BASIC NETWORKING

FOR
ND 2 COMPUTER SCIENCE
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 COMPUTER NETWORKING
A computer network consists of two or more autonomous computers that are
connected together in order to:
 Share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines).
 Share Application software like MS office.
 Allow Electronic communication.
 Makes it easier to share data amongst users.
The computers on a network may be linked through Cables, telephones lines, radio
waves, satellites etc. A computer network includes, the network operating system
in the client and server machines, the cables, which connect different computers
and all supporting hardware ill between such as bridges, routers and switches.
A network is a group of two of more computer systems sharing services and
interacting in some manner. This interaction is accomplished through a shared
communication link with the shared components being data. Also a network is a
collection of machines that have been linked both physically and through software
components to facilitate communication and the sharing of information.
A physical pathway known as transmission medium, connects the systems and a
set of rules determines how they communicate. These rules are known as
protocols. A network protocol is a software installed on a machine that determines
the agreed –upon set of rules for two or more machine to communicate with each
other. One common metaphor used to describe different protocols is to compare
them to human languages. Think of a group of people in the same room who know
nothing about each other. In order for them to communicate, this group must
determine what language to speak and how to identify each other, whether to make
general announcements or have private conversations and so on. Machines using
different protocols installed can't communicate with each other. Networks are
widely used by companies or on personal level also.
Fig 1: A typical computer Networking Environment

1.2 ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer in a networked environment provide numerous advantages when
compared to computers in a stand alone environment. The immense benefits that
the computer networks provide are in the form of excellent sharing of
computational resources, computational load, increased level of reliability,
economy and efficient person-to-person communication.
Following are some of the major advantages of using computer networks.
 FILE SHARING: A person sitting at one workstation of a network can
easily see the files present on the other workstation, provided he is
authorized to do so.
 RESOURCE SHARING: All computers in an office can be interconnected
using a network and one printer can efficiently provide the services to all
four members.
 INCREASE STORAGE CAPACITY: A standalone computer might fall
short of storage memory, but when many computers are on a network,
memory of different computers can be used in such case.
 INCREASE COST EFFICIENCY: Computer networks resolve this issue
as the software can be stored or installed on a system or a server and can be
used by the different workstations
COMPUTER NETWORK
 SECURITY ISSUES: A computer hacker can get unauthorized access by
usingdifferent tools. In case of big organizations, various network security
software’s are used to prevent the theft of any confidential and classified
data.
 RAPID SPREAD OF COMPUTER VIRUSES: If any computer system in a
network gets affected by computer virus, there is a possible threat of other
systems getting affected too.
 EXPENSIVE TO SETUP: Costly devices like routers, switches, hubs, etc.,
can add up to the bills of a person trying to install a computer network.
 DEPENDENCY ON MAIN SERVER: In case the main File Server of a
computer network breaks down, the system becomes useless. In case of big
networks the File Server should be a powerful computer which often makes
it expensive.

1,3 TYPES OF NETWORK

NETWORK

PAN LAN WAN CAN MAN

The network can be divided into geographical areas and fall into one of two major
categories
 Local Area Network (LANs)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MANs)
 Wide Area Network (WANs)
 Campus Area Networks (CANs)
 Personal Area Network (PANs)

 Local Area Network (LAN) is a network which is designed to operate over

a small physical area such as an office, factory or a group of buildings. A
LAN is generally confined to a specific location, such as floor, building or
some other small area. By being confined it is possible in most cases to use
only one transmission medium (cabling). The technology is less expensive
to implement than WAN because you are keeping all of your expenses to a
 small area, and generally you can obtain higher speed. They, are widely used
to connect personal computers and workstations in company offices and
factories to share recourses.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Metropolitan Area Network is
basically a bigger version of LAN and normally uses same technology. It
might cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a city and might be either
private or public. On other hand, MAN is network running through out a
metropolitan area such as a backbone for a phone service carrier. A MAN
just has one or two cables and does not contain switching elements.
 Wide Area Network (WAN) useses long-distance telecommunications
networks for their connections, which increases the costs of the network.
The Internet is just a giant WAN.

1.4 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLIENT AND SERVER COMPUTERS

Client Computers: A client is a computer or program that is part of its operation,
relies on sending a request to another program or a computer hardware or software
that accesses a service made available by a server (which may or may not be
located on another computer). Client-based network servers process requests from
clients and return just the results, rather than sending the original resource to the
client to be processed and returned after computations are complete. Client-based
networks, therefore, take advantage of the powerful processing capabilities of both
the client and the server. This type of arrangement may include application servers
(where entire computer programs are shared from the server) and communications
servers (where e-mail and other communications media are operated).
Server Computers: Server is a computer or system that provides resources, data,
services, or programs to other computers, known as clients, over a network.
Whenever Any computers share its resources with client machines they are
considered servers. There are many types of servers, including web servers, mail
servers, and virtual servers.

WORKING OF A SERVER: To function as a server, a device must be

configured to listen to requests from clients on a network connection. When a
client requires data or functionality from a server, it sends a request over the
network. The server receives this request and responds with the appropriate
information. This is the request and response model of client-server networking,
also known as the call and response model.
FILE SERVER: File servers store and distribute files. Multiple clients or users
may share files stored on a server. In addition, centrally storing files offers easier
backup or fault tolerance solutions than attempting to provide security and integrity
for files on every device in an organization.
PRINT SERVER: Print servers allow for the management and distribution of
printing functionality. Rather than attaching a printer to every workstation, a
single print server can respond to printing requests from numerous clients.
APPLICATION SERVER: Application servers run applications in lieu of client
computers running applications locally. Application servers often run resource-
intensive applications that are shared by a large number of users. Doing so
removes the need for each client to have sufficient resources to run the
applications.
DNS SERVER: Domain Name System (DNS) servers are application servers that
provide name resolution to client computers by converting names easily
understood by humans into machine-readable IP addresses. The DNS system is a
widely distributed database of names and other DNS servers, each of which can be
used to request an
otherwise unknown computer name.

1.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WIRE AND WIRELESS NETWORK

Wired Network: A wired network employs wires to link devices to the internet or
another network such as lap top or desk top pcs. Also a wired network uses cables
to connect devices, such as laptop or desktop computers, to the internet or another
network.
Wireless Networks: The term 'wireless network' refers to two or more computers
communicating using standard network rules or protocols, but without the use of
cabling to connect the computers together. Instead, the computers use wireless
radio signals to send information from one to the other. A wireless local area 9
network (WLAN) consists of two key components: an access point (also called a
base station) and a wireless card. Information can be transmitted between these two
components as long as they are fairly close together (up to 100 metres indoors or
350 metres outdoors).

