1.

8 THE LINEAR DC MACHINE-A SIMPLE EXAMPLE

A linear dc machine is about the simplest and easiest-to-understand version of a dc machine,

yet it operates according to the same principles and exhibits the same behavior as real generators
and motors.

Battery and a resistance connected through a switch to a pair of smooth, frictionless rails.

Uniform-density magnetic field directed into the page. A bar of conducting metal is lying across
the tracks
How does such a strange device behave? Its behavior can be determined from an
application of four basic equations to the machine. These equations are :

1. The equation for the force on a wire in the presence of a magnetic field 1/4

2/4
3/4

4/4
Starting the Linear DC Machine

To start this machine, simply close the switch. Now a current flows in
the bar, which is given by Kirchhoff's voltage law

1
The current flows down through the bar across the tracks.

But a current flowing through a wire in the presence of a magnetic field induces a force on the
wire. Because of the geometry of the machine, this force is

2
 Therefore, the bar will accelerate to the right (by Newton's law). However,
when the velocity of the bar begins to increase, a voltage appears across the bar.
The voltage is given by 3

The voltage now reduces the current flowing in the bar, since by Kirchhoff's voltage law

4
The result of this action is that eventually the bar will reach a constant steady-state speed
where the net force on the bar is zero.

This will occur when eind has risen all the way up to equal the voltage VB' At that time, the bar
will be moving at a speed given by

5
Velocity v(r) as a function of time; current i(t);

induced voltage eind(t) induced force Find.

To summarize, at starting, the linear dc machine behaves as follows:
 The Linear DC Machine as a Motor

Assume that the linear machine is initially running at the no-load steady-state conditions
described above.
What will happen to this machine if an external load is applied to it?

Here, a force Fload applied to the bar opposite the direction of motion. Since the bar was initially
at steady state, application of the force Fload will result in a net force on the bar in the direction
opposite the direction of motion (Fnet = Fload - Find).
The effect of this force will be to slow the bar.
But just as soon as the bar begins to slow down, the induced voltage on the bar drops
(eind = v↓BI). As the induced voltage decreases, the current flow in the bar rises:
Therefore, the induced force rises too (Find= i↑IB). The overall result of this chain of events is
that the induced force rises until it is equal and opposite to the load force , and the bar again
travels in steady state, but at a lower speed.

Velocity V(I) as a function of time

current i(t)

Velocity V(I) as a fu nction

of time

induced voltage eind induced force Find

There is now an induced force in the direction of motion of the bar,
and power is being converted from electrical form to mechanical form to
keep the bar moving.

The power being converted is

An amount of electric power equal to eind is consumed in the bar

and is replaced by mechanical power equal to FindV.

Since power is converted from electrical to mechanical form, this bar is

operating as a motor.
A real dc motor behaves in a precisely analogous fashion when it is loaded:

As a load is added to its shaft, the motor begins to slow down, which
reduces its internal voltage, increasing its current flow.

The increased current flow increases its induced torque, and the induced
torque will equal the load torque of the motor at a new, slower speed.

Note that the power converted from electrical form to mechanical form by this linear motor was
given by the equation Pconv = FindV.

The power converted from electrical form to mechanical form in a real rotating motor is given
by the equation

where the induced torque τind is the rotational analog of the induced force Find, and
the angular velocity w is the rotational analog of the linear velocity v.
 The Linear DC Machine as a Generator
Suppose that the linear machine is again operating under no-load steady-state conditions.
This time, apply a force in the direction a/motion and see what happens

applied force
Fapp in the
direction of
motion.

Applied force will cause the bar to accelerate in the direction of motion,
and the velocity v of the bar will increase.

As the velocity increases, eind = v↑Bl will increase and will be larger than the battery voltage VB
With eind > VB the current reverses direction and is now given by
Since this current now flows up through the bar, it induces a force in the bar given by

The direction of the induced force is given by the right-hand rule. This induced (force
opposes the applied force on the bar.

Finally, the induced force will be equal and opposite to the applied force, and the bar will
be moving at a higher speed than before.

Notice that now the battery is charging.

The linear machine is now serving as a generator,

converting mechanical power FindV into electric power eindi .

Again, a real dc generator behaves in precisely this manner:

---A torque is applied to the shaft in the direction a/motion,

---the speed of the shaft increases,
---the internal voltage increases,
---and current flows out of the generator to the loads.
---The amount of mechanical power converted to electrical form in the real rotating generator is
again given by

The same machine acts as both motor and generator.

The only difference between the two is whether the externally applied forces are in the direction
of motion (generator) or opposite to the direction of motion (motor).

----Electrically, when eind > VB the machine acts as a generator,

----and when eind < VB the machine acts as a motor.

Whether the machine is a motor or a generator,
both induced- force (motor action) and induced voltage (generator action) are present
at all times.

This is generally true of all machines- both actions are present, and it is only the relative
directions of the external forces with respect to the direction of motion that determine
whether the overall machine behaves as a motor or as a generator.

This machine was a generator when it moved rapidly and a motor when it moved
more slowly,

but whether it was a motor or a generator, it always moved in the same direction.

