Edexcel Chemistry A-level

Topic 1: Atomic Structure and the

Periodic Table
Detailed Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Fundamental Particles

The model for atomic structure has evolved over time as knowledge and scientific
understanding changes.

The current, accepted model of the atom

consists of a ​small, dense central nucleus
surrounded by ​orbiting electrons​ in electron
shells​. This was discovered in the Rutherford
scattering experiment in 1911.

The nucleus consists of ​protons and neutrons

giving it an overall ​positive​ charge. It contains
almost the entire ​mass​ of the atom.
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons is
equal to the number of protons due to the
relative charges.

Particle Proton Neutron Electron

Relative Charge +1 0 -1

Relative Mass 1 1 1/1840

The maximum number of orbiting electrons that can be held by any single shell, depends on the
​
number of the shell. This can be calculated using ​2​n2​​ where​ n​ is the number of the shell.

Example:
Electrons in shell 2 = 2(2​2​) = 8 electrons

Each electron shell ​must fill​ before the next one can hold any electrons.

Atomic Number and Mass Number

Mass number is represented using ​A​ ​and can be calculated as the ​sum of protons and
neutrons​ in an atom.
Atomic number is represented using​ ​Z​ ​and is ​equal to the number of protons​ in an atom,
hence it can be referred to as proton number.

Using these numbers, the quantity of each fundamental particle in an atom can be calculated.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Example:

Atomic number = 7
Mass number = 14

Proton number = 7

Neutron number = 14 - 7
=7

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the ​same atomic number​, but with a ​different
number of neutrons​, resulting in a ​different mass number​.

Neutral atoms of isotopes will ​react chemically in the same way​ as their proton number and
electron configuration is the same. The sharing and transfer of electrons is unaffected.
However, the different mass numbers mean they have ​different physical properties​.

Example:
Hydrogen = 1 proton and 1 neutron
Deuterium = 1 proton and 2 neutrons
Tritium = 1 proton and 3 neutrons

Relative Masses

Relative atomic mass (​Ar​)​ is defined as:

The mean mass of an atom of an element, relative to one twelfth

of the mean mass of an atom of the carbon-12 isotope.

This takes the ​relative abundances​ of the different ​isotopes​ of an element into account.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Relative isotopic mass​ is defined as:

The isotopic mass of an isotope relative to one twelfth of the

mean mass of an atom of the carbon-12 isotope.

Relative molecular mass (​Mr)​ ​ is defined as:

The mean mass of a molecule of a compound, relative to one twelfth

of the mean mass of an atom of the carbon-12 isotope.

Relative molecular mass can be calculated for a molecule by adding together the separate Ar
values of the component elements.

Example:

Relative formula mass​ is similar to Mr but is used for compounds with giant structures.

Ions and Mass Spectrometry

Ions are formed when an atom ​loses or gains electrons​ meaning it is no longer neutral and
will have an ​overall charge​.

They are very useful in the ​analytical technique ​of​ mass spectrometry​. It is used to identify
different isotopes and find the overall relative atomic mass of an element.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Time of Flight (TOF) Mass Spectrometry
This form of mass spectrometry records the time it takes for ions of each isotope to reach a
detector. Using this, ​spectra​ can be produced showing ​each isotope present​.

1. Ionisation​ - A sample of an element is ​vapourised​ and injected into the mass

spectrometer where a ​high voltage​ is passed over the chamber. This causes electrons
to be removed from the atoms (they are ionised) leaving ​+1 charged ions​ in the
chamber.

2. Acceleration​ ​- These positively charged ions are then ​accelerated​ towards a negatively
charged ​detection plate​.

3. Ion Drift​ ​- The ions are then deflected by a ​magnetic field​ into a ​curved path​. The
radius of their path is dependent on the charge and mass of the ion.

4. Detection​ ​- When the positive ions hit the negatively charged detection plate, they ​gain
an electron​ producing a ​flow of​ ​charge​. The greater the abundance, the greater the
current produced.

5. Analysis​ ​- These current values are then used in combination with the ​flight times​ to
produce a ​spectra print-out​ with the relative abundance of each isotope displayed.

During the ionisation process, a ​2+ charged ion​ may be produced. This means it will be
affected more by the magnetic field producing a curved path of ​smaller radius​. As a result, its
mass to charge ratio (m/z) is halved and this can be seen on spectra as a trace at ​half the
expected m/z value​.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Example:

Using this print-out spectra, the ​Ar​ can be calculated​ by multiplying each m/z value by its
abundance and adding each of these together before dividing by the total abundance of all
species present.

