnet i
ct apes. (i)
. Load- Poi
ntmarker.
9. Def i
ne‘Tr ansf ert i
me’ and‘ Transf errat e’withregardt ot apes. (
ii
).Inter-
BlockGap.
10. Gi ve3adv antagesofusi ngmagnet i
ct apesassecondar ystoragedev i
cesi nmi crocomput er
sy stems. (
ii
i)
.Headerl abel
.
11. Gi ve5si mi l
ariti
es&5di fferencesbet weenmagnet ictapesandMagnet i
cdi sks. (
iv)
.Block.
12. Expl aint hemeani ngofSer ialAccessandDi rectAccess.Gi veexampl esofbacki ngst orage (
v). Recordi
ngdensi
ty.
dev i
cest hatuseseachoft hesemet hodsofaccess. 8. Whatist
heimportanceofI
nter-
BlockGapsi
namagnet
ict
ape?
13. List3adv antagesofeachoft hef oll
owi ngtypesofsecondar ystoragemedi a. 9. Expl
aint
heprecauti
onsofhandl
ingmagneti
cmedi
a.
(i) . Magnet icTape.
(
ii
). Magnet
icDisk. Exer
cise(
c).
(
ii
i)
.Optical
Disk. 1. “ Infuturecomput erdisketteswi llbeobsol eteasev er
ycomput erwi llr
elyonOpti
caldisks”
.
14. (a).Namet het wotypesofOpticaldi
sks. Statewhet herornoty ouagr eewi tht hisclai
m andgi veTWOcl earreasonstosupportyour
(b).Clearlydiff
erenti
atebet
weent heTWOt y
pesofCompactDisks(
CD-ROMs). answer .
(c)
.Li st3r easonswhyOpt i
caldiscs(CD-
ROMs)ar
enotmostlyusedinmicr
ocomput
er 2. Assumi ngt hatacomput erDVDhasast oragespaceof4GBandanor mal movi
e(video)fi
le
systemsasst or
agedevices. takes700MBofst oragespace.Howmanymov iescanbest oredinasi ngl
eDVDst orage
Exer
cise(b) . device?( Givey ouranswert ot henear estwhol enumber).
3. Howmanyopt icaldisksof720MBst oragecapaci t
yareneededt ostore20GBstorageof
1. (a)
.Explai
ntheterm“ Backi
ngstor
e”.Giv
eexampl es. harddi skdat a?(Givey ouranswert ot henear estwholenumber ).
(b)
.Stat
e3r easonswhydomostcomput er
sr equi
rebacki
ngst
ore? OUTPUTDEVI CES
(c)
.Namet wodiffer
enttypesofbacki
ngstoragemediaandcomparet
heaccessi
bil
i
tyof Whent hecomput erpr ocessest hedat a( oraf tert
hecomput erfi
ndst hesoluti
ontotheproblem),
data i
tdi
splayst her esul t
s( orcommuni catest hesol uti
ont owhoev erposedthequest i
on)byuseof
from eachofthesetypes.
-28- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
anOut putdev i
ce. Hardcopyi
sdesirabl
eiftheinf
ormat i
onort
her
esul
tsoft
hecomput
erwor
kingi
stobe
Thet er
m Out putisusedt odescribeallt
hatcomesout ,fr
om t
hecomput ermemory,orf
rom t
he maintai
nedforf
utureref
erence/use.
processingstageofadat aprocessingsystem totheexternal
env i
ronment . ExamplesofHardcopyOutputdevices.
Outputtherefore,i
nvol
v esreceiv
inginformati
on( processeddata)from thecomput
erthr
ougha  Pri
nter
s.
suit
abledev i
cef orext
ernaluse.
Anout putdev i
ceprovidestheuserwi ththeresult
sf r
om thecomput er
.  GraphPlot
ter
s.
 Microf
orms.
FUNCTI ONSOFOUTPUTUNI TS.
1. Tr ansmi tt hei ntermedi ater esul t
s&f inal r
esult
st otheuser s. Exer
cise(a)
.
2. Conv eymessages, e.g.er rormessages, totheoper ator s. 1. (i
).Whatisthedi
ff
erencebet ween“Hardcopy
”and“ Sof
tcopy
”?
3. Pr ov idei mmedi at er esponset oquer i
es/quest ions. (i
i).NameTWOout putdeviceswhichproducetemporaryout
put
.
4. Theyar eusedwhenwr it
ingont ot hesecondar ystoragemedi a. (i
ii)
.NameTHREEout putdev i
ceswhichproducepermanentout
put.
5. Acceptt her esultspr oducedbyt hecomput er(
whichar eincodedf orm &hencecannotbe 2. Whatar et
hefact
ors,whichdeterminethechoiceofout
putmediaanddev
ice?
easilyunder stood)&conv ertt hesecodedr esultstohumanr eadablef or
m.
Theout putpr oducedbycomput erscanbeputi nto2br oadcat egor ies:- Exerci
se( b).
(a)
. Human- readabl eout put, whichser v estheinformat ional needsofpeopl e.Thisisaform of 1. ListFI VEdifferentt ypesofcomput erOut putdevices.
out putt hatisr eadi lyunder standabl ebyhumanbei ngs, e.g.,pri
ntedordr awnout put
. VISUALDI SPLAYUNI T(VDU) /MONI TOR.
(b)
. Machi ne-readabl eout put ,whi chisr equir
ed/usedf orsubsequenti nputtot hecomputer.In Visualdispl ayunit(oraMoni tor
)isat el
evision-l
ikescreen,whi
chdisplaysthedat
at hati
sbeing
thiscase, theout putmaybet empor aril
ystoredonmachi ne-readablemedi a. ty
pedataKey board.I tal sodisplaystheinformat i
onthathasbeenpr ocessedbythecomput eri
n
Forexampl e, ahuman- sensiblefor m.
Inthepr oduct ionofapay rollforacompany ,apay r
ollrepor tispr oducedl i
sti
ngt heamounteach I
nmanycases, anor dinarytelevi
sionsetcanser veasthedispl
ayunit.
employ eemustbepai d.Thi sr epor tcanthenbeusedbyt heper sonr esponsiblefori
ssuing Thedispl ayi smeantt opr ovideameansofv isuall
ycheckingwhethertheinfor
mationthathas
cheques. beenent er ediscor rect .
Atthesamet ime, anupdat edempl oy eefil
ei sproduced, say ,onat ape.Thet apewi l
lbeusedas Theout putdi splayedonamoni torscreeniscal l
edaSof tcopyout
put.
i
nputt ot hecomput erf ort henextpay r
oll
r un.
Thequal ity, validit
yandusef ulnessoft heout putisinfl
uencedbyt heout putfacil
it
yused.The ClassesofMoni
tor
s.
fol
lowingf act ors/consi der ati
onsdet erminethechoi ceofout putequi pmentandmedi a.
(a).Cat hodeRayTubes(
CRT)–f
oundi
nmostdeskt
opmi
crocomput
ers.
(i)
. Sui t
abi lit
yoft heappl i
cat ion.
(
b).Li
qui
dCr
yst
alDi
spl
ays(
LCD)–usedbyLapt
opsandNot
ebooks.
(
ii
). Thespeedatwhichtheoutputisr
equir
ed. - Theresolut
ionofaCRTi sadjustable,whil
ethatofanLCDi softenset
.
(
ii
i)
.Whet herapri
ntedversi
oni
sr equi
red. - TheCRTcandi splayanal mostunl i
mi t
edno.ofcolours,butt
heLCDcandi spl
aya
(
iv)
.Thevol umeofthedata. l
imit
edno.ofcol ours.
- LCD’sarebackli
tbyaser iesoflightbulbs.Notebooksuseonl y1li
ghtbul
binorder
(
v). Costofthemethodchosenascompar edwit
hthebenef
it
stobeder
ived. toconservepower,butdeskt opLCD’ scanuseupt o4bul bs.
Thesebulbscanber eplacedbyt heuser .Theyalsohaveal i
fespan.Ther
efore,
aft
er
DI
VISI
ONSOFOUTPUT. sometime,youwi l
lnoticet hatthescreenstart
sbecomi ngdimmer .Taket
heLCDt o
Out
putcanfurt
herbeclassi
fi
edas:
- thevendorforabulb.
1. Hardcopyoutput
.
2. Soft
copyoutput. AdvantagesofLCDov erCRT.
1. Thescr eenofaLCDi smuchthinner&smal l
ert
hanofCRT.
SOFTCOPYOUTPUT. LCDscr eenscomei n14or15-i
nchsi zes.A15”LCDhasa15”v
iewabl
escr
een;
asi
zet
hati
s
Thisiswheretheendresult
saredispl
ayedonascr
een.Theusercanseetheresul
ts,
butcannot onl
yslightlysmall
erthana17”CRT.
touchthem. 2. LCD’ shav enofl
icker.
Theout putl
ast
sforashort-t
imeonly,
i.
e.,
iti
sav
ail
abl
eonlyasl
ongasitappearsonthescreen. 3. Theyconsumel owpowert hantheCRT.
ExamplesofSoftcopyOutputdev
ices. Theperformanceofacomput erMonitordependson3fact
ors:
-
 Visual
Di spl
ayUni
ts(
VDU)/Moni
tor
. (a).Si zeoft hescr
een.
 AudioResponseUnit
s. (
b).Thenumberofcol
our
sitcandi
spl
ay.
 Speakers.  Monochr omemoni t
ors-displayonly1typeofcol Bl
our( ackf ound&Whi
orBackgr t
e
HARDCOPYOUTPUT. forForeground).