Many beginning machinery students expect a machine to turn one way as a generator
and the other way as a motor. This does not occur.
 Starting Problems with the Linear Machine

This machine is supplied by a 250-V dc source, and its internal resistance R is given as about
0.10Ω (The resistor R models the internal resistance of a real dc machine, and this is a fairly
reasonable internal resistance for a medium-size dc motor.)

Providing actual numbers in this figure highlights a major problem with machines (and their
simple linear model). At starting conditions, the speed of the bar is zero, so eind = 0. The current
flow at starting is
This current is very high, often in excess of 10 times the rated current of the machine.

Such currents can cause severe damage to a motor. Both real ac and real dc machines suffer
from similar high-current problems on starting.

How can such damage be prevented?

The easiest method for this simple linear machine is to insert an extra resistance into the
circuit during starting to limit the current flow until eind builds up enough to limit it.

a starting resistance inserted into the machine circuitry.

Example

The linear dc machine shown

in Figure has a battery
voltage of 120 V, an internal
resistance of 0.3Ω, and a
magnetic flux density of 0.1
T.

(a) What is this machine's maximum starting current? What is its steady-state velocity at no
load?

(b) Suppose that a 30-N force pointing to the right were applied to the bar. What would the
steady-state speed be? How much power would the bar be producing or consuming? How much
power would the battery be producing or consuming? Explain the difference between these two
figures . Is this machine acting as a motor or as a generator?

(c) Now suppose a 30¥N force pointing to the left were applied to the bar. What would the new
steady-state speed be? Is this machine a motor or a generator now?

(e) Assume that the bar is unloaded and that it suddenly runs into a region where the magnetic
field is weakened to 0.08 T. How fast will the bar go now?
Thus, when the flux in the linear motor weakens, the bar speeds up. The same behavior
occurs in real dc motors: When the field flux of a dc motor weakens, it turns faster. Here,
again, the linear machine behaves in much the same way as a real de motor.
1.9 REAL, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER IN SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS

Power supplied to the dc load is

simply the product of the voltage
across the load and the current
flowing through it.

Sinusoidal ac circuits is more complex, because there can be a phase difference between the ac
voltage and the ac current supplied to the load.

The instantaneous power supplied to an ac load will still be the product of the instantaneous
voltage and the instantaneous current,

the average power supplied to the load will be affected by the phase angle between the
voltage and the current. We will now explore the effects of this phase difference on the average
power supplied to an ac load.
 Single phase voltage source
supplying power to a single-phase
load with impedance Z=Z∟θ. If we
assume that the load is inductive,
then the impedance angle θ of the
load will be positive, and the
current will lag the voltage by θ
degrees.

The voltage applied to this load is

rms value

instantaneous power:

Component 1 Component 2
 Always positive, but it produces pulses Note that the second term of the
of power instead of a constant value. instantaneous power expression is
The average value of this term is positive half of the time and
negative half of the time, so that
the average power supplied by this
term is zero.
average or real power (P) supplied to the load
The units of real power are watts (W), The power that continually bounces
where 1 W = I V X 1 A. back and forth between the source and
the load is known as reactive power
(Q).
Reactive power represents the energy that is
first stored and then released in the magnetic
field of an inductor, or in the electric field of a
capacitor. The reactive power of a load is

Q is positive for inductive loads and negative for capacitive loads, because the impedance angle
Θ is positive for inductive loads and negative for capacitive loads. The units of reactive power
are volt-amperes reactive (var), where I var = I V X 1 A.
Even though the dimensional units are the same as for watts, reactive power is traditionally
given a unique name to distinguish it from power actually supplied to a load.

The apparent power (S) supplied to a load is defined as the product of the voltage across the
load and the current through the load. This is the power that "appears" to be supplied to the
load if the phase angle differences between voltage and current are ignored. Therefore, the
apparent power of a load is

The units of apparent power are volt-amperes (VA), where I VA = 1 V X I A. As with reactive
power, apparent power is given a distinctive set of units to avoid confusing it with real and
reactive power.
Alternative Forms of the Power Equations

If a load has a constant impedance, then Ohm's law can be used to derive alternative
expressions for the real, reactive, and apparent powers supplied to the load. Since the
magnitude of the voltage across the load is

Since the impedance of the load Z can be expressed

Complex Power
Real and reactive power are sometimes represented together as a complex power S

complex conjugate operator

the voltage applied to a load is

the current through the load is

The Relationships between Impedance Angle, Current Angle, and Power
An inductive load has a positive impedance
angle Θ. This load produces a lagging current,
and it consumes both real power P and
reactive power Q from the source

if the impedance angle Θ of a load is positive,

the reactive power consumed by the load will
be positive, and the load is said to be
consuming both real and reactive power from
the source

A capacitive load has a negative impedance

angle Θ. This load produces a leading current,
and it consumes real power P from the source
while supplying reactive power Q to the source

if the impedance angle Θ of a load is negative,

the reactive power consumed by the load will
be negative, and the load is said to be
consuming real power and supplying reactive
power to the source
The Power Triangle

The real, reactive, and apparent Powers supplied to a load are related by the power triangle.

apparent power S reactive power power Factor of a load

Real power
Example : Calculate the current I supplied to the load, the power factor of the load,
and the real, reactive, apparent, and complex power supplied to the load.