Lecture 10 | Datums, Map Projections

and Coordinate Systems

| Block-3 | MGY-101 | IGNOU PGDGI |
GEOID, SPHEROID, ELLIPSOID, DATUM, MAP PROJECTION, GCS,
PCS, MAP COORDINATES, PROJECTION TYPES
 Expected Learning Outcomes__________________________________

1 2 3 4 5
Discuss the basics Define the Describe the map List different types of Choose a suitable
of geodesy, earth coordinate systems; projection and its distortion and map projection.
model and datum; classification; measures to
minimise them; and
 Geodesy

• Geodesy is defined as the science

concerned with the study of the shape
and size of the Earth.
• In the geometric sense, it deals with the
study of the shape and the size of the
Earth’s surface.
• In gravimetric sense, it deals with the
study of equipotential surfaces of the
gravity potential.
There are
two types
of surveys
• Plane survey
• Geodetic survey
A plane (or cadastral)
survey
• A plane (or cadastral) survey, is commonly performed
for a limited area.
• Thus, Earth’s curvature may not be taken into account
because it is relatively insignificant over a small area.
Geodetic survey
 History of
Geodesy
• Homer, Pythagoras, Plato, and others all put efforts to
describe the shape of the Earth.

• Homer (8th century B.C.), for instance, held the idea that
Earth was a large flat disc, while Pythagoras (6th century
B.C.), a mathematician, viewed Earth as a perfect sphere.
Aristotle’s (4th century B.C.) arguments for a spherical
Earth was more compelling as he noted that sailing ships
always disappear into the horizon rather than becoming
smaller dots
• Indian mathematician Aryabhatta (476 to 550 A.D.) was
the first person to determine the circumference of the
Earth with a remarkable accuracy. The discovery that
Earth rotates on its own axis from west to east is
described in his famous book ‘Aryabhatiya’.
• Until about seventeenth century, the Earth was thought to
be a perfect sphere. The change came around 1670, as a
consequence of Newton’s theory of gravity. He proposed
that earth’s shape slightly bulged out at the equator due
to the greater centrifugal force generated by rotation. The
equator bulging produces slight flattening at the poles.
EARTH MODELS
• Earth's actual shape is more complicated than the
spherical shape it appears to be.
• One can easily follow this by imagining the height of
the Himalayas several thousand meters above the
mainland of India on the North and the deep
trenches of the Indian Ocean in the south.
• To effectively represent the shape and size of the
Earth in scientific and real-life applications, a
calculable, formula-driven model of the Earth is
must require.
• The closer a model is to that of the actual surface of
Earth, the better it is for geographic positioning.
Geoid
• A Geoid (meaning earthlike) is an
approximated figure of the Earth.
• The geoid is the shape that the Earth
would take if the oceans were at rest,
and the Earth’s gravity field was the only
force acting upon it.
• That coincides with mean sea level over
the oceans and continues in continental
areas as an imaginary sea-level surface
defined by spirit level.
• In simpler terms, the geoid is a
hypothetical surface that represents the
Earth’s mean sea level if the ocean were
to cover the entire Earth uniformly, and
if there were no winds or currents.
Applications of Geoid:

• Measuring elevations:
• Determining the Earth’s gravity field:
• Satellite positioning:
• Oceanography:
Ellipsoid
• The ellipsoid is a smooth, symmetric
surface that approximates the shape of
the Earth and is used as a reference
surface for mapping and surveying.
• The ellipsoid, also known as a spheroid,
is a mathematical surface that
approximates the shape of the Earth. It
is a smooth, symmetric surface that is
defined by an equation that can be
expressed in terms of the Earth’s
equatorial radius, polar radius, and
flattening.
Applications of Ellipsoid:

Mapping and surveying: The ellipsoid is used as a reference surface for

mapping and surveying. It provides a smooth, symmetric surface that
simplifies calculations of distances, areas, and volumes.

Navigation: The ellipsoid is used in navigation systems, such as GPS, to

calculate precise locations on the Earth’s surface.