Hardcopyi
mpli
esthatt
heout
putispermanent
,i.
e.i
tcanber
etai
nedf
orani
ndef
ini
teper
iod.  Colourmoni tor
s-displayav ari
etyofcol
ours.
Theusercansee&toucht
heresul
ts. Exampl es;EnhancedGr aphi
csAdapt er(
EGA),Vi
deoGraphi
csAdapter(VGA)
,Super
-29- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
VideoGraphicsAdapt
er(SVGA)
. refreshthelineofpi
xelsunderneaththefir
stone.Itconti
nuesthisprocessdownt hescreen,
Thehighertheno.ofcol
oursdi
spl
ayed,
themor
ereal
i
sti
cthei
mages. returningtothetoptodoitoveragainwheni thasfini
shedtheentir
escr een.
Dur i
ngt heprocess,
thebeam excitesthosephosphordots,whichthevideocardt ell
sitt
o.
(
c).TheScreenresol
uti
on(
orshar
pnessoft
hei
mage)
,whi
chi
sdet
ermi
nedbyt
heno.ofpi
xel
s. Ther efore,
thecardgiv
esinstr
uctionstotheelect
rongunt oexcit
esomepi xel
s;hence,forming
TheVi ewi ngangl e-t hepi ct ureappear scl earwhenv i
ewedst rai
ghtonoracer t
ainamount pictures.
ofdegr eesof fthecent er; butwheny ouar etoof arovertot hesi de,thepi cturegr owst oo
dimt osee. OnaCol ourmoni
tor
,eachpixel
contai
ns3separat
edot s,onef
oreachoft
heprimarycolour
sof
AVDUcanbeusedt odi splayl i
nesoft extaswel lasgr aphics(images, pi
ct ures&dr awings). l
ight
;Red,Yell
ow,
&Bl ue.Combini
ngthesecol
ourstogetherpr
oducest
herangeofcolourst
hat
Whenusedf orout putoft ext, at y pical displayuni tismadeof24l ines;eachl i
neconsi sti
ngof weallknow.
between40–80char act ers.
Whenusedf orout putofGr aphi cs, thescr eeni sconsi deredt obecomposedofano.ofdot s Screenbur nout.
arrangedi nr ows&col umns. Thisisat erm usedt odescri
bet hedamagecausedt ot hei nnersur faceofthescreendisplay.
  Insi
det heMoni tor,anel
ectronbeam i saimedataPhosphor -coatedscr een.Ifascreendisplayis
  stati
c,theelectronbeam cont i
nual l
ystr
ikesthesamepl aceont hescr eensur
face,andev entual
l
y
Eachdoti scal edaPi
l ct ureel ement( orPixel). burnsahol ein( orwearsaway )thePhosphor uscoating.Thi smightt akeseveraldaysorweeks
APi xel isascr eendot&i sadi rectmappi ngoft hei nformation( e.
g.char act er)intheVi deoRAM tooccur .
cont ainedi nt hemoni tor ’
sAdapt ercar d. Note.Damaget othescreencannotber epai
red.Thedamagei sv isiblebytur
ning&i nspecti
ng
Todi splayani mageont hescr een, thesel ectedpixelsar ebrightenedordar kened. thescreensur faceclosely
.I fanimagecanbeseen, thent hescreenhassuf f
ereddamage( i
.e.i
t
Thet erm Resol uti
oni susedt odescr ibet heno.ofpi xelsperunitar eaoft hescr een.E. g.,
theno. hasbur nedout ).
ofpi xelspercm2. Factorsthatdet er
mi nehowsev er ethescreenburnoutis.
Ifther ear efewpi xelsperuni tar ea, thedi splayissai dtobeofaLow- r
esol ution.I fthereare (i). TypeofPhosphoruscoat ingusedont hescreen’si nnersur face.
manypi xelsuni tar ea,wet alkofHi gh- r
esol uti
ondi splay. (
ii
). Lengt
hofti
methescr
eenimageremai
nsconst
ant
.
Thehi ghert hescr eenr esol ution, thef i
ner&t hehighert heno.ofdi f
ferentimagest hatcanbe
display ed. (
ii
i)
.Thebright
ness&cont
rastoft
hescr
een.
Not e.Speci ficappl i
cat ionsr equi recer t
ainr esoluti
onst obeabl etor un,e.g., MicrosoftWi ndows. Howtoavoidscreenburnout .
Scr
eenburnoutcanbeav oidedbyapplyi
ngthefoll
owingcommonsensepr i
nci
ples:
-
MOREABOUTMONI TORS&DI SPLAYADAPTERS. 1. Swi
tchtheMoni torof f
, i
fyouwishtobeawayov erlongperiods.
Moni tor
sdonothav eadi recti
mpactont heper f
ormance, buthaveasi gni f
icantimpactont he 2. Tur
ndownt hescreenbr ight
ness,i
fleav
ingthemachi neunattended.
useofaPC.Abadqual itymoni t
orcanhi ndertheuseofanot herwisehi gh-techPC. 3. Usi
nga“ ScreenSav er”program.
Display–Pr esent ati
onofi nfor
mat ionsuchasbypr ojecti
ononascr een, anAudi omessage, a
comput erprint-
out ,etc. TypesofMoni t
or s(Displ aysorv ideoAdapt ers).
DisplayAdapt erCar d( alsocall
edVi deoCar dorGr aphicsCar d). (1).Col ourGr aphi csAdapt er( CGA)di splay.
Ther ealbr
ainofadi splayoper at
ioni st heVideoCar d.Itisinsertedi nt
ot hesl otonyour Thiswast heor iginal t
y peofMoni tor,butnowi tisobsol et e.
comput er’
smot herboar dasanexpansi oncar d.Itthenspeakst othemoni toraboutwhatt he Itsuppor tedcol our ,
butcoul donl ydi spl
ayal i
mitedno.ofcol ours.Usual l
y,itsuppor t
ed4
comput eri
saski ngitt odo. coloursatat ime.
TheVi deocar ddet ermi neshowf astgr aphicsdisplay,howmanycol ourscanbeused, et
c. Italsor anatal owgr aphi csr esolutionof640x200pi xels.
ForaMoni tort owor ktoi tsbest,i
tmustbef i
ttedwi t
haVi deocardcapabl eofbr i
ngingoutthe (2).EnhancedGraphi csAdapt er(EGA)di splay.
bestinit. Itisal ow- gradeadapt er.I twasdev elopedt oimpr ov et hecapabi l
itiesofCGA.
TheVi deoCar dr eceivesi magedat af rom thePr ocessori nform ofdi gi
tal i
nformation&st or
esit AnEGAdi spl aywor kswi tha9- pinconnect orandanEGAv i
deocar d.
i
nv ideoRAM.Thedi gitalinfor
mat ionist henconv ertedintoanaloguedi spl aysignal,
whichisfed Theyhav ear esolut i
onof640x350pi xels,whichi sbet tert hant hatofCGAmoni t
or s.
tothemoni tor. Theyal soof fertwobr ight nessl evelsforeachpr imar ycol ourdot ,
t hus,displayi
ngawi der
rangeofcol ours.EGAscr eenscanshow16di fferentcol ours.
HowaMoni torWor ks.
Thei nnersurfaceoft hescreeniscoatedwi t
haPhosphor usmat erialthatemit
s/producesl i
ght (3).Vi deoGr aphi csAdapt er( VGA)di splay.
whenst r
uckbyanel ectr
onbeam.Whenev ertheelectr
onshitthephosphor ,i
tglows,producing Itwasi ntroducedbyI BM i n1987f oruseonear l
ierI BM PS/ 2sy stems.TheVGAVi deocar d
i
mages. cont ai
nsal lthecircui t
r yneededt opr oduceVGAgr aphics, andl ikeal lexpansioncar ds,it
Whent heMoni tori
spl uggedintotheVideocar d,i
tgetsascanf requency( orasignal
)gi v
ingt he plungesi nt oasl otont hemot herboar dv i
aan8- biti nt
er face.
ti
mi ngoft hescreenr edraws. VGAi sabl et odispl ayphot ographi cqual i
tyimagesonaPC, i
.e.itof ferscleanimagesat
Theel ectr
onbeam mustcr ossthescreeninsy nchr
onizat
ionwitht hescansi gnaloft
heVi deo higherr esol uti
ons.I tisabl etobui l
dani maget hati s640x480pi xelsinsize.
card.Thebeam st artsatthetopleftofthescreen,crossi
ngtot her ight.Asitdoesthis,i
texci t
es Wi t
haVGA, aPChast odeal with640x480x3bi t
sev eryt i
meapi cturechanges.
thephosphordot s.Onr eachingtheri
ghtsideoft hescreen,i
treturnst otheleftsi
deinor derto Thest andar dVGAcanpr oduceabout256col our satat imef r om apal etteof262, 144
colours.
-30- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
TheVGAcanal sobeusedi nMonochr omes.I tisablet ot
ranslatecolourgraphicsinto Thest andar dforf li
cker -f
reeimagesi s85Hz.Todet ectfl
icker,
lookslight l
yaboveort othe
graphi
csusi ng64diff
erentshadesofgr ey
.Thi s,ineffect
,si
mul atescolourona sideoft hemoni tor.Somet i
mes, ithelpstobei nadar kerroom.
monochr omemoni tor
. YourVi deocar dpl ay sani mpor tantroleinallt
his.I fy ourcardcannotpr ovi
desuppor tfort
he
VGAv ideocardrequir
esaVGAmoni tor,oramoni t
orcapableofaccept ingtheanal og resoluti
onsandr efreshr atesoft hemoni tor
,thepi cturewi l
llookdegraded.Whenpai ri
nga
outputofaVGAcar d. videocar dwi thamoni tor,atl
eastmakesur et hatitiscapabl eofdel i
veringa72Hzr efresh
(
4).SuperVideoGr aphi
csAdapt er(SVGA)di splay
. rateatanyr esolutionsuppor t
edbyt hatmonitor.