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER
The interfaces and devises that are used to connect computing devices and
transmission media are called connectivity hardware or network connectivity
devices. Network connectivity hardware connects individual devices and
transmission media are called connectivity hardware or network connectivity
devices”. Network connectivity hardware connects individual devices to a single
network, for example a PC or printer would use network connectivity devices to
connect to UTP.
• Router
• Switches
 • Repeater
• Gateway and cables
Router
Router is layer-3 Device. Layer-3 routing is the process of forwarding a packet
from one network to another network, based on the Network-layer header. Routers
build routing tables to perform forwarding decisions, which contain the following:
• The destination network and subnet mask
• The next hop router to get to the destination network
• Routing metrics and Administrative Distance

Figure 2.1: Router

Repeaters
The repeaters job is simple: it detects the signal, amplifies and retimes it, and sends
it through all the ports except the one on which the signal was seen. It is important
to note that since the repeater has no real knowledge of the data it is carrying; no
error checking is performed. Therefore, any error is passed from one segment to
the next without any ability to stop it. Many networks limit the number of repeaters
between the transmitting and receiving stations. On other side, by not performing
any filtering, the -repeater does not slow down the network's speed or performance.
The signal has travelled a distance is weak, and so on, the amplification can also be
done on noise received.
Switches
As a response growing network demands, devices known as switches were
introduced to the market in 1991. A switch is a big brother of bridge. The switch is
nothing but a large multiport bridge. The switch operates at layer 2 of the OSI
model just like a bridge that MAC addresses to determine where to forward the
packet. The main differences between switches and bridges, are the strength and
speed offered by the switches. Bridges can have maximum 16 ports while switches
can offer hundreds of ports, each port offering exclusive bandwidth of 10 or 100
Mbps. Switches can perform following functions.
 Address learning.
 Filtering and forwarding
  Loop Avoidance

Figure 2.2: Switch

Gateway
A gateway is a device that routes traffic between networks. For example, at home,
your router is your gateway. It provides a “gateway” between your LAN and
WAN.Gateways perform much higher-level translations than any other
componentand thus work at the Application layer of the OSI module. When
packets arrive at agateway, all the information is stripped off the data until it
reaches the layer where itcan translate the information-using the format needed for
the destination
Cable

Fig. 2.3: Cable

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network
device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with
LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks
will use a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related
to the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of
different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is
necessary for the development of a successful network.
2.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HUB AND SWITCH
Hub

Fig. 2.4: Hub

A hub is a device used to connect a PC to the network. The function of a hub is to
direct information around the network, facilitating communication between all
connected devices. However, in new installations switches 8 should be used
instead of hubs as they are more effective and provide better performance.
Switch

Fig. 2.5: Switch

A switch, which is often termed a 'smart hub'. Switches and hubs are technologies
or ‘boxes’ to which computers, printers, and other networking devices are
connected. Switches are the more recent technology and the accepted way of
building today's networks. With switching, each connection gets "dedicated
bandwidth" and can operate at full speed. In contrast, a hub shares bandwidth
across multiple connections
such that activity from one PC or server can slow down the effective speed of other
connections on the hub.
2.3 REPEATERS AND IT FUNCTIONS
Repeaters
When an electrical signal is sent across a medium, it fades along the distance
(known as attenuation) as a result of resistance from the medium itself. Naturally
the longer the distance that it travelled, the more the signal fades. Eventually tie
signal fades to a, point where the receiving station cannot recognize the original
message (Or has trouble doing so).
In short each transmission medium can be used for a certain distance. However,
you can exceed the physical medium's maximum effective distance by using an
amplification, device called as Repeater. It works at OSI physical layer. A repeater
operates at the physical layer of the OSI model and takes a signal from one LAN
and sends it to another LAN- reconditioning and retiming it in the process. The
reconditioning usually amplifies and boosts the signal's power. If the signal has
travelled a distance it is weak, and so on, the amplification can also be done on
noise receivers.
The repeaters job is simple: it detects the signal, amplifies and retimes it, and sends
it through all the ports except the one on which the signal was seen. It is important
to note that since the repeater has no real knowledge of the data it is carrying; no
error checking is performed. Therefore, any error are passed from one segment to
the next without any ability to stop it. Many networks limit the number of repeaters
between the transmitting and receiving stations. On other side, by not performing
any filtering, the -repeater does not slow down the network's speed or performance.
The signal has travelled a distance is weak, and so on, the amplification can also be
done on noise received.

Function of Repeater
 Repeater is use to replicate
 The repeater amplifies
 Repeater received a signal and transmits it before it becomes too weak or
corrupted.
2.4 BRIDGES
Bridges connects two separate networks to form a logical one by operating at the
data link layer of the OSI model. Bridges rely on MAC addresses for their
operation. Unlike repeaters, bridges examine the packet's destination address
before forwarding it to other segments. A bridge extends the maximum distance of
your network by connecting separate network segments, and selectively pass
signals from one medium segment to another. Bridges isolate the media access
mechanisms of the LANs to which they are connected. If a packet has a destination
address on the same network segment as the source of the signal, the bridge ignore
the signal. If the destination address is different from the source address network
segment, the bridge sends the message along in a fashion similar to what a repeater
would. Since bridges are selective about which data packets can be transferred,
they are useful in solving traffic bottlenecks it must be noted, however that bridges
do not reduce traffic caused by broadcast packets or
broadcast storms.
Function of Bridge
A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the destination MAC
address written into each frame of data.

2.5 ROUTERS
Routers like bridges-can be used to connect network segments. Whereas bridges
only know to forward what they don't recognized, routers are aware of multiple
paths that lead to a destination address and know which path is best.
Function of Router
Routers are normally responsible for performing the following functions:
 Route selection: A router is maintaining the information in its routing table
about how to reachremote networks. It will then make routing decisions
based on that information
 Logical addressing: A device that operates at layer 3 requires some form of
logical addressing.These addresses will be used to determine route selection.
 Segmentation: routers can be provided by a powerful method of segmenting
your networks to allow optimum utilization of available bandwidth.
2.6 NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)
A NIC (pronounced 'nick') is also known as a network card. It connects the
computer to the cabling, which in turn links all of the computers on the network
together. Each computer on a network must have a network card. Most modern
network cards are 10/100 NICs and can operate at either 10Mbps or 100Mbps.
Computers with a wireless connection to a network also use a network card. NIC
hardware address is in Hexadecimal form and it is of 48 bit

Functions
 A NIC provides a computer with a dedicated full-time connection to a
network.
 It implements the physical layer circuitry necessary for communicating with
a data link layer standard, such as Ethernet or Wifi.
 Each card represents a device and can prepare, transmit and control the flow
of data on the network.

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Network Planning and Design
Network planning and design is an iterative process, encompassing topological
design, network synthesis and network realization, and is aimed at ensuring that a
new telecommunications network or service meets the needs of the subscriber and
operator. The process can be tailored according to each new network or service.
The network planning process involves three main steps:
• Topological Design: This stage involves determining where to place the
components and how to connect them. The (topological) optimization
methods that can be used in this stage come from an area of mathematics
called Graph theory. These method involve determining the cost of
transmission and the cost of switching, and thereby determining the
optimum connection matrix and location of switches and concentrators.
• Network Synthesis: This stage involves determining the size of the
components used, subject to performance criteria such as the Grade of
services (GOS). The method used is known as “Nonlinear Optimization”,
and involves determining the topology, required GOS, cost of transmission,
etc, and using this information to calculate routing plan and the size of the
components.
• Network Realization: This stage involves determining how to meet
capacity requirements, and ensure reliability within the network. The
 method. The method used is known as “Multi-commodity flow
Optimization”, and involves all information determining relating to demand,
costs, and reliability, and then using this information to calculate and actual
physical circuit plan.
The steps are performed iteratively in parallel with one another.
THE ROLE OF FORECASTING
During the process of Networking planning and Design, estimates are made of the
expected traffic intensity and traffic load that the network must support. Fi a
network of a similar nature already exists, traffic measurements of such a network
can be used to calculate the exact traffic load. If there are no similar networks, then
the network planner must use telecommunications forecasting methods to estimate
the expected traffic intensity.
The forecasting process involves several steps:
• Definition of a problem
• Data acquisition
• Choice of forecasting method
• Analysis/ forecasting
• Documentation and analysis of results.

