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FLUID
This International Student Edition is for use outside of the U.S.

Mechanics
NINTH EDITION

Frank M. White      Henry Xue

Fluid Mechanics
 Fluid Mechanics
Ninth Edition

Frank M. White
University of Rhode Island

Henry Xue
California State Polytechnic University
FLUID MECHANICS

Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2021
by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this
publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in
any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 24 23 22 21 20

ISBN 978-1-260-57554-5
MHID 1-260-57554-3

Cover Image: Shutterstock/S. Pytel

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the
copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not
guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

mheducation.com/highered
 About the Authors

Frank M. White is Professor Emeritus of Mechanical and Ocean Engineering at the

University of Rhode Island. He is a native of Augusta, Georgia, and did his under-
graduate studies at Georgia Tech, receiving a B.M.E. degree in 1954. Then he attended
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for an S.M. degree in 1956, returning to
Georgia Tech to earn a Ph.D. degree in mechanical engineering in 1959. He began
teaching aerospace engineering at Georgia Tech in 1957 and moved to the University
of Rhode Island in 1964. He retired in January 1998.
At the University of Rhode Island, Frank became interested in oceanographic and
coastal flow problems, and in 1966 he helped found the first Department of Ocean
Engineering in the United States. His research interests have mainly been in viscous
flow and convection heat transfer. Known primarily as a teacher and writer, he received
the ASEE Westinghouse Teaching Excellence Award in addition to seven University
of Rhode Island teaching awards. His modest research accomplishments include some
80 technical papers and reports, the ASME Lewis F. Moody Research Award in 1973,
and the ASME Fluids Engineering Award in 1991. He is a Fellow of the ASME and
for 12 years served as editor-in-chief of the ASME Journal of Fluids Engineering. He
received a Distinguished Alumnus award from Georgia Tech in 1990 and was elected
to the Academy of Distinguished Georgia Tech Alumni in 1994.
In addition to the present text, he has written three undergraduate textbooks: Fluid
Mechanics; Heat Transfer; and Heat and Mass Transfer. He has served as a consult-
ing editor of the McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology from 1992
until 2006, and on the ASME Publications Committee until 2009. He continues to be
inspired by his late wife, Jeanne, and lives in Narragansett, Rhode Island, with his
dog Jack and his cat Kerry.

Henry Xue is Professor of Mechanical Engineering at California State Polytechnic

University. He received his B.S. degree from Jiangsu University in China, and his
M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Tokyo in Japan. Prior to joining
California State Polytechnic University in 2000, he was on the mechanical engineer-
ing faculty of National University of Singapore.
Henry has authored and coauthored many technical papers in computational fluid
mechanics and heat transfer in built environments, microscale gaseous flow modeling
and simulation using DSMC, and microcombustor and thermophotovoltaic energy
systems. He is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the
American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers. He lives
with his wife, Sophia, in Irvine, California.
v
To Jeanne
 Contents

Preface xi 2.9 Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion 93

2.10 Pressure Measurement 101
Chapter 1 Summary 105
Introduction 2 Problems 105
Word Problems 128
1.1 Preliminary Remarks 3
Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Problems 128
1.2 The Concept of a Fluid 4
Comprehensive Problems 129
1.3 The Fluid as a Continuum 6
Design Projects 131
1.4 Dimensions and Units 7
References 132
1.5 System and Control Volume 16
1.6 Thermodynamic Properties of a Fluid 18
Chapter 3
1.7 Viscosity and Other Secondary Properties 25
Integral Relations for a Control Volume 134
1.8 Flow Patterns: Streamlines, Pathlines, and Streaklines 41
1.9 Basic Flow Analysis Techniques 44 3.1 Basic Physical Laws of Fluid Mechanics 135
1.10 The Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Examination 45 3.2 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 139
1.11 The History of Fluid Mechanics 46 3.3 Conservation of Mass 147
Summary 46 3.4 The Linear Momentum Equation 152
Problems 47 3.5 Frictionless Flow: The Bernoulli Equation 168
Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Problems 55 3.6 The Angular Momentum Theorem 178
Comprehensive Problems 55 3.7 The Energy Equation 184
References 58 Summary 195
Problems 196
Chapter 2 Word Problems 224
Pressure Distribution in a Fluid 60 Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Problems 224
Comprehensive Problems 225
2.1 Pressure and Pressure Gradient 61
Design Project 227
2.2 Equilibrium of a Fluid Element 63
References 227
2.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Distributions 64
2.4 Application to Manometry 71
Chapter 4
2.5 Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces 75
Differential Relations for Fluid Flow 228
2.6 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces 82
2.7 Hydrostatic Forces in Layered Fluids 85 4.1 The Acceleration Field of a Fluid 230
2.8 Buoyancy and Stability 88 4.2 The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation 232
vii
viii Contents

4.3 The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum 238 6.10 Multiple-Pipe Systems 398
4.4 The Differential Equation of Angular Momentum 245 6.11 Experimental Duct Flows: Diffuser Performance 404
4.5 The Differential Equation of Energy 246 6.12 Fluid Meters 409
4.6 Boundary Conditions for the Basic Equations 249 Summary 431
4.7 The Stream Function 255 Problems 432
4.8 Vorticity and Irrotationality 262 Word Problems 451
4.9 Frictionless Irrotational Flows 264 Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Problems 451
4.10 Some Illustrative ­Incompressible Viscous Flows 270 Comprehensive Problems 452
Summary 279 Design Projects 454
Problems 279 References 455
Word Problems 290
Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Problems 291 Chapter 7
Comprehensive Problems 291
Flow Past Immersed Bodies 458
References 292
7.1 Reynolds Number and ­Geometry Effects 459
7.2 Momentum Integral Estimates 463
Chapter 5
7.3 The Boundary Layer ­Equations 467
Dimensional Analysis and Similarity 294 7.4 The Flat-Plate Boundary Layer 469
5.1 Introduction 295 7.5 Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradient 479
5.2 The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity 299 7.6 Drag of Two- and Three-Dimensional Bodies 485
5.3 The Pi Theorem 301 7.7 Forces on Lifting Bodies 504
5.4 Nondimensionalization of the Basic Equations 312 Summary 513
5.5 Modeling and Similarity 321 Problems 514
Summary 333 Word Problems 527
Problems 334 Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Problems 527
Word Problems 342 Comprehensive Problems 528
Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Problems 342 Design Project 529
Comprehensive Problems 343 References 529
Design Projects 344
References 345 Chapter 8
Potential Flow 532
Chapter 6
8.1 Introduction and Review 533
Viscous Flow in Ducts 346 8.2 Elementary Plane Flow Solutions 536
6.1 Reynolds Number Regimes 347 8.3 Superposition of Plane Flow Solutions 544
6.2 Internal Viscous Flows 352 8.4 Plane Flow Past Closed-Body Shapes 550
6.3 Head Loss—The Friction Factor 354 8.5 Other Plane Potential Flows 559
6.4 Laminar Fully Developed Pipe Flow 356 8.6 Images 563
6.5 Turbulence Modeling 359 8.7 Airfoil Theory 566
6.6 Turbulent Pipe Flow 366 8.8 Axisymmetric Potential Flow 574
6.7 Four Types of Pipe Flow Problems 374 Summary 580
6.8 Flow in Noncircular Ducts 380 Problems 580
6.9 Minor or Local Losses in Pipe Systems 389 Word Problems 590
 Contents ix

Comprehensive Problems 590 Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Problems 743

Design Projects 591 Comprehensive Problems 743
References 591 Design Projects 744
References 744
Chapter 9
Compressible Flow 594 Chapter 11
Turbomachinery 746
9.1 Introduction: Review of Thermodynamics 596
9.2 The Speed of Sound 600 11.1 Introduction and Classification 747
9.3 Adiabatic and Isentropic Steady Flow 603 11.2 The Centrifugal Pump 750
9.4 Isentropic Flow with Area Changes 609 11.3 Pump Performance Curves and Similarity Rules 756
9.5 The Normal Shock Wave 616 11.4 Mixed- and Axial-Flow Pumps: The Specific Speed 767
9.6 Operation of Converging and Diverging Nozzles 624 11.5 Matching Pumps to System Characteristics 775
9.7 Compressible Duct Flow with Friction 629 11.6 Turbines 782
9.8 Frictionless Duct Flow with Heat Transfer 640 Summary 796
9.9 Mach Waves and Oblique Shock Waves 645 Problems 797
9.10 Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves 655 Word Problems 810
Summary 668 Comprehensive Problems 810
Problems 669 Design Project 812
Word Problems 682 References 812
Fundamentals of Engineering Exam Problems 682
Comprehensive Problems 683 Appendix A Physical Properties of Fluids 814
Design Projects 684
References 685 Appendix B Compressible Flow Tables 819

Appendix C Conversion Factors 826

Chapter 10
Open-Channel Flow 686 Appendix D Equations of Motion in Cylindrical Coordinates 828
10.1 Introduction 687
Appendix E Estimating Uncertainty in Experimental Data 830
10.2 Uniform Flow; The Cheˊzy Formula and
the Manning Formula 693
Appendix F Numerical Methods 832
10.3 Efficient Uniform-Flow Channels 699
10.4 Specific Energy; Critical Depth 702 Answers to Selected Problems 846
10.5 The Hydraulic Jump 710
10.6 Gradually Varied Flow 714 Index 853
10.7 Flow Measurement and Control by Weirs 722
Summary 730 Conversion Factors 864
Problems 730
Word Problems 742 Moody Chart 866
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 Preface

General Approach
The book is intended for an undergraduate engineering course in fluid mechanics. The
principles considered in the book are fundamental and have been well established in
the community of fluids engineering. However, in presenting this important subject,
we have drawn on our own ideas and experience. There is plenty of material for a
full year of instruction, and the content can also easily be divided into two semesters
of teaching. There have been some additions and deletions in this ninth edition of
Fluid Mechanics, but no philosophical change. There are still eleven chapters, plus
appendices. The informal, student-oriented style is retained and, if it succeeds, has
the flavor of an interactive lecture by the authors.
New co-author Dr. Henry Xue was brought on board for this edition.