SVGAi smuchmor eadvancedt hanVGA. Not e.Inordert ost opi magesf adingont hescreen, theymustber efreshed( senttothe
I
nmostcases, oneSVGAcar dcanpr oducemi ll
ionsofcoloursatachoi ceofr esoluti
ons. screen)atl east50t imespersecond.Eachpi xel ont hescreenhas3bi tsofi nf
ormation
I
tisablet oshow256col oursatar esoluti
onof1024x768pi xels. (correspondi ngtoRed, Green,&Bl ue)at t
achedt oit,andal lofthem hav et oberedrawnat
SVGAi sabletosupport1024x768x3bi t
spot ential
l
ychanging50t i
mespersecond. highspeed.
Thehi ghert heresol ution,therefore,themor estrainispl acedont heper formanceoft he
Note.EGA,&VGAmonit
orsarenoti
nter
changeable.AVGAmoni torwon’
tevenpl
ugint
oaCGA moni tor’
sAdapt ercar d.
orEGAcard.ASVGAmonitori
snotsupposedtowor kwit
hastandardVGAcard.
Advant
agesofVDU/Monit
ors.
VOI CEOUTPUTDEVI CES( Audi oResponseUni ts-ARU) .
(i
). Thespeedofoutputisf
ast–aMoni t
ordisplay
stheout
putalmostinst
ant
ly/i
mmedi
atel
y. AnARUconv er tsdat a/informat ionf rom t hecomput ermemor y(whi chi sinelectr
onicform)
(
ii
).I
tdi
spl
ayst
hei
nfor
mat
ionenabl
i
ngt
heoper
atort
ovi
sual
l
yver
if
y/conf
ir
mift
hedat
ais throughv ariousspeci ali
zedaddi t
ional circuitryintowav eforms/soundf orthereceivertohear.
cor
rect
. Thesoundcanbespokenl anguage, musi cal not esorbeeps.Thi sout putisobv i
ouslySoftcopy .
(
ii
i)
.Enablestheoperat
ortomoni torhis/
herperf
ormance&i mpr
ovepr oducti
vi
ty. Voiceout puti susef ul wherer eadingi snotnecessar yori simpossi bl eandwher efastoutputis
required.
(
iv)
.Usedwhensavi ngthei
nf or
mat iontoasecondaryst
oragemedia. Forexampl e,Voi ceout putisused:
(
v). Mi
nimizespaperwork,hencer educi
ngthecosti
ncurr
edonstationery.  Asal earni ngai d.
(
vi)
.Hardwarecostsareminimal sincenoextr
aequipmentsareneededasl ongastheVDUi
s  I nemer gencysi t
uationsf ormessages.
av
ail
abl
e.Thescr
eeni
scheap,
ifboughtasi
ndi
vi
dual
dev
ice.  I nanswer i
ngser vices,e.g.Postof fi
cet alkingclock.
WhenanARUi susedt oproducespeech, itiscal ledaSpeechSy nthesi zer.
Di
sadv
antagesofVDU. ASpeechsy nt hesi zerisausef ulform ofout putespeci allywhencommuni cat
ionwi thacomput er
(i
). Producessoftcopyoutput
,i.
e.,
theoutputistempor
ary&cangetl
ostwhent
hepoweri
s i
smadeusi ngt elephonel i
nes.Auserdi alst hecomput er&makesani nquir
y.Thecomput er
outputi spassedt hrought heSpeechsy nthesi zer ,whichi slocatedneart hecomput er.The
swit
chedoff
.
outputi sconv er tedt oaspokenr epl y
, whi chi ssentt ot heuserov erthet el
ephoneline.
(i
i
).I ti
simpossi
bletoproducemultipl
ecopies. Speechsy nthesi zer sarebei ngi ncludedi nmanyconsumerpr oducts.Forexampl e,
(
ii
i)
.Itcausesfati
guetotheuser’
seyes,
especi
all
ywhenst ar
edatforal
ongdur
ati
on. ABat hroom scal ewi thasy nthesi zercant ellaper sonhi swei ght ,andwhet herhehasgai ned
(
iv)
.Canl urecomputeroper
ator
sint
onotkeepi
nghar dcopyrecor
ds. orlostwei ght.
nCamer
I as, theycant el
ly oui fyourf ilm orexposur eissetwr ongl y .
(
v). Screenmightnotal
lowthevi
ewingoft
hefullar
eaofdata. Awashi ngmachi newi thasy nthesi zercant ellyoui fandwhent oaddmor edetergent
, orthe
fabri
ccondi tioner.
Fact
orstoconsi derwhensel ect ing/buy ingaMoni tor:- Adv antagesofVoi ceOut put.
1. Compat ibil
it
ywi ththeadapt ercard: Themoni tormustbecapabl eofdisplayingthepi ctur es
thatthedi splayadapt ercar dcangener ate.Ot herwise, thedisplaywill
beunst able.
(i). I tisver yf ast,maki ngitusef ulinemer gencysi tuationstor elaymessages.
TheVi deocar dmustbecompat i
blewi thy ourcomput er ’
sbus. (
ii
). Canbeusedfordistantcommunicati
on,especi
all
yifdoneoverTel
ephonel
ines.
2. Memor y:Youshoul dhav eatl east2MBofVi deomemor y,butifyouhav eal argermoni tor, (
ii
i)
.Usefulwherereadingisimpossi
ble-canbeusedbyv isual
l
ydisabl
edpeopl
e.
startwi t
h4MBofmemor y.Lookf orav i
deocar dthathasr oom forexpansi onint hef ut urein
casey ouhav et obuyal argermoni tor.
(
iv)
.Errorsareeasi
lycorr
ected.Forexample,whenusedinawashi ngmachi
ne,i
tcantel
lyou
3. Moni torsize:Thi sist hedi st ancediagonal l
yacr osst hef aceoft hemoni t
or .Thel argert he i
fandwhent oaddmor edeter
gent,ort
hef
abr
iccondi
ti
oner
.
moni torsize,themor et hev i
ewabl epict urearea. Di
sadv
antages/Limitat
ionsofVoiceOutput.
4. Resol uti
onandRef r eshRat e:Bot hf eaturesdependoneachot her.Theywor khand- in-hand (i
). Theout putisnotpermanent.
topr oduceacl eanimage. (
ii
).Itmaybebori
ng,especi
all
yforprol
ongedoutput
.
Ref r
eshRat e(somet i
mesr ef err
edt oasScanRat e)ist heno.oft imespermi nutet hata
comput erscreeni magei sr enewed( ort herateatwhi cheachpi xelonascr eeni sr e-
dr awn) .
(
ii
i)
.Cannotbeusedbypeoplewithheari
ngprobl
ems.
TheRef reshRat eismeasur edi nHer tz( Hz). (
iv)
.Ift
hemessageisconveyedthroughbeeps,i
tmaybehar
dtounder
stand.
Makesur eyouknowt her efreshr ateofy ourmoni t
or.Ther ecommendedr efreshr ateis60
Hz&abov e.Thehi ghert her efr
eshr ates, t
hebet t
er. PRI
NTERS.
Al owr efreshrat eresultsi nani maget hatf l
ickers( shinesunst eadil
y),
resul t
inginey e-st r
ain. APri
nteri
sanout
putdev
icet
hatf
aci
l
itat
est
het
ransf
erofi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom acomput
ert
oa
-31- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
paper.Iti
susedwhenaper manentrecordoftheoutputmaybeneededonpaper.  Arefast
er&r el
ati
vel
ymoreexpensiv
ethanbothLi
nepri
nter
s&Charact
erpri
nter
s.
Print
edoutputisusual
lyr
eferredtoasHar dcopyoutput,
whichmeanst
hatthedocumentcanbe  Pageprint
ersareNon-i
mpactpri
nter
s,i
.e.t
her
epri
nti
ngoperat
ioni
ssil
ent
.
keptindef
ini
tel
yforfut
urereferenceoruse.Theprintedout
putcanbedi
str
ibut
edconveni
entl
yto  Theyprovi
dehighquali
tyout
puts.
reachthereci
pient
sofsuchinf ormat
ion/r
esult
s. E.
g.Laserpri
nter.

CLASSIFICATIONOFPRI NTERS. BASI

CMETHODSOFPRODUCI
NGPRI
NT.
Pri
ntersarebasical
l
yclassi
fi
edi
n3way
s:-
(1)
.I ntermsofPr i
ntspeed. (
a).I
mpactorNon- impactpr inti
ng.
- Low- speed. Impactpr i
nters.
- High-speed. AnI mpactpr i
nterwor kslikeat ypewrit
erwher eapieceofmet alorpl
asticwit
har ai
sed
l
et t
erst r
ikesani nkedr i
bbonagai nstasheetofpaper ,
leavinganimageoft helet
teron
(
2).Accor
dingtot heamountoft
exti
tcanpr
intpergi
venper
iodoft
ime.
thepaper .
- CharacterPri
nter
s. Eachchar acterprintisprovidedbyanappr opri
atecharactersymbolontheprinthead
- Li
nePrinters. element .
- PagePrinters. Thei nkedr i
bbonl iesbet weent hepr i
nti
ngheadel ement&t hepaper,sothatt
her i
bbon
i
nkcanbeusedt opasst hechar acterimagesont heprint
-headelementontothe
stationerydur i
ngt heprintheadhi timpact.