Example:
From the spectra above.
Ar = ​(10x75) + (12x25) ​= 10.5
(75 + 25)

Using this calculated value of Ar, the element can be identified by referring to the Periodic
Table. The​ tallest peak ​on a mass spectrum corresponds to the ​relative molecular mass ​of
the molecule, this peak is known as the ​molecular ion peak ​and is formed from the ​M+​​ species.

Chlorine Spectra
Spectra produced by the mass spectrometry of chlorine display a ​characteristic pattern​ in a
3:1 ratio for Cl​+​ ions​ and a ​3:6:9 ratio for Cl​2​+​ ions​. This is because one isotope is more
common than the other and the chlorine molecule can form in different combinations.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Example:

​ 70​
Cl​2​+ ​= 35 + 35
72​
Cl​2​+ ​= 35 + 37 OR = 37 + 35
74​
Cl​2​+ ​= 37 + 37

Ionisation Energy

Ionisation energy is defined as:

the minimum energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one
mole of atoms in a gaseous state. It is measured in kJmol​-1​.

Na​(g)​ ---------> Na​+​(g)​ + e​-

Successive ionisation energies​ occur when further electrons are removed. This usually
requires ​more energy​ because as electrons are removed, the ​electrostatic force of attraction
between the positive nucleus and the negative outer electron ​increases​. More energy is
therefore needed to ​overcome this attraction​ so ionisation energy increases.

First ionisation energy follows ​trends​ within the Periodic Table as they are influenced by
proton-electron forces of attraction and electron shielding.

Along a Period​ ​- first ionisation energy ​increases​ due to a ​decreasing atomic radius​ and
greater electrostatic ​forces of attraction​.

Down a Group​ ​- first ionisation energy ​decreases​ due to an ​increasing atomic radius​ and
electron​ ​shielding​ which reduces the effect of the electrostatic forces of attraction.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
When successive ionisation energies are plotted on a graph, a ​sudden large increase
indicates a ​change in energy level​. This is because the electron is being removed from an
orbital ​closer to the nucleus​ so ​more energy is required​ to do so.

This large energy increase provides ​supporting evidence for the atomic orbital theory​.
The first ionisation energy of ​Aluminium​ is ​lower than expected​ due to a single pair of
electrons with ​opposite spin​. As a result there is a ​natural repulsion​ which reduces the
amount of energy needed to be put in to remove the outer electron.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Electron Configurations

Scientific ideas on electronic configurations have ​developed over time​ as new discoveries are
made. The current, accepted model is based on the following evidence:
1. Emission spectra​ provide evidence for the existence of ​quantum shells​.
2. Successive ionisation energies​ provide evidence for quantum shells within atoms and
suggest the ​group​ to which the element belongs.
3. The ​first ionisation energy​ of successive elements provides evidence for ​electron
subshells​.

Electron Orbitals
Electrons are held in ​clouds of negative charge​ called ​orbitals​. There are different types of
orbital;​ ​s​, ​p​, ​d​ and ​f​. ​Each one can hold up to two electrons with opposite spins and has a
different shape:

These orbitals correspond with ​blocks​ on the Periodic Table. Each element in the block has
outer electrons in that orbital​.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Each subshell has a different number of orbitals and therefore can hold a different number of
electrons before the next one is filled:

s-subshell = 2 electrons
p-subshell = 6 electrons
d-subshell = 10 electrons

The ​energy​ of the orbitals ​increases from s to d​ meaning the orbitals are​ filled in this order​.
Each orbital is filled before the next one is used to hold electrons.
Example:

Sodium has 11 electrons. These would be written in the following configuration:

Na = 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​1

It has 3 energy levels and 4 orbitals holding the 11 electrons.

Spin
Within an orbital, electrons ​pair up with opposite spin​ so that the atom is as ​stable​ as
possible. Electrons in the ​same orbital must have opposite spins​. Spin is represented by
opposite ​arrows​.

Example:

Overall there are ​three rules​ for writing out electron configurations:

1. The lowest energy orbital is filled first.

2. Electrons with the same spin fill up an orbital first before pairing begins.
3. No single orbital holds more than 2 electrons.