3.2 IMPORTANCE OF NETWORK PLANNING

 Network design plans allow for better performance: Good network work
quickly, and a network design plan allows you to ensure that your network
performs with a consistently high level of performance.
 Network design plans allow for Resilience: Your business network should
provide a good platform for all of the applications that you need to use.
 Network design plans allow for Scalability: Good network design plans
allow for scalability without the need for a total redesign.

3.3 STEPS INVOLVED IN DESIGNING A NETWORK

The steps required to design a good network are as follows:
• Outline the requirements
• Draw the Network Topology.
• Keep a Register of the Hardware
• Label the hardware
• Keep a record of the software used
• IP addresses and subnets
• Test the network
• Allow room for redundancy
• Network security
• Plan for future
3.4 NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Topology refers to the shape of a network, or the network’s layout. How different
nodes in a network are connected to each other and how they communicate with
each other is determined by the network’s topology. Topologies are either physical
or logical
Some of the most common network topologies are:
 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Mesh topology
 Cellular topology
The parameters that are to be considered while selecting a physical topology are:
 Ease of installation
 Ease of reconfiguration
 Ease of troubleshooting

BUS TOPOLOGY

Fig. 3.1: Bus Topology

A bus physical topology is one in which all devices connect to a common,shared
cable. A physical bus topology network typically uses one long cable, called
abackbone, Computers (workstations and servers) are attached directly to
thebackbone using Terrestrial microwave-connectors. The backbone is terminated
at bothends to remove the signal from the wire after it has passed all devices. Most
bustopologies allow electric or electro-magnetic signals to travel in both directions.
Advantages
1. Uses established standards
2. Relatively easy to install
3. Requires less media than other topologies
Disadvantages
 1. Moderately difficult to reconfigure
2. Since a bus topology is based on a single cable, troubleshooting is relatively
difficult.
3. All units affected by media failure

RING TOPOLOGY

Fig. 3.2: Ring Topology

Ring topologies are wired in a circle. Each node is connected to its neighbors
or either side, and date, passes around the ring in one direction only. Each device
incorporates a receiver and a transmitter and servers as a repeater that passes the
Signal to the next device in the ring. Because the signal is regenerated at each
device, signal degeneration is low.
Ring topologies are ideally suited for token passing access methods. The
token gets passed around the ring, and only the node that holds the token can
transmit data. Ring physical topologies are quite rare.
Advantages
 Because each device incorporates a repeater, you can easily find cable faults.
 Dual loop rings can be very fault tolerant.
Disadvantages
 More difficult to install and reconfigure than bus topology
 Faults in single loop system affect all devices on the network
 Because the ring requires a closed loop, more media is required than with
busnetworks.
STAR TOPOLOGY

Fig. 3.3: Star Topology

Physical star topologies use a central device with drop cables extending in all
directions. Each networked device is connected via a point-to point link to the
central device called a hub or multiport repeater. Additionally, star, topologies can
be nested within other stars to form tree or hierarchical network topologies. In star
topology, electrical or electromagnetic signals travel from the networked device,
up its drop cable, to the hub, from there the signal is sent to other network.
Advantages
 Star topologies are relatively easy to reconfigure.
 Because all data in a star network goes through a central point where it can
be
 collected, stars are easy to troubleshoot.
 Media faults are automatically isolated to the failed segment.
Disadvantages
• Star topologies require more cable than most other topologies
• Moderately difficult to install
• Hub failures can disable

MESH TOPOLOGY
A mesh network has point-to-point connections between every device in the
network. Because each device requires an Interface for every other device on the
network, mesh topologies are not usually considered practical. However, mesh
networks are extremely fault tolerant, and each link provides guaranteed capacity.
Typically, you use mesh topologies in a hybrid network with just the largest or
most important sites interconnected. You would use a hybrid mesh topology with
redundant links between the main sites to insure continuous communications
between the mainframes. The following figure will explain the topological
difference between true mesh and hybrid mesh.

Fig. 3.4: Mesh Topology

Advantages
• Use of dedicated links eliminates traffic problem
• Mesh topologies resist media failure better than other topologies.
• Point-to-point link makes fault isolation easy.
• It is robust
Disadvantages
• Mesh networks are relatively difficult to install because each device must be
linked directly to all other devices.
• Mesh topologies are difficult to reconfigure.

CELLULAR TOPOLOGY

Fig. 3.4: Cellular Topology

A cellular topology combines wireless point-to-point and multipoint strategies
to divide a geographic area into cells. Each cell represents the portion of the total
network area in which a specific connection operates. Devices within the cell
communicate with a central station or hub. Hubs are interconnected to route data
across the network and to provide the complete network infrastructure. As a
wireless structure, the topology that dependent upon the interconnection of cable.
Cellular topology relies on the location of wireless media hubs. Because of this
difference, cellular topologies exhibit qualities that are very different from cable
topologies. For example, devices may roam from cell to cell while maintaining
connection to the network.
Advantages
• Relatively easy to install
• Does not require media reconfiguration when adding or moving users.
• Fault isolation and troubleshooting is fairly simple.
Disadvantages
• All devices using a particular hub are affected by a hub failure.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 NETWORK CLASSIFICATION
(a) Point-to-point
Point-to-point, networks are those in which there are many connections between
individual pairs of machines. In these networks, when a packet travels from source
to destination it may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines. Routing
algorithms play an important role in point-to-point networks because often
multiple routes of different lengths are available. a personal computer directly to a
printer, you have created a point-to-point link. Another example is the link
between two microwave antennas. The figure given below shows point-to-point
connections. Because only two devices share a point-to point connection, each
station is guaranteed a specific transmission capacity or bandwidth.
 Fig. 4.1: point-to-point connection
(b) Peer-to-Peer

Fig. 4.2: Peer-to-peer

Peer-to-peer networks are more commonly implemented where less than ten
computers are involved and where strict security is not necessary. All computers
have the same status, hence the term 'peer', and they communicate with each other
on an equal footing. Files, such as word processing or spreadsheet documents, can
be shared across the network and all the computers on the network can share
devices, such as printers or scanners, which are connected to any one computer. No
server is required, so there is no additional cost for a dedicated machine, but there
is also no real security.Peer-to-Peer networks require an operating system that can
understand networking and function in this (Peer-to-Peer) way. Microsoft
Windows 95, Microsoft Windows 98, Windows NT server and Windows NT
workstation can all function in Peer to-Peer environment. Access permission can
be Read-Only, Full or depend on password this is known as share level security.
Access is gained when a user supplies the correct password to access the share.

