Electromagnetic Induction

and Alternating Current 18

18.1 MAGNETIC FLUX
 
f = NBA cos q or ∫ B ⋅ dA
where B = strength of magnetic field, N = number of turns in the coil, A = area of surface and
q = angle between normal to area and field direction.
SI unit is wb m–2

⎡ Electric flux ⎤ ⎡E⎤

⎢ ⎥ ≠ [dimensionless] i.e., ⎢ ⎥ = [v] = [LT–1]
⎣ Magnetic flux ⎦ ⎣B⎦

18.1.1 Faraday and Lenz Law (I from B)

Emf is induced due to the change in magnetic flux. The magnetic flux can be changed by
1. Keeping the magnetic field constant with respect to time and moving whole or part of the
loop,
2. Keeping the loop at rest and changing the magnetic field,
3. Combination of the above (1) and (2).
⎧Induced emf
⎪
f = Constant (nothing will happen) f = Vary ⎨Induced current
⎪Flow of charge
⎩
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction or Lenz’s law,
(a) Whenever magnetic flux linked with a circuit (a loop of wire or a coil or an electric
circuit in general) changes, induced emf is produced.
(b) The induced emf lasts as long as the change in the magnetic flux continues.
(c) The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
Ndφ
xi = where N is turns in a coil.
dt
(d) By Faraday’s second law of induction, xi = –df/dt

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 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current 223

(e) Mathematical expression for Faraday’s and Lenz law

dφ ξi dφ /dt
xi = = Induced emf, i = = , where R is resistance
dt R R
dφ
dq = idt = −
R

18.1.2 Lenz’s Law

First law (attraction and repulsion law): Magnetic lines from right to left are increasing, hence
induced current will produce magnetic lines from left to right.
S N
S N
Induced current
In short, coming close → repulsion going far → attraction
Second law: If ⊗ magnetic field is increased then induced current will produce  if ⊗ magnetic
field is decreased then induced current will produce ⊗.
Third law: When magnetic lines are tangential, flux is always zero.
In case of non-uniform magnetic field flux will be obtained by integration.
iinduced ∝ < x >t1tot2 → main current
I∝t ⇒ i → constant
If I ∝ t 2
⇒ i ∝ t → linear
If I ∝ t3 ⇒ i ∝ t2 → quadratic
If I ∝ tn ∴ i ∝ tn – 1
  
Motional emf: Potential difference or xi = Bvl if B, v , I are mutually perpendicular.
Direction → by RHR Upper side of palm → Higher potential

v ⇒
Lower → Lower potential
xi = Bvl

18.2 MECHANISM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

ACROSS A CONDUCTOR

Consider a conducting rod of length l moving with constant velocity v which is perpendicular to

a uniform magnetic field B directed into the plane of paper. Let the rod is moving toward right
as shown in figure. The free electrons also move to the right as they are trapped within the rod.
y P
× × eE × ×
v
× × e ×
v× ⇒ xi = Bvl
× ×evB × ×
× × Q × ×
x

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 224 Chapter 18
  
The magnetic field exerts force on the free electrons, Fm = −e(v × B) so they move towards
the end Q within the rod. The end P of the rod becomes positively charged while end Q becomes

negatively charged, hence an electric field E is set up within the rod which exerts force on the
free electrons in opposite to magnetic force. At equilibrium
       
Fe + Fm = 0 or −eE + ( −e)(v × B) = 0 or E = −v × B
The induced emf across the rod
    
xi = ∫ E ⋅ dl or xi = ∫ (v × B) ⋅ dl (1)
In the case under consideration

i ∫
x = [viˆ × B( −kˆ)] ⋅ dl ˆj ∴ x = vBl i (2)
The mechanism of electromagnetic induction across a conductor or a conducting loop can
also be explained in terms of magnetic flux (f). The magnetic flux associated with an area is the
dot product of magnetic field induction and the area vector. In the case of a moving conductor,
the associated area is the sweeping area.
The polarity of the induced emf in the case of a moving conductor can be found with the
help of the above equation (1). In the case of a conducting loop associated which magnetic flux
is changing, the direction (clockwise or anticlockwise) of the induced current is such that the
magnetic field produced due to the induced current compensates the change in the magnetic flux
associated to the conductor.