Learning Tools
The total number of problem exercises continues to increase, from 1089 in the first
edition, to 1681 in the ninth edition. Most of these are basic end-of-chapter problems,
sorted according to topic. There are also Word Problems, multiple-choice Fundamen-
tals of Engineering Problems, Comprehensive Problems, and Design Projects. Answers
to Selected Problems, at the end of the book, provides the answers to approximately
700 end-of-chapter problems.
In addition, there are many example problems throughout the chapters that show-
case the recommended sequence of problem-solving steps outlined in Section 1.7.
Most of the problems in this text can be solved with a hand calculator. Some can
even be simply explained in words. A few problems, especially in Chapters 6, 7, 9,
and 10, involve solving complicated algebraic expressions, that would be laborious
for hand calculation but can be much more easily handled using licensed equation-
solving software. The authors have provided examples of how to solve complicated
example problems using Microsoft Excel, as illustrated in Example 6.5. Excel contains
several hundred special mathematical functions for performing engineering and sta-
tistics calculations.

Content Changes
The overall content and order of presentation have not changed substantially in this
edition except for the following:

xi
xii Preface

Chapter 1 renames Section 1.5 “System and Control Volume.” Definitions of system
and control volume, which formerly were scattered over many chapters, are now con-
solidated in this section. A new subheading, “Methods of Description,” has been added.
The Lagrangian and Eulerian methods of description have been moved here from Chap-
ter 4. Discussions of velocity and acceleration fields are retained as examples of using
the control volume approach with the Eulerian method of description. The section
“Flow Patterns: Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines,” formerly Section 1.9, has been
moved forward as Section 1.8 for better continuity in the introduction of fluid and flow
systems. A new subsection, “Integral and Differential Approaches,” has been added to
the new Section 1.9, “Basic Flow Analysis Techniques.”
Chapter 2 edits descriptions in Section 2.4, “Application to Mamometry,” using the
methods of “pressure increasing downward” and “jump across” typically. The coordi-
nates for Figure 2.2 have been reset to be consistent with Figure 2.1. Figure 2.12 has
been replaced with a new figure to better illustrate the pressure distribution on a
submerged surface.
Chapter 3 adds three subheadings to elaborate areas where the linear momentum
equation can be applied. Example 3.7 has been rewritten to better demonstrate how to
solve the anchoring forces on a piping elbow. Brief discussions have been added to
examples of the sluice gate and impinging jet with relative velocity for an inertial, mov-
ing, and nondeforming control volume.
Chapter 4 adds the constant heat flux boundary condition to the energy equation.
Inlet and outlet boundary conditions are separated because the free-flow conditions are
more common at the outlet. New Example 4.10 investigates the rotation of a Couette
flow and a “potential vortex” flow.
Chapter 5 carries the topics of Section 5.2—the choice of variables and scaling
parameters—into Section 5.3 to make it easier for students to follow the arguments.
The topic “Some Peculiar Engineering Equations” has been removed from Section 5.2
because most of those equations will be introduced in Chapter 10.
In Chapter 6, Section 6.2 has been retitled “Internal Viscous Flow.” Brief discussions
have been added to four types of pipe flow problems to guide students in applying
appropriate strategies for designing pipe systems.
In Chapter 7, the discussion in the section “Transition to Turbulence” in Section 7.4
has been improved. The classification of external flow is elaborated. Former Section
7.6 has been split into two sections: “Drag” and “Forces on Lifting Bodies.” The meth-
odology for solving an external flow problem is summarized.
An entire section of Chapter 8 on numerical methods, including problem exercises,
has been moved to new Appendix F. The vast majority of universities do not cover
numerical methods in a fundamental fluid mechanics course. Because the CFD methods
are becoming a powerful tool for solving almost all problems of fluid flow, it was also
inappropriate to place that topic at the end of this chapter. A new example of a free
vortex has been added to Section 8.2.
Chapter 9 clarifies why we can simplify compressible flow as one-dimensional
isentropic flow. Section 9.3 explains the identity of the momentum equation and the
energy equation for isentropic flows. Discussions have been added regarding how to
use the variables of stagnation pressure, density, and throat area after the shock wave
in calculation.
 Preface xiii

Chapter 10 improves the physical interpretation of the Froude number in Section

10.1. There is a new subsection “Effects of Froude Number.” The need to maximize
the hydraulic radius in order to achieve an efficient channel is elaborated in Section
10.3.
Chapter 11 elaborates further on pump performance curves. New Figure 11.18a
illustrates the derivation for the system head. The data for worldwide wind power capac-
ity have been updated.
Appendices A to E remain unchanged. The new Appendix F, “Numerical Methods,”
presents text that formerly was in Chapter 8. This will continue to serve instructors who
use this material for introducing the CFD methods to their students.
Additionally, this title is supported by SmartBook, a feature of the LearnSmart
adaptive learning system that assesses student understanding of course content through
a series of adaptive questions. This platform has provided feedback from thousands
of students, identifying those specific portions of the text that have resulted in the
greatest conceptual difficulty and comprehension among students. For the ninth edi-
tion, the entire text was reviewed and revised based on this LearnSmart student data.

Instructor Resources
A number of supplements are available to instructors through Connect. New to this
edition are Lecture PowerPoints to accompany the text. Additionally, instructors may
obtain the text images in PowerPoint format and the full Solutions Manual. The solu-
tions manual provides complete and detailed solutions, including problem statements
and artwork, to the end-of-chapter problems.

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 Acknowledgments

We wish to express our appreciation to the many people who have helped us in recent
revisions. Material help, in the form of photos, articles, and problems, came from Scott
Larwood of the University of the Pacific; Sukanta Dash of the Indian Institute of Tech-
nology at Kharagpur; Mark Coffey of the Colorado School of Mines; Mac Stevens of
Oregon State University; Stephen Carrington of Malvern Instruments; Carla Cioffi of
NASA; Lisa Lee and ­Robert Pacquette of the Rhode Island Department of Environmen-
tal Management; Vanessa Blakeley and Samuel Schweighart of Terrafugia Inc.; Beric
Skews of the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa; Kelly Irene Knorr and
John Merrill of the School of Oceanography at the University of Rhode Island; Adam
Rein of Altaeros Energies Inc.; Dasari Abhinav of Anna University, India; Kris Allen
of Transcanada Corporation; Bruce Findlayson of the University of Washington; Wendy
Koch of USA Today; Liz Boardman of the South County Independent; Beth Darchi
and Colin McAteer of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Catherine Hines
of the William Beebe Web Site; Laura Garrison of York College of Pennsylvania.
Many others have supported us, throughout our revisions efforts, with comments
and suggestions: Barry Satvat of Northeastern University; Sangjin Ryu of University
of Nebraska–Lincoln; Edgar Caraballo of Miami University; Nigel Kaye of Clemson
University; Margaret Lang of Humboldt State University; Jie Xu of the University of
Illinois at Chicago; Joseph A. Schaefer of Iowa State University; Saeil Jeon of North
Carolina A&T State University; Diane DiMassa of Massachusetts Maritime Academy;
Angela Shih, Paul Nissenson, and Soorgul Wardak of California State Polytechnic
University.
The McGraw-Hill staff was, as usual, very helpful. We are indebted to Heather
Ervolino, Beth Bettcher, Shannon O’Donnell, and Jane Mohr.
Finally, special thanks go to our families for the continuing support. Frank is
especially grateful to Jeanne, who remains in his heart, and his sister Sally White
GNSH, his dog Jack, and his cat Kerry. Henry appreciates his wife Sophia for her
understanding with all the days that went into this effort.