Advantages of peer-to-peer network

 Server is not required
 No additional cost for dedicated-machine
Disadvantages of peer-to peer network
 Provides share level security
 Can work in small environments only.
Client/Server Based Networks
Client/server networks are more suitable for larger networks. A central computer,
or 'server', acts as the storage location for files and applications shared on the
network. Usually the server is a higher than average performance computer. The
server also controls the network access of the other computers which are referred
to as the 'client' computers. Typically, teachers and students in a school will use the
client computers for their work and only the network administrator (usually a
designated staff member) will have access rights to the server.
Cable
Cable is the medium through which information usually movesfrom one network
device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with
LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks
will use a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related
to the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of
different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is
necessary for the development of a successful network

4.2 TYPES OF CABLE

(a) Coaxial :- Coaxial cables were the first cable types used in LANs. Coaxial
cable gets its name because two conductors share a common axis. The cable
is most frequently referred as coax. It has better shielding than twisted pair,
so it can span longer distances at higher speed two kinds of co-axial cable
are widely used.
1. 50-ohm cable (Base band coaxial cables / Thinnet) is commonly used for
digitaltransmission.
2. 75-ohm cable (Broad band coaxial cables / thicknet) is commonly used
foranalog transmission.
This distinction is based on historical, rather than technical, factors (e.g early
dipole antennas had an impedance of 300 ohms, as it was easy to built 4:1
impedance matching transformers)
The components of the co-axial cable are as follows:
 A central conductor, although usually solid copper wire, this sometimes is
alsomade of standard wire.
 An outer conductor forms a tube surrounding the central conductor.
Thisconductor can consist of braided wires, metallic foil or both. The outer
conductor,frequency called the shield, servers as a ground and also protects
the innerconductor from EMI.
 An insulation layer keeps the outer conductor spaced evenly from the
innerconductor.
 A plastic encasement (jacket) protects the cable from damage.
The construction and shielding of the co-axial cable give it a good combinationof
high bandwidth and excellent noise immunity. The possible bandwidth depends on
the cable length.
(b)Twisted pair:- Although the bandwidth characteristics of magnetic tapes are
excellent, the delay characteristics are poor. Transmission time is measured
in minutes or hours, not milliseconds. For many applications an online
connection is needed. The oldest and still most common transmission
medium is twisted pair, which employs copper cable. One more reason for
popularity of twisted pair is low cost. This type of cable is inexpensive to
 install and offers the lowest cost per foot of-any cable type. A basic twisted
pair cable consists of two strands of copper wire twisted together, as shown
below. This twisting reduces the sensitivity of the cable to EMI and also
reduces the tendency of the cable to radiate radio frequency noise that
interferes with nearby cables and electronic components. This is because the
radiated signals from the twisted wires tens to cancel each other out.
Antennas, which are purposely designed to radiate radio frequency signals,
consist of parallel, not twisted wires) Twisting also controls the tendency of
the wires in the pair to cause EMI each other. Whenever two wires are in
close proximity, the signals in each wire tend to produce noise, called
crosstalk, in the other. Twisting the wires in the pair reduces crosstalk in
much the same way that twisting reduces the tendency of the wires to radiate
EMI.
Two types of twisted-pair cable are used in LANs:

 Shielded
 Unshielded

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

Shielded twisted-pair cabling consists of one or more twisted pairs of cables
enclosed in a foil wrap and woven copper shielding as shown above. Diagram
shows IBM type 1 cabling, the first cable type used with IBM token Ring. Early
LAN designers used shielded twisted-pair cable because shield further reduces the
tendency of the cable to radiate EMI and thus reduces the cable's sensitivity to
outside interference

Fig. 4.2: A Shielded Twisted pair-cable

Unshielded Twisted-pair (UTP) cable
Unshielded Twisted-pair cable does not incorporate a braided shield into its
structure; however, the characteristics of UTP are similar in many ways to STP,
differing primarily in attenuation and EMI. As shown in figure, several Twisted-
pairs can be bundled in a single cable. These pairs typically are colour-coded to
distinguish them.Telephone systems commonly use UTP cabling. Network
engineers can sometime use existing UTP telephone cabling (if it is new enough
and of high-enough quality to support network communications) for network
cabling. UTP cable is a latecomer to high-performance LANs because engineers
only recently solved the problems of managing radiated noise and susceptibility to
EMI. However, a clear trend toward UTP is in operation, and all new copper based
cabling schemes are based on UTP.

Fig. 4.3. Multi Pair UTP Cable

Advantages of UTP cable
 Relatively inexpensive
 Easily installed, managed, and reconfigured
 Basic technology and standards are matured and stable
Disadvantages of UTP cable
 Only categories 5,6,7 UTP cables are capable of high-speed (> 100 Mbps)
data transmission.
 Relatively high rate of attenuation
 Sensitive to EMI
Optical Fiber

Fig. 4.4: Optical Fiber Cable

Fiber optic cable is made of fine strands of silicon glass fiber (thinner than a
human hair), and is coated with a refractive surface. The signals are converted to
light pulses before being sent. When light (provided by a laser or LED) is show
into the strand, it travels along the fiber strand (the refractive layer prevents it from
escaping). Each fiber optic strand can support thousands of speech channels and
multiple TV channels simultaneously. It is used for long haul telecommunication
links, for providing high-speed data communications links for computers, and
information services to homes (e.g., PAY TV)
Advantages of Fiber optic cable
 Supports very high bandwidth- from 100 Mbps to >2Gbps
 Very low alteration
 Immune to EMI or eavesdropping
Disadvantages
 Very expensive cables
 More complex to install
 High precision required for connections
An Optical Fiber transmission system has three components: the light source, the
transmission medium, and the detector. Conventionally, a pulse of light indicates a
1 bit and the absence of light indicates a zero bit. The transmission medium is an
ultra-thin fiber of glass. The detector is a photo-divider that generates and electrical
pulse when light falls on it. By attaching a light source to one end of an optical
fiber and a detector to the other, we have a unidirectional data transmission system
that accepts and electrical signal, converts and transmits it by light pulses, and then
reconverts the output to an electrical signal at the receiving end.
Fibers can be connected in three different ways. First, the can terminate in
connectors and be plugged into fiber sockets. Connectors lose about 10 to 20
percent of the light, but they make it easy to reconfigure system.
Second, the y can be splice mechanically, Mechanical splices just place the two
carefully cut ends next to each other in a special sleeve and clamp them together.
The alignment can be improved by passing light through the junction and then
making small adjustments to maximize the signal. Trained personnel can do
mechanical splicing in 5 minutes, and show result in a 10 percent light loss.
Third, two pieces of fiber can be fused (melted) to form a solid connection. A
fusion splice is almost as good as a single drawn fiber, but even here, a small
amount of attenuation occurs. For all three kinds of a splice, reflections can occur
at the point of the splice, and the reflected energy can interfere with the signal.