Engineering and construction: The ellipsoid is used in engineering and

construction projects to calculate the position of structures and to ensure
that they are built in the correct location.
Type/Feature Geoid Ellipsoid

Represents the actual shape of the Earth's surface when all the effects Is an idealized model of the Earth's surface
Shape of the irregular distribution of mass inside the planet are taken into that assumes the planet is perfectly smooth
account and homogeneous

Measurement Represents a physically measurable quantity Is a mathematical construct

Determination Determined by measuring the Earth's gravity field Defined by mathematical equations

Deviation Deviates from the ellipsoid by up to 100 meters in some places Assumes a perfect sphere

Change Changes over time as the mass distribution inside the Earth changes Does not change over time

Application Used in oceanography, geodesy, and satellite altimetry Used in cartography and navigation

More accurate than the ellipsoid when it comes to measuring the Less accurate than the geoid when it comes
Accuracy
Earth's surface to measuring the Earth's surface

Complexity More complex and difficult to work with Simpler and easier to work with

Takes into account the variations in the Earth's gravity field caused by Assumes that the Earth's gravity field is
Gravity Field
the mass distribution inside the planet perfectly uniform
 ELLIPSOID MODELS

The ellipsoid’s flattening causes two

unequal axes:
(i) a longer axis, and
(ii) a shorter axis.

• The north-to-south axis through the Earth’s

core is the shorter axis and, as such, is
called the minor axis or polar axis.
• The east-to-west axis through the Earth’s
core is longer and is called the major axis or
equatorial axis.
 Earth’s Flattening
• In brief, the flattening of the ellipse is directly
related to the differences in both the
semimajor axis (half of the major axis) ‘a ‫ۥ‬and
the semi-minor axis (half of the minor axis) ‘b.‫ۥ‬
• It is represented by the formula
Flattening (f) = (a – b) / a
• Earth’s flattening is sometimes displayed as a
reciprocal called inverse flattening.
• For instance, a flattening of 0.003389831 (or
1/295) can be portrayed as an inverse
flattening of 295.
• The formula for inverse flattening is
represented as:
Inverse Flattening (f -1 ) = 1 / f = a / (a – b)
USE OF GEOID, SPHEROID AND ELLIPSOID
• Each model—geoid, sphere, and ellipsoid—serves
specific purposes in representing Earth's shape. The
geoid is essential for accurate elevation
measurements and serves as the reference for
ground surveys.
• The sphere, or authalic sphere, is used for small-
scale maps where simplicity is preferred and the
difference from an ellipsoid is minimal.
• The ellipsoid provides the most accurate
representation for detailed mapping and geodetic
computations, accommodating Earth's equatorial
bulge and polar flattening.
WHICH IS
• Over the years, numerous reference
THE BEST ellipsoids have been developed by various
REFERENCE geodesists with measurements taken at
different source points across the Earth’s
ELLIPSOID surface.
FOR YOU?
Values for 10
different
ellipsoids used as
a basis for
mapping in
various parts of
the world
• Selecting the appropriate
reference ellipsoid is crucial
for accurate mapping.
• For instance, Everest 1830 is
best suited for Asia, while
Clarke 1866 is commonly used
in North America.
• The WGS84 ellipsoid,
determined by satellite data, is
a universal standard used
widely for GPS and global
mapping.
• However, WGS84 might not
offer the best regional fit.
Proper ellipsoid selection
minimizes geoid mismatch
and enhances mapping
accuracy.
CONCEPT OF DATUM
• A datum is a reference framework or
system for measuring locations on the
Earth's surface. It provides a set of
coordinates (latitude, longitude, and
sometimes altitude) to describe any
location on the planet.
• A datum includes:
• An origin: A point where the coordinates are
defined as (0,0,0).
• An ellipsoid: A mathematically defined surface
that approximates the shape of the Earth.
• A geoid: A model of Earth's mean sea level used
to measure surface elevations.

• Geodetic datums are generally classified

as either a geocentric datum or a local
geodetic datum
• A Geocentric datum is globally centered
and adequately approximates the Earth’s
size and shape as a whole.
Types of Datums:

1.Horizontal Datum: Used to measure positions on the Earth's surface. (Uses an ellipsoid)
• Examples:WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984): A global datum used for GPS.
• NAD83 (North American Datum 1983): Used primarily in North America.

2.Vertical Datum: Used to measure elevations. It provides a baseline for determining the
height of geographical features relative to a defined "zero" level, often mean sea level.(Uses a
geoid)
• NAVD88 (North American Vertical Datum of 1988): Used in North America for elevation
measurements.
• EGM96 (Earth Gravitational Model 1996): A global geoid model used to determine mean sea level.