(
3).Themet
hodusedtoproducet
hechar
act
ersont
hest
ati
oner
y/paper
.
Not e.Impactpr interscanf urt
herbecl assi
fiedasCharacterorLineprint
ers.
-ImpactPr
int
ers.
- Non-
impactPr
int
ers. Non-impactpri
nter
s.
InNon-impactpri
nter
s,t
hepri
nt-
headelementdoesnotcomeintocont
actwit
hthe
stat
ionery
/paper.
TheyuseTher malChemi
, cal
,orEl
ect
rostat
icpri
nci
plest
oproducethechar
acter
sont
he
paper.
Theyneedspecialpaper
s.

Compar
isonbet
weenI
mpact&Non-
impactpr
int
ers.

I
mpactPrinter
s Non-
impactPr i
nter
s
1. UseInkedr i
bbon. 1. Uset her
mal orel
ectr
ostati
cpr i
nci
ples.
2. Sl
ow. 2. Faster.
3. Abletoproducemul ti
plecopiesbyuse 3. Almostimpossibletoproducemul t
iple
ofcarbonpaper s. copi
es.
4. Cheaper. 4. Costlyduetothetechnologyinvol
ved.
5. Theyarenoi sybecausethecharactert
o 5. Pri
ntingoperati
onissil
entbecauset her
e
bepri
ntedi spressedagainstaninked i
snopr i
nt-
headelementhitt
ingagainst
ri
bbonont otothepaperbyapr i
nt-
head thestati
onery.
el
ement .
CHARACTER( SERIAL)PRINTERS.
 Char act
erpr i
nter
sareusuallylow-speedpri
nter
sthatpr
int1characteratati
me.
 Ar ecompar ati
vel
yslow&l esscost l
ythanLi
neorPagepr i
nters.
(
b).Dot
-matri
xorshaped-characterpri
nti
ng.
 Hav eprint
ingspeedsthatv aryfr
om 10t oover200char
acterspersecond(cps)
. Dot-matri
xpri
ntersproduceeachcharact
erbypri
nti
ngtheappr
opr
iat
edotcombinat
ion.
 Theyusual l
yuset heDaisywheelorDot -matr
ixpri
nti
ngmechanism. Shapedcharacterpri
ntersproduceeachchar
act
erbyuseofthewhol
echaract
ersymbol
justl
ikeasinanor di
narytypewri
ter
.
LI
NEPRINTERS.
 Theyusuall
yprintonewholel
ineatatime. PRINTSPEEDS.
 Aremor eexpensiv
ethantheCharact
erpri
nter
s,butl
esscost
lycompar
edt
othePage Thespeedofaprinteri
sexpr nChar
essedi act
erspersecond(
cps)
,Li
nespermi
nut
e(l
pm)
,or
pr
int
ers. Pagesperminut
e( ppm).

PAGEPRINTERS. Ther
ear
ebasical
l
y2t ypesofpr
int
ers:
-
 Print1wholepageatat
ime.  Low-speedpri
nter
s.

-32- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
 Hi gh-speedprint
ers. consideredwi thr espectt otheneedsoft her ecipi
ents.
Eacht
y peisthenclassi
fiedfur
therbasedonthetechnol
ogyusedf
orpr
oduci
ngt
heout
put&t
he 4. Thecapabi l
it
yf orthesel ectedpr i
nter.
amountoft exti
tcanprintpergivenperi
odofti
me. Theseincl udemul ti
plecopypr oduct ion,pri
ntst yl
es,
pagewi dt
h,etc.
5. Compat ibili
tywi t
hot hercomput ers.
1. LOW- SPEEDPRI NTERS. Thiswillinvolvethei nterfacewitht hecomput ersyst
em beingusedand/ ormakeof
Theyusual lypr intbet ween10cpst oappr ox.300l pm. part
icularcomput er .
Note.Al lChar act erprinterscanbecl assi
fi
edasl ow-
speedpri
nter
s. 6. Envir
onmenti nwhi chthePr int
erwi lloperate.
Thedi ffer
entt y pesofl ow-speedprinter
sar e:- 7. Reli
abil
ityoft hePr inter.
 Dot -matrix. Dai sywheel . 8. Appli
cat i
oni tisrequi r
edf or&alsot heav ai
lableappl
icati
onsoftwarepackages.
 Gol fball
. Ther malpri
nter
s. 9. Stati
onery( typeofpaper )usedbyt hepr i
nter.
 I nkjetprinter s. 10.Document ati
on.
2. HIGH- SPEEDPRI NTERS.
Areabl etopr intbet ween300t oapprox.3,000linesperminut
e. Pr
int
erdr
iver-Aprogr
am t
hatcont
rol
showy ourcomput
erandpri
nteri
nter
act.
High-speedpr inter sarebr oadl
yclassifi
edinto:- Ti
p.Youmightgetbadwor
kwheny ousendgraphi
cstoanon-
graphi
cprint
erorwheny
ouusea
(i
). Li nepr inter s. wr
ongdri
ver.
(i
i
). Pagepr inter s.
Quest
ion.Expl
ainhowt
hefactor
sident
if
iedi
nthi
schapt
ercoul
dinf
luencet
hechoi
ceofpr
int
er
LINEPRI NTERS. t
obeusedonacomput ersy
stem.
Not e.Lineprintershav eahi ghspeedascompar edtotheChar acterpr
int
ers.Forexample,i
f
alineof80char act
er sistobepr i
nted,thechar
acterprinterneedtostri
keagainstthe
stationerythrought hei nkedri
bbon80t imesbef or
eal l
thechar act
erimagesformingtheli
ne
arepassedont hest ationer
y.ALi neprint
eronlystr
ikesoncef orthewholeli
neof80 Compar
isonbet
weenaScr
eenandaPr
int
er.
char acterstobepr intedont othestati
onerythr
ought heinkedribbon.
Ther ear e3typesofLi neprint
ers:- Scr
een Pr
int
er
 Dr um print
er s. 1. Producesasof tcopy(di splayed) 1. Producesahar dcopy( pr i
nt ed)out put.
 Chai nprinters. output. 2. Outputi sper manent , i
.e.canbe
 El ectr
ostaticprinters. 2. Outputist emporary,i
.e.thedi splay maint ai
nedf orf uturer ef erences.
getslostwhent hepoweri sswi tched 3. Mor ecost ly.
Adv
ant
agesofusi
ngPr i
nter
s. off. 4. Outputi snoi sy.I mpactpr i
nter shav e
3. Cheaper, i
fboughtasi ndividual devi
ce. pri
ntingheadel ement st hathi tsagainst
(i
). Producesapermanentout
putt
hatcanbemai
ntai
nedf
orf
utur
eref
erence. 4. Outputissi l
ent
,sincet herear eno thepaperi nor dert ot ransf ert he
(
ii
). Thei
nfor
mat
ioncanbeconv
eni
ent
lydi
str
ibut
edt
oreacht
her
eci
pient
sofsuch mechani call
ymov ingpar tsforthe charact eri magesont ot hest at i
onery.
i
nfor
mat
ionorr
esul
ts. di
splaytoappearont hescr een. Non-impactpr i
nt ersar econsi derabl
y
(
ii
i)
.Theadvancedmodel
sofpr
int
erswi
thcol
ourcapabi
l
iti
escanpr
oducest
yledpr
int
s. sil
ent.
5. UsingI mpactpr i
nters, itispossi bleto
Di
sadv
ant
agesofusingPri
nter
s. 5. Impossi bletopr oducemul ti
plecopies. producemul tiplecopi es.
6. Speedofout put( printing)i s
(i
). Veryexpensi
ve,i
fboughtasani
ndi
vi
dual
dev
ice. 6. Outputisf ast . compar at i
velysl ow.
(
ii
). SomePrint
ersareNoisy. 7. Somepr inter’squal ityisl owwhi l
eot hers
(
ii
i)
.Notpossibletoproducemul t
ipl
ecopies,
especi
all
ytheI
mpactpr
int
ers. 7. Pri
ntqual ityishigh. producebet terqual itypr i
nts.
8. Thepr i
nt edinf ormat i
oni smor e
(
iv)
.Theirspeedofoutput(i
.e.
,thepri
nti
ng)issl
ow. 8. Maycausef at i
guetot heuser’
sey es convinci ngt ot her ecipi ent s( humans) .
especiallywhenst ar
edatf oral ong
Fact
or stoconsi derwhensel ectingaPr inter. durati
on. 9. Styledpr intsar eonl ypossi blewi th
Thefollowi
ngf actorsar etobet akeni nt
oconsi derationwhileselect
ingapri
nter
. 9. Hav edifferentpr i
ntstyl
es,e.
g.,Ital
i
cs advancedmodel swi tht hecol our
1. TheCosti nvolved. andcol ourdi splaysarepossible. capabi l
ities.
Thi swillincludet hepr i
nter’
sinit
ialprice,thecost sofmai nt
enance&thecostofconsumabl
e
items,e. g.pr i
nti
ngpaper s,ri
bbons/car tr
idges, etc.
2. Vol umeofpr i
ntingexpect ed. GRAPHPLOTTERS.
Thi swillhelpi nselectingapr int
erint ermsofpr intspeeds.
3. Thenat ureoft her eportstobegener ated&t heirreci
pients. Thesear
eout
putdev
icest
hatpr
oducegr
aphi
cs,
suchasdi
agr
ams,
maps,
images,
stat
ist
ical
Thepr intingqual i
ty,suchast hecapabi li
tytopr intgraphics&colourpr
int
ingshoul
dbe
-33- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
chartsetc,
onpaper . Di
ff
erencesbet
weenMi
crof
il
msandMi
crof
iche.
