CLASS: XII (2024-2025)

PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS
SECTION: A
➢ EXPERIMENT: 01
AIM:
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

• A resistance wire
• A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range
• A battery (battery eliminator)
• A rheostat
• A metre scale
• One way key
• Connecting wires
• A piece of sand paper
• Screw gauge

THEORY:
According to the Ohm's law, "The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions, pressure) of the conductor remains the same."
If I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's
Law,

where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the conductor.

R depends upon the material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor.

In S.I. units, the potential difference V is measured in volt and the current I in ampere, the resistance R is measured in
ohm.
CURRENT-VOLTAGE RELATIONSHIP:
To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the ratio V / I remains constant for a given resistance,
therefore a graph between the potential difference(V) and the current (I) must be a straight line.

For a wire of uniform cross-section, the resistance depends on the length l and the area of cross-section A. It also depends
on the temperature of the conductor. At a given temperature the resistance,

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where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic of the material of wire.
Hence, ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire,

If 'r' is the radius of the wire, then the cross-sectional area, A = πr². Then the specific resistance or resistivity of the
material of the wire is,

𝑑
➢ Putting 𝑟=
2
𝝅𝒅𝟐 𝑹
Formula used 𝝆= 𝟒𝒍

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS:

1. Range of ammeter = 0 A to 3 A

2. Least count of ammeter = 0.05 A

3. Range of voltmeter = 0 V to 3 V

4. Least count of voltmeter = 0.05 V

5. Least count of meter scale = 0.1 cm

6. Length of the given wires =0.50 m

7. Diameter of first wire = 0.24 cm 24 x 10-4 m

8. Diameter of Second Wire = 0.32 cm = 32 x 10-4 m

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OBSERVATION TABLE OF FIRST WIRE:
S.No. Voltmeter Reading (Volt) Ammeter Reading (A) Resistance (Ω)
1 0.10 0.30 0.33
2 0.20 0.70 0.28
3 0.30 1.10 0.27
4 0.40 1.50 0.26
5 0.50 1.90 0.26

OBSERVATION TABLE OF SECOND WIRE:

S. No. Voltmeter Reading (Volt) Ammeter Reading (A) Resistance (Ω)
1 0.10 0.35 0.28
2 0.20 0.75 0.27
3 0.30 1.20 0.25
4 0.40 1.60 0.25
5 0.50 2.00 0.25
GRAPHS:
For Wire - I

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For Wire - II

CALCULATIONS:
FIRST WIRE:

Mean Value of Resistance (R1) = 0.28 𝛀

Slope of V- I graph = 0.25 𝛀

𝟐 −𝟒 𝟐 −𝟕
Resistivity 𝝆= 𝝅𝒅 𝑹
𝟒𝒍
= 𝟑.𝟏𝟒 ×(𝟐𝟒𝟒×𝟎.𝟓𝟎
×𝟏𝟎 ) ×𝟎.𝟐𝟖
= 𝟐𝟓. 𝟑𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝛀𝒎
SECOND WIRE:

Mean Value of Resistance (R2) = 0.26 Ohm

Slope of V- I graph = 0.25 𝛀

𝟐 −𝟒 𝟐 −𝟕
Resistivity 𝝆= 𝝅𝒅 𝑹
𝟒𝒍
= 𝟑.𝟏𝟒 ×(𝟑𝟐𝟒×𝟎.𝟓𝟎
×𝟏𝟎 ) ×𝟎.𝟐𝟔
= 𝟒𝟏. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝛀𝒎

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RESULT:
First Wire:
Mean Value of Resistance (R1) = 0.28 Ohm
Slope of V- I graph =
−𝟕
Resistivity 𝝆𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟑𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 𝛀𝒎
Second Wire:
Mean Value of Resistance (R2) = 0.26 Ohm
Slope of V- I graph =

𝟐 −𝟒 𝟐 −𝟕
Resistivity 𝝆= 𝝅𝒅 𝑹
𝟒𝒍
= 𝟑.𝟏𝟒 ×(𝟑𝟐𝟒×𝟎.𝟓𝟎
×𝟏𝟎 ) ×𝟎.𝟐𝟔
= 𝟒𝟏. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝛀𝒎
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Use ammeter and voltmeter of appropriate range.
2. Check for zero error corrections for voltmeter and ammeter.
3. Rheostat should be of low resistance
4. Wire should be cleaned thoroughly with sand paper before using.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Non-uniform cross section of wire
2. End resistance of wire may cause some error in result.
3. Loose screws of instruments.
4. Resistance of coil may change due to excess heating.