• Geocentric Datums (e.g., WGS84) align the ellipsoid's center with the Earth's center of mass, providing
a global fit.
• Local Datums are optimized for specific regions, where the ellipsoid closely matches the local geoid,
often leading to discrepancies with the Earth's center of mass. Proper datum selection is crucial for
accurate geospatial measurements.
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS

• To locate points precisely and measure

distances and directions accurately, a
coordinate system is essential.
• A coordinate system uses a set of numbers
to specify locations within a reference
framework. There are two main types of
coordinate systems:

• Geographic coordinate system, and

• Rectangular or planar coordinate system
Geographic Coordinate
System (GCS)
• A geographic coordinate system (GCS) is a three-
dimensional system that defines every location on
Earth using three numbers: latitude, longitude,
and ellipsoidal height.
• Latitude (Parallels): Horizontal lines parallel to
the Equator, measured from 0° at the Equator to
90° at the poles. They intersect meridians at right
angles.
• Longitude (Meridians): Vertical lines converging
at the poles, measured from 0° at the Prime
Meridian (Greenwich) to 180° east or west.
• Ellipsoidal Height: The height above the
reference ellipsoid.
 Planar Coordinate System
• A planar coordinate system, derived from Cartesian coordinates,
is used to map positions on a flat surface, representing the
Earth's curved surface. It simplifies the calculation of distances
and directions.
• Axes:
• X-axis (horizontal)
• Y-axis (vertical)
• Origin: The intersection point of the axes (0, 0).
• Quadrants:
• Quadrant I: (+x, +y)
• Quadrant II: (−x, +y)
• Quadrant III: (−x, −y)
• Quadrant IV: (+x, −y)
• Distance Calculation: The distance between two points (𝑥1,𝑦1)
and (𝑥2,𝑦2 is given by:

• Ensure the proper use of arithmetic signs for coordinates based

on their quadrant. Using a planar coordinate system makes
spatial calculations simpler compared to spherical trigonometry,
facilitating its use in mapping and GIS applications at various
scales.
 MAP PROJECTIONS
• Map projection is a systematic transformation that allows the orderly
representation of Earth’s spherical graticules on a flat map.
• In another sense, it is a transformation of geographic coordinates
(latitude, longitude) into the Cartesian (x, y) coordinate plane of the
map sheets.
 Distortion
No map projection can preserve all geographic features accurately.
Distortions are inevitable and vary by projection type.

Types of Distortion:

• Shape: Conformal projections preserve shape but may distort size.

• Distance: Equidistant projections preserve distances but may distort shapes and areas.
• Area: Equal-area projections preserve area but may distort shape and distance.
• Direction: Azimuthal projections preserve direction but may distort shape and area.
 Selection of a Model for the Earth's Shape: Choose a
reference shape, typically a sphere or an ellipsoid, to
approximate the Earth's surface.

Construction Since the Earth's shape is irregular, this approximation

results in some loss of information.
of Map
Projection Transformation of Geographic Coordinates:Convert
geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) into
Cartesian (x, y) or polar coordinates.

This transformation can be visualized as projecting the

Earth's surface onto a flat plane.
Projection Techniques:
Light Source Method: Imagining a light source positioned relative to the globe, projecting its features
onto a surface. This intuitive method explains simple projections but is limited.

Mathematical Formulas: Most projections use specific mathematical formulas for precise
transformations, which are not based on physical projection but on complex calculations to manage
distortions.
Scale Factor and Transformation

Reference Globe: A small model of the Earth that keeps the same shape but on a smaller
scale.

Principal Scale (PS): This is the ratio that shows how much smaller the reference globe is
compared to the actual Earth.It’s written as a fraction. For example, if the globe's radius is 1
meter and Earth's radius is 6,371,000 meters, the PS is 16,371,0006,371,0001 .
Principal Scale (PS):This is the fixed ratio that shows how much
smaller the reference globe is compared to the actual Earth.

Actual Scale: On the reference globe, the scale everywhere is

exactly the same as the principal scale.

Scale Factor (SF): It measures how the actual scale at a specific

point on a map compares to the principal scale.

Since the actual scale on the reference globe is always the same as
the principal scale, the scale factor on the reference globe is 1.
• When we turn the curved globe into a flat map, the scale (size) of
places on the map changes.
• Varying Scale Factor:
• Scale Factor (SF) measures how much the size on the map differs from the
size on the globe.
• On a map, SF changes from place to place. It's like a zoom level—it can be
bigger or smaller than 1.
• On maps showing small areas in detail, SF only changes a bit. This
shows small distortions caused by flattening the globe.
• On large-scale maps, SF at various places varies slightly from 1. It
describes the distortions as a result of map projection.
• Nevertheless, by suitably modifying the SF, we can retain some
angular relationships or relative size of features on a map.
 Nature of the projection surface or otherwise
developable surface

