Cell cycle and cell division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells. It occurs
through two distinct processes, mitosis, and meiosis, each having its role in the life cycles of
organisms. Mitosis is the division of a cell that produces two identical daughter cells,
essential for growth and tissue maintenance. Meiosis on the other hand is a two-step division
that takes place in the reproductive cells and produces gametes with half the number of
chromosomes for sexual reproduction.
Cell division is a fundamental process that is important for the growth and development of
living organisms. Cell division takes place through two processes: Mitosis and Meiosis.
Types of Cell Division
Cell Division is broadly classified into 2 subtypes: Mitosis and Meiosis.
 Mitosis or Equational Division – daughter cells formed are exact replicas of parent
cell.
 Meiosis or Reductional Division – daughter cell contain half the number of
chromosome as present in parent cell.
Phases of the Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is comprises of two phases –
1. Interphase – It is the longest phase in the cell cycle representing growth period
between two successive cell division.
2. Mitosis Phase or M-Phase – Represents phase where actual cell division occurs. It
includes steps of karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
1. Interphase
Interphase is called the “resting phase” of cell cycle but studies show active synthesis of
RNA, protein, and genetic material occurring during this phase.
The interphase further comprises into following phases:
1. G1 Phase (Gap 1): Cells mainly grow during this phase but does not undergo DNA
replication. It performs normal functions.
2. S phase (Synthesis): DNA synthesis occurs, resulting in the replication of the genetic
material.
3. G2 phase (Gap 2): The cell continues to grow, synthesizing proteins and preparing for
mitosis or meiosis.
4. Quiescent Stage (G0): Some cells like nerve cells do not undergo cell division so they
exits the G1 phase. They remain in G0 stage that is an inactive stage.
2. M Phase (Mitosis Phase)
Mitosis can be defined as the process where the chromosomes divides longitudinally into two
halves and migrate to the opposite poles. They organize into two daughter nuclei which are
identical to the parent cell.
This phase is further divided into following four stages –
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase

Mitosis – Cell Division

Mitosis is a cell division that involves the duplication and equal distribution of
chromosomes from a parent cell to two identical daughter cells. The term “mitosis” is
derived from the Greek word “mitos,” meaning fibril or thread, reflecting the thread-like
appearance of chromosomes during the process. Flemming coined the term “mitosis” in
1882. Mitosis is also called as equational division because the distribution of genetic
material is equal in the daughter nuclei. In eukaryotic cells (having a cell nucleus)
including animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells, the cell cycle is divided into two main
stages: interphase, and mitosis in the M phase that also includes cytokinesis.