4.4 TYPES OF SERVER

Server is a computer or system that provides resources, data, services or programs
to other computers, known as clients, over a network. Whenever Any computers
share its resources with client machines they are considered servers. There are
many types of servers, including web servers, mail servers, and virtual servers.
 PRINTSERVER: Print servers allow for the management and distribution of
printing functionality. Rather than attaching a printer to every workstation, a
single print server can respond to printing requests from numerous clients.
 MAIL SERVER: Mail servers receive emails sent to a user and store them
until requested by a client on behalf of said user. It is then ready to send and
 receive messages rather than requiring every client machine to have its own
email subsystem continuously running.

4.5 SERVER RELIABILITY

It is something that is governed by how well a server is managed, with the best
managed servers being the most reliable and offering the best uptime; in order to
manage a server properly you need to be well versed in server management skills
and larger web hosting providers tend to offer the best.
Server Availability
Server availability means the percentage of time that the servers used to host the
subscription software will be operational and will successfully execute the
necessary web, application, and database server software.
Data Integrity
Data integrity is the maintenance of, and the assurance of data accuracy and
consistency over its entire life cycle and is a critical aspect to the design,
implementation and usage of any system that stores, processes or retrieves data.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION MODEL (OSI)
Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model is a logical and conceptual model that
defines network communication used by systems open to interconnection and
communication with other systems. The open system interconnection (OSI Model)
is also a set of protocols that attempt to define and standardize the data
communications process; we can say that it is a concept that describes how data
communications should take place. The OSI model was set by the international
Standards Organizations (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered the primary
architectural model for inter-computer communications. The OSI model has the
support of most major computer and network vendors, many large customers, and
most governments in different countries. The open System Interconnection (OSI)
reference model describes how information from a software application in one
computer moves through a network medium to a software application in another
computer. The OSI reference model is a conceptual model compose of seven layers
as show in below each specifying particular network functions and into these
layers are fitted the protocol standards developed by the ISO and other standards
bodies. The OSI model divides the task involved with moving information between
networked computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups. A task or
group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers. Each layer is
reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be
implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered by one layer to be
updated without affecting the other layers.
The OSI model is modular. Each successive layer of the OSI model works with the
one above and below it. Although each layer of the OSI model provides its own set
of functions, it is possible to group the layer into two distinct categories. The first
four layers i.e, physical, data link, network, and transport layer proved the end-to-
end services necessary for the transfer of data between two system. These layers
pr9.flde the protocols associated with the communications network used to link
two computers together. Together, these are communication oriented.
The top three layers i.e, the application, presentation, and session layers provide
the application services required for the exchange of information. That is, they
allow two application, each running on a different node of the network to interact
with each other through the services provided by their respective operating
systems. Together, these are data processing oriented.
The following are the seven layers of the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
reference model.
 Layer 7 - Application layer
 Layer 6 - Presentation layer
 Layer 5 - Session layer
 Layer 4 - Transport layer
 Layer 3 - Network layer
 Layer 2 - Data link layer
 Layer 1 - physical layer
Application Layer (layer 7)
The application layer is probably the most easily misunderstood layer of the model.
This top layer defines the language and syntax that program use to communicate
with other program. The application layer represents the purpose of
communicating in the first place. For example, a program in a client workstation
uses commands to request data from a program in the server. Common functions at
this layer and opening, closing, reading and writing files, transferring files and e-
mail messages, executing remote jobs and obtaining directory information about
network resources etc.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
the presentation layer performs code conversion and data reformatting (syntax
translation). It is the translator of the network; it makes sure the data is in the
correct form for the receiving application. when data are transmitted between
different types of computer systems, the presentation layer negotiates and manages
the way data are represented and encoded. For example, it provides a common
denominator between ASCII and EBCDIC machines as well as between different
floating point and binary formats. Sun’s XDR and OSI’s ASN,I are two protocols
used for this purpose. This layer is also used for encryption and decryption. It also
provides security features through encryption and decryption.
Session Layer (Layer 5)
The session layer decides when to turn communication on and off between two
computers. It provides the mechanisms that controls the data-exchange process and
coordinates the interaction (communication) between them in ail orderly manner.
It sets up and clear communication channels between two communicating
components. It determines one-way or two-way communications and manages the
dialogue between both parties; for example, making sure that the previous request
has been fulfilled before the next one is sent. It also marks significant prats of the
transmitted data with checkpoints to allow for fast recovery in the event of a
connection failure.
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
The transport layer is responsible for overall end-to-end validity and integrity of
the transmission i.e, it ensures that data is successfully sent and received between
two computers. The lower data link layer (layer 2) is only responsible for
delivering packets from one node to another. Thus, if a packet gets lost in a router
somewhere in the enterprise internet, the transport layer will detect that. It ensures
that if a 12MB file is sent, the full 12MB is received.
If data is sent incorrectly, this layer has the responsibility of asking for
retransmission of the data. Specifically, it provides a network independent, reliable
message independent, reliable message interchange service to the top three
application-oriented layers. This layer acts as an interface between the bottom and
top three layers. By providing the session layer (layer 5) with a reliable message
transfer service, it hides the detailed operation of the underlying network from the
session layer.
Network Layer (layer 3)
The network layer establishes the route between the sending and receiving stations.
The unit of data at the network layer is called a packet. It provides network routing
and flow and congestion functions across computer network interface.
It makes a decision as to where to route the packet based on information and
calculations from other routers, or according to static entries in the routing table. It
examines network addresses in the data instead of physical address see in the Data
Link layer. The Network layer establishes, maintain, and terminates logical and/or
names, into physical addresses.
The main device found at the Network layer is a router
Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
The data link layer groups the bits that we see o the physical layer into Frames. It
is primarily responsible for error-free delivery of data on a hop. The data link layer
is split into two sub-layer i.e, the Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access
Control (MAC). The Data-Link layer handles the physical transfer, framing (the
assembly of data into a single unit or block), flow control and error-control
functions (and retransmission in the event of an error) over a single transmission
link; it is responsible for getting the data packaged and onto the network cable. The
data link layer provides the network layer (layer 3) reliable information-transfer
capabilities. The min network device found at the Datalink layer is a bridge. This
device works at a higher layer than the repeater and therefore is a more complex
device. It has some understanding of the data it receives and can make a decision
based on the frames it receives as to whether it needs to let the information pass, or
can remove the information from the network. This means that the amount of
traffic on the medium can be reduced and therefore, the usable bandwidth can be
increased.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)
The data units on this layer are called bits. This layer defines the mechanical and
electrical definition of the network medium (cable) and network hardware. This
includes how data is impressed onto the cable and retrieved from it. The physical
layer is responsible for passing bits onto and receiving them from the connecting
medium. This layer gives the data-link layer (layer 2) its ability to transport a
stream of serial data bits between two communicating systems; it conveys the bits
that moves along the cable. It is responsible for ensuring that the raw bits get from
one place to another, no matter what shape they are in, and deals with the
mechanical and electrical characteristics of the cable. This layer has not
understanding 01 the meaning of the bits, but deals with the electrical and
mechanical characteristics of the signals and signaling methods.
The main network device found in the physical layer is a repeater. The purpose of
a repeater (as the name suggests) is simply to receive the digital signal. Reform it,
and retransmit the signal. This has the effect of increasing the maximum length of
a network, which would not be possible due to signal deterioration if a repeater
were not available. The repeater, simply regenerates cleaner digital signal so it
doesn’t have to understand anything about the information it is transmitting, and
processing on the repeater is non-existent. An example of the physical layer is RS-
232. Each layer, with the exception of the physical layer, adds information to the
data as it travels from the application layer down to the physical layer. This extra
information is called a header. The physical layer does not append a header to
information because it is concerned with sending and receiving information on the
individual bit level.
5.2 TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