Frank M. White
Henry Xue

xiv
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 Falls on the Nesowadnehunk Stream in Baxter State Park, Maine, which is the northern
­terminus of the Appalachian Trail. Such flows, open to the atmosphere, are driven simply
by gravity and do not depend much upon fluid properties such as density and viscosity.
They are discussed later in Chap. 10. To the writer, one of the joys of fluid mechanics is
that visualization of a fluid flow process is simple and beautiful [Robert Cable/Natural
Selection/Design Pics].

2
 Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Preliminary Remarks

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid dynamics) or at rest
(fluid statics). Both gases and liquids are classified as fluids, and the number of
fluid engineering applications is enormous: breathing, blood flow, swimming,
pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes, ships, rivers, windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs,
engines, filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few. When you think about it,
almost everything on this planet either is a fluid or moves within or near a fluid.
The essence of the subject of fluid flow is a judicious compromise between
theory and experiment. Since fluid flow is a branch of mechanics, it satisfies a
set of well-documented basic laws, and thus a great deal of theoretical treatment
is available. However, the theory is often frustrating because it applies mainly to
idealized situations, which may be invalid in practical problems. The two major
obstacles to a workable theory are geometry and viscosity. The basic equations
of fluid motion (Chap. 4) are too difficult to enable the analyst to attack arbitrary
geometric configurations. Thus most textbooks ­concentrate on flat plates, circular
pipes, and other easy geometries. It is possible to apply ­numerical computer
techniques to complex geometries, and specialized textbooks are now a­vailable
to explain the new computational fluid dynamics (CFD) ­approximations and
methods [1–4].1 This book will present many t­heoretical results while keeping
their limitations in mind.
The second obstacle to a workable theory is the action of viscosity, which can
be neglected only in certain idealized flows (Chap. 8). First, viscosity increases
the difficulty of the basic equations, although the boundary-layer approximation
found by Ludwig Prandtl in 1904 (Chap. 7) has greatly simplified viscous-flow
analyses. Second, viscosity has a destabilizing effect on all fluids, giving rise, at
frustratingly small velocities, to a disorderly, random phenomenon called turbu-
lence. The theory of turbulent flow is crude and heavily backed up by experiment
(Chap. 6), yet it can be quite serviceable as an engineering estimate. This textbook
only introduces the standard experimental correlations for turbulent time-mean
flow. Meanwhile, there are advanced texts on both time-mean turbulence and
1
Numbered references appear at the end of each chapter.
3
4 Chapter 1 Introduction

turbulence modeling [5, 6] and on the newer, computer-intensive direct numerical

simulation (DNS) of fluctuating turbulence [7, 8].
Thus there is theory available for fluid flow problems, but in all cases it should
be backed up by experiment. Often the experimental data provide the main source
of information about specific flows, such as the drag and lift of immersed bodies
(Chap. 7). Fortunately, fluid mechanics is a highly visual subject, with good
instrumentation [9–11], and the use of dimensional analysis and modeling con-
cepts (Chap. 5) is widespread. Thus experimentation provides a natural and easy
complement to the theory. You should keep in mind that theory and experiment
should go hand in hand in all studies of fluid mechanics.

1.2 The Concept of a Fluid

From the point of view of fluid mechanics, all matter consists of only two states,
fluid and solid. The difference between the two is perfectly obvious to the layper-
son, and it is an interesting exercise to ask a layperson to put this difference into
words. The technical distinction lies with the reaction of the two to an applied
shear or tangential stress. A solid can resist a shear stress by a static deflection;
a fluid cannot. Any shear stress applied to a fluid, no matter how small, will result
in motion of that fluid. The fluid moves and deforms continuously as long as the
shear stress is applied. As a corollary, we can say that a fluid at rest must be in
a state of zero shear stress, a state often called the hydrostatic stress condition in
structural analysis. In this condition, Mohr’s circle for stress reduces to a point,
and there is no shear stress on any plane cut through the element under stress.
Given this definition of a fluid, every layperson also knows that there are two
classes of fluids, liquids and gases. Again the distinction is a technical one con-
cerning the effect of cohesive forces. A liquid, being composed of relatively
close-packed molecules with strong cohesive forces, tends to retain its volume
and will form a free surface in a gravitational field if unconfined from above.
Free-surface flows are dominated by gravitational effects and are studied in
Chaps. 5 and 10. Since gas molecules are widely spaced with negligible cohesive
forces, a gas is free to expand until it encounters confining walls. A gas has no
definite volume, and when left to itself without confinement, a gas forms an
atmosphere that is essentially hydrostatic. The hydrostatic behavior of liquids and
gases is taken up in Chap. 2. Gases cannot form a free surface, and thus gas flows
are rarely concerned with gravitational effects other than buoyancy.
Figure 1.1 illustrates a solid block resting on a rigid plane and stressed by its own
weight. The solid sags into a static deflection, shown as a highly exaggerated dashed
line, resisting shear without flow. A free-body diagram of element A on the side of
the block shows that there is shear in the block along a plane cut at an angle θ
through A. Since the block sides are unsupported, element A has zero stress on the
left and right sides and compression stress σ = −p on the top and bottom. Mohr’s
circle does not reduce to a point, and there is nonzero shear stress in the block.
By contrast, the liquid and gas at rest in Fig. 1.1 require the supporting walls
in order to eliminate shear stress. The walls exert a compression stress of −p and
reduce Mohr’s circle to a point with zero shear everywhere—that is, the hydro-
static ­condition. The liquid retains its volume and forms a free surface in the
 1.2 The Concept of a Fluid 5

Static Free
deflection surface

A A A
Solid Liquid Gas

(a) (c)
– σ1 p

θ θ
τ1
0 p τ=0
A 0 A p

–σ = p –σ = p

τ τ
(1)
Hydrostatic
2θ condition
σ σ
–p –p

(b) (d )

Fig. 1.1 A solid at rest can resist shear. (a) Static deflection of the solid; (b) equilibrium
and Mohr’s circle for solid element A. A fluid cannot resist shear. (c) Containing walls are
needed; (d ) equilibrium and Mohr’s circle for fluid ­element A.

container. If the walls are removed, shear develops in the liquid and a big splash
results. If the ­container is tilted, shear again develops, waves form, and the free
surface seeks a horizontal ­configuration, pouring out over the lip if necessary.
Meanwhile, the gas is unrestrained and expands out of the container, filling all
available space. Element A in the gas is also hydrostatic and exerts a compression
stress −p on the walls.
In the previous discussion, clear decisions could be made about solids, liquids,
and gases. Most engineering fluid mechanics problems deal with these clear
cases—that is, the common liquids, such as water, oil, mercury, gasoline, and
alcohol, and the common gases, such as air, helium, hydrogen, and steam, in their
common temperature and pressure ranges. There are many borderline cases, how-
ever, of which you should be aware. Some apparently “solid” substances such as
asphalt and lead resist shear stress for short periods but actually deform slowly
and exhibit definite fluid behavior over long periods. Other substances, notably
colloid and slurry mixtures, resist small shear stresses but “yield” at large stress
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6 Chapter 1 Introduction

and begin to flow as fluids do. Specialized textbooks are devoted to this study
of more general deformation and flow, a field called rheology [16]. Also, liquids
and gases can coexist in two-phase mixtures, such as steam–water mixtures or
water with entrapped air bubbles. Specialized textbooks present the analysis of
such multiphase flows [17]. Finally, in some situations the distinction between a
liquid and a gas blurs. This is the case at temperatures and pressures above the
so-called critical point of a substance, where only a single phase exists, primar-
ily resembling a gas. As pressure increases far above the critical point, the gaslike
substance becomes so dense that there is some resemblance to a liquid, and the
usual thermodynamic approximations like the perfect-gas law become inaccurate.
The critical temperature and pressure of water are Tc = 647 K and pc = 219 atm
­(atmosphere)2 so that typical problems involving water and steam are below the
critical point. Air, being a mixture of gases, has no distinct critical point, but its
principal component, nitrogen, has Tc = 126 K and pc = 34 atm. Thus typical
problems involving air are in the range of high temperature and low pressure
where air is distinctly and definitely a gas. This text will be concerned solely
with clearly identifiable liquids and gases, and the borderline cases just discussed
will be beyond our scope.