Examples
 
1. × × × In this case we can make v perpendicular to length of the rod or l
× × × perpendicular to v. Thus,
q v xi = B(v sin q)l or Bv(l sin q) = Bvl sin q
× × ×
× × ×
× × ×
2. If we take the plane of motion of the rod as xy, then
v
× × ×
xi = ∫ [viˆ × (− B ˆj)] ⋅ (liˆ)
× × ×
= −vBl(kˆ ⋅ iˆ) = 0

3. B xi = ∫ [viˆ × Biˆ] ⋅ (l ˆj) = 0

v

4. B xi = ∫ (v ˆj × Biˆ) ⋅ liˆ = vBl(−kˆ ⋅ iˆ) = 0

v

5. × × × If PQ line makes q with the velocity vector, then

× × P× xi = B(v sin q)PQ
v
× × ×
Q
× × ×

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 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current 225

6. × × × × If a closed conducting loop having constant area moves

×
v v v in uniform magnetic field as in figure (2), then there is
× × × × ×
no induced emf as well as induced current in the loop
× × × × × but at the time of entrance, figure (1) and at the time
of emergence, figure (3), there occurs induced emf as
1× × ×2 × ×3 well as induced current.
Figure (1): As the magnetic flux associated to the area is increasing directed into the plane
of the paper hence the magnetic field produced due to the induced current must be coming
out of plane of the paper. It means that the induced current is anticlockwise.
Figure (2): There is no change in magnetic flux hence induced current is zero.
Figure (3): As the magnetic flux associated to the area is decreasing directed into the plane
of the paper hence the magnetic field produced due to the induced current must be directed
in to the plane of the paper. It means that the induced current is clockwise.

18.3 HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS RELATED TO MOTIONAL EMF

Assume a moving conductor as a battery of emf Bvl and polarity given by RHR, then solve the
problem as a problem of current and electricity.
1. If conductor is not straight make it straight by joining initial and
final points v⊥
Va – Vb = B(v ⊥ )(ab) v
2. The induced emf across a conductor if the conductor is rotating a b v⏐⏐
in uniform magnetic field
(a) Let us consider a conducting rod of length l is rotating about an axis passing through

one of its ends with constant angular velocity w in an uniform magnetic field B as
shown in figure.
× × × × × ×
x dx
× × × × A× ×
O ⇒
w X w
× × × × × × xi = Bwl 2
v rod m, l 2
×B × × × × ×

Induced emf across the element is dxi = Bv(dx) = B(wx)dx

l

Induced emf across the entire rod, xi = ∫ Bω xdx ×B × × ×

o

× × × ×
Bωl 2
⇒ xi = VO – VA = O w
2 × × × ×
(b) Let us consider a cycle wheel is rotating about its own axis
with constant angular velocity w in uniform magnetic field. In × × × Rim×

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 226 Chapter 18

Bωl
2

this case each spoke becomes cell of emf xi = because flux cutting by each metal
2
spoke is same. All such cells are in parallel combination, therefore xi, equivalent = xi. Each
point on the periphery of wheel has same potential.
(c) Let us consider a metal circular disc of radius R is rotating about its axis with constant
angular velocity in uniform magnetic field. The metal disc can be assumed to be made
Bω R
2
up of number of radial conductors. The emf induced across each conductor is xi = .
All such conductors behave like a number of cells in parallel. Therefore 2

Bω R 2 w
xi, equivalent = xi = B
2
(d) A conducting rod PQ is rotated in a magnetic field about an R
axis passing through O. The one end of the rod is at a distance
a and other end is at a distance b from O as shown in figure.
The induced emf across the element of length dx is

dxi = Bvdx = B(wx)dx × × × × × × B×

x dx
The induced emf across the whole rod is × × × × × × ×
O w P Q X
Bω (b2 − a 2 )
b × ×a × v× × × ×
xi = Bω ∫ xdx =
a
2 × × × b × × × ×
3. Any problem of EMI can be solved by two methods
(a) Faraday + Lenz
(b) Motional emf