Exceptions to the Rules

If electron spins are ​unpaired​ and therefore ​unbalanced​, it produces a ​natural repulsion
between the electrons making the atom very ​unstable​. If this is the case, the electrons may
take on a ​different arrangement​ to improve stability.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Example:

The ​3p​4​ ​orbital contains a single pair of electrons with opposite spins making it unstable:

Therefore the electron configuration changes to become​ 3p​3​4s​1​ which is a much more
stable arrangement:

Periodicity

Periodicity refers to the study of patterns of physical, atomic and chemical properties within the
Periodic Table that repeat regularly.

The Periodic Table arranges the known elements according to their ​proton number​. All the
elements along a ​period​ have the same number of ​electron shells​. All the elements down a
group​ have the same number of ​outer electrons​, this number is indicated by the group
number.

Elements are classified into ​blocks​ within the Periodic Table that show electron configuration:

s-block = groups 1 and 2

p-block = groups 3 to 0
d-block = transition metals
f-block = radioactive elements

These different electron configurations are often ​linked to other trends​ within the Periodic
Table. Periodicity is the study of these trends.

Atomic Radius
Along a ​period​, atomic radius ​decreases​. This is due to an ​increased nuclear charge​ for the
same number of electron shells. The outer electrons are pulled in closer to the nucleus as the
increased charge produces a ​greater attraction​. As a result, the atomic radius for that element
is reduced.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Down a ​group​, atomic radius ​increases​. With each increment down a group, an electron shell
is added each time. This increases the distance between the outer electrons and the nucleus,
reducing the power of attraction​. More shells also increases electron ​shielding​ where the
inner shells create a ‘barrier’ that blocks the attractive forces. Therefore the ​nuclear attraction
is reduced​ further and atomic radius increases.

Ionisation Energy
Along a ​period​, ionisation energy ​increases​. The decreasing atomic radius and increasing
nuclear charge means that the outer electrons are ​held more strongly​ and therefore ​more
energy is required​ to remove the outer electron and ionise the atom.

Down a ​group​, ionisation energy ​decreases​. The ​nuclear attraction ​between the nucleus and
outer electrons reduces and increasing amounts of ​shielding​ means less energy is required to
remove the outer electron.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Physical Properties of Period 2

Melting Points
The melting points of the period two elements peaks towards the middle of the period due to the
different ​bond strength and structures​:

Lithium and Beryllium have ​metallic bonding​. Their melting points increase due to greater
positive charged ions​ (Li = +1, Be = +2). This also means ​more electrons​ ​are released​ as
free electrons in the Beryllium lattice so the attractive electrostatic forces are greater than for
Lithium.

Boron and Carbon form giant covalent lattices with ​very strong covalent bonds​ in up to three
dimensions. These covalent bonds require a lot of energy to break giving them very high melting
points.

Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine and Neon are all ​small​, ​simple covalent molecules​ held with weak
van der waals​ forces. These intermolecular forces don’t require much energy to overcome so
these molecules have relatively low, similar melting points.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Ionisation Energies
First ionisation energies follow a general increasing trend along period 2. This is due to the
decreasing atomic radius and increasing nuclear charge so outer electrons are ​held more
strongly​.

Boron and Oxygen are exceptions to this trend due to the quantum behaviour of the electrons.
The electron configurations of these elements contain ​unpaired electrons​ that require less
energy to remove resulting in a​ lower first ionisation energy​.

Physical Properties of Period 3

Melting Points
The melting points of the period three elements is linked to the ​bond strength and structure​:

Sodium, Magnesium and Aluminium are all metals with ​metallic bonding​. Their melting points
increase due to greater ​positive charged ions​ (Na = +1, Mg = +2, Al = +3). This also means
more electrons​ ​are released​ as free electrons so the attractive electrostatic forces increase
from Na to Al.

Silicon is macromolecular meaning it has a ​very strong covalent structure​. These covalent
bonds require a lot of energy to break giving it a very high melting point.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Phosphorus, Sulphur and Chlorine are all ​simple covalent molecules​ held with weak ​van der
waals​ forces. These intermolecular forces don’t require much energy to overcome so these
molecules have relatively low, similar melting points.

Argon is a noble gas that exists as ​individual atoms​ with a ​full outer shell of electrons​. This
makes the atom ​very stable ​and the van der waals forces between them very weak. As a
result, the melting point of Argon is very low and it exists as a gas at room temperature.