Plott
ersusepensofdi f
ferenttypes,var
yingthickness&diff
erentcol
ours,
inordert
opl ot
.The
pensareusuallyundert hedirectorindi
rectinf
luenceofelect
ronicpul
sesoutputbythecomputer
. Mi
crof
il
m Mi
crof
iche
Plott
ersaredescribed/nameddependi ngont het y
peofthebaseont owhichthest
ationer
yis 1.Mi
crof
il
misaphot
ogr
aph 1.Micr
ofichei
sanormal paper
.
placedforthegraphicaloutputtobepr oducedont othepaper.
The2commonl yav ail
ableGraphpl ott
ersare:-
fi
lm. 2.Canstoreabout98pagesofA4
(i
). TheDr um plotter
. 2.Canst oreabout3,
000 si
zedpaper
.
(i
i). TheFl at
bedpl ott
er. pagesofA4si zedpaper. 3.Displ
ayssket
ches.
3.Displ
ay sreali
magesin 4.Expensi
ve.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofGr
aphPl
ott
ers. reducedf or
m.
- Theyarel 5.Hasashortli
fespan.
ar
gei
nsi
ze. 4.Cheap.
- TheyuseAmmoni 6.Canbeviewedbynakedey
es.
apaper s. 5.Hasalongli
fespan.
- Theyusespeci
ali
nk. 6.Requi
resspeci
aldev
icesf
or
- Haveawidecarr
yingcapacit
y. v
iewi
ng.

Uses/applicationsofGr aphPlot
ters. Adv
ant
agesofMicr
ofil
msov erMicr
ofi
ches.
GraphPlottersar eused:- (i
). Microf
il
mslastlongert
hanMicrof
iches.
InComput erAidedDesign(CAD)–ar emainl
yusedf orpr
int
ingl
argearchitecturalor (
ii
). Mi
crof
il
msdispl
ayreali
mages,makingiteasyt
oread&under
stand.
engi
neer i
ngdr awings.Inthi
scase, thecomputerisusedtoformthegr aphicaldesign&t
he
Plot
terproducest heoutput. (
ii
i)
.Microf
il
msarecheapercomparedt
of i
ches.
InWeat herforecasti
ngfordrawingIsobarsonweat hermaps. (
iv)
.Microf
il
msrequi
respeci
aldevi
cesforvi
ewingwhil
eMicr
ofi
chesdonot.
InStat
isticalworkforproducinggraphsorcomplicatedmathematical
formul as.
InCartographyt oproducecontourmaps.
InCraft&Text il
eindustr
yfordrawingdesigns.
I
ll
ust
rat
ionoft
heCOM pr
ocess.
Adv
ant
agesofGraphPlot
ter
s.
(i
). Canproduceinf
ormati
oni
naneasi
l
yunder
standabl
efor
m.
(
ii
). Thei
rpresent
ati
onisqui
ck&r eli
abl
e.
(
ii
i)
.Theyproducelargegr
aphicaldesi
gnsofhi
ghquali
ty,
whichar
eeasytoread&use.
(
iv)
.APl ot
tercanbeusedtoprintevenonA1sizedpaper
s,whi
let
helar
gestpapersi
zet
hat
1. Thecomput erdisplaysther esult
sont othescreen.
canbeusedwi
thanor
mal
pri
nteri
sA3. 2. Thecont ent saret henphot ographedont othemi croform( anonlineoper
at i
on).
Alter
nati
v ely,thecomput ercanwr it
et heoutputintoast oragemedi um,e.g.Magneti
ctape.
Di
sadv
ant
agesofGraphPlott
ers. 3. Thedat aont hetapei sthenr eadbyt ranscri
bermachi necal l
edtheMi cr
oformr ecor
der&
(i
). Theyrequi
reGraphi
csoftwar
e,whi
chi
susual
l
yver
yexpensi
ve. di
splayst hem onascr eenconnect edt othemachi ne.
(
ii
). Graphpl
ott
ersoper
ateatl
owspeeds,
hencear
enor
mal
l
yconnect nanOf
edi f-
li
nemode 4. Thecont ent sbeingdi splayedont hescr eenarethenphot ographedbyahi gh-speedcamera
t
oav
oidwast
ingt
hecomput
ert
ime. usingmi crofil
m ont othemi cr
oform.
Sincethet ranscribermachi nei snotunderdi r
ectinfl
uenceoft hecomputer,theoperat
ioni
s
COMPUTEROUTPUTONMI CROFORM ( COM) . Off-l
i
ne.
Thisistheprocessoft ransformi ngdigit
aldat aproducedbythecomput erint
ohuman-r
eadable 5. Thef i
lmi sthendev el
oped.
for
m &r ecordingitinr educedphy si
calsizeintoaphot ogr
aphicfil
m. 6. I
fnecessar y ,dupli
catesar emadeusi ngt heFi
lm duplicator.
Thismet hodofout putpr ovidesphot ographedt y
peofcomput eroutputstor
edasmicr
oscopic
fi
lmedi magesi ntothemi cr
of or
m. Insomesy stems, aseparatedeviceisneededforeachoft hesestages.I nothers,thet
apedri
ve
Microformsar ephot ographicallyreduceddocument sonfil
ms( magnet i
cmedia)
. i
snotneeded, insteadthecomput ersendstheout putdir
ectl
ytotheMi crofi
lmr ecorder
.
Thereare2f orms/cl assesoft heMi croform: - Also,somerecor dersarecapableofprocessingthefil
m, soaseparatefil
m dev eloperi
snot
(i
). TheMi crofi
lm, whichisaf i
lmreel of16mm. needed.
(i
i)
. TheMi crofi
che-ar ectangularshapedsheetoff i
lm,measuringabout10x15mm. Inordertovi
ewaf il
m, aMicrofi
l
mv i
ewingstati
oni sused.Thismagni f
iestheimagesont hefil
m
Atypi
cal microfichecanhol dtheequi valentof300pagesofpr i
ntedpaper
. sotheycanbeeasi l
yread.
BoththeMi crofil
m &Mi crofi
chear esmal l. Thest at
ionusuallyhasaPr i
nterconnectedtoittoproducehardcopy,ifrequi
red.

-34- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
asout
putdevi
ces.
Appl
icati
onsofCOM. 3. Wit
hreasons,
bri
efl
ydescri
bet
hemostappropri
atet
ypeofpr
int
erorout
putdev
icef
ort
he
Micr
ofil
m outputisconv enientlysuit
edt oappl i
cat
ions/areaswhere:- out
putof:
Thereisbul kystorageofi nformation. (i
). Customerinv
oicesonmult
ipar
tyst
ati
onar
y.
Thev ol
umeofout puti
shi gh,say,100, 000pagespermont h.
Thedat amustbest oredf orlongper iodsanduseorupdat eisnotfr
equentl
ynecessar
y;asin
(
ii
).Let
ter
stocust
omers.
caseofol dcopi esofcust omer ’
sfilesinbanks,orbackcopiesofnewspapers.Suchdatais (
ii
i)
.Det
ail
edengi
neer
ingdesi
gns.
usuall
yrefer r
edt oasAr chivaldata. 4. (a).Namesomeev erydayappl iances/devicesinwhichanAudi oresponseuni
twouldbe
InPostalser vi
ces,wher ethecostofmai l
i
ngami crof
icheisconsi
derabl
ylessthanmail
ing useful.
theequivalentbulkyrepor t. (b).Ident
if
y4Li mitati
onsoft heSpeechRecogni t
iondev i
cesf oundtoday.
5. GiveTHREEFact orsusedt ocl assifyPr
inters.Describethev ari
oustypesofPr
inter
sineach
Ex
amplesofar easwher etheCOM i susedi n: class.
 Libr
ar i
esf orbooks,catal
ogues, references,etc. 6. (a).NameTHREEdi f
fer entprincipleswhichar eusedf orproducingprint
edout
put.
 Gover nmentaut hori
ti
es-tor etain/keepTownpl ans,maps, st
ati
sti
cs, etc. (b).Clear
lydiff
erenti
at ebetweenI mpactandNon- impactpr i
nters.
 Banks, Insurancecompanies, etctost orepersonnelorcustomersr ecords. (c).Givetwoexampl esoft hecommonl yusedNon- impactpr i
nters.
 Nati
onal Registr
ati
onBoardf orsecur it
ypur poses. 7. Giveonedev ice,whichcanper form bothinputandout putfunctionsinacomputer.
 Registrati
onofMot orvehi
cles,i.
e.,forLogbookanddet ai
lsofthevehicle. 8. Wr it
eshortnotesont hef ol
lowi ng:
 Immi grationdepartment–issui ngofpasspor ts(
ori
ginalsandpasspor ts). (i). Dot -
mat r
ixprinter.
 Nati
onal Archiv
es. (
ii
). Dai
sywheel pri
nter
.
 Thomasdel aRue–concer nedwi thpr i
nti
ngofmoney( bothori
ginal&copi es)
. (
ii
i)
.Gol f
-bal
lpri
nter
.
Adv
ant
agesofusi
ngtheCOM. (
iv)
.Drum print
er.
(i
). Savesonstat
ioner
yandspace. (
v). Chai
nPr i
nter
.
(
ii
). Capabl
eofproducingmanycopi
es. (
vi)
.Laserprint
er.
9. (a).Aprinter,whichi sconnect
edtoy ourcomput erprintsgarbagewhenr equi
redtoprint
.
(
ii
i)
.Averyfastform ofout
put-
usual
lyf
ast
ert
hanpr
int
ing.
Whatcoul dbeTHREEpr obablereasonsf ornotprinti
ngpr operl
y?