18.3.1 Self-inductance
The phenomenon, according to which on opposing induced emf is produced in a coil as a result
of change in current or magnetic flux linked with the coil is called self-inductance.
As f ∝ I, f = LI where L is coefficient of self-induction or self-inductance
−dφ dI
⇒ xi = = −L
dt dt
1. The self-inductance L depends on geometry of coil or solenoid and the permeability of the
core material of the coil or solenoid.
2. Unit of L is Henry.
μ0 μr N 2 π r
3. For a small circular coil, L =
2
μ0 μr N A
2

4. For a solenoid, L =
l
5. For two coils connected in series

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 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current 227

(a) when current flows in same direction in both,

Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
(b) when current flow in two coils in opposite directions
Leq = L1 + L2 – 2M
If M = 0, Leq = L1 + L2
6. For two coils connected in parallel
1 1 1 (L + M )(L2 + M )
= + ⇒ Leq = 1
Leq L1 + M L2 + M L1 + L2 + 2 M
L1 L2
If M = 0, Leq =
L1 + L2
μo N 2 A
7. Self-inductance of a toroid, L =
2π r

18.3.2 Mutual Inductance (M)

1. Mutual inductance of two coils is numerically equal to magnetic flux linked with one coil,
when a unit current flows through the neighbouring coil.
As f ∝ I, f = MI where M is coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance
dI
⇒ xi = − M
dt
2. For two long co-axial solenoids, each of length l, common area of cross-section A wound on
air core,
μNN A
M= o 1 2
l
3. For two coupled coils, M = K L1 L2 where K denotes the coefficient of coupling between
the coils.
4. If K = 1, the coils are said to be tightly coupled such that magnetic flux produced in primary
is fully linked with the secondary.
M= L1 L2 = maximum value of M.

18.3.3 Inductor (Solenoid and Toroid)

1 2
1. Potential energy stored in inductor = Li
2
B2
2. Energy density u =
2 μ0
3. Induced emf or potential difference across inductor is decided by logic. Current is increased
this induced emf has tendency to decrease the current.

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 228 Chapter 18

dI
4. ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → −L
Kirchhoff along current dt
dI
and ←⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ ⎯ +L
Kirchhoff against current dt
di
5. If = +ve, then Va – Va = +ve and if constant current flows from an inductor it is just like a
dt
conducting wire → no potential difference.

18.3.4 Current Growth in L–R Circuit R i

In a circuit having only resistor, io
ξ x
io = as soon as switch is closed, t
R
but in L–R circuit inductor will oppose the increase in L
current from 0 to io. Steady state current is still io but will R
increase exponentially
xL I
The current in RL circuit at time t is I =
ξ
(
R 1− e
− Rt
L ) x

1. Charge: q = ∫o
t
I dt =
ξ
R
t−
ξ
( )
R 1− e
2
− Rt
L

− Rt
2. Voltage across resistor: VR = IR = x(1 – e L )
− Rt
3. Voltage across inductor: x – VR = xe L

4. Power from battery: P = xI = ( )

ξ2
R 1− e
− Rt
L

Lξ
( )
2
1 − Rt 2
5. Energy in inductor: UL = LI 2 = 2
2R 1 − e
L
2
6. Heat developed in the resistor:
ξ2
( ) ξ2
( ) dt
t t 2 t
− Rt − Rt
H= ∫ R ∫ 1− e R ∫ 1+ e
2 Rt
I 2 Rdt = dt =
o o
L
o
L
− 2e L

t
ξ2 ⎛ −2 Rt − Rt
⎞
= ⎜t − L e L
2L
+ e L
⎟⎠
R ⎝ 2R R o

ξ2 ⎡ L L
−2 Rt
2L 2L
− Rt
⎤
= ⎢t+ − e L
− + e L
⎥
R ⎣ 2R 2R R R ⎦

=
ξ2 ⎡
t+
L
R ⎢⎣ 2R 1 − e
−2 Rt
L −(2L
R 1 − e
− Rt ⎤
L ⎥
⎦
) ( )