1.3 The Fluid as a Continuum

We have already used technical terms such as fluid pressure and density without
a rigorous discussion of their definition. As far as we know, fluids are aggrega-
tions of molecules, widely spaced for a gas, closely spaced for a liquid. The
distance between molecules is very large compared with the molecular diameter.
The molecules are not fixed in a lattice but move about freely relative to each
other. Thus fluid density, or mass per unit volume, has no precise meaning
because the number of molecules occupying a given volume continually changes.
This effect becomes unimportant if the unit volume is large compared with, say,
the cube of the molecular spacing, when the number of molecules within the
volume will remain nearly constant in spite of the enormous interchange of par-
ticles across the boundaries. If, however, the chosen unit volume is too large,
there could be a noticeable variation in the bulk aggregation of the particles. This
situation is illustrated in Fig. 1.2, where the “density” as calculated from molec-
ular mass δm within a given volume δ 𝒱 is plotted versus the size of the unit
volume. There is a limiting volume δ 𝒱* below which molecular variations may
be important and above which aggregate variations may be important. The density
ρ of a fluid is best defined as
δm
ρ= lim  (1.1)
δ 9→δ 9* δ9
The limiting volume δ 𝒱* is about 10−9 mm3 for all liquids and for gases at
atmospheric pressure. For example, 10−9 mm3 of air at standard conditions con-
tains approximately 3 × 107 molecules, which is sufficient to define a nearly
constant density according to Eq. (1.1). Most engineering problems are concerned
2
One atmosphere equals 2116 lbf/ft2 = 101,300 Pa.
 1.4 Dimensions and Units 7

ρ Microscopic
Elemental uncertainty
volume
ρ = 1000 kg/m3
Macroscopic
ρ = 1100 uncertainty
δυ
1200
ρ = 1200
Fig. 1.2 The limit definition of
­continuum fluid density: (a) an ρ = 1300
­elemental volume in a fluid region δ𝒱
0 δ𝒱* ≈ 10–9 mm3
of variable continuum density;
Region containing fluid
(b) calculated density versus size
of the elemental volume. (a) (b)

with physical dimensions much larger than this limiting volume, so that density
is essentially a point function and fluid properties can be thought of as varying
continually in space, as sketched in Fig. 1.2a. Such a fluid is called a continuum,
which simply means that its variation in properties is so smooth that differential
calculus can be used to analyze the substance. We shall assume that continuum
calculus is valid for all the analyses in this book. Again there are two borderline
cases for gases. One is at such low pressures that molecular spacing and mean
free path3 are comparable to, or larger than, the physical size of the system.
Applications include vacuum engineering, aero-thermal analysis and design of
spacecrafts, satellites, missiles, etc., flying at high altitudes. The non-continuum
effects also become significant when system length scales reduce to microscopi-
cally small. Applications with microscopic length scales are becoming increas-
ingly common since the advent of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS)
and nano devices, where the characteristic length of the system decreases to a
magnitude of sub-micron or nanometer. Both cases require that the continuum
approximation be dropped in favor of a molecular theory of rarefied gas flow
[18]. In principle, all fluid mechanics problems can be attacked from the molec-
ular viewpoint, but no such attempt will be made here. Note that the use of
continuum calculus does not preclude the possibility of discontinuous jumps in
fluid properties across a free surface or fluid interface or across a shock wave in
a compressible fluid (Chap. 9). Our calculus in analyzing fluid flow must be
flexible enough to handle discontinuous boundary conditions.

1.4 Dimensions and Units

A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is expressed quantita-
tively. A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to the quantitative dimen-
sion. Thus length is a dimension associated with such variables as distance,
displacement, width, deflection, and height, while centimeters and inches are both
numerical units for expressing length. Dimension is a powerful concept about
which a splendid tool called dimensional analysis has been developed (Chap. 5),
while units are the numerical quantity that the customer wants as the final answer.
3
The mean distance traveled by molecules between collisions (see Prob. P1.5).
8 Chapter 1 Introduction

Table 1.1 Primary Dimensions in SI and BG Systems

Primary dimension SI unit BG unit Conversion factor

Mass {M} Kilogram (kg) Slug 1 slug = 14.5939 kg
Length {L} Meter (m) Foot (ft) 1 ft = 0.3048 m
Time {T} Second (s) Second (s) 1 s=1s
Temperature {Θ} Kelvin (K) Rankine (°R) 1 K = 1.8°R

In 1872 an international meeting in France proposed a treaty called the Metric

Convention, which was signed in 1875 by 17 countries including the United
States. It was an improvement over British systems because its use of base 10 is
the foundation of our number system, learned from childhood by all. Problems
still remained because even the metric countries differed in their use of kiloponds
instead of dynes or newtons, kilograms instead of grams, or calories instead of
joules. To standardize the metric system, a General Conference of Weights and
Measures, attended in 1960 by 40 countries, proposed the International System
of Units (SI). We are now undergoing a painful period of transition to SI, an
adjustment that may take many more years to complete. The professional societ-
ies have led the way. Since July 1, 1974, SI units have been required by all papers
published by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and there is a text-
book explaining the SI [19]. The present text will use SI units together with
British gravitational (BG) units.

Primary Dimensions
In fluid mechanics there are only four primary dimensions from which all other
dimensions can be derived: mass, length, time, and temperature.4 These dimen-
sions and their units in both systems are given in Table 1.1. Note that the Kelvin
unit uses no degree symbol. The braces around a symbol like {M} mean “the
dimension” of mass. All other variables in fluid mechanics can be expressed in
terms of {M}, {L}, {T}, and {Θ}. For example, acceleration has the dimensions
{LT −2}. The most crucial of these secondary dimensions is force, which is directly
related to mass, length, and time by Newton’s second law. Force equals the time
rate of change of momentum or, for constant mass,
F = ma (1.2)
From this we see that, dimensionally, {F} = {MLT −2}.

The International System (SI)

The use of a constant of proportionality in Newton’s law, Eq. (1.2), is avoided
by defining the force unit exactly in terms of the basic units. In the SI system,
the basic units are kilograms {M}, meters {L}, and seconds {T}. We define
1 newton of force = 1 N = 1 kg · 1 m/s2
4
If electromagnetic effects are important, a fifth primary dimension must be included, electric
current {I}, whose SI unit is the ampere (A).
 1.4 Dimensions and Units 9

The newton is a relatively small force, about the weight of an apple (0.225 lbf ).
In addition, the basic unit of temperature {Θ} in the SI system is the degree
Kelvin, K. They are referred to as the MLTΘ system of dimension. Use of these
SI units (kg, m, s, K) will require no conversion factors in our equations.

The British Gravitational (BG) System

In the BG system also, a constant of proportionality in Eq. (1.2) is avoided by
defining the force unit exactly in terms of the basic units. In the BG system, the
basic units are pound-force {F}, feet {L}, and seconds {T}. We define
1 pound of force = 1 lbf = 1 slug · 1 ft/s2
One lbf ≈ 4.4482 N and approximates the weight of four apples. We will use
the abbreviation lbf for pound-force and lbm for pound mass. The slug is a
rather hefty mass, equal to 32.174 lbm. The basic unit of temperature {Θ} in
the BG system is the degree Rankine, °R. Recall that a temperature difference
1 K = 1.8°R. They are referred to as the FLTΘ system of dimension. Use of
these BG units (lbf, ft, s, °R) will require no conversion factors in our equations.

Other Unit Systems

There are other unit systems still in use. At least one needs no proportionality
­constant: the CGS system (dyne, gram, cm, s, K). However, CGS units are too
small for most applications (1 dyne = 10−5 N) and will not be used here.
In the USA, some still use the English Engineering system (lbf, lbm, ft, s, °R),
where the basic mass unit is the pound of mass. Newton’s law (1.2) must be rewritten:
ma ft · lbm
F= , where gc = 32.174 (1.3)
gc lbf · s2
The constant of proportionality, gc, has both dimensions and a numerical value
not equal to 1.0. The present text uses only the SI and BG systems and will not
solve problems or examples in the English Engineering system. Because Ameri-
cans still use them, a few problems in the text will be stated in truly awkward
units: acres, gallons, ounces, or miles. Your assignment will be to convert these
and solve in the SI or BG systems.

The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity

In engineering and science, all equations must be dimensionally homogeneous,
that is, each additive term in an equation must have the same dimensions. For
example, take Bernoulli’s incompressible equation, to be studied and used
throughout this text:
1 2
p+ ρV + ρgZ = constant
2
Each and every term in this equation must have dimensions of pressure {ML−1T −2}.
We will examine the dimensional homogeneity of this equation in detail in Exam-
ple 1.3.
10 Chapter 1 Introduction

Table 1.2 Secondary Dimensions in Fluid Mechanics

Secondary dimension SI unit BG unit Conversion factor

Area {L2} m2 ft2 1 m2 = 10.764 ft2
Volume {L3} m3 ft3 1 m3 = 35.315 ft3
Velocity {LT −1} m/s ft/s 1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s
Acceleration {LT −2} m/s2 ft/s2 1 ft/s2 = 0.3048 m/s2
Pressure or stress {ML−1T −2} Pa = N/m2 lbf/ft2 1 lbf/ft2 = 47.88 Pa
Angular velocity {T −1} s−1 s−1 1 s−1 = 1 s−1
Energy, heat, work {ML2T −2} J=N·m ft · lbf 1 ft · lbf = 1.3558 J
Power {ML2T −3} W = J/s ft · lbf/s 1 ft · lbf/s = 1.3558 W
Density {ML−3} kg/m3 slugs/ft3 1 slug/ft3 = 515.4 kg/m3
Viscosity {ML−1T −1} kg/(m · s) slugs/(ft · s) 1 slug/(ft · s) = 47.88 kg/(m · s)
Specific heat {L2T −2Θ−1} m2/(s2 · K) ft2/(s2 · °R) 1 m2/(s2 · K) = 5.980 ft2/(s2 · °R)

A list of some important secondary variables in fluid mechanics, with dimen-

sions derived as combinations of the four primary dimensions, is given in
Table 1.2. A more complete list of conversion factors is given in App. C.

