SAMPLING AND

INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS
 SAMPLING
Sampling methods in psychology refer to strategies used to select a subset
of individuals (a sample) from a larger population, to study and draw
inferences about the entire population.

It is the process of selecting a representative group from the population

under study

Types:
Probability Sampling
Non-probability Sampling

The entire group of people from which the sample may be taken is known as the
target population.

A sample is a selection of people chosen for research or analysis from a broader

population. We refer to those who are part of the sample as "participants."

The capacity to apply research results from a sample to the larger target population,
provided that the sample is representative of that group, is known as generalizability.
 PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Probability sampling involves selecting participants so that every individual in a
population has a known, non-zero chance of being chosen, ensuring
representativeness and allowing for statistical inference. Examples include random
and stratified sampling. It means that every member of the population has a chance
of being selected and is mainly used in quantitative research.
 NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
In non-probability sampling, individuals are selected based on non-random criteria. Using
non-probability sampling means that not all individuals have an equal chance of being
included. Non-probability sampling doesn’t give every individual a known or equal chance
of selection. Exploratory and qualitative research use non-probability sampling, where the
aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population but instead to create an initial
understanding of an under-researched population.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
Simple random sampling gathers a random selection from the entire
population, where each unit has an equal chance of selection. This is the
most common way to select a random sample.
Stratified sampling collects a random selection of a sample from within certain
strata, or subgroups within the population. Each subgroup is separated from the
others on the basis of a common characteristic, such as gender, race, or religion.
This way, you can ensure that all subgroups of a given population are adequately
represented within your sample population.
Systematic sampling draws a random sample from the target population by
selecting units at regular intervals starting from a random point. This method is
useful in situations where records of your target population already exist, such as
records of an agency’s clients, enrollment lists of university students, or a
company’s employment records. Any of these can be used as a sampling frame.
Cluster sampling is the process of dividing the target population into groups,
called clusters. A randomly selected subsection of these groups then forms
your sample. Cluster sampling is an efficient approach when you want to study
large, geographically dispersed populations. It usually involves existing groups
that are similar to each other in some way (e.g., classes in a school).
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
Convenience sampling is primarily determined by convenience to the researcher. This can
include factors like, Ease of access, Geographical proximity, existing contact within the population
of interest. Convenience samples are sometimes called “accidental samples,” because
participants can be selected for the sample simply because they happen to be nearby when the
researcher is conducting the data collection.le simply because they happen to be nearby when
the researcher is conducting the data collection.

In quota sampling, you select a predetermined number or proportion of units, called a quota.
Your quota should comprise subgroups with specific characteristics (e.g., individuals, cases, or
organizations) and should be selected in a non-random manner. Your subgroups, called strata,
should be mutually exclusive. Your estimation can be based on previous studies or on other
existing data, if there are any. In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample
that involves the individuals to represent the population based on specific traits or qualities.
The researcher chooses the sample subsets that bring the useful collection of data that
generalizes the entire population.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the researcher’s knowledge.
As their knowledge is instrumental in creating the samples, there are the chances of obtaining
highly accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also known as judgmental
sampling or authoritative sampling.

Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-referral sampling technique. In this method, the
samples have traits that are difficult to find. So, each identified member of a population is
asked to find the other sampling units. Those sampling units also belong to the same
targeted population.
 HYPOTHESIS
A research hypothesis, in its plural form “hypotheses,” is a specific, testable
prediction about the anticipated results of a study, established at its outset.
Hypotheses connect theory to data and guide the research process towards
expanding scientific understanding. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about
the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction
about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your
question that helps guide the research process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
HYPOTHESIS:
The hypothesis should be clear and precise to consider it to be reliable.
If the hypothesis is a relational hypothesis, then it should be stating the
relationship between variables.
The hypothesis must be specific and should have scope for conducting more tests.
The way of explanation of the hypothesis must be very simple and it should also be
understood that the simplicity of the hypothesis is not related to its significance.
Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts.
Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time.
 ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS: DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS: A
TYPES OF states a relationship exists directional (one-tailed)
between the two variables hypothesis predicts the nature
HYPOTHESES being studied (one variable of the effect of the
affects the other). It typically independent variable on the
suggests a potential dependent variable. It predicts
relationship between two key in which direction the change
variables will take place. (i.e., greater,
smaller, less, more)

NULL HYPOTHESIS: states no NON-DIRECTIONAL

relationship exists between the HYPOTHESIS: A non-directional
two variables being studied hypothesis, also known as a
(one variable does not affect two-tailed hypothesis, predicts
the other). There will be no that there is a difference or
changes in the dependent relationship between two
variable due to manipulating variables but does not specify
the independent variable the direction of this
relationship.
 HYPOTHESIS TESTING
A statistical hypothesis is an unproven statement which can be tested. A
hypothesis test is used to test whether this statement is true. Hypothesis testing
is used to assess the plausibility of a hypothesis by using sample data. Such data
may come from a larger population or a data-generating process. In hypothesis
testing, an analyst tests a statistical sample, intending to provide evidence on the
plausibility of the null hypothesis. Statistical analysts measure and examine a
random sample of the population being analyzed. All analysts use a random
population sample to test two different hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the
alternative hypothesis.
STRUCTURE OF A HYPOTHESIS TEST:

1. Specify the null and the alternative hypothesis

2. Decide upon the significance level.
3. Collect data and decide whether to accept H0 or reject H0 and accept H1 by
either:
Comparing the p-value to the significance level α, or
Comparing the test statistic to the critical value.
4. Interpret your results and draw a conclusion