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 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current 229

ξ
7. The steady state current =
R
Magnetic field energy stored in the inductor in steady state
1 2 1 ξ2
= LI = L
2 2 R2
1 ξ2
( )
− Rt 2
Energy at any time t = L 2 1 − e L
2 R
Let time taken for energy to be halved be t1

( )
− Rt1
1 ξ2 1 ξ2 − Rt
2 2 −1 2− 2
L 2 = L 2 ⇒ e L
= =
4 R 2 R 1 − e L
2 2

− Rt1 L⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
⇒ = ln (2 − 2 ) − ln2 ⇒ t1 = ⎢ ln2 − ln ⎜
L R⎣ ⎝ 2 − 2 ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥ i
Let time taken for energy to be one-fourth be t2. io
0.63io
( )
− Rt2
1 ξ2 1 ξ2 − Rt2
2 1
L 2 = L 2 ⇒ 1− e L
= io/2
8 R 8 R 1 − e L
2
− Rt2 tL t
1 L
⇒ e L
= or t 2 = ln2 t L(In2)
2 R
L ⎛ 1 ⎞
Hence t2 – t1 = ln
R ⎜⎝ 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
(It is the time taken for the magnetic energy stored in the

circuit to change from one-fourth of the steady state value to half of the steady state value).

(
I = i0 1 − e π L ,
−t
)
where τL = L/R → Time constant
⎛ 1⎞
At t = τL , I = ⎜ 1 − ⎟ io ≈ 63% of io (increasing graph)
⎝ e⎠

18.3.5 Current Decay in L–R Circuit

I
During decay, current at any instant of time is given by Io
I = Io.e–Rt/L
If τ = L/R = t = time constant of circuit 0.37Io
I = Io/e = 37% Io t
t = L /R
18.3.6 LC-oscillatory Circuit
Consider a LC-circuit shown in figure, a resistanceless inductor is con-
nected between the terminals of a charged capacitor. At the instant when C
connections are made, the capacitor starts to discharge through the
inductor. Let a capacitor C is given an initial charge Q and, at t = 0 is con- L
nected to the inductor of self-inductance L.

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 230 Chapter 18

⎛1 ⎞
The sum of the energies of the system (the magnetic energy of the inductor ⎜ Li 2 ⎟ at any
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ q2 ⎞
time and the potential energy of the capacitor ⎜ ⎟ remains constant. Therefore by conserva-
tion of energy ⎝ 2C ⎠
2 2
1 2 q Q
Li + =
2 2C 2C
Differentiating above equation w.r.t. time, we get
1 di 1 dq di q
L × 2i × + × 2q × = 0 or L + = 0
2 dt 2C dt dt C
2
dq dq q
As i = , ∴ + =0 (1)
dt dt 2 LC
2
d x
Compare above equation with simple harmonical differential equation i.e., + ω 2 x = 0,
dt
1
we get w = (2)
LC
This is called natural frequency of the LC circuit.
Time period T = 2π LC Also, q = Q cos(wt + f)
It means that the charging and discharging of the capacitor occur simple harmonically.
The capacitor has completely discharged and the potential difference between its terminals
has decreased to zero. The current in the inductor has meanwhile establishes a magnetic field in
the space around it. This magnetic field now decrease, inducing an emf in the inductor in the same
direction as the current. The current therefore persists, although with decreasing magnitude, until
the magnetic field has disappeared and the capacitor has been charged in the opposite sense to its
initial polarity. The process now repeats itself in the reverse direction, and in the absence of any
energy losses, the charges on the capacitor surge back and forth indefinitely. This process is called
electrical oscillations. From the energy state point, the oscillations of an electrical circuit consist
of a transfer of energy back and forth from electric field of capacitor to the magnetic field of the
inductor, the total energy associated with the circuit remaining constant. This is analogous to the
transfer of energy in an oscillating mechanical system from kinetic to potential and vice versa.
As oscillation are simple harmonic, q-t equation is sine or cosine equation.
+ – q = q0