APPLICATION LAYER
TRANSPORT LAYER
NETWORK LAYER
LINK/PHYSICAL LAYER

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. It is a

protocol suite used by most communications software. TCP/IP is a robust and
proven technology that was first tested in the early 1980s on ARPA Net, the U.S
military’s Advance Research project Agency network, and the world’s first packet-
switched network. TCP/IP was designed as an open protocol that would enable all
types of computers to transmit data to each other via a common communication
language. TCP/IP is a layered protocol similar to the ones used in all the other
major networking architectures, including IBM’s SNA, Windows NetBIOS,
AppleTalk, Novell’s NetWare and Digital’s DECnet. Layering means that after an
application initiates the communications, the message (data) to be transmitted is
passed through a number of stages or layers until it actually moves out onto the
wire. The data are packaged with a different header at each layer. At the receiving
end, the corresponding programs at each protocol layer unpack the data, moving it
“back up the stack” to the receiving application. TCP/IP is composed of two major
parts: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) at the transport layer and IP (Internet
Protocol) at the network layer. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that passes
its data to IP, which is a connectionless one. TCP sets up a connection at both ends
and guarantees reliable delivery of the full message sent. TCP tests for errors and
request retransmission if necessary, because IP does not. An alternative protocol to
TCP within the TCP/IP suite is UDP (user Datagram Protocol), which does not
guarantee delivery. Link IP, it is also connectionless, but very useful for real-time
voice and video, where it doesn’t matter if a few packets get lost.

Layers of TCP/IP reference Model

Application Layer (Layer 4)
The top layer of the protocol stack is the application layer. It refers to the programs
that initiate communication in the first place. ICP/IP includes several application
layer protocols for mail, file transfer, remote access, authentication and name
resolution. These protocols are embodied in programs that operate at the top layer
just as any custom made or packaged client/server application would
There are many application Layer protocol and new protocols are always being
developed.
The most widely known Application Layer protocols are those used for the
exchange of user information, some of them are:
 The Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to transfer files that make
up the Web pages of the World Wide Web
 The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for interactive file transfer.
 The simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for the transfer of mail
messages and attachments.
 telnet, is a terminal emulation protocol, and, is used for remote login to
network host.
Other Application layer protocols that help in the management of TCP/IP networks
are:
 The Domain Name System (DNS), which is used to revolve a host name to
an IP address.
 The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) which is used between
network management consoles and network devices (routers, bridges, and
intelligent hubs) to collect and exchange network management information.
Example of Application layer interface for TCP/IP applications are
Windows Sockets and NetBIOS. Windows Sockets provides a standard
application-programming interface (API) under the Microsoft Windows
operating system. NetBIOS is an industry standard interface for accessing
protocol services such as sessions, datagrams, and name resolution.
Transport Layer (layer 3)
The Transport Layer (also known as the Host-to-Host Transport Layer) is
responsible for providing the Application layer with session and datagram
communication services.
TCP/IP does not contain presentation and Session layers, the services are
performed if required, but they are not part of the formal TCP/IP stack. For
example, layer 6 (presentation layer) is where data conversion (ASCII TO
EBCDIC, floating point to binary, etc) and encryption/decryption is performed,
Layer 5 is the session lay, which is performed in layer 4 in TCP/IP, thus, we jump
layer 7 or OSI down to layer 4 of TCP/IP
From Application to Transport Layer, the application delivers its data to the
communications system by passing a stream of data bytes to the transport layer
along with the socket of the destination machine.
The core protocols of the Transport layer are TCP and the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP)
 TCP: TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable
communications service. TCP is responsible for the establishment of a TCP
connection, the sequencing and acknowledgment of packets sent , and the
recovery of packets lost during transmission.
  UDP: UDP provides a one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliable
communication service. UDP is used when the amount of data to be
transferred is small (such as the data that would fit into a single packet),
when the overhead of establishing a TCP connection is not desired, or when
the application or upper layer protocols provided reliable delivery.
The transport layer encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI transport Layer and
some of the responsibilities of the OSI Session Layer.
Internet Layer (Layer 2)
The internet layer handles the transfer of information across multiple networks
through the use of gateways and routers. The internet layer corresponds to the part
of the ORI network layer that is concerned with the transfer of packets between
machines that are connected to different networks. It deals with the routing of
packets across these networks as we as with the control of congestion. A key
aspect of the internet layer is the definition of globally unique address for machines
that are attached to the internet.
The internet layer provides a single service namely, best-effort connectionless
packet transfer. IP packets are exchanged between routers without a connection
setpu; the packets are touted independently and so they may traverse different
paths. For this reason, IP packets are also called datagrams. The connectionless
approach makes the system robust; that is, if failures occur in the network, the
packets are routed around the points of failure; hence, there is no need to set up
connections, the gateways that interconnect the intermediate networks may discard
packets when congestion occurs. The responsibility for recovery from these losses
is I> assed on the Transport Layer. The core protocols of the internet layer are IP.
ARP, ICMP, AND IGMP.
 the internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible for IP addressing
the fragmentation and reassembly of packets.
 The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for the resolution of
the internet layer address to the Network Interface layer address, such as a
hardware address.
 The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is responsible for providing
diagnostic functions and reporting errors or conditions regarding the delivery
of IP packets.
 The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is responsible for the
management of IP multicast groups.
The internet Layer is analogous to the Network Layer of the OSI model.

Link/Physical Layer (Layer 1)

The link/physical layer (also called the Network Access Layer) is responsible for
placing TCP/IP packets on the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets of
the network medium. TCP/IP was designed to be independent of the network
access method, frame format, and medium. In this way, ICP/IP can be used to
connect differing network types. This includes LAN technologies such as Ethernet
or Token Ring and WAN technologies such as X.25 or Frame Relay. Independence
from any specific network technology gives TCP/IP the ability to be adapted to
new technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).
The network Interface Layer encompasses the Data Link and physical layers of the
OSI Model. Note, that the internet layer does not take advantage of sequencing and
acknowledgment services that may be present in the Data link layer. An unreliable
network interface layer is assume, and reliable communications through session
establishment and the sequencing and acknowledgement of packets is the
responsibility of the Transport Layer.