Stages of Mitosis
Mitosis initiates with the nuclear division process known as karyokinesis, where “karyon”
refers to the nucleus and “kinesis” denotes movement. The four stages of Mitosis
are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase that are described below.
Prophase
The term “pro” signifies the first stage. Prophase, often subdivided into early, mid, and late
stages, is the initial and longest phase of karyokinesis. Its various stages are discussed as
follows:
Early prophase
  In this substage the nucleus and cell become spheroid and the nucleus appears as a
ball of wool. Chromatin fiber condenses to make an elongated chromosome, which
increases the refractivity and viscosity of the cytoplasm.
 The nuclear envelope begins to dissolve, and spindle fibers emerge.
 In animal cells, duplicated centrioles. (S stage of interphase) start to go towards
opposite poles of the cell. Each centriole radiates out fine microtubular fibrils called
astral rays. In animal cells and cells of lower flowers, fibrils seem like spokes of a
wheel around each centriole to make an aster.
Mid-prophase
In mid-prophase, chromosomes shift towards the periphery and then leave a clear central
area. It becomes shorter and thicker. Each chromosome consists of two threads that are
longitudinal chromatids. Both chromatids are attached by the centromere, and so are known
as sister chromatids.
Late prophase
In this substage, spindle fibers start showing up around the nucleus. The size of chromosomes
is much reduced as compared to the prophase. In plant cells, spindle poles are formed without
asters, while in animal cells, asters are involved in the formation of spindle poles.
Nucleolus and other cell organelles (like mitochondria, Golgi complex, ER, vacuoles, etc.)
disappear. The presence of the spindle is essential for mitosis. If cells are treated with
colchicines, which inhibit spindle formation, the anaphasic movement of the two groups of
chromosomes toward the poles doesn’t take place.
Metaphase
The term “meta” refers to the second, and “phase” denotes stage. The various changes that
take place in this stage are as follows:
 The discontinuous fibers radiate out from two poles and get connected to the disc-
shaped framework at the top of the centromere called kinetochores. A kinetochore is a
complex protein structure that is analogous to the ring for the microtubule hook; it’s
the point where microtubules connect on their own to the chromosome. Chromosomes
or kinetochore fibers contract and bring chromosomes over the equator, this
occurrence is called congression.
 Smaller chromosomes are directed toward the center while bigger ones are peripheral
in position on the equator. The centromeres of all of the chromosomes lie on the
equator forming a plate that is an apparent metaphasic or equatorial serve while hands
are directed towards the poles.
 The kinetochores play an important role in connecting chromosomal spindle fibers to
microtubules. They may contribute to the formation of chromosomal spindle fibers
during metaphase and prometaphase by acting as centers for the polymerization of
microtubule proteins.
  Metaphase is the optimal phase for determining the total number of chromosomes in
any species, providing a detailed examination of chromosome morphology.
Idiograms, representing the arrangement of chromosomes in decreasing sizes, are
constructed during this stage.

Anaphase
The term “ana” refers to up, and “phase” denotes stage. The various changes that take place
in this stage are as follows:
 Chromosomes undergo a brief period of alignment on the equatorial plate. During this
phase, the centromeres of the chromosomes undergo division, giving rise to daughter
chromosomes, each possessing its centromere.
 Due to their repulsive nature, the daughter chromosomes move toward opposite poles.
 Spindle fibers connected to the centromeres contract, facilitating the movement of
chromosomes towards the poles.
 The speed of anaphasic motion remains independent of the chromosome size.
 In the movement of chromosomes during anaphase, the centromeres take the lead,
with the limbs trailing behind.
 During anaphase, the centromeres guide the way while the chromosome limbs follow
in their path.
At the end of anaphase, two groups of chromosomes are formed, one at each pole. The
amount and kinds of chromosomes at each pole correspond to those in the parent nucleus.
Telophase
The term “Telos” refers to end, and “phase” denotes stage. The various changes that take
place in this stage are as follows:
 Cytoplasm viscosity decreases.
 New nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes.
 Chromosomes overlap, and chromatin development occurs.
 The nuclear organizer generates nucleoli for each daughter nucleus.
 Two daughter nuclei are established at the spindle poles, and cellular organelles like
the Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum are reformed.

Cytokinesis
The term “cytokinesis” originates from the Greek words “cyto,” referring to hollow or cell,
and “kinesis,” signifying movement. Cytokinesis is the final stage of the cell cycle,
responsible for the physical division of a parent cell into two daughter cells. This process
ensures the equitable distribution of cellular components and organelles, ultimately resulting
in the formation of two distinct and genetically identical daughter cells.
In animal cells, cytokinesis involves the formation of a cleavage furrow, where the cell
membrane is drawn inward, leading to the separation of the cytoplasm. In plant cells, a cell
plate forms, composed of new cell wall materials, dividing the cell into two. Cytokinesis
completes the cell cycle and is essential for growth, development, and tissue repair in

multicellular organisms.
Significance of Mitosis
The significance of Mitosis are as follows:
 Mitosis is responsible for the duplication and division of cells. It ensures the growth
and development of multicellular organisms.
 It allow the repair of tissues as it replaces the damaged or dead cells.
 It ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical set of chromosomes from the
parent cell.
 It preserves the genetic stability and integrity.
 Mitosis contributes to the formation and differentiation of various cell types in the
growing organism.
 Mitosis allow organisms to maintain their structure and function by producing new
cells.