EXAMPLE 1.1
A body weighs 1000 lbf when exposed to a standard earth gravity g = 32.174 ft/s2.
(a) What is its mass in kg? (b) What will the weight of this body be in N if it is
exposed to the moon’s standard acceleration gmoon = 1.62 m/s2? (c) How fast will the
body accelerate if a net force of 400 lbf is applied to it on the moon or on the earth?

Solution
We need to find the (a) mass; (b) weight on the moon; and (c) acceleration of this body.
This is a fairly simple example of conversion factors for differing unit systems. No prop-
erty data is needed. The example is too low level for a sketch.

Part (a)
Newton’s law (1.2) holds with known weight and gravitational acceleration. Solve for m:
1000 lbf
 F = W = 1000 lbf = mg = (m) (32.174 ft/s2 ), or m= = 31.08 slugs
32.174 ft/s2
Convert this to kilograms:
m = 31.08 slugs = (31.08 slugs) (14.5939 kg/slug) = 454 kg Ans. (a)

Part (b)
The mass of the body remains 454 kg regardless of its location. Equation (1.2) applies
with a new gravitational acceleration and hence a new weight:
F = Wmoon = mgmoon = (454 kg) (1.62 m/s2 ) = 735 N = 165 lbf Ans. (b)

Part (c)
This part does not involve weight or gravity or location. It is simply an application of
­Newton’s law with a known mass and known force:
F = 400 lbf = ma = (31.08 slugs) a
Other documents randomly have
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 “And yet what?” queried Owen eagerly.
“I was just thinking of a scene which took place in this office a few
months ago. It was almost the same scene as is being enacted here now;
only, in that instance, Miss Worthington sat in the chair which you now
occupy, and you were the subject under discussion.”
He smiled whimsically. “And I couldn’t help thinking, my dear Owen, as
that scene came back to me, how very much superior the other sex is to ours
when it comes to loyalty and faith. I remember that Miss Worthington, that
day, refused even to consider the possibility of your being guilty. She
declared that no matter what evidence might be brought against you, she
would never believe that you were a thief.”
Owen flushed painfully, and a tender look came to his eyes. “Dear little
girl,” he murmured; “I’m a brute to doubt her. But the evidence is
convincing, judge. You must admit that there is no——”
“The evidence in your case—the circumstantial evidence—appeared to
be equally convincing, Owen,” interrupted the judge. “Yet she refused to
accept it; and it turned out afterward that her faith was not misplaced.”
Sheridan looked at him eagerly. “Then you really think that there’s a
chance of her being innocent?”
“I do. Your own narrow escape ought to have taught you that there is
always a chance of circumstantial evidence leading to a wrong conclusion.
Now, there is one thing about that telegram which you found in the waste-
paper basket which, in my opinion, indicates that Miss Worthington did not
steal the pink envelope. Apparently it is a point which has escaped your
observation.”
“What do you mean, judge?” inquired Owen breathlessly.
“I refer to the opening words of that message: ‘Disregard my letter,’ she
telegraphs to her brother. Now, doesn’t that look as if she may have been
telling the truth when she stated to Carrier Andrews that she had dropped
into that mail box a letter which she had changed her mind about sending?
Doesn’t it look as if the opening words of her telegram have reference to
that letter?”
A look of joy came to Owen’s face. “By Jove, yes!” he exclaimed. “I
think I see it now, judge. Dallas didn’t mean to steal the Reverend Doctor
Moore’s letter. She was after the one which she had dropped in the box—
the one to her brother in Chicago. She got the other pink envelope by
mistake. Yes, that must be it, of course. She didn’t discover her error until
she reached home; then, realizing that it was too late to stop that letter to
her brother, she sat down and wrote him that telegram. The whole thing’s as
clear as daylight now. I’m mighty glad that I met you to-day, judge.”
Then suddenly all the joy departed from Sheridan’s face. “But no, it
couldn’t have been that way, after all,” he went on, with a sigh of
disappointment. “That theory won’t go; we’re overlooking two things.”
“What are they?”
“In the first place, she didn’t send that telegram to her brother, after all.
If she had I wouldn’t have found it in the basket.”
“Pooh! That argument’s easily met. She may have sent another message.
Women generally write a telegram over three or four times before they’re
satisfied with the wording of it, you know. Or she may have decided that, as
she was going out to Chicago, there was no need of telegraphing. Probably
she figured on getting there almost as soon as her letter.”
“Yes,” Owen admitted; “of course, that’s logical enough. But my other
argument isn’t so easily disposed of. I’m afraid it knocks out our theory.”
“What is it?”
“If Dallas got the clergyman’s letter by an innocent mistake, what
became of her letter—the one she really wanted? There was no other pink
envelope in that box. There would have been if she had been telling the
truth when she said she mailed it.”
The judge gazed thoughtfully at the ceiling. “Yes, that is a stumper, I
must admit. But,” he added, “maybe Miss Worthington could explain that. I
feel confident that she could. Why don’t you go to Chicago on the very next
train and ask her, Inspector Sheridan? I wouldn’t lose any time in clearing
this thing up if I were you.”
“But suppose I ask her, and she admits——”
“Bah!” interrupted the lawyer impatiently; “shame on you for an
unworthy lover! I’m willing to wager everything I’ve got that that little girl
won’t admit to you that she’s a thief—because she won’t have to.”
His confident air was infectious. “Thank you!” said Owen. “You’re quite
right, of course. Dallas couldn’t be a thief! I’m going to take the first train
out.”
 CHAPTER XX.

SHOWING THEM.

When Owen Sheridan arrived at Chicago, the following day, he

proceeded at once to the address given in the telegram. He guessed that this
was the boarding house in which Chester Worthington, Dallas’ brother,
resided, and as it was Sunday, there would be, of course, no use in looking
up that young man at his place of business.
No. 89 Dulwich Street proved to be a nice-looking house on a quiet
street. Owen hoped to find Dallas there, for it seemed probable that the girl
while in Chicago would stay under the same roof as her brother. But as he
drew near he suddenly stopped short, and, uttering an exclamation of
astonishment, darted into a convenient doorway to avoid being seen by a
man who was ascending the stoop.
This man was stout, red-faced, flashily dressed, and wore a gaudy
necktie, from the center of which flashed a huge diamond. It was the sight
of him which had caused Owen such agitation, for he recognized the fellow
immediately as Jake Hines, fugitive from justice, and his unsuccessful rival
in love.
“Good heavens!” gasped Owen. “What can this mean? Is it possible that
the rascal can have anything to do with Dallas’ coming to Chicago? It’s a
lucky thing I’m here.”
He waited until the door of No. 89 had closed behind Hines, then he
came out of his place of concealment, and hurried toward the house. A
pleasant-looking woman responded to his ring at the doorbell, and he
questioned her abruptly: “That man who just came in here—where did he
go?”
“You mean Mr. Fitzgerald, I presume?”
“That’s probably the name he goes under,” said Owen, realizing that it
was not unlikely that Mr. Hines, being a fugitive from justice, had assumed
an alias. “Does he reside here?”
The woman regarded her excited visitor with cold suspicion. “Before I
answer any questions, sir, I must know who you are and what business
——”
Owen, without waiting for her to finish, displayed his badge, at sight of
which her manner changed.
“Oh, is that the kind of a man Mr. Fitzgerald is?” she exclaimed. “Well,
I’m not surprised to hear it. I took a dislike to him the first time I saw him.”
“Oh, then he does live here?”
“No; but he comes here quite often to visit one of our boarders, sir—a
Mr. Worthington—and it’s up to his room that he’s gone now.”
“And is Miss—— Is anybody else up there with them?” inquired Owen,
with great eagerness.
“Yes, sir; Mr. Worthington’s sister from New York. She arrived here
yesterday, and has the room next to her brother’s. She’s up in her room now
—the second-floor rear—and——”
Without waiting to hear any more Owen rushed up the stairway, and
paused before a closed door, from behind which the deep voice of Jake
Hines could be plainly heard.
 CHAPTER XXI.

TRUE TO HIS COLORS.