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EXPERIMENT: 02
AIM:
To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.

To find the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of
its materials.

THEORY:
Wheatstone’s principle

The metre bridge is operates under Wheatstone’s principle. Here, four resistors P, Q, R, and S are connected to form
the network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to a battery, and the terminals B and D are connected to a
galvanometer.
In the balancing condition, there is no deflection on the galvanometer. Then,

Metre Bridge apparatus

The metre bridge, also known as the slide wire bridge consists of a one metre long wire of uniform cross sectional area,
fixed on a wooden block. A scale is attached to the block. Two gaps are formed on it by using thick metal strips in order
to make the Wheat stone’s bridge. The terminal B between the gaps is used to connect galvanometer and jockey.

A resistance wire is introduced in gap S and the resistance box is in gap R. One end of the galvanometer is connected
to terminal D and its other end is connected to a jockey. As the jockey slides over the wire AC, it shows zero deflection
at the balancing point (null point).

If the length AB is , then the length BC is ( 100-l ).

Then, according to Wheatstone’s principle;

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Now, the unknown resistance can be calculated as,

Where L be the length of the wire and r be its radius.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

• Metre bridge (slide wire bridge)

• Battery eliminator
• Galvanometer
• Resistance box
• Jockey
• One way key
• A resistance wire
• Screw gauge
• Metre scale
• Connecting wires

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Range of ammeter = 0 A to 3 A
2. Least count of ammeter = 0.05 A
3. Range of voltmeter = 0 V to 3 V
4. Least count of voltmeter = 0.05 V
5. Least count of meter scale: 0.1 cm
6. Length of the wire of unknown resistance, L = 100 cm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. Resistance from resistance box, Balance length 100-l Unknown Resistance
R (Ω) l (cm) (cm) X (Ω)
1 0.2 54 46 0.23
2 0.4 52 48 0.43
3 0.6 56 44 0.76
4 0.8 49 51 0.77
CALCULATIONS:

0.23 + 0.43 + 0.76 + 0.77

Mean Resistance of the given wire (X) = = 0.55 Ω
4

Result: Resistance of the given wire is 0.55 Ω

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Terminals of the connecting wires should be cleaned by sand paper, before making connections..
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Balance point should be nearly in the mid-range of bridge wire.
4. Jockey should be moved over bridge wire gently.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Non-uniform cross section of wire
2. End resistance of wire may cause some error in result.
3. Loose screws of instruments.

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EXPERIMENT: 03.
AIM: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

• A galvanometer
• A battery eliminator
• Two resistance boxes
• Two one-way keys
• Connecting wires

Theory
A galvanometer is a device used to detect feeble electric currents in a circuit. It consists of a coil suspended between the
poles of a powerful magnet. As current passes through the coil, it deflects. It can be detected from the deflection on
galvanometer needle. The deflection is proportional to the current passed through it.

Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

Here, current will flows through the circuit when key k1 is closed and k2 is open. The current flowing through the
galvanometer is proportional to the deflection in it.

Where, E - emf f the cell

R - resistance from the resistance box
G - galvanometer resistance for current I
θ - galvanometer deflection for current I
k – proportionality constant.
When k2 is closed and by adjusting the shunt resistance S, we can make galvanometer deflection as θ/2.
Then the current in the circuit is ;

Now, a fraction, S/ (G+S) of the current in the circuit is flows through the galvanometer, which is given by,

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Now, from the above relations, we can get the resistance of the given galvanometer as,

Figure of merit of a galvanometer

Figure of merit is in general is the numerical value representing the degree of effectiveness or efficiency of an instrument
approximated by different estimation techniques.
The figure of merit of a galvanometer is the current required to produce a deflection of one division in the galvanometer
scale. It is represented by the letter k, and is given as,

or,
Observations:
The Range of Battery Eliminator , E = 0 Volt to 12 Volt
Number of divisions on the Galvanometer scale = 30
Observation Table:
1.Observations for Resistance of Galvanometer (G):
S.No. High Resistance, Deflection (θ) Low Resistance, Half – Deflection
R (Ω) S (Ω) (θ/2)