UsingtheCOM, t
heequiv
alentof30,000–40,000li
nesofout
putcanbepr
oducedper (b).Whyi sitnotpossi bletopr
intaGr aphiconaDai syWheel pri
nter
?
minute(whichi
s20ti
mesf asterthanthefast
estI
mpactLi
nepri
nter
). 10.(a).WhatisaPl otter?
(
iv)
.Notbul ky,
henceconveni
entl
yt r
ansportabl
e. (b).Whatadv ant agesdoesaPl ott
erhav eov ernor
mal Pr
intermachines?
(
v). Themi
crof
orm cont
ent
sar
enoteasi
l
yreadusi
ngnakedey
es,
henceguar
ant
eei
ngt
he 11.(a).Describethepr ocessofproducingComput erOutputonMi crof
orm( COM).
secur
it
yoft
her
epor
ts. (b).Giv
et headv ant agesofComput erOutputonMi croform offerpri
ntedoutput.
12.StateTWOadv antagesandTWOdi sadv antagesofusingeachoft hefol
lowingdevicesfor
(
vi)
.Itlast
slongerascompar
edtopapermedi
um out
put.
output.
(
vii
).Comparedtopaper,
thef
il
m cost
sarel
ow.Howev er
,thei
nit
ial
costi
shi
gh,
becauset
he (i
). VDU( moni tor/scr
een).
necessar
yequi
pmenti
sexpensi
ve. (i
i)
. COM.
(i
ii
). Voi ceOut put.
Di
sadv
ant
agesofMi cr
oforms. (i
v). Pr i
nter.
(i
). Theyareexpensiv
e.
(
ii
). Causeeye-
strainifanatt
emptismadetoreadmicr
ofor
m cont
ents.
Exer
cise(b).
(
ii
i)
.Requiresspecialequipmentf
orvi
ewingt
hecontent
softhemicrof
orm &f
orpr
oduci
ngf
ull 1. Explainbrief
lyhowt hefoll
owingdev i
ceswork.
-
sizedcopies. (a). Voi ce( Speech)sy nthesizer.
(
iv)
.Thecont entsi
nami
crof
orm ar
enoteasyt
oupdat
e. (b). Comput erOut putonMi crofi
lm( COM).
2. (a).DefineaPr int
er.
(
v). Theyarel
essconv
eni
ent
.
(b).Withtheai dofadi agram, showhowPr i
nter
sar
ecl
assi
fi
ed.
3. Compar eandcont rast:
Exer
cise(a)
.
1. (i
).NameFOURt ypesofMonit
orcardsorAdapt er
s. (i).I mpactandNon- I
mpactpr int
ers.
(i
i).Whatismeantbyt
heterm“Resoluti
on”asappliedtoagraphi
csdisplay? (
ii).InkjetandThermalorElect
rost
ati
cPrint
ers.
(i
ii)
.Whywouldonewishtouseahighr esol
uti
onrat hert
hanalow-
resoluti
ondispl
ay? 4. (
a).Whydoy outhi
nkaDesktopLaserpri
nteri
sapopul
archoi
ceofpr
int
ert
ousewi
tha
2. Comput erout
puti
snormall
ymadet hroughScreenorPr i
nter
.CompareScr eenandPri
nter Workstati
on?
-35- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI T1: INTRODUCTIONTOCOMPUTERS.
√ Hi
ghvolumeofoutput–ahi
gh-
speedLaserpr
int
erwi
llpr
int146pagesperminut
e. computer
.
√ Out
putqual
i
tyisveryhi
gh(
400–1200dpi)–itcanpr
oducebothtext&diagr
ams INPUT/
OUTPUT(
I/O)PORTS.
orpicturesofhighqualit
yandt heref
orecanbeusedt oproducemanual
sandsmal
l APor ti
saconnect i
onorsocketusedt oconnectadevice,
suchasaPrint
er,
Monitor
,Mouse,
publicati
ons. Scanner,etctoy ourcomput er
.
(b)
.Whatprintersaresuit
ableforproduci
ngbusinesslet
ter
s? I/
OPor t
sar et hesocket sfoundatthebackofy ourcomputerwher
eyoucanconnectext
ernal
(c)
.Whatfactorsshouldyouconsi derwhenselect
ingorpurchasi
ngaPr i
nter
? computerdev icestot heinterf
acecardsinsi
dethecomputer.Theyal
l
owaccessin&outoft he
5. Descr
ibeinbriefthedif
ferencebetween: computerf orcables.
(a)
. AFl atbedpl ot
terandaDr um plot
ter. Therearesev eraltypesofext er
nalport
s:-
(b)
. Mi crofi
lm andMi cr
of i
che. 1. Parallel(LPT)por ts.
2. Serial(Com)por ts.
Exer
cise(c). 3. USBpor ts.
1. (a).Whataretheessent i
aldif
ferencesamongChar
act
er,
LineandPagepr
int
ers? 4. SCSIpor t
s.
(b).Giveatypi
cal exampleofeach.
2. Describethefactorstobeconsideredwhil
esel
ecti
ngapri
nter
. PARALLELPORTS.
3. Wr i
teshortnotesont hefol
lowing:- Thestandar dPCparall
elportwasorigi
nallydesignedforsendinginf
ormat i
ontoPrinter
sor
(i). VDU. Scanners.Thatisthereasonwhyt heyaresomet i
mesr eferr
edtoasLi nePri
nterTerminal(LPT)
(
ii
). GraphPlott
ers. ports.
TheyareD- shapedwithholesfor25pins.
(
ii
i)
.Voi ceOutput. Iti
susedmai nl
ytoconnectPrint
ers,Scanners,andsomet imesexternalHarddri
ves,CD-ROM
4. (a)
.Whati saComput erOut
putonMi cr
ofor
m( COM)
? dri
ves,Tapedev i
ces&Net workadapterstoy ourcomput er.
(b)
.Explai
ntheworkingofCOM sy stem. Parall
elportstr
ansmitdatausingan8–bi tparal
leli
nterf
ace&ar etherefor
e,usedfordevicesthat
(c)
.Givetheadvant
agesanddi sadvantagesofCOM. acceptinf
or mati
on8bi t
satat i
me.Theyt r
ansmi tdatabyte-by
-by
te.Theyar eusuall
yfasterthan
5. Explai
nthePri
nterunderthefoll
owingheadings:
- Seri
alports.
(i)
. Charact erpri
ntspergiventi
me. Note.TheSCSIPor tisanexampl eofapar all
elport.
(
ii
). Pri
ntprovi
sion,
i.
e.t
hewayt
heypr
ovi
det
hepr
int
sont
othest
ati
oner
y.
SERIALPORTS.
(
ii
i)
.Printspeed. Theyar esomet i
mesr eferredtoasCommuni cat
ion(COM)por t
s.
Gi
veanaccountoft
heoper
ati
onal
char
act
eri
sti
cs. ArealsoD- shapedwi h9or25pi
t ns.
Theyar eusedpr imari
lytoconnectdev icessuchasser i
alMi ce,ext
ernalModems, and
somet i
mesPr i
nterstotheSy stem unit
.Theycanal sobeusedf orcomput er
-t
o-comput er
connect i
on.
TheSer ialporthas2dat alines,onefordatain&t heotherfordataout.
Transmi ssionratesofSer i
al portsareslowerthanthoseofPar all
elport
s.Thisi sbecause,Ser
ial
portstransmi tdatabit-
by -
bit.Therefor
e, t
heyareusedf ordev i
cesthatacceptinformati
on1bit
SYSTEMSI NTERCONNECTI ON atat i
me( orfordev i
cesthatar eabitslow).
THEMOTHERBOARD( al
socal l
edSy stem Boar dorCircuitboar d) .
Comput ers, l
ikeallelectroniccircuitdevi
cesar emadeofpr i
nt edCi r
cui tboar ds( electronicboards UNI
VERSALSERI ALBUS( USB)PORTS.
onwhi chcopperwi reshav ebeenpr i
ntedtof orm ci
rcuitpaths) . ManynewPCscomewi t
hUSBpor ts.USBpor
tssuppor
tawi
der
angeofdeskt
opper
ipher
als,
e.g.
,
TheMot herboardist hemai npar t(l
argecircuitboard)ofy ourcomput ert hatev erythingel se Key
boards,
digi
talCameras,et
c.
plugsi nto.
Itisusual lyasheetofol ivegr eenorbr ownf ibergl
asswi t
hsev er althingol dli
nesoni tandchips USBcombi nesthebestf eatur esofSCSIar chitecturewi t
hanadv ancedPlug-and-playstandard.I
t
stickingof fit
. repl
acest hetradit
ionalSerial&Par al
lel por t
swi thasi ngleportt
hatisextensibl
et hroughtheuse
Byi tsel f
, t
heMot herboardi sjustanempt ypl ate.It
’sthehar dwar ethatsi tsoni tthatdoest he ofhubsanddev icesdaisy-chai nedinat reear rangement .
wor k.Oni t,wehav et heCPU, SIMM socket s, BIOSandsl ots. USBwasdesi gnedt odeli
veradat atransf errateofup- t
o12Mbi t
s/secto&f rom thePC.I talso
TheMot herboardpr ov i
desaconv eni
entmet hodofinter-
boar dconnect ion.I tiswher eal l supportslow-speedmodeof1. 5Mbi t
/ secf ordev iceslikeKeyboards,MiceandJoy sti
cks.
electroni ccomponent ssuchast heMi cr
opr ocessor,Memor ychi ps, Interfacechi ps, andBus USBis“ user-f
ri
endly
connect ionsar eassembl ed. AdvantagesofUSBpor t
sov erSer i
al&Par al
lelpor t
s.