5.3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OSI AND TCP/IP REFERENCE MODEL

OSI MODEL TCP/IP MODEL
Contains 7 layers Contain 4 layers
Uses strict layering resulting in vertical Uses loose Layering resulting in
layer horizontal layers
Supports both connectionless & Supports only connectionless
connection-oriented communication in communication in the Network layer,
the Network layer, but only but both connectionless & connection-
connection-oriented communication in oriented communication in Transport
transport layer
It distinguishes between service, Does not clearly distinguish between
interface and protocol. service, interface and protocol
Protocols are better hidden and can be Protocols are not hidden and thus
replaced relatively easily as technology cannot be replaced easily.
changes (No transparency) (transparency) replacing IP by a
substantially different protocol would
be virtually impossible
OSI reference model was devised The protocols came first and the model
before the corresponding protocols was a description of the existing
were designed. protocols

5.4 FUNCTION OF OSI MODEL

Application Layer functions
  File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM): An application layer
allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files
from a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
 Mail Services: An application layer provide the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources
and is used to provide that global information about various objects.
Function of presentation Layer
 Translation: the processes in two systems exchange the information in the
form of character strings, numbers and so on, Different computers use
different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the
interoperability between the different encoding methods. It converts the data
from sender dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is need to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process
of converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and
sends the resulting message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data i.e it
reduces the number of bits to the transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
Functions of Session layer
 Dialog Control: session layer act as a dialog controller that create a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication
between two processes which can be either half-duplex of full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session lay adds some checkpoints when transmitting the
data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmissions of
data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint.
Functions of Transport Layer
 Service Point Address: Computers run serval programs simultaneously
due to this reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not
only from one computer to another computer but also from one process to
another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the
address known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility
of the network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another
computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the
message to the correct process.
 Segmentation and reassembly: when the transport layer receives the
message from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments,
and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely
identifies each segment.
  Connection Control: Transport layer provides two services connection-
oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats
each segment as an individual packet and they all travel in different routes to
reach the destination.
 Flow control: the transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link
 Error Control: The transport layer is also responsible for error control.
Error control is performed end-to-end rather than cross the single link. The
sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without
any error.
Functions of Network layer
 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the
network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer
and converts them into packets. This process is known as packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).
Functions of the Data-link Layer
 Framing: The data link layer translates the physical’s raw bit stream into
packets known as frame. The data link layer adds the header and trailer to
the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.
 Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contain a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned address mentioned in the header.
 Flow control: Flow control is the main functionality of data-link layer.
Function of a physical Layer
 Line Configuration: it defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
 Data Transmission: it defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex of full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
 Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
 Signal: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.
 CHAPTER SIX
6.1 CONCEPT OF IP ADDRESS
To solve the scaling problem with Ethernet, and to allow support for other types of
LANs and point-to-point links as well, the Internet Protocol was developed.
Perhaps the central issue in the design of IP was to support universal connectivity
(everyone can connect to everyone else) in such a way as to allow scaling to
enormous size (in 2013 there appear to be around ~109 nodes, although IP should
work to 1010 nodes or more), without resulting in unmanageably large forwarding
tables (currently the largest tables have about 300,000 entries.) In the early days, IP
networks were considered to be “internetworks” of basic networks (LANs);
nowadays users generally ignore LANs and think of the Internet as one large
(virtual) network to support universal connectivity, IP provides a global
mechanism for addressing and routing, so that packets can actually be delivered
from any host to any other host. IP addresses (for the most-common version 4,
which we denote IPv4) are 4 bytes (32 bits), and are part of the IP header that
generally follows the Ethernet header. The Ethernet header only stays with a
packet for one hop; the IP header stays with the packet for its entire journey across
the Internet. Internet Protocol (IP) is a robust and proven technology that was first
tested in the early 1980s on ARPA Net, the U.S military’s Advance Research
project Agency network, and the world’s first packet-switched network. TCP/IP
was designed as an open protocol that would enable all types of computers to
transmit data to each other via a common communication language.
Types of IP Address
There are mainly four types of IP addresses
 Public
 Private
 Static and
 Dynamic
Public IP Address
is an address where one primary address is associated with your whole network. In
this type of IP address, each of the connected devices has the same IP address. This
type of public IP address is provided to your router by your ISP.
Private IP Address
A private IP address is a unique IP number assigned to every device that connects
to your home internet network, which includes devices like computer, tablets,
smartphones, which is used in your household. It also likely includes all types of
Bluetooth devices you use, like printers or smart devices like Tv, etc. With a rising
industry of internet of things (IOT) products, the number of private IP addresses
you are likely to have in your own home is growing.
Dynamic IP Address
Dynamic IP Address always keep changing. It is temporary and are allocated to a
device every time it connects to the web. Dynamic IPs can trace their origin to a
collection of IP addresses that are shared across many computers. Dynamic IP
addresses are another important type of internet protocol addresses. It is active for
a specific amount of time after that, it will expire.
Static IP Addresses
A static IP address is an IP address that cannot be changed. In contrast, a dynamic
IP address will be assigned by a dynamic Host configuration protocol (DHCP)
server, which is subject to change. Static IP address never changes, but it can be
altered as part of routine network administration. Static IP addresses are consistent,
which is assigned once, that stays the same over the years. This type of IP also
helps you procure a lot of information about a device.
6.2 INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 4 (IPV4)
It is the fourth revision of the internet protocol and a widely used protocol in data
communication over different kinds of networks. IPv4 is a connectionless protocol
used in packet-switched layer networks, such as Ethernet. It provides the logical
connection between network devices by providing identification for each device.
There are many ways to configure IPv4 with all kinds of devices including manual
and automatic configurations depending on the network type.
IPv4 is based on the best effort model. This model guarantees neither delivery nor
avoidance of duplicate delivery; these aspects are handled by the upper layer
transport. IPv4 (and IPv6) are universal routing and addressing protocol. Routing
and addressing are developed together; every node has an IP address and every
router knows how to handle IP addresses. IP was originally seen as a way to
interconnect multiple LANs, but it may make more sense now to view IP as a
virtual LAN overlaying all the physical LANs. A crucial aspect of IP is its
scalability. As of 2019 the Internet had over 109 hosts; this estimate is probably
low. However, at the same time the size of the largest forwarding tables was still
under 106 (15.5 BGPTable Size). Ethernet, in comparison, scales poorly, as the
forwarding tables need one entry for every active host.

6.3 CLASSES OF IP ADDRESSES

TCP/IP defines five classes of IP addresses: class A, B, C, D, D, and E. each class
has a range of valid IP addresses. The value of the first octet determines the class.
IP addresses from the first three classes (A,B and C) can be used for host
addresses. The other two classes are used for other purposes class D for multicast
and class E for experimental purposes.
The system of IP addresses was developed for the purpose of Internet IP addresses
assignment. The classes created were based on the network size. For example, for
the small number of networks with a very large number of host, the class A was
created. The class C was created for numerous networks with small number of host
Classes of IP address are as follows
Class First octet value subnet
A 0-127 8
B 128-191 16
C 192-223 24
D 224-239 -
E 240-255 -
Classes of IP Address
Variable length subnet Mask/Sub-netting IPv4
Variable length subnet Mask (VLSM) is a subnet, a segmented piece of a larger
network design strategy where all subnet masks can have varying sizes. This
process of “subnetting subnets” enable network engineers to use multiple masks
for different subnets of a single class A B or C network.
With VLSM, an IP address space can be divided into a well-defined hierarchy of
subnets with different sizes. This helps enhance the usability of subnets because
subnet can include masks of varying sizes.
A subnet mask helps define the size of the subnet and create subnets with very
different host counts without wasting large numbers of address.