Ionisation Energies
First ionisation energies follow a general
increasing trend along period 3. This is due to
the decreasing atomic radius and increasing
nuclear charge so outer electrons are ​held
more strongly​.

Aluminium and Sulfur are exceptions to this

trend due to the quantum behaviour of the
electrons. The electron configurations of these
elements contain ​unpaired electrons​ that
require less energy to remove resulting in a
lower first ionisation energy​.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 Edexcel Chemistry A-level

Topic 2: Bonding and Structure

Detailed Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Topic 2A: Bonding

Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding occurs between a ​metal and a non-metal​. Electrons are ​transferred​ from the
metal to the non-metal to form full outer shells.

Transfer of electrons creates ​charged particles​ called ​ions​. Oppositely charged ions ​attract
through electrostatic forces​ to form a ​giant ionic lattice​.

Example:

Sodium chloride is an ionic compound formed from Na​+​ and Cl​-​ ions. Sodium loses an
electron and chlorine gains an electron to produce ions with a full outer electron shell.
These then form an ionic lattice with strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions:

The ​charge​ of an ion is related to the strength of the ionic bond that forms. Ions with a ​greater
charge​ will have a ​greater attraction​ to the other ions resulting in stronger forces of attraction
and therefore ​stronger ionic bonding​.

Larger ions that have a ​greater ionic radius​ will have a ​weaker attraction​ to the oppositely
charged ion because the attractive forces have to act over a ​greater distance​.

Cations​ (+ve) and ​anions​ (-ve) can be represented using ​dot and cross diagrams​ and so can
ionic bonding. The electrons being transferred from the cation can be seen on the outer shell of
the anion.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Example: Sodium chloride dot and cross diagram

The red dot clearly shows the transferred electron from sodium to chloride to produce
two ions with full outer electron shells.

Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds form between ​two non-metals​. There is a strong electrostatic attraction
between the two nuclei and the shared electrons between them. Electrons are ​shared​ between
the two outer shells in order to form a ​full outer shell​. ​Multiple electron pairs​ can be shared to
produce ​multiple covalent bonds​.

The shared electron pairs can be represented using ​dot and cross diagrams​. The overlap
includes a covalent bond. The ​number of electrons​ within the overlap tells you the nature of
the covalent bond:

● 2 electrons (1 from each atom): ​single bond​, displayed formula represented as

● 4 electrons (2 from each atom): ​double bond​, displayed formula represented as​ =
● 6 electrons (3 from each atom): ​triple bond​, displayed formula represented as ≡

Example: Dot and cross diagram of chlorine, Cl​2

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Double​ and ​triple​ bonds can also be shown on dot and cross diagrams with the multiple
electron pairs being displayed in the shared segment between the two atoms.

Example: Dot and cross diagram of oxygen, O​2

The ​length​ of a covalent bond is strongly linked to its ​strength​. ​Shorter bonds​ tend to be
stronger​ as the atoms are ​held closer together​ so the forces of attraction are greater,
requiring more energy to be overcome. Double and triple bonds are shorter than single covalent
bonds, explaining why they are so much stronger.

Dative Bonding
Dative or coordinate bonds form when both of the ​electrons in the shared pair​ are supplied
from a ​single atom​. It is indicated using an ​arrow​ from the lone electron pair.

Example:
Ammonia (NH​3​) has a lone electron pair that can form a dative bond
with a H​+​ ion to produce an ammonium ion (NH​4​+​)

Once a dative bond has formed, it is treated as a ​standard covalent bond​ as it ​reacts in
exactly the same way​ and has the same properties regarding length and strength.

Since both electrons come from the ​same atom​ in a dative covalent bond, in dot and cross
diagrams both electrons in that bond will have the​ same shape​. In other words, they will both
be dots or both be crosses.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Example dative bonded structures:​ NH​4​+​ and Al​2​Cl​6

Simple Covalent
Substances with a simple molecular structure consist of ​covalently bonded molecules​ held
together with weak ​van der waals​ forces. These are a type of intermolecular force that act
between the molecules holding them in a structure.

Example:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Shapes of Simple Molecules

The shape of a simple molecule or ion is determined by the number of ​electron pairs around
the central atom​ and the repulsion between them. Each electron pair​ naturally repels​ each
other so that the ​largest bond angle possible​ exists between the covalent bonds.