Themot herboardal socont ainsano.ofexpansi onslotsinwhi chI nterfacecar dsar esl ott
ed
(pluggedi n).
(i). Devi cesarepower edbyt hebus–t herei snoneedf orext
ernalpoweradapt ers.USB
Thel i
ttlegol dli
nesar ecalledBusesandactasr oadway sofi nf ormat ionbet weenal l these allowsunpower eddev icest odr awupt o500mAov ert
heconnectorcable.
featur es.Thebusesenabl et hepar tstocommuni cateandper formt hef unctionsofy our (ii
).Cansupportamax.of127dai sy -
chai neddev i
ces,becauseofitshighbitaddr essi
ng
-36- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
sy
stem. Thevar
iousf
actor
stobeconsi
der
edi
nsel
ect
ingacomput
ersy
stem ar
ecat
egor
izedasf
oll
ows;
(1).Economicfact
ors.
SCSI(Smal l
Comput erSy st
emsI nter
face)PORTS.
PronouncedasScuzzy . - Costcompari
sons.
SCSIisadev iceinterfaceusedbyPCs, AppleMaci nt
oshcomput ersandmanyUNI Xsy stems. - Acqui
sit
ionmethods.
SmallComput erSystem Int
erface(SCSI)cardi
susedf oratt
achingtoperi
pheraldev
icest hat - Retur
noninvest
ment.
requi
rehighspeeddat at
ransfersbet
weent hedeviceandmemor y
.
TheSCSIcar dspr ovideparall
elhigh-
speeddatatransferi
ntherangeof10MB/ stothememor y
. (
2).Hardwarefact ors.
I
tconnect sper i
pheralstoyourcomput ervi
astandardhardwareinter
face,
whichusesst andard - Hardwareperformance,rel iabilit
y,capaci t
y,andprice.
SCSIcommands. - Fi rmnessofdel i
v erydat e.
COMPONENTSASSEMBLY. - Accessi bi
li
tyofback- upf acil
iti
es.
ThebasicMi cr
ocomput ersy stem consistsoftheMot herboard,thePowerSuppl yunit
,Harddi
sk - Presenceorabsenceofmodul ari
ty.
&Floppydiskdrives,I/Ointerfacecar ds,Diskcont r
ollercard,Videocar d,opt
ionalCD-ROM dri
ve, - Effect ivelifeoft hepr oposedhar dwar e.
SoundandNet wor kinterfacecar ds.
All
thesecomponent sar ehousedi nacabi net(orChassi s)
.Thecabi nethasr earconnect
orsf
or - Compat i
bil
itywi thexi stingsy stems. .
peri
pheraldevi
cest hrought hemot herboardori nt
erfacecar ds. (
3).Softwar efact ors.
TheInterf
acecardsar eusual l
ypluggedi ntothemi crocomput er
’scardslotswi thpower-
suppl
y - Soft war eperf ormanceandpr ice.
vol
tagesandbussi gnalsdistributedtothecar dslots.
Cablesthengof r
om connect or sonthei nt
erfacecardst otheper ipheraldevi
ces. - Fi rmnessofdel i
v erydat eont hepr oposedsof tware.
- Avai labi l
it
yofusef ulandwel l
-document edpackagedpr ograms.
- Easeofuseandmodi ficati
on.
(
4).Servi
cef act ors.
- Mai ntenancet ermsandqual ity.
- Trai ningf acili
t i
esof f
eredandt hequal it
yoft r
aini
ngprov i
ded.
- Programmi ngandconv ersionassi stanceof fer
ed.
- Faci li
tiespr ov idedbyt hemanuf acturerforcheckingnewpr ogr
ams.
(
5).Reput ati
onofamanuf acturer.
- Fi nanci alstabi li
ty.
- Cl eanr ecor dofkeepi ngpr omi ses.

HARDWAREFACTORS.
Somefactorsconsideredwhenselecti
ngacomput erhardwareare:
(a).ProcessorSpeed.
Everycomput erhasaclockthatdri
vesit
soperati
on.ThePr ocessorspeedisthespeedat
whichthesyst em Cl
ocksynchroni
zestheoperati
onsoftheCPU&canbemeasur edin
HertzorMegaher tz(1MHz=1mi l
l
ioncyclespersecond).
Theprocessingpowerofacomput erdependsonitsProcessorspeed&t heamountofdat
a
SELECTINGACOMPUTERSYSTEM. i
tcanhandl eatthesamet i
me.
Whenpl anningtoacquirecomput erequipments,theindi
vidualororganizati
onshoul
dcaref
ull
y
weighthemer i
tsanddemer it
soft hemet hodsusedt ofi
nancet heequipment (
b).Memorycapaci
ty(
amountofMai
nmemor
y–RAM)
.
Therequirement sanal
ysisforselecti
ngacomput ersy st
em shouldcov erthefol
l
owing: AllcomputershavesomeamountofRandom AccessMemor y(RAM) .RAM i
sasect i
onof
1. Identifyallr
equir
ement softheuser . theMai nmemor y,whichisusedf orholdi
ngdat
a&i nstr
uct
ionsrequi
redimmediat
elyby
2. Evaluat ehardwarerequir
ement sthatwill
meett heuser’sneeds. CPUt operform atask.
3. Evaluat esoftwar
erequirement sthatwil
lmeettheuser ’
sneeds.
(
c).Warranty(Servi
cecont r
act/assurance/guar
antee).
FACTORSTOCONSI
DERWHENSELECTI
NGACOMPUTERSYSTEM. AWar rant
yi sanagreementbet weent hebuy
erandt hesel
l
erthatspell
soutt
ermsand
condit
ionsof ,
aft
erselli
ngapr oductincaseoff
ailur
eormal f
uncti
on.
-37- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
AWar rant yi susual lyt hedur ationi nwhi chy ourcomput erissupposedt owor kwi t
houtany moni
tor
.Itshoul
dal
sohav
esof
twar
ethatsuppor
tsmul
ti
medi
acapabi
l
ity
.
probl em.
Agoodwar rant yshoul dcov ert hef ollowi ngpoi nts: SOFTWAREFACTORS.
1. Scopeofcov er,suchas6mont hs, 1y ear ,etc. Thefoll
owi ngf act orsshoul dbeconsi der edwhensel ect i
ngsof t
war e:
2. Cal l
outr esponseandl i
abi lit
yagr eement .. (a).Aut hent i
ci tyoft hesof twar e.
3. Pr event ivemai ntenance. Thet er m Aut hent icityr ef erst ogenui neness, v alidityorl egitimacyofani tem.
(
d).Costoft hesy st em. Whenacqui ri
ngsof twar ef rom t hev endor ,makesur ei tistheor i
ginal copyt hatis
Thecostofacomput ersy st em dependson: accompani edbyt hel icenseandcer t
ificateofaut hent icit
yoft hedev eloper .
1. I tsPr ocessi ngcapabi li
ty . Youshoul donl yusesof twar eoft hemaj orSof twar ehouses.
2. I tsSi ze. (b).Document ationoft hepr ogr ams.
Thecostofacomput eri sdi rect l
yr elat edt ot hesi ze.Por tabl ecomput ersar emor e Document ationr ef erst ot hemanual spr epar edbyt hedev eloperhav ingdet ail
sonhowt o
expensi vet hant heirdeskt opequi val ent s, becauseoft hesuper i
ort echnol ogyi nv olv
ed install,useandmai nt aint hesof twar e.
tomanuf act uresmal lercomponent swi thoutl osi ngper formanceabi l
iti
es. Thesei ncl ude; I
nst allationgui de, Mai ntenancegui de, Usergui de, aRef erencemanual ,
etc.
3. Whet heri ti sbr andedoracl one.Br andedcomput ersar emor eexpensi v
et hatt heir Thi sdocument ationenabl est heusert owor kwi tht hesof twar ewi thmi nimum gui dance.
equi v alentcl ones.Thi si sbecauseoft hei rreli
abi lityandgoodaf tersal eser vices.
(c).Userneeds(requi rement s)oft hesof twar e.
(
e).Upgradeabi lityoft hecomput er. Theneedsoft heuserdet ermi net het ypeofoper atingsy stem andappl i
cationpr ograms
Thet ypeoft hecomput erpur chasedshoul dbeupgr adeabl e, i
.e.
, itshoul dal l
owupgr ading thatshoul dbepur chased. .
oft hePr ocessor&t heHar ddi skt omakei tsui ty ourneeds.TheRAM memor ycanal sobe
upgr aded/i ncr easedbysi mpl yaddi ngnewmemor ymodul esi ntot hememor ysl otsony our (d).Rel i
abi li
t yandsecur i
ty .
Mot herboar d. Peopl ear emor ecomf or tabl ewi t hsof twar et hatof fersgoodsecur itytoconf i
dentialand
privat ei nf ormat ion.
(
f).Compat i
bilityoft hesy stem.
Thehar dwar ef aci l
iti
esoft hecomput ershoul dr elatewel lwiththedi fferentki ndofdev i
ces (e).Userfri endl inessoft hesof twar e.
av ail
abl e.I tmustal sosuppor tPl ug- and- Playf acilit
ies. Thesof twar epur chasedi sexpect edt obe“ User -
friendl y”
.User -
fr
iendl i
nessi sameasur eof
Thi sensur est hatt hecomput ersy stem oper atesi nasy stemat i
c, reli
abl e,&ef fi
cient howeasi lyt heusercanbeabl et ooper atet hecomput er.
mannerasr equi redbyt heuser . Feat ur es/ char act erist i
csofUser -friendl ysof twar e.