At t = 0, q = q0, applying KVL we get q = q0 cos wt

dq
⇒ i= ⇒ q0 w sin wt.
dt
1
1. w =
LC
2
1q
2. UC =
2C

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 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current 231

1 2
3. UB = Li
2
2 2
1 q 1 2 1 q0
4. + Li0 = = constant
2C 2 2C
5. imax = wq0

⎛ di ⎞ q
6. ⎜ ⎟ = w 2q =
⎝ dt ⎠ max LC

7. i = ω q0 − q
2 2

di
8. = –w 2q
dt
Important points
⎡ 1 ⎤
1. ⎢ ⎥ = ω = [T–1]
⎣ LC ⎦
1 2 ⎛ di ⎞
2. When q = ± q0, i = 0, Li = 0 ⎜ ⎟ → max
2 ⎝ dt ⎠
2
1 2 di 1q
3. When q = 0, i → max., Li → max., → 0, →0
2 dt 2C
Induced electric field can be produced by
1. change in system of charges
2. change in magnetic field
If charge particle is kept at rest in change magnetic field, it will experience electric force not
magnetic
 
Fe = qEi → induced electric field
How will you find value of Ei ?
  dφ
∫ ⋅ dl = − dt
E

18.3.7 Alternating Current (AC)

Average value of physical quantity x is
t2

∫ xdt
t1
< x >t1 to t2 =
t 2 − t1
1. If x is linear function of time then average value can be
x f + xi xt2 + xt1
xav = or
2 2

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 232 Chapter 18

2. In some cases there are fixed formula

Total distance
e.g., average speed =
Total time
Total displacement
average speed =
Total time
Average value of sin wt or cos wt +
< sin wt or cos wt >0–T = 0 –
2π /ω
sin ω tdt
or ∫0
2π / ω
=0
1
⇒ < sin2wt or cos2wt >0 – T =
2
2
⇒ < sin wt >0–T/2 = ≈ 0.636
π
The average value of ac is defined for half the time period. The average value of ac is that
steady current (i.e., dc) which sends the same amount of charge through a circuit, in a time equal
to half the time period of ac, as is sent by ac through the same circuit in the same time.
2
iav = io = 0.637io
π
Hence, the average value of ac current over one half cycle is 0.637 times its peak value.
Similarly, it can be shown that
Vav (average alternating emf over one half cycle)
2
= Vo = 0.637 Vo
π
1. In half cycle also, average value may be zero.
2. In AC, value of emf changing, polarity changing and direction of cur-
rent changing +
–
Symbol
Applied voltage
‘+’ and ‘–’ not mentioned as they keep on changing.
In sine or cosine function, current or voltage have 4 values [i = i0 sin wt]
(a) Peak or maximum value = i0
(b) Instantaneous value = i0 sin wt
⎧ whole cycle = 0
⎪
(c) average value ⎨ 2
⎪< i0 sin ω t > 0 − T = π i0
⎩ 2

i0
(d) Rms value irms = ≈ 0.707i0
2

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 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current 233

Inductive reactance XL = wL → unit − Ω

1
Capacitive reactance XC = → unit − Ω
ωC
1. In DC voltage no oscillation take place.
∴ w = 0, XL = 0, XC = ∞.
In steady state, resistance of inductor = 0 and resistance of capacitor = ∞.
2. Series C-R circuit: Total resistance of circuit is called impedence
Z= R 2 + ( X L ∼ XC )2
3. Phase difference between V and i
Only R → f = 0°
Only C → f = 90°, current leading
Only L → f = 90°, voltage leading
If XC > XL → current leading
If XL > XC → voltage leading
For LCR, f is in between 0° and 90°