Coincidence or contact of the projection

CLASSIFICATION surface with the reference 3-D model.
OF MAP
PROJECTIONS Position or alignment of the projection
surface in relation to the globe or reference
ellipsoid, and
Basic property of the map projection.
Nature of Projection
Surface
• Cylindrical: The Earth's surface is
projected onto a cylinder. This type of
projection is often used for world maps
and navigation charts.
• Conical: The Earth's surface is
projected onto a cone. Conical
projections are commonly used for
mapping mid-latitude regions and large
countries.
• Planar: Also known as azimuthal or
zenithal, the Earth's surface is projected
onto a plane. This type of projection is
often used for polar maps or maps
centered on a specific point.
Tangent Projection: The projection surface touches the
Earth at a single point or line. This reduces distortion at that
point or line.
Secant Projection: The projection surface touches the
Earth along two lines, reducing distortion over a wider area.
Non-tangent Projection: The projection surface does not
touch the Earth's surface. It's often used for global maps.

Coincidence
of Projection
Surface
 Position of the
Projection Surface
• Normal Projection: The projection surface is
oriented perpendicular (normal) to the Earth's
surface. This is the standard orientation for many
map projections, especially those using
cylindrical or conical surfaces.
• Transverse Projection: The projection surface is
oriented horizontally, but it's rotated so that its
axis is parallel to the Earth's axis of rotation. This
orientation is useful for mapping regions along
lines of longitude, such as east-west corridors or
polar regions.
• Oblique Projection :The projection surface is
oriented at an angle other than perpendicular or
parallel to the Earth's surface. This orientation is
often used for specialized maps, such as those
focusing on specific regions or emphasizing
certain features.
Properties of Projection

Property Description
Conformality Preserves local angles and shapes.
Equal-area Preserves relative sizes of areas.
Equidistance Preserves distances along specific lines.
Directionality Preserves directions from one point.
Compromise Balances multiple properties.
Orthomorphism Represents straight lines accurately.
Pseudoconformality Approximates conformality over small areas.
FALSE ORIGIN OF A PROJECTION

• When projecting Earth onto a 2D map, we

need a starting point for coordinates.
• The true origin can complicate calculations
with negative numbers.
• To simplify, we use a "False Origin" by
shifting coordinates.
• False Easting (added to x) and False
Northing (added to y) ensure all coordinates
are positive.
• Points are measured with reference to this
False Origin, easing mathematical
operations.
COMMONLY USED MAP PROJECTIONS
Transverse
Mercator
Mercator
Projection
Projection