(
g).Port ability. I tshoul dbeeasyt ol ear n&useandal sosui tpeopl ewithl itt
leornocomput i
ng
Thesi zeoft hecomput ershoul dbesmal lsoast oenhancepor tabilit
y.I not herwor ds, i
t knowl edge.
shoul dbesuf ficient l
yl ight&henceeasi lyt ranspor tabl e.  Theprogramsshoul denabl et heend- usert oper f
or m manyoft her outi
nef unct i
ons&
(
h).Userneeds. oper at i
onssuchas, managecomput erf iles, diagnose&r epaircomput erpr oblemst hat
Thecomput erhar dwar esel ect edshoul dbeabl etoaccommodat et heuserpr ogr amsas enabl et hecomput ert or unmor esmoot hl y&ef fi
ciently.
wel lasanyot herdev icewhi chmi ghtbeadded; bot hhar dwar eandsof twar e.  Thesof twar eshoul dbesel f-cont ained, sot hatt heuseri snotf orcedi nt oaccessing
Userneedsal sodet ermi net het ypeofdat at hatwi l
lbepr ocessed.Ther efore, t
het ypeof manual s.
har dwar echosenshoul dbet hemostappr opr iatet osat isfytheneeds.Forexampl e,ina  Theamountofef fort&t hei nf or mat ionr equi r
edf ortheusert ogett hesof tware
Super mar ket ,aspeci al dev icecal ledaPoi ntofSal e( POS)Ter minali smostsui tablet o compl et er equi redt asksshoul dbemi nimal .
recor dt ransact ions.  Theusershoul dbemadet of eel incont rol ofwhati sgoi ngon.
 Thesof twar eshoul dbehav ei nal ogical &consi stentmanner ,enabl ingt heusert o
(
ix).Popul arityoft hecomput ermanuf acturer . reasonaboutwhati sgoi ngonandappl ywhathasbeenl earned.
Thecomput ermustbef rom awel l-
knownmanuf actur er .Thi scanonl ybedet ectedbyuse
oft hebr andnamessuchasCompaq, Dell,IBM, andHp.
(f)
.Costoft heSof twar e.
Thesof twar epur chasedshoul dber elativelycheap, andshoul dbeabl et omeetone’ sneeds.
(
x).Avai labilityofhar dwar espar epar ts. Not e.Onecannotj ustbuyapr ogr am becausei tischeap.Ther earemanyot herfactors
Thecomput erspar epar ts,i.e.,Inputandout putdev ices, shoul dber eadi lyavailable. thatmayf orceaper sont obuyf armuchmor eexpensi vesof twar eev enwi t
hcheaper
(
xi).Moni tor. alternat iv esav ailabl e.
Dependi ngonpr eference, y ourchoi cef oramoni tormaydependonSi ze,resolut i
on, and Incaset heof f-the- shel fsof twar edoesnotf itt heneedsoft heuser s,itwoul dbeadv i
sable
thet echnol ogyusedt omakei t. todev elopi n- housesof twar e,ev ent hought heymaybeabi tmor eexpensi ve.
Cur rent l
y ,Fl atpanel display shav ebecomeanewmar ketst andar dqui cklyreplacingt he (g).Compat i
bi li
tyandSy st em r equi rement soft hesof twar e.
Cat hodeRayTube( CRT) . Sof twar ecompat i
bi lityr efer st ot heabi li
tyoft hecomput ertor undependi ngont hesy stem
(
xii
). Mul t
imedi acapabi lity. set up( conf igur at i
on) .
Mul t
imedi ai st hecombi nat ionofv i
deo, audi o,text, andi magest opr ov i
deani nteract iv
e,
creat ive, andef fect ivewayofpr oduci ngandcommuni cat i
ngi nf ormat ion. Dif
ferentpr
ogr
amswillbel
oadedt
odiff
erentt
ypesofhar
dwar
e.Forexampl
e,some
Amul timedi asy st em shoul dhav eSpeaker s, CD/ DVDdr i
ve,Soundcar d, andaSVGA soft
war emayonl
yrunonacomputert
hathas32MBorRAM andabove.Anycomput
er,
-38- ©Al
fay
oM.
 UNI
T1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS.
whoseconf i
gur at i
onisl owert hant his, i
ssai dt obei ncompat ible.
Ther efore, t
hepr ogramssel ectedshoul drelate( fi
t)well wit
h/wi thi
nt heexi stingcomput er Theor
gani
zat
ionshoul
dconsi
derway
sorpl
ansofacqui
ri
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
aci
l
iti
es:
resour ces, e.g., hardwar ef acilit
iesandensur et hatthecomput ersy stem oper atesina
systemat i
c, reliable&ef fi
cientmannerasi ntendedbyt heuser . Facil
it
y Exampl es
Somesof twar ear enotcompat ible( wel lsuited),e.g.Appl eProgr ams.Ot herwi se,iti
s Hardware C.P.
UandPer i
pherals
i
mpor tantt hatoner eadst hei nstal lationgui deandsy stem requirement st hatcomeswi th Software System andApplicati
onpr ograms
thesof twar ei nor dertoav oiddi sappoi ntment . Stor
ageMedi a Tapes,Disks,Cassettes,et
c.
(
h).Portabi l
it
yoft hesof twar e. Trai
ning Manager s,Anal
ysts,Programmer s,Operat
ors,et
c.
Portabi l
it
yr ef erst owhet herapr ogr am canbecopi edori nstalledinmor et hanone Comput err
oom Constructi
on,Envir
onment alcondit
ions,Equi
pments,et
c.
comput er. Others Feasibi
lit
ystudy,Programmi ng,Changeovercost
s,et
c.
Thesof twar eshoul dbePor t
able, i
.e.i tshoul dal sobeabl etorunonsev er al dif
ferenttypes
ofcomput erswi t
hv erylitt
leornomodi f
ication( withoutre-writi
ngt hecode) . Recur
rentcost
s.
Not e.Al though, mostsof twar ei nt hemar kett odayar epor t
abl e,somedev eloperspr oduce
softwar ewhi chcanbei nstal l
edononemachi neonl y.Thismeanst hat,
ifonehas, say20 Oncethecomput
erf
aci
li
ti
eshavebeenacqui
redandt
hesyst
em becomesoperat
ional
,the
comput ers, he/ sheshoul dbuyal icensef oreach. oper
ati
ngcost
sfort
hecomputersy
stem hav
etobemetbytheorgani
zat
ion.
(
ix)
.St andar dsoft hesof twar e.
Thesof twar eshoul dbest andar di zed, i.
e.t hev ersionoft hepr ogram shoul dnotbet oolow Exampl
esofsuchcost
sar
e:
ort oohigh.
(
x).Popul arityoft hesof twar e. (
i)
. Depreciat
ioncost
s–t hechargesondepr
eci
ati
ngmachines&otherequi
pment
s,e.
g.,
Air
Bef or
ebuy i
ngpar t
icularsof t
war e, it
scur rentuser sshoul dbei nterviewedt of i
ndout condit
ioni
ngfacil
i
ties.
whet hert hesof twareissuccessf ul andf amousi nt hemar ket. (
ii
). Wagesofst aff
,e.
g.,Anal
yst
s, Pr ogr
ammers,Oper
ator
s,et
c.
(
ii
i)
.Administ
rat
ionexpenses,e.
g.,
Telephonebi
ll
s,Insurancecover
, consumablecost
s,et
c.
Exer
cise(
a).
(
iv)
.Othergener
alexpenses,e.
g.conducti
ngseminars,on-j
obtrai
ningforstaf
f,et
c.
1. Identi
fyanddescribe8hardwareand8soft
warefact
orst
hatcanbeconsi
deredwhen
select
ingacomput er
.
2. Stateanddiscussf ourf
act
orsonewouldconsi
derwhenpur
chasi
ngcomputersof
tware.
3. Whathar dwareissueswouldoneconsi
derwhenbuyi
ngacomputer?

ACQUI SI
TI ON( PROCUREMENT)OFACOMPUTER.
Introduction.
Introducingacomput erintot hebusi nessi sanactt hatshoul dbeconsider edwithgreatconcern,
becausei tinvolvescapi tal expendi ture,andassuch, itshoul donlybedonei fiti
snecessar yand
i
t sacquisitionshoul dbei nacost -effectiv emanner .
Bef oreacqui ri
ngt hecomput erandi tsrelat edfacil
it
ies, oneshouldinvestigatetheeffectsof
i
nt roducingt hecomput erintot heor gani zat i
on.Thisi st oensurethatadequat ereturnsare
ex pectedf rom suchani nvest ment .
Comput ercost s.
Thecostofi ntroducingacomput eri ntot heor gani
zat iondependsonSi ze, Nature&t he
appl i
cati
onr equirement soft heaf fectedor ganizat
ion.
Smal l&si mpl eor ganizat i
onsmayr equi rel esssophi sticatedcomput erinstall
ati
ons.Bi g&
compl exbusi nessor gani zationsmayr equi recompl exconf igur
ati
onandsophi sti
catedrelated
facili
ti
es.
Thecost sf orinstal
li
ngacomput ersy stem maybecl assi f
iedas;
1.I niti
al costs.
2.Recurrentcost
s.
I
nit
ialcosts.
Thi
sist heini
ti
alcapital
expendi
tureontothecomputerfaci
li
ti
eswhent heyarebeingacquir
ed.
Thesecost sdependont heType,Natur
eandt heModelofthefaci
l
itiestobeacquired.
Thecost sareinf
luencedbythemet hodusedtoacquir
ethecomput erandit
sr el
atedfaci
l
iti
es.
-39- ©Al
fay
oM.