Owen Sheridan’s first impulse was to burst into the room. The mere
voice of Jake Hines was like a challenge to him, filling him with suspicion
and indignation. But in his work as a post-office inspector, discretion and
caution were rapidly becoming habitual with him, and he waited quietly to
learn what new rôle was being enacted by the young politician beyond the
door.
“I tell you, Dallas,” Hines was saying, “it’s the only chance of savin’
your brother from goin’ to jail. If you’re the right kind of a sister, you won’t
hesitate for a minute. What’s a little thing like marryin’ me compared to
seein’ your brother in stripes?”
“Yes, Dallas,” said another masculine voice imploringly; “what Jake
says is so. It depends entirely upon you whether I go to jail or not. The
shortage hasn’t been discovered yet; but the auditor is due at the office next
week, and as soon as he gets at the books I’m done for—unless I can
replace the five thousand dollars before then.”
“And I’ve got the money right here,” said Hines. “Five thousand dollars
in bills, girlie. All you’ve got to do is to promise to marry me, and as soon
as the license is made out I’ll hand the roll to your brother, and he’ll be
safe.”
“And it’ll be the last time I’ll enter a gambling house; I’ll promise you
that, Dallas!” declared young Worthington. “You see me out of this scrape,
and I’ll go straight from now on. You’ll do me this favor, won’t you, sis?
You’re not going to be stubborn, and see your brother sent to prison. You’re
the only one that can save me, Dallas. It’s entirely up to you?”
“But, Chester,” came the tremulous voice of Dallas, “what you ask is
quite impossible. I couldn’t marry this man, even to save you from disgrace
and imprisonment. I really couldn’t do it, Chester. I’d do anything else in
my power to help you, dear; but that’s out of the question.”
“And why is it out of the question, I should like to know?” exclaimed
Hines in an injured tone. “I ain’t such a bad feller, Dallas. There’s lots
worse than me, I guess. To hear her talk, Chester, you’d think I was the
worst demon that ever grew in the garden of love, wouldn’t you?”
“Jake has been a mighty good friend to me, sis,” declared young
Worthington warmly. “It’s true I’ve only known him a few months, but
that’s long enough for me to find out that he’s one of the best fellows in the
whole world. He’s loaned me a lot of money already, and now that I’m in
this big trouble he comes forward generously and offers to let me have the
five thousand dollars to make good the shortage——”
“Under the conditions mentioned,” interpolated Mr. Hines hastily.
“Under the conditions mentioned, of course,” said young Worthington.
“But, nevertheless, it’s a mighty generous offer. The conditions are
ridiculously easy, Dallas. I’m sure Jake will make a mighty good husband,
and you’d never regret marrying him. He’s very much in love with you.
He’s done nothing but talk about you ever since I’ve known him. He’s just
crazy about you.”
“And I suppose,” said Dallas scornfully, “it was he who suggested that
you send me that mysterious and startling letter which brought me to
Chicago without letting a single person in New York—not even my
employer—know about it? Yes, I am quite sure that is some of Mr. Hines’
work. If I had suspected for a minute that I should find him here, Chester, I
wouldn’t have changed my mind after writing you that I couldn’t come to
you.”
“Ah,” said Owen to himself, “so she wrote to her brother telling him that
she couldn’t come to him, and then she changed her mind. That, of course,
must have been the letter which she tried to get out of the mail, and, by an
unfortunate mistake, got the Reverend Doctor Moore’s pink envelope, with
its hundred-dollar inclosure, instead.”
Owen disliked to play the rôle of eavesdropper, but he couldn’t help
waiting a little longer outside that door before making his presence known
to the occupants of the room. He wanted his entry to come as a startling
climax to one of Mr. Hines’ little speeches.
He did not have long to wait. “Well, Dallas,” he heard Hines exclaim,
suddenly assuming a bullying tone, “it’s no use havin’ any more argument
about this matter. I hold all the cards in this game. I know very well that
you ain’t the kind of girl to let your brother go to jail when it lies in your
power to save him; so you’ve got to accept my proposition whether you like
it or not. As I told you once before, when Jake Hines wants a thing bad he
generally manages to get it. You know—— Hello!”
His little, beady eyes opened wide with astonishment and alarm as the
door suddenly flew open, and Post-office Inspector Owen Sheridan stepped
into the room.
“Well, for the love of Mike!” gasped Jake, and as he spoke he fell back a
step, and his right hand moved toward his hip pocket.
Owen did not fail to grasp the significance of this gesture. “Keep your
hands in front of you, Hines,” he said quietly. “It’s no use. I’ve got you
covered.”
Owen’s right hand was thrust within the side pocket of his coat. The
pocket bulged as though it might contain something else besides the hand.
Hines noted that bulge, and obediently kept his hands in front of him.
“Got me covered, have you?” he grunted. “Well, I’m from Missouri. You
gotter show me. I’ve heard of that bluff bein’ pulled off before now with a
pipe or a nail file.”
Owen laughed. “All right; I’ll show you. Does this look like a pipe or a
nail file, Jake?”
Hines’ small eyes blinked at sight of the revolver which came quickly
from Owen’s coat pocket. “No, that’s the goods,” he said gloomily. “I guess
I’m up against it. Was you sent to Chicago specially to get me, Sheridan?”
“Not exactly,” replied Owen, with a glance toward Dallas; “I came here
mainly to look into another case; but I guess that can wait until I’ve got you
safely locked up.”
“Well, as long as you wasn’t sent to get me,” said Hines eagerly,
“perhaps you’ll be interested in a little proposition I’m goin’ to make.”
He, too, glanced toward Dallas. “I’ve got five thousand dollars in bills in
my pocket, Sheridan. That money’d come in mighty useful to Miss
Worthington just now. It would save her brother from a long term in jail. I’ll
hand it over to her if you’ll let me walk out of that door alone. Is it a
bargain?”
“It is not,” said Dallas, before the post-office inspector could answer.
“You’ve got to do your duty, Owen. Don’t listen to any proposal.”
Owen gave her a grateful and admiring glance. “That’s fine of you,
Dallas. Of course, there’s no danger of my accepting this bribe. I scarcely
think, though, that your brother will have to go to jail for the lack of that
money. I don’t believe that he’s short five thousand dollars at the office at
all. I’ve got a shrewd suspicion that these rascals invented that yarn, and
have been trying to work a cunning game on you.”
It was only a guess, of course, but Owen could see from the discomfited
and sheepish look that came to young Worthington’s face that he had
guessed right.

TO BE CONTINUED.

WHO IS IT?
A laughable illustration of how anger causes a man to make himself
ridiculous is given in the following incident, related in a German
newspaper:
Banker Rosenthal directed his bookkeeper to address a sharp letter to
Baron Y——, who had promised several times to pay what he owed, and
had as often neglected to do so.
When the letter was written, it did not please Banker Rosenthal, who is
very excitable, and he angrily penned the following:
“Dear Baron Y—— : Who was it that promised to pay up on the 1st of
January? You, my dear baron, you are the man. Who was it that promised,
then, to settle on the 1st of March? You, my dear baron. Who was it that
didn’t settle on the 1st of March? You, my dear baron. Who is it, then, who
has broken his word twice, and is an unmitigated scoundrel? Your obedient
servant,
Moses Rosenthal.”

BEING CHEERFUL AT MEALS.

 A man read in the paper that the family table should always be the scene
of laughter and merriment, and that no meal should be passed in the moody
silence that so often characterizes such occasions. The idea struck him so
favorably that when his family had gathered round the table that evening, he
said:
“Now, this sort of thing of keeping so silent at meals has got to stop. You
hear me, you girls? You begin to tell stories, and keep up an agreeable sort
of talk; and you, boys, laugh and be jolly, or I’ll take and dust your jackets
till you can’t stand. Now, begin!”
The glare that he sent around the table made the family resemble a
funeral party.

THE NEWS OF ALL NATIONS.

Washer with Heater.

A new device that lessens the drudgery of wash day is the combination
washer and stove. It is made entirely of metal. The advantage of having the
fire under the wash water is that it enables the cleansing to be done better
and more quickly; it is not necessary to carry water from the stove to the
place where the washing is done. A few minutes’ pumping on the handle is
said to drive the dirt from the clothes, linens, or other fabrics in the washer.

$686,700,000 Paid in Life Insurance.

Distribution of life-insurance companies and organizations in the United
States and Canada during 1914 amounted to $686,700,000. This is the
largest annual amount on record, exceeding by $40,150,000 the amount
paid in 1913.

Claims paid in the United States and Canada,

$433,050,000.
 Payments for premium savings and surrender values, and to annuitants,
and in foreign countries, $253,650,000. Grand total, $686,700,000.
While the amount paid by the companies was more, the amount of
ordinary and industrial policies written and revived in the United States
during 1914 fell off slightly last year. Until the outbreak of war in Europe,
the writing of life insurance exceeded the normal rate of increase.
The largest claim paid last year was on the policy of George W.
Vanderbilt, whose residence was in Washington. The company that issued it
reinsured $750,000 of the face amount. Mr. Vanderbilt carried the policy on
the twenty-payment life plan for seventeen years. During that period he
paid premiums to the amount of $595,000.