⎛ X − XC ⎞ ⎛ R⎞
f = tan–1 ⎜ L ⎟⎠ or f = cos
–1
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ → power factor
⎝ R Z

V
Only R, f = 0 R

XC XC – XL XC – XL Z
V⇒
90º f R
XL V V
(X − XL )
R 2 + ( XC − X L )2 ∴ f = cos–1 ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ or tan–1 C
R
Z=
⎝ Z⎠ R
V0 Vrms
i0 = irms = but V ≠ iZ
Z Z
V can be iZ if f = 0° i.e., when only R
1
4. Resonance frequency: When XL = XC ⇒ w=
LC
If w < resonance frequency, XC > XL and circuit is capacitive in nature and current will lead.
5. Voltage (only rms values):
VR = Irms R, VC = Irms XC , VL = Irms XL ⇒ V= VR2 + (VC − VL )2
6. Power: There are two types of power (i) instantaneous power and (ii) average power.
(a) Pi = Vi Ii

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 234 Chapter 18

R
(b) Pav = IrmsVrmscos f = I2rms R cos f , cos f = → Power factor
Z
If R = 0, power factor = 0
∴ average power = 0 in one cycle but i ≠ 0. This current is called wattless current.
Pav is also called the true power. Io cos f is called the active or watt-full component and Io sin f is
called the wattless, idle or reactive component of the current.

18.3.8 Choke Coil

Sometimes, we have to reduce the value of the current in a circuit while keeping the supply volt-
age constant. If the current is drawn from a dc source, then its value can be reduced by using a
rheostat. But in doing so, a power equal to I2R will be wasted in the form of heat where I is the
current flowing through the circuit whose resistance is R.
If instead of a dc source, we are using an ac source, then to change the value of the current in
the circuit, inductance is used in place of resistance.
An inductance used in an ac circuit to control current is called a choke coil.

18.3.9 Transformer
A transformer is a device used for changing the form of electrical energy, e.g., for converting a
low voltage alternating current into a high voltage alternating current or vice versa. When the
voltage is raised, the transformer is called a step-up transformer and when the voltage is lowered,
it is called a step-down transformer.
It is based on the phenomenon of mutual induction between two coils known as the primary
coil and the secondary coil. Transformer does not amplify power. Law of conservation of energy
holds good for a transformer. It does not operate on dc or direct voltage. It operates only on alter-
nating voltages at input as well as at output. Frequency of output voltage across secondary coil is
same as that of input voltage across primary coil.
It is used for transmission of ac over long distances at high voltages. The energy losses and
cost of transmission are reduced by this device.
In Step-up transformer,
1. The output voltage Vs across secondary coil is greater than input voltage Vp in primary coil.
2. But Is < Ip.
3. Ns > Np where N denotes the number of turns in the coils.
Vs I p N s
4. = = >1
Vp I s N p
In step-down transformer
1. The output voltage Vs < Vp
2. The output current Is > Ip
3. The number of turns Ns < Np
Vs I p N s
4. = = <1
Vp I s N p

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 Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current 235

Vs I p N s
Transformation ratio K = = =
Vp I s N p
Output power Vs I s
Efficiency of transformer = or η =
Input power Vp I p
Energy losses in transformer
For an ideal transformer, output power = input power
Vs I p N s
VsIs = VpIp ⇒ = =
Vp I s N p
But in practice, there are losses and output power < input power.
Copper losses: Windings are made of copper wire. Energy is lost as heat in resistance of copper
wire. It is reduced by use of suitably thin wires of copper.
Iron losses/eddy current losses: Energy is lost due to eddy currents in the core of transformer. It
is reduced by using laminated soft iron core.
Flux leakage: Some magnetic flux leaks in air between primary and secondary coils. It is reduced
by winding the secondary coil over a primary coil using insulator between them.
Hysteresis loss: The core is magnetized and demagnetized and energy is lost as heat. It is reduced
by using soft iron core.

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