(in Ω)
1 4000 14 52 7 52.68

2 5500 10 55 5 55.55

3 7000 8 55 4 55.43

52.68 + 55.55+ 55.43

Mean resistance of the Galvanometer (G): = 54.5 Ω
3

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 S.No. EMF of cell E (V) High Resistance (Ω) Deflection (θ) Figure of Merit (k)

(In Amp/Div.)
1 2 3000 20 3.27 x 10 -5

2 4 4000 30 3.29 x 10 -5

3 8 10000 24 3.32 x 10 -5

(3.27 X 10 −5 )+ (3.29 ×10−5 )+ (3.32 ×10−5 )

Mean Figure of merit ( k) = = 3.27 X 10 −5 Amp/Div
3

RESULT:
Resistance of the given galvanometer by half deflection method (G) = 54.5 Ω
Figure of merit of the given Galvanometer = 3.27 X 10 −5 Amp/Div

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The voltage supplied should be constant.
2. The value of the R should be very large as compared to the value of G.
3. Connections should be neat and tight.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Unequal size of divisions on galvanometer
2. Loose plugs in resistance box.

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EXPERIMENT: 04
AIM: To find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

• Sonometer
• Step down transformer
• Electromagnet
• A set of slotted weights
• Weight hanger
• Paper rider
• Bridges

Theory:
A sonometer is an apparatus used to study the transverse vibrations of stretched strings. It is in the form of a hollow
wooden rectangular box. On the wooden rectangular box there are two bridges and a pulley at one end. A wire string is
attached to one end of the wooden box, run over the bridges and pulley and carries a weight hanger at the free end as
shown in figure below.
A sonometer is used to determine the frequency of alternating current. A step down transformer is used for the
determination of frequency of A.C. because the voltage of the A.C. mains is 220V, which is dangerous. The step down
transformer reduces this voltage to 6 volts.
The string wire of the sonometer is a non-magnetic metallic wire like brass or copper. A horse shoe magnet is placed at
the middle of the sonometer wire so that the magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the sonometer wire in a horizontal
plane.
When an alternating current of definite frequency passes through the wire there will be interaction between the magnetic
field and the current carrying conductor. So a force will act on the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both the
field and the direction of current.
When A.C. is passing through the conductor, since the current direction reverses periodically, the direction of force also
reverse periodically and hence, the conductor vibrates. Since the current flowing is alternating, the wire vibrates with a
frequency equal to the frequency of A. C. By adjusting the length of the vibrating wire segment, this frequency can be
made equal to the natural frequency of the wire segment. Then the resonance takes place and the wire vibrates with
maximum amplitude. At this stage, the length of the wire segment is called the resonating length and it increases with
increase in the mass of the suspended weights.

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When the length ‘l’ of the sonometer wire vibrates with maximum amplitude, the frequency of the applied A.C. is equal
to the natural frequency of the wire.

Where,
l = length of the sonometer wire between the two bridges when it is thrown into resonant vibrations.
T = tension applied to the wire.
m = mass per unit length of the wire
If ν is the frequency of the sonometer wire thrown into resonance in fundamental mode, then the frequency of A.C.
𝜈
mains would be 𝑓 =
2

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Length of the wire = 100 cm = 1.0 m
2. Mass of the wire = 1.5 x 10– 4 kg
3. Mass per unit length, m = 1.5 x 10– 4 kg/m
4. Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 ms-2

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Resonating length with Varying Tension
Load Load Mean Length
Tension Mg 𝟏 𝑻
S. No Increasing, l1 Decreasing 𝒍𝟏+ 𝒍𝟐 𝝂= √ (in Hz)
(in N)
(in cm) l2 (in cm) 𝒍= 𝟐𝒍 𝒎
𝟐
(in cm)
1
14.7 52.9 47.2 50.05 100
19.6
2 50.5 48.0 49.25 105
55.5
3 24.5 51.3 55.50 97

CALCULATIONS:
100+105+97
Mean Frequency = 𝜈 = = 100.66 𝐻𝑧
3

RESULT:
𝜈
Frequency of AC mains supply (𝑓) =
2
= 100.33
2
= 50.33 𝐻𝑧
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The sonometer wire should be magnetic and free of Kinks.
2. Length of the wire should be noted when the amplitude of vibration is maximum,
3. Weights should be removed from the hanger after the experiment.
4. The pully should be frictionless.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Non – unform cross – section of wire.
2. Wedges may not be sharp.
3. Error while noting the resonant length of the wire.
4. Presence of friction in pulley.

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