A Fearful Aspect, at Least.

“George,” she screamed; “my neck!”
“What’s the matter?”
“There’s a pillacatter——”
“A what?”
“A tap-e-killer——”
“What in the world do you mean?”
“Oh, dear!” she moaned, as she clutched him frantically; “a kitterpaller!
You know, George! A patterkiller on my neck!”
“Oh!” said George, with evident relief, and he proceeded to brush the
future butterfly away.

Who Was First Under Wire?

In the northern part of Lansing, Mich., a resident had trouble keeping
thoughtless pedestrians and bike riders from cutting across a corner of her
lawn. A path was worn smooth across this particular corner. Signs did no
good, and personal requests were unheeded. So the resident, not having any
males in the family to talk sternly to trespassers, stretched several strands of
wire between trees and directly across the path.
The wire was not put up until late in the afternoon. The next day the
owner of the path-worn lawn went out to take a look. The new wires were
badly bent, as though they had seen hard usage. Evidently they had, for near
one tree was found a well-smashed dinner pail, with broken dishes about
and near it a set of “store teeth.” Part of a bicycle lamp lay on another side
of the path, with the rim of a derby. Evidently bikes, as well as ships,
sometimes have a hard time passing in the night.

End All Debts in One Week.

It is a custom of the Chinese to pay all their debts on New Year’s Day
and start the year with a clean slate. The people of Hume, Mo., believe that
to be a good plan and conducive to a more neighborly feeling, so the
present week has been set aside here as “pay-up” week. During this time
everybody is expected to pay all debts, return everything they have
borrowed, and, in general, square up every account that is outstanding
against them.
At the same time it is hoped that the “paying up” will extend somewhat
beyond the commercial side and result in the settlement of all personal
differences and general reconciliation of those who have been at outs.

Ohio on the Pension Roll.

Ohio ranks first in the number of her sons on the pension roll, with
74,250, with Pennsylvania a close second and New York third.

She Missed the Seat.

Mrs. J. V. Percal, of Cleveland, Ohio, found the film play featuring her
favorite movie hero had just started when she entered a downtown theater
Sunday.
And the theater was a bit darker than usual.
She made her way to a seat, removed her hat, and started to pin it to the
back of the seat in front of her, all this with her eyes fixed on the opening
scene of “The Avenging Hand.”
A man sitting in front of her jumped like a scared cat and yelled,
“Wow!”
 “When I jabbed the hatpin through my hat, I must have missed the back
of the seat,” explained Mrs. Percal.
“What did the man say?”
“Oh, mercy! Please excuse me.”

Expert Rider Postmistress.

Miss Marion Carterett, of Elko, Nev., champion woman “bronchobuster”
of Nevada, who won her spurs in open competition with cowgirls from all
over the West in the kicking contests at Elko last year, has been appointed
postmistress at Deeth. Miss Carterett’s appointment was confirmed last
month, and she has assumed charge of the office.

Death Rate in Large Cities.

The death rate after the age of forty is increasing annually in Chicago
and other large cities in spite of sanitary modes of living and greater
protection against communicable diseases. The expectation of life after
forty years is less than it was thirty years ago.
In a warning sounded by the public-health service, it is explained this
alarming condition is due largely to the increased prevalence of the diseases
of degeneration. The muscles, arteries, and other organs of those who, as a
result of sedentary occupation or indolence, take too little exercise
degenerate. The advice of the public-health experts is to take exercise.

Baby Chokes on Prune Seed.

A prune seed, which lodged in his throat, caused the death of Frederick
Pellegrini, three-year-old son of John Pellegrini, of Denver, Col. The lad
choked to death while a physician was en route to the house from the
County Hospital.

She Had Right, Says Court.

The proper way to end an engagement to wed was much discussed in the
court of Judge Frederickson, in Los Angeles, Cal. Mrs. Grace Gore
contended that she was within her rights when she swallowed the diamond
ring presented by Luther Buntin, but that the pugilistic retort of Buntin was
too much. The court agreed, and fined Buntin thirty dollars.
The story of the courtship was a “thriller.” The two met at a dance. Each
thought the other single. Buntin, a street-car conductor, took the pretty
young woman for frequent street-car rides. One night he gave her the ring.
A few nights later Isadore Gore, in the rôle of irate husband, pounced on
him and sent him to the hospital for two weeks.
When Buntin emerged from bandages and plaster, he sought Mrs. Gore
and demanded the ring. She refused, swallowed it, and he admits his reply
to a merry laugh was a series of stinging slaps.

Double Chicken is Hatched.

A chicken hatched in Big Piney, Mo., at the home of Mrs. Maud Vaughn,
had four legs, four wings, and two tails. It had but one head, but the body
was like that of what might be called a double chicken. It could not walk.
Its head was between its two bodies.

Students of Baby Culture.

Not only may Los Angeles, Cal., girls learn to cook and sew in the
public schools, but they may become students of baby culture with real live,
gurgling, wriggling babies to practice on.
A course in the care and nursing of infants has been added as a
permanent feature of the curriculum of the Polytechnic night school, and
the first class, numbering thirty-five pupils, includes a dozen young mothers
and prospective brides as well as younger girls.

Bird is Killed by Golf Ball.

While “teeing off” at golf, S. C. Pettit, of Topeka, Kan., brought down a
sparrow with the flying ball. The bird was dead when it reached the ground.
It is said by golfers that such an incident has occurred only once before. A
professional golfer on a large course in New England once killed a bird
with a golf ball.
 Bird Rings Burglar Alarm.
A mischievous bird known as a flicker, belonging to the woodpecker
family, has taken a fancy to sounding a burglar alarm over the First National
Bank at Wrightsville, Pa. The first time or two the bird indulged in this
prank it caused a stir in the neighborhood. It is thought that in the first place
an insect on the surface of the gong was pecked by the bird, and in this way
the bird became acquainted with the musical qualities of the bell. The
beating of the bird’s bill on the bell produces a sound exactly like that
produced by the electric tapper of the gong.

Mouse Scares Girl to Death.

Miss Edna Engel, of Kenosha, Wis., the seventeen-year-old daughter of
Caspar Engel, was scared to death by a mouse. The mouse ran out from
under a piece of furniture as she entered her room. The girl fell unconscious
and died without regaining consciousness.

An Expectant Fruit Grower.

Enos Martin is showing visitors to his farm near Benzonia, Mich., what
he thinks will be the greatest horticultural curiosity in the country.
Last June, when the big wind cut through Benzie County, it hit Enos’
peach orchard. After the storm, Enos discovered a stem of a weed driven
entirely through the body of one of his best peach trees.
This spring Enos found the weed stem was putting out leaves. He has
discovered that it is a milkweed, and he thinks it will unite with the peach,
and that next August he can serve peaches and cream from the same tree.

Keen-eared Night Captain.

But for the acute hearing of Night Captain Bert Weare, of Minneapolis,
Minn., John Kent might not be occupying a cell in the city jail. He is
charged with petty larceny.
Kent was arrested in company with A. W. Hinkley on complaint of E. G.
White. White said he met the men in the morning, and that while he dozed
in a chair in a saloon, his watch was stolen. He accused Kent.
 Kent was searched at police headquarters but the watch was not found.
The police were about to turn the men loose, when Captain Weare said he
heard a watch ticking. The ticking was traced to Kent’s left sock. White and
Hinkley were held as witnesses.

Farmers Strong with Autos.

An interesting fact connected with the figures compiled by the assessors
in Atchison County, Kan., is that two-thirds of the automobiles in the
county are owned by farmers. The aggregate value of the machines in the
county is $174,111, or $311 apiece.

Four-legged, Four-winged Chicken.

A chicken with four perfect legs and an extra pair of wings, one of the
most remarkable ever hatched in the State, is drawing scores of people to
the poultry farm of A. J. and P. J. Fayette, near Stoneham, Mass. The chick
has been named “Daisy.”

Wonderful in His Work with Penknife.