6.4 INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 6 (IPV6)

Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the most recent version of the internet protocol
(IP), the communications protocol that provides an identification and location
system for computers on networks and routes traffic across the internet.
IPv6 was developed by the internet Engineering task force (IETF) to deal with the
long anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion, and is intended to replace
IPv4.
Network Functionality test
The network testing problem is important because networks are had to build
correctly, and even networks that appear to work most of the time may have subtle
bugs that require intermittent action, such as re-starting network elements.
Sometimes, the bugs prevent all communication. Sometimes the bugs interfere
with only one application. Sometimes, the bugs prevent the network from carrying
the required load. Sometimes, the bugs expose the network to security violations.

CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1 INTERNET AND EXTRANET
INTERNET
When ARPANET and NSFNET were interconnected the number of networks,
machines and users grew exponentially, many regional networks joined up and
connections were made across many countries. The internet is said to have been
“officially” born around 1982 when the different networks (BITNET, EARN, etc.)
agreed on using the TCP/IP protocol as a standard for their interconnections
making it a network of networks and overcoming some of the previous cacophony
of standards, protocols and increasing it coverage. The world internet was coined
from the words “interconnection” and “network”, Now Internet is the world’s
largest computer network. It is considered to be the network of networks, and is
scattered allover the world. The computers connected to the internet may
communicate with each other using fiber optic cables, telephone lines, satellite
links and other media. The development of Internet is coordinated by a non-profit
organization called the internet Society (ISOC). Its aim is to spread the use of
internet, keep statistics of its use, helpless developed countries in building their
infrastructure and internet-technology. The internet Architecture Board (IBA),
plans long term trends and keeps a record of the RFC (Request for Comments)
documents on various technical solutions and protocols used in internet. The
development is also steered by the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), which
has several sub-groups for handling various problems and planning new standards
etc. The rapid growth of internet may also be due to several important factors:
1. Easy-to-use software graphical browsers
2. Improved telecommunications connections
3. Rapid spread of automatic data processing, including electronic mail, bank
transfers, etc.
4. The information superhighway projects.
The internet Society maintains a list of internet service providers providing
connections allover the world. There is one “universal” aspect of all computers
connect to the internet i.e, the all run the TCP/IP family of protocol.
The internet protocol (IP) gives the physical 32-bit address, which uniquely
identifies and individual computer connected to the internet, while Transmission
control protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol, which takes cares of the
delivery and order of the packages. TCP also provides the port numbers for
individual services within a computer. The major information services provided by
the Internet are (with the protocol in parenthesis): electronic mail (SMTP), remote
file copying (FTP), remote login, terminal connections (TELNET), menu-based
file access (GOPHER), wide area information servers (W AIS, Z39.50), the World
Wide Web (HTTP), and the packet internet Groper (PING).

EXTRANET
An extranet is a controlled private network that allows access to partners, vendors
and suppliers or an authorized set of customers normally to a subset of the
information accessible from an organization’s intranet. An extranet is similar to a
DMZ in that it provides access to needed services for authorized parties, without
granting access to an organization’s entire network.
7.2 TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTION
There are three fundamental types of network connections
Local Area Network

Fig. 7.1:Local Area Network

LAN is a network which is designed to operate over a small physical area such as
an office, factory or a group of buildings. A LAN is generally confined to a
specific location, such as floor, building or some other small area. By being
confined it is possible in most cases to use only one transmission medium
(cabling). The technology is less expensive to implement than WAN because you
are keeping all of your expenses to a small area, and generally you can obtain
higher speed. They, are widely used to connect personal computers and
workstations in company offices and factories to share recourses.
Metropolitan Area Network (Man)
Metropolitan Area Network is basically a bigger version of LAN and normally
uses same technology. It might cover a group of nearby corporate offices or a city
and might be either private or public. On other hand, MAN is network running
through out a metropolitan area such as a backbone for a phone service carrier. A
MAN just has one or two cables and does not contain switching elements.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Fig. 7.2:Wide Area Network
The MAN outgrows its usefulness when the network must expand beyond the
confines of the typical metropolitan area. it is classified as a wide area
network(WAN). Because of the extensive distances over which WANs
communicate, they use long-distance telecommunications networks for their
connections, which increases the costs of the network. The Internet is just a giant
WAN.
Wireless Networks
A wireless network refers to a computer network that makes use of radio frequency
(RF) connections between nodes in the network. Wireless networks are a popular
solution for homes, businesses, and telecommunications networks.

7.3 TYPES OF ACCESS

There major ways to connect your computer to the internet are as follows:
 Mobile
Many cell phone and smartphone providers offer voice plans with internet access.
Mobile internet connections provide good speeds and allow you to access the
internet.

 Wifi Hotspots
Wife Hotspots are sites that offer internet access over a wireless local area network
(WLAN) by way of a router that then connects to an internet service provider.
hotspots utilized WIFI technology which allows electronic devices to connect to
the internet or exchange data wirelessly through radio waves.
 Dial-up
Dial-up connections require users to link their phone line to a computer in order to
access the internet. This particular type of connection also referred to as analog
does not permit users to make or receive phone calls through their home phone
service while using the internet.
 Broadband
This high-speed internet connection is provided through either cable or telephone
companies. One of the fastest options available, broadband internet uses multiple
data channels to send large quantities of information. The term broadband is
shorthand for broad bandwidth. Broadband internet connections such as DSL and
cable are considered high-bandwidth connections.
 Digital Subscriber Line
DSL, which stand for Digital Subscriber Line uses existing 2-wire copper
telephone line connected to one’s home so service is delivered at the same time as
landline telephone service. Customers can still place calls while surfing the
internet.
7.4 Difference between Dial-up, Wireless and Broadband Internet Access
The fundamental difference between dialup and broadband connections is the
manner in which the connection is made from pc to the internet.
A dialup service connects to the internets to the internet through a phone line with
a maximum speed of 56kbps.
 Broadband: It refers to a connection that has capacity to transmit large
amount of data at high speed. Presently a connection having download
speeds of 356kbps or more is classified as broadband.
Advantages of Broadband Network
1. Connectivity: One great reason to consider wireless broadband is its
connectivity.
2. Speed: broadband connection is almost 100x faster. This high speed makes
it ideal to be used for downloading large videos, music and other files
3. It does not affect the phone line
4. Online gaming is only possible using a broadband internet access

 Wireless network
The term 'wireless network' refers to two or more computers communicating using
standard network rules or protocols, but without the use of cabling to connect the
computers together. Instead, the computers use wireless radio signals to send
information from one to the other. A wireless local area network (WLAN) consists
of two key components: an access point (also called a base station) and a wireless
card. Information can be transmitted between these two components as long as
they are fairly close together (up to 100 metres indoors or 350 metres outdoors).
Types of Network Security
 Firewall: Firewall control incoming and outgoing traffic on networks, with
predetermined security rules.
 Network Segmentation
 Remote Access VPN
 Email Security
 Data Loss Prevention (DLP)
 Intrusion Prevention system