Universal
Lambert
Transverse
Conformal Conic
Mercator
Projection
Projection

Polyconic
Projection
 Mercator Projection
• Description: Developed by Gerardus Mercator in the 1569.
• Surface: Cylinder.
• Process: Straight meridians and parallels intersect at right angles, but areas become increasingly distorted
towards the poles.
• Usage: Primarily used for navigation, especially for marine charts.
• Characteristics: Distorts the size and shape of landmasses, particularly near the poles, but preserves angles
and straight lines, making it useful for navigation.
Transverse Mercator (TM)
Projection
• Description: A cylindrical map projection that's
oriented horizontally but rotated so its axis is
parallel to the Earth's axis of rotation.
• Surface: Cylinder.
• Process: Similar to the Mercator projection, but
optimized for mapping narrow regions along lines of
longitude.
• Usage: Commonly used for mapping east-west
corridors or regions with elongated shapes, such as
countries along a line of longitude.
• Characteristics: Provides accurate representation
of areas along the central meridian while
introducing distortion towards the edges of the
map.
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Projection
• The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection is a global map projection designed to minimize
distortion across different regions. Here are its key characteristics:
• Global Coverage: UTM coordinates extend from 84° North of the equator to 80° South, with an
additional 4° in the North to cover the northernmost land area on Earth.
• Zoned Grid: The Earth is divided into 60 equal zones, each 6° wide in longitude, numbered 1 through
60. Each zone has its own central meridian.
• Projection Parameters: To eliminate negative coordinate values, a false easting of 500,000 m and a
false northing of 10,000,000 m for the southern hemisphere (and zero northing for the northern
hemisphere) are used.
• Grid System: Each zone is divided into north and south sections, employing a rectangular grid system
based on the equator and the zone's central meridian.
• Scale Factor: The scale factor is constant on the central meridian (0.9996) to minimize lateral
distortions within each zone.
• Usage: Particularly suitable for regions with a north-south expanse, many countries use local UTM
zones based on their official geographic coordinate system.
• The UTM projection is widely adopted for various applications, including the production of Open Series
Maps (OSM) by the Survey of India, which uses the WGS 84 Datum.
Lambert Conformal
Conic (LCC) Projection
• It is a conformal conic projection presented by
Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1772.
• The scale is true usually along the chosen standard
parallels.
• In general, for equal distribution of scale error, the
standard parallels can be placed at onesixth and
five-sixths of the range of latitudes (Deetz and
Adams, 1934) but there are more refined means of
selection.
• It is free of distortion only along the standard
parallels and the distortion is constant along any
given parallel.
• It is conformal everywhere except at the poles. The
only limitation of this projection is that it can
normally be used only for a single hemisphere
• The latitude of origin and longitude of origin are
specified (user-defined) with reference to the mid-
extent of the study area.
Polyconic (PC)
Projection
• The name of the projection itself explains the use of
multiple cones.
• The projection is created mathematically by lining up an
infinite number of cones along the central meridian tangent
to an infinite number of parallels.
• Parallels of latitude (except for the Equator) are arcs of
circles but not concentric. It is neither conformal nor equal
area but a compromise projection.
• The central meridian and Equator are presented as straight
lines. Scale is true along each parallel and along the central
meridian but no parallel is standard.
• Directions are true only along the central meridian.
Distances are true along each parallel and the central
meridian. It is more suitable for large-scale maps (such as
topographic quadrangles, e.g., the SoI topographic Sheets).
 CHOOSING A SUITABLE MAP PROJECTION
• Selecting an appropriate map projection involves considering various factors to minimize
distortions and meet specific requirements. Here are some key considerations:
• Location of Study Area: Different projections are designed for different regions. Choose a projection based on
whether your area of interest is in the polar, mid-latitude, or equatorial regions.
• Size and Extent of Study Area: Larger areas may experience significant distortion, so choose a projection that
minimizes distortion for the size of your study area. For smaller areas, distortion is less critical.
• Shape and Orientation of Study Area: Consider the shape and orientation of your study area. Choose a
projection that aligns well with the shape and orientation, such as Albers Equal-area Conic for east-west extents
and Transverse Mercator for north-south extents.
• Type of Application: Different applications require preserving different spatial properties. For example,
navigational maps often use Mercator projection for true direction, while equal-area cylindrical projections are
suitable for showing global distributions.
• Accuracy Requirement: Consider the level of accuracy required for your application. Some projections may
better meet accuracy requirements than others.
• Consistency in Data: Ensure that all data used in the study have similar projections to avoid positional shifts
between maps.
• Remember, there isn't a single "best" map projection for every situation. Understanding the
compromises and consequences of representing 3-D space on a 2-D map is crucial. Logical
decisions should be made based on clear understanding and consideration of the steps involved in
selecting a suitable map projection for a given dataset.
 SUMMARY
Geoid is a representation of the Earth as an equigravitational surface. Due to variations in gravity, the geoid
does not follow the ellipsoid exactly. The difference between the geoid and ellipsoid is known as geoidal
height.

Ellipsoidal model is generally used to prepare topographic maps and for other maps that need to accurately
portray the earth’s surface features.

There are many reference ellipsoids, which are in use by different countries and agencies.

Datum is a set of control points whose geometric relationships are known either through measurement or
calculation. In other words, the datum is a known and constant surface that can be used to describe the
location of unknown points on Earth. It defines the position of the ellipsoid relative to the centre of the Earth.
Datum helps to define the position and orientation of the ellipsoid in relation to the earth’s surface, and also the origin of the
coordinate system.

Coordinate system uniformly measures the Earth’s surface, and it has an origin. The geographic coordinate system is defined
on an ellipsoid or a sphere and is then projected (with the help of a map projection) onto a flat map with a Cartesian coordinate
system suitable for different applications.

Map projection is a systematic transformation of the 3D spherical surface onto a 2D plane surface of a flat map. In other
words, it is a process of fitting a spherical object to a flat surface.

A map projection uses mathematics to relate the spherical coordinates of the globe to the planar coordinates of a map.
However, this process causes distortion of one or more different properties such as area, distance, direction, and angle.
Learning how to manage distortion is an important step for using projections in GIS.

The projections are classified based on the developable surface used; the aspect and coincidence of the developable surface
with respect to the globe or datum surface; and also, properties.

Map projections can be defined for any study area, based on its location on Earth’s surface, size or extent, shape or
orientation, and the accuracy requirement or acceptable tolerance limit of the application.
Thank You