E. G. van Zandt, of North Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, Mo., exponent of
the penknife in art, has just completed his latest work, a complete model of
a fourteen-room residence, which is a remarkable demonstration of what
can be accomplished with an ordinary penknife.
In October, Van Zandt, who is sixty-two years old and a retired
mechanical engineer, was confined to his home with bronchitis. Work with
his pocketknife has been his hobby since boyhood, and when he found that
he was to be shut in for the winter, he made a workshop of his sick room.
His workshop requires little space. It is composed of a biscuit board,
which he uses as his bench; a sharp pocketknife, and a pot of glue. Cigar
boxes are his material.
The model of the home is four inches tall, four inches wide, and six and
one-half inches long, and weighs, exclusive of the base, exactly three
ounces. It required one hundred and fifteen days’ labor, and seven cigar
boxes were used in its construction.
 The model also includes a garage and shelter shed used in the rear and a
private playground. The “estate” is surrounded by a fence, made to
represent cobblestones embedded in cement.
The model is complete in every detail, even to doorknobs and hinges.
There are eight thousand separate pieces of wood used in its construction.
There are thirty-two windows and nine doors in the house. In the windows
each sash is separate and each is fitted with glass. The upper sashes have
shades. The doors are paneled.
There is an outside breakfast room with a tile floor. Tile also is shown in
the vestibule at the front entrance, and the front door is fitted with
decorative hinges and a fancy lock. In the rear are doors leading to the
cellar, and there is a coal chute to the furnace room. The garage, which
adjoins the playground in the rear, also is complete, and there is a shelter
shed adjoining it. A brick ash pit is near the garage.
A gravel road leads from the garage outside the grounds, and the garage
may only be entered through an ornamental iron gate. The fence
surrounding the grounds is a work of art. There is a base of white wood,
representing a cut-stone base, with cement and cobblestones above. It is
surmounted with a cut-stone coping, and at short intervals there are
decorative cut-stone posts with fancy caps.
One of the most intricate pieces of work on the entire model are the
ornamental iron gates. There are seven of these, and each required more
than a day’s labor. Each picket is a separate piece of wood, and there are
ornamental hinges and locks.
Van Zandt says the most difficult work on the whole model was the
fitting of the small gratings in the basement windows. The pieces
composing the gratings are so small that it was almost impossible to get
them glued into position. The glue set before the pieces could be put in
place.
Van Zandt solved this problem by specially prepared glue to be used in
this work so that it would not set so quickly. It required more than a day’s
time for each of the four gratings.
The first part of the house completed, he says, was one of the small
windows which project from the roof above the second story, and the last
thing completed was the knob on one of the gates.
 Van Zandt is emphatic in his statement that the only tool used in the
entire work was his penknife. Even the rounded pillars in the porches, he
says, were made with the knife and were smoothed with a piece of
sandpaper.
In 1913 he completed a model of the Centenary Church, Sixteenth and
Pine Streets, on which he worked at odd times for twenty-one years. He
says this model was made from observation, without the aid of a picture or
drawing of any kind. He says he visited the church so many times while the
work was in progress that people in the neighborhood commented on his
presence.
Van Zandt also has a model of a beer wagon, which is similar to those he
made for a brewery exhibit at the World’s Fair in Chicago. A complete
model of the brewery was shown at the fair, and Van Zandt says he
undertook the work of making the wagon after numerous other men had
attempted their manufacture and failed.
His work on the brewery exhibit required an entire winter. He made
eighteen brewery wagons, thirty-four freight cars, and six trolley cars and
trailers.

Funeral Held After Thirty-two Years.

Satisfied that the skeleton found on a sand bar in Red River, near Fulton,
was that of their father, drowned thirty-two years ago, Ben and James
Wilson brought it to their home in Texarkana, Ark., and had it interred in
the family lot, after funeral ceremonies.
The body was found about three hundred yards below the point where
Wilson perished in 1883. It had remained in the sand bar until shifting
sands, during the recent overflow, left it partly exposed.

Collar Buttoning Made Easy.

A clever little thing in the way of a collar button is the invention of
Charles Formage, of New Rochelle, N. Y. The button is an ordinary stud of
solid metal, but has a tiny screw hole in its center. Into this a tapering peg is
screwed. This goes through the buttonhole of a collar without any difficulty
or breaking of nails or swearing on the part of the owner. When the collar is
on, the peg is unscrewed and the button remains.

Gets Big Award for Injuries.

For the loss of two fingers and a thumb, Michael Wizloski, an employee
of the Eastern Steel Company, in Pottsville, Pa., was awarded $10,043.93
by a jury. This is one of the largest verdicts ever given for an injury not
attended by fatal results.
The jury, in its verdict, censured the company for negligence in not
properly protecting the machinery which caused Wizloski’s injury.

The Cossack a True Son of Mars.

Apprenticed to Mars at birth, as were the Spartans before them, the
Cossacks, survivals from a young, non-industrial world, are the most
picturesque fighters on Europe’s battlefields. A frontier’s folk like the
people of our early West, a mixture of many adventurous elements, and
constituting within their own country a class more distinctive than that of
the American cowboy, they have finally been subdued to the needs of the
great imperial government of Petrograd, taken over just as they were into its
machinery, and preserved as a soldier caste. A wild, conquering,
freebooting folk, the Cossacks have been brought within the fold of Russian
civilization as soldiers, descendants of warriors and progenitors of
generations of soldiers to meet the future needs of the Slav empire.
These Cossacks, in the leisure of national peace, conquered the vast
empire of Siberia for Russia, and in each Russian war for the last hundred
years have formed the czar’s irresistible first-line strength.
The Cossacks are a people of the limitless steppes, a people of close
corporation, situated in Russia as a race apart, a soldier caste, their state a
military organization, their connection with the great empire maintained
through the imperial war department, the administration of their internal
affairs practically in their own hands, and their privileges as a caste almost
as pronounced as were those of the Spartan soldier-citizen, or more
comparable to the solider caste of the older Indian organization. The
Cossacks came of the original Slav stock, but they were those Slavs who
never bowed their heads beneath a yoke, foreign or domestic; who lived a
free life on the borders of their race’s civilization, wandering, fighting,
buccaneer Slav tribes, who penetrated deeply into Tartar and Georgian
lands, who lived by the hunt and by plunder, and who maintained
themselves on the borders of Asia and Europe free of all serfdom.
These sturdy Russian wanderers assimilated many adventurous
elements, took up among them many Tartars and Slavs, and so to-day the
Cossack type is a more or less distinct one. The total Cossack population of
Russia is more than 3,000,000. Some years ago they owned nearly
146,500,000 acres of land, of which 105,000,000 acres was arable and
9,400,000 forest land. This land is held by the Cossacks in community
partition as a state reward for their military service. It will be seen that the
Cossack holdings amount to about fifty acres for each man, woman, and
child of the people. There is an admiring, half-envious Russian catchword
about being as “free and as rich as a Cossack.”
The Cossacks are the roughriders of Europe. As the cowboys of the
American plains and gauchos of the pampas, the Cossacks are as intensely
interesting, wild, free, plain folk who live in the saddle in the open places,
and whose rough democracy is the expression of the same naïve,
rudimentary culture as that of their new-world brothers in spirit. None of
their members are allowed to starve, and none of them has succeeded in
winning overmastering position through the laying up of great wealth.
The Cossack is favored by the state, and is a main prop of the state’s
authority. To be born a Cossack is to be born a soldier. Every Cossack bears
the obligation of twenty years’ military service. He enters into this service
at the age of eighteen, spends three years in a preliminary Cossack division,
next passes twelve years in active service, and spends his last five military
years in the Cossack reserve. It is the picked men from his ranks who
constitute the imperial guard, a body of the finest type of fighters, whom the
czar can trust when he can trust no one else around him. These Cossack
soldiers have been the greatest terror with which Russia has been able to
threaten Europe. They have been the empire’s most efficient internal police,
and they have marched eastward to the Pacific and southward to the zones
of British influence, conquering for the czar a vast domain.

Colt with Six Feet.

 A colt with six feet was born on the farm of George E. Gano, near
Frankfort, Kan. One extra foot grew from the knee and the other from the
ankle of the other front foot. In other respects the animal is normal.

Town of Active Old “Boys.”

Lewistown, Pa., has many aged citizens that are still in active life.
Among their number are John Gantz, still laboring at ninety years of age;
Obdiah Umberger, hearty at ninety; Reverend Andrew Spanogle, driving an
auto at ninety-two years; Thomas Kennedy, laying brick at four-score years;
William N. Hoffman, getting around like a boy at seventy-nine years and
just as jolly.

Shah is a Gem Plutocrat.

Should the Shah of Persia be deprived of his income, he would still be
one of the richest persons in the world. He would only have to sell his
ornaments, gems, and precious stones to become possessed of about
$35,000,000.

Safe Use of Alcohol.

To promote the industrial and technical utilization of alcohol, the
Russian ministry of finance has offered prizes totaling about $136,000 for
the best inventions in this respect.

“Song of the Winds” Reveals His Past.

Music wafted back to the empty halls of the lost memory of Charles
Fitzhugh McReigh, a Boston composer, the love of a devoted wife, a
deserted home, and anxious friends the other night. Memoryless McReigh
has been wandering about the country for months.
McReigh mysteriously disappeared from his home over six months ago.
He returned the night of his disappearance from a musical gathering with
his wife and a party of friends, shortly after midnight. The following
morning he failed to come down to breakfast.