Meiosis – Definition, Stages

 Meiosis or Reductional Division – daughter cell contain half the number of
chromosome as present in parent cell.
Phases in Cell Cycle
Interphase
 This phase is between the two successive phases of the M-phase.
 In this phase, the cell prepares themselves for cell division.
 Cells replicate their genetic material.
 Cells duplicate their organelles.
It includes 4 phases:
1. G1 phase: Phase in which most organelles duplicate themselves. This phase is the
interval between the mitosis and initiation of DNA.
2. G0 phase: Phase in which cells remain metabolically active but the cell doesn’t replicate
themselves until they are asked to do so.
3. S phase: Phase in which replication or synthesis of DNA occurs.
4. G2 phase: Phase in which chloroplast, Golgi bodies, and mitochondria duplicate. This
phase is the interval between the S phase and mitosis.
Meiosis
This diploid cell forms 4 haploid daughter cells, each having only half the number of
chromosomes.
It takes place in 2 divisions:
1. Meiosis – I: In this chromosome number is reduced to half that is why this division is
known as reductional division.
2. Meiosis – II: In this chromosome numbers remain the same till the end of the division
that is why this division is known as equational division.

Meiosis I
Prophase I: It is further divided into five stages that are –
 Leptotene: This word is made up of two words that are “leptos” and “tene” and their
meanings are “thin” and “thread”. In this stage, you will observe that a thin thread of
chromatin fibers will appear and they will get condensed by dehydration. Here the
nuclear membrane remains undamaged and chromosomes appear thread-like and are
made up of two sister chromatids.
 Zygotene: During this chromosomes will get paired then this whole process of
association is known as synapsis. Now there will be the formation of bivalent (pair of
synapsed chromosomes form a complex called bivalent).
 Pachytene: Crossing of two non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes
takes place in this stage. While this crossing there will be the exchange of genetic
material, this is an enzyme-mediated process and the enzyme involved in this process
is known as recombinase. By the end of this stage, the recombination of chromosomes
will be completed.
 Diplotene: In this stage nuclei and the nuclear membrane will start disappearing.
Homologous chromosomes will separate in this stage. Chiasmata(X-shaped structure)
will be formed.
  Diakinesis : chiasmata will terminate.
Metaphase- I
 Pairs of chromosomes align themselves on the equator of the cell.
 The spindle fibers at each pole of the cell are attached to each chromosome of each
pair.
 Centrioles are now at the opposite poles of the cell.
Anaphase- I
 Pair of chromosomes will be apparated by the spindle fibers.
 Now one chromosome will be at one pole of the cell and another chromosome will
look at the opposite pole.
 In this stage, sister chromatids will stay together.
Telophase- I
 Chromosomes have completed their whole moment and reach the poles of the cell.
 Around each set of chromosomes, there will be a formation of a membrane to create
two nuclei.
 The nuclear membrane will reappear.
 Nucleolus will reappear.
Cytokinesis: Each parent cell will now divide itself to form haploid daughter cells.
Interkinesis
 The stage between the telophase-I and prophase-II.
 No DNA replication will take place.
 Chromosomes will elongate in this stage
Meiosis II
Prophase- II
 Two daughter cells are formed will have condensed chromosomes that are visible in
an X-shaped structure which can be seen under a microscope.
 Duplication of centrioles takes place.
 Spindle fibers will be formed again
Metaphase- II
 Pairs of chromosomes align themselves on the equator of the cell.
 Centrioles are now at the opposite poles of the cell.
  The spindle fibers at each pole of the cell are attached to each chromosome of each
pair.
Anaphase- II
 The pair of chromatids are now pulled to opposite poles of the cell due to the action of
the spindle.
 Now, these chromatids will become individual chromosomes.
Telophase- II
 Chromatids will reach to pole and decondense themselves.
 The nuclear membrane will reappear.
 Nucleolus will reappear.
 Nuclei of four haploid cells are formed.
Cytokinesis
Each daughter cell at meiosis-I will divide itself to form new daughter cells. Basically, two
haploid daughter cells will convert themselves into four haploid cells.