Lone Pair Repulsion

Any lone pairs present around the central atom provide ​additional repulsive forces​, which
changes the bond angle. For every lone pair present, the bond angle between covalent bonds is
reduced by 2.5​o​.

Molecule Shapes
The shape of a molecule can be determined by considering the ​type and quantity of electron
pairs​:
1. Find the number of electron pairs.
2. Determine how many of the pairs are bonding
pairs and how many are lone pairs.
3. Bonding pairs indicate the basic shape and lone
pairs indicate any additional repulsion.

Molecules may also be described in terms of their bond lengths and bond angles.
● Bond length​ - the average distance between two nuclei in a covalent bond.
● Bond angle​ - the angle between two covalent bonds from the same atom.

This table shows some common molecule shapes:

Name Bonding Lone e​- Bond Angle (​o​) Example

e​-​ Pairs Pairs

Linear 2 0 180
Cl - Be - Cl

O=C=O
V - Shaped 2 2 104.5

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 Trigonal Planar 3 0 120

Triangular Pyramid 3 1 107

Tetrahedral 4 0 109.5

Trigonal Bipyramidal 5 0 90 and 120

Octahedral 6 0 90

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Bond Polarity

The negative charge around a covalent bond is ​not evenly spread​ around the orbitals of the
bonded atoms.

Electronegativity
Every atom has electronegativity, which is defined as:

The power of an atom to attract the electron pair in a covalent bond towards itself.

This ‘power’ is different for every atom depending on its ​size and nuclear charge​.
Electronegativity​ increases along a period,​ as atomic radius decreases. Electronegativity
decreases down a group​, as shielding increases.

Ionic and covalent bonding are the ​extremes ​in a ​continuous scale of bonding​ as shown
below. If the electronegativity between two atoms is great enough, an ionic bond will form
between them.

Example:

Bond polarity can be permanent or induced depending on the molecule and its interactions.

Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules

A polar bond results from a​ large difference in electronegativity​ between two atoms forming a
covalent bond. Tables of electronegativity can be used to workout if a bond will be polar or not.
If the difference in electronegativity between two bonding atoms is between 0.4 and 1.7, the
bond will be a polar ​covalent bond​. If the difference in electronegativity is greater than that, the
bond will be ​ionic​.

Since electronegativity is a ​periodic trend​, elements that are close together on the periodic
table will not form polar bonds.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Polar molecules
Polar molecules​ arise when there is an ​overall ​difference in polarity ​across the molecule​,
due to the arrangement of polar bonds and the geometry of the molecule. Polar molecules must
have polar bonds, however a molecule with polar bonds may not necessarily be a polar
molecule.

Example:

CO​2​ - the C=O bonds in CO​2​ are polar, however the molecule is linear so the dipoles created by
each polar bond cancel out.

H​2​O​ - the O-H bonds in water are polar and the geometry of the molecule is bent, so overall
there is a polarity and the molecule is polar.

Intermolecular Forces

There are​ three main types of intermolecular force​. Each one differs in strength and in what
they act between.

Van der Waals Forces

Van der Waals forces are the ​weakest​ type of intermolecular force. They act as an ​induced
dipole​ between molecules. They are also called​ London forces​ or instantaneous
dipole-induced forces.

The strength of van der waals forces varies depending on the Mr of the molecule and its shape.
The ​greater the Mr​ of the molecule, the ​stronger the intermolecular forces​. Straight chain
molecules experience stronger van der waals forces than branched-chain molecules as they
can​ pack much closer together​. This​ reduces the distance​ over which the force acts, making
the intermolecular force stronger.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Example:

CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 US​, ​Allison Soult, Chemistry LibreTexts

Boiling Point Trends of Alkanes

Van der waals forces act between organic ​alkane chains​ and are affected by the ​chain length
and any ​branching​. As the chain length of the alkane increases, so does the ​Mr​ of the
molecule. This results in ​stronger​ intermolecular forces between the chains, and so the
compound has a ​higher boiling point​ as a result.

Branching​ of alkane chains weakens van der waal forces between the chains as they are less
able to ​pack tightly​ together. This means the distance over which the intermolecular forces act
is increased, weakening the ​attractive forces. ​Therefore, branched-chain alkanes have ​lower
boiling points​ than straight-chain alkanes.

Permanent Dipole

If the two atoms that are bonded have sufficiently different electronegativities, a ​polar bond
forms. The more electronegative atom ​draws more of the negative charge towards itself​ and
away from the other atom, producing a ​∂-​ region and a ​∂+​ region. This produces a ​permanent
dipole​.

Example:

Hydrogen Fluoride is a polar molecule as fluorine is a lot more

electronegative than hydrogen so electrons
are drawn towards the fluorine atom.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
The ​∂+​ and​ ∂- ​regions of neighbouring polar molecules attract each other and hold the
molecules together in a​ lattice-like structure​.

Example:

Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bonding is the ​strongest​ type of intermolecular force. Hydrogen bonds only act
between hydrogen and the three most electronegative atoms:​ nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine​.
The ​lone pair​ on these atoms form a bond with a δ + hydrogen atom from another molecule,
shown with a ​dotted line​. ​H​2​O, NH​3​ ​and ​HF​ all have hydrogen bonds between molecules.

Example:

Properties
Molecules held together with hydrogen bonds have ​much higher melting and boiling points
compared to similar-sized molecules without hydrogen bonding. This shows how the type of
intermolecular force heavily influences the ​physical properties​ of a substance.

Water has a simple molecular structure but has an ​unusually high boiling point​ for the size of
the molecule. This is due to the presence of hydrogen bonds that require a lot of energy to be
overcome. These bonds also result in ice having a much ​lower density​ than liquid water as
they hold the molecules in a ​rigid​ ​structure​ with lots of air gaps.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Example:

Hydrogen bonding is also responsible for the fact that ​alcohols​ have ​much higher boiling
points​ than alkanes with a similar Mr value. This is because the lone electron pair on the
oxygen atom is able to form ​hydrogen bonds​ with a hydrogen on another alcohol molecule.

Example:

Solvents
Water is a popular choice of ​solvent​. Its hydrogen bonding capabilities allow it to dissolve some
ionic compounds ​by solvating the individual ions, and to dissolve some alcohols by forming
hydrogen bonds ​with their ​hydroxyl ​group.

However, both water and alcohols are poor solvents for the dissolving of some ​polar molecules
such as halogenoalkanes that cannot form hydrogen bonds.

Non-aqueous solvents​ are often used for compounds which have the same type of
intermolecular force.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Boiling Point Trends of Hydrogen Halides

Hydrogen fluoride​ ​is the only hydrogen halide that forms​ hydrogen bonds​ between
molecules. This gives it the highest boiling point because hydrogen bonds are much ​stronger
than van der waals and permanent dipole forces.

The boiling point ​increases​ as you move down the group past hydrogen fluoride because as
the halide increases in size, their ​number of electrons ​also increases. This means more​ van
der waals​ forces form between molecules, so more
energy is required to separate them.

Metallic Bonding

Metallic bonding consists of a ​lattice of positively

charged ions​ surrounded by a ​‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons​. There are very strong
electrostatic forces of attraction​ between these
oppositely charged particles.

The ​greater the charge​ on the positive ion, the ​stronger the attractive force​ as more
electrons are released into the ‘sea’.

Ions that are ​larger in size​, such as barium, produce a ​weaker attraction​ due to their ​greater
atomic radius​.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Topic 2B: Structure

Bonding and Physical Properties

The ​physical properties​ of a substance include its boiling point, melting point, solubility and
conductivity. They are different depending on the ​type of bonding​ present, the types of particle
present and the ​crystal structure​ of the compound.

Crystal Structures
There are four main types of crystal structure; ​ionic, metallic, simple molecular,
macromolecular​, each with different physical properties.

Ionic (e.g. Sodium Chloride)

Substances with an ionic crystal structure have a ​high melting and boiling point​. This is
because the electrostatic forces holding the ionic lattice together are strong and require a lot of
energy to overcome.

When ​molten or dissolved in solution​, ionic substances can ​conduct electricity​. In this state,
the ions separate and are no longer held in a lattice. Therefore, they are free to move and ​carry
a flow of charge​ so can conduct an electrical current.

Ionic substances are often ​brittle ​materials. When the layers of alternating charges are
distorted, like charges repel, breaking apart the lattice into fragments.

Example:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Metallic (e.g. Aluminium)

Substances with metallic structures are often ​good conductors​. The delocalised electrons are
able to move and ​carry a flow of charge​.

Metals are also ​malleable​ as the layers of positive ions are able to slide over one another.

Example:

The electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive ions and delocalised electrons are
very strong and therefore require a lot of energy to overcome. This means metallic substances
have ​high melting points​ and are nearly always ​solid at room temperature​. Mercury is the
only metal that is in a liquid state at room temperature.

Simple molecular (e.g. Water)

Substances with a simple covalent molecular structure consist of ​covalently bonded

molecules​ held together with weak ​van der waals​ forces. This is the structure formed by water
and iodine, I​2​.

Example:

These van der waals forces are ​very weak​ and not much energy is required to overcome them.
This means simple molecular substances have ​low melting and boiling points​. Simple
molecular substances are ​very poor conductors​ as their structure contains no charged
particles.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Giant Covalent Structures

Macromolecular covalent substances are ​covalently bonded​ into a ​giant lattice​ structure.
Each atom has ​multiple covalent bonds​ which are very strong, giving the substance a ​very
high melting point​.

Diamond​ is a ​macromolecular structure ​made up of carbon atoms each bonded to four other
carbon atoms. This forms a​ rigid tetrahedral structure​, making diamond one of the ​hardest,
strongest ​materials known - which is why it is often used on the tips of drills.

Example: Structure of diamond

Graphite​ is another macromolecular structure made up of carbon atoms. However, in graphite,

each carbon atom is bonded to three others in ​flat hexagonal sheets​. This means there is one
delocalised electron​ per carbon atom. These electrons can move freely, allowing graphite to
conduct electricity​. Graphite can therefore be used in an electrode.

The ​intermolecular forces​ between layers of graphite are ​weak​, allowing the layers to easily
slide over each other, meaning graphite can be used as a ​lubricant​.

Example: Structure of graphite

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Graphene​ consists of single, ​2D sheets of graphite​ that are just ​one atom thick​. These
sheets are formed of ​hexagonal carbon rings​ that create a very strong, rigid material that is
extremely ​lightweight​. Delocalised electrons move through each layer allowing it to ​conduct
electricity, making graphene a useful material in electronics.

Example: Structure of graphene

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Edexcel Chemistry A-level

Topic 3: Redox I
Detailed Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation involves the loss of electrons. Reduction involves the gain of electrons.
This redox rule is remembered using the acronym ​OILRIG​ (oxidation is loss, reduction is gain).

Oxidation Number

The oxidation number gives the ​oxidation state​ of an element or ionic substance. Allocation of
oxidation number to a species follows a number of rules:

● The oxidation number of an ​element is zero​.

● Oxidation numbers in a ​neutral​ compound add up to ​zero​.
● Oxidation numbers in a charged compound add up to​ total the charge​.
● Hydrogen​ has an oxidation number of ​+1​.
● Oxygen​ has an oxidation number of​ -2​.
● Halogens​ have an oxidation number of ​-1​.
● Group I​ metals have an oxidation number of​ +1​.
● Group II​ metals have an oxidation number of​ +2​.

However, there are some ​exceptions ​to these rules:

● Oxygen ​has an oxidation number of​ -1 ​in ​peroxides.

● Hydrogen ​has an oxidation number of ​-1 ​in ​metal hydrides.

These rules can be used to work out the oxidation number of species or elements in a reaction
or compound.

Example:

This compound’s total oxidation number is

zero. Using the rules above, the oxidation
number of sulfur can be found:

Known oxidation numbers: Na=+1, O=-2.

2-8+x=0
-6 + x = 0
X=6

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Example:

Roman numerals
Roman numerals​ can be used to give the oxidation number of an element that has a ​variable
oxidation state​, depending on the compound it’s in.

Example:

Copper​(II)​ sulphate - this tells you the oxidation number of copper is +2

Iron​(II) ​sulphate​(VI) ​- this tells you the oxidation number of iron is +2 and the oxidation number
of sulphur is +6

In the same way that oxidation numbers can be calculated from ​formulas ​of compounds, the
formula of compounds may be deduced if the oxidation numbers of the elements (given by the
rules of oxidation states ​and ​roman numerals​) and the ​overall charge​ of the compound is
known.

Oxidation state and the periodic table

Electrons are held in ​orbitals​. Elements are arranged in the periodic table by ​proton number
and also by their orbitals. These orbitals correspond with ​blocks​ on the Periodic Table. Each
element in the block has ​outer electrons in that orbital​.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Elements within the same ​block ​react in similar ways since their outermost electron is in the
same type of ​orbital​. This leads to some ​patterns ​in oxidation number in the periodic table:

● s block elements​ (groups 1 and 2 metals) generally ​lose electrons​, so are ​oxidised
and form species with ​positive oxidation numbers.
● p block non-metals ​generally ​gain electrons​, so are ​reduced ​and form species with
negative oxidation states.

Oxidising and Reducing Agents

An oxidising agent ​accepts electrons​ from the species that is being oxidised. Therefore it
gains electrons and is reduced​. This is seen as a ​reduction​ in oxidation number (gets more
negative).

A reducing agent ​donates electrons​ to the species being reduced. Therefore it ​loses
electrons and is oxidised​. This is seen as an ​increase​ in oxidation number (gets more
positive).

Redox Equations

Reactions in which oxidation and reduction occur ​simultaneously​ take place when one
species loses electrons, which are then donated and gained by the other species. These
reactions are known as ​redox​ reactions (​red​uction - ​ox​idation). Being able to work out the
oxidation number of atoms in a reaction enables you to work out if a redox reaction is a ​
disproportionation reaction too.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Disproportionation Reactions
In a ​disproportionation reaction​, a species is both oxidised ​and​ ​reduced, seen as both an
increase and a decrease in oxidation number for that species.

An example is seen when chlorine reacts with cold water to produce ​chlorate(I) ions (ClO​-​)​ and
chloride ions​. The oxidation state goes from zero (in Cl​2​) to both ​+1 (ClO​-​) and -1 (Cl​-​)​.

Half Equations
Half equations are used to show the ​separate oxidation and reduction reactions​ that occur in
a redox reaction. They must be balanced in terms of the ​species present and the charges​ of
the species on both sides of the equation.
In order to help write these equations, there is a useful method:

1. Balance all species excluding oxygen and hydrogen.

2. Balance oxygen using H​2​O.
3. Balance hydrogen using H​+​ ions.
4. Balance charges using e​-​ (electrons).

Following this method ensures the half equations are ​correctly balanced​.

Example:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Half equations can be ​combined​ in order to determine the ​overall redox reaction​. In order to
do this, the number of ​electrons must be the same​ for both half equations. This can be done
by scaling up the number of moles. Once the half equations are combined, the electrons should
be ​cancelled out​ on each side of the equation.

Example:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 Edexcel Chemistry A-level

Topic 4: Inorganic Chemistry and

the Periodic Table
Detailed Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Topic 4A: The Elements of Group 1 & 2

Group 2 Elements

When ​Group 2​ metals react, they lose two electrons to ​form 2+ ions​.This allows them to
achieve a full outer shell. The various ​physical properties​ of these elements follow trends
down the group:

Atomic Radius
The atomic radius of Group 2 metals ​increases​ down the group due to additional electron
shells.

Reactivity
Increased electron ​shielding​ and increased atomic radius down the group makes the outer
electrons ​easier to lose​. Therefore reactivity of the Group 2 metals ​increases​ down the group.

Ionisation Energy
The first ionisation energy of Group 2 metals ​decreases​ down the group due to a greater
atomic radius and increased shielding. This makes it easier for an electron to be removed.

Reactions of Group 2 Elements and Compounds

Reactions with Water

The Group 2 metals react with water in a redox reaction to produce a ​metal hydroxide and
hydrogen​. The metal hydroxide forms as an ​alkaline solution​, hence why the Group 2 metals
are known as the alkaline earth metals.

Example:

The magnesium is oxidised from an oxidation state of 0 to +2

Magnesium reacts very slowly in this way with liquid water, however, the reaction can be much
faster with steam​ as it provides the reaction with ​extra energy​. Magnesium burns in steam
with a ​bright white flame​ to form hydrogen and magnesium oxide, a ​white powder​.

Example:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Reactions with Chlorine
Group 2 metals all react with chlorine gas to form ​metal chlorides,​ which are all ​white
precipitates.​ As you move down the group the reactions become ​more vigorous ​because the
elements are ​more reactive.

Example:

Reactions with Oxygen

Group 2 metals react with oxygen to form ​oxides​. Once the reaction has been initiated it is
vigorous​. ​Strontium ​and ​barium ​can react with excess oxygen and heat energy to form ​metal
peroxides​.

Reactions with Dilute Acids

The Group 2 metals react with dilute acids to produce ​bubbles of hydrogen gas​ and solutions
of ​metal compounds​.

Example:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Reactions of Group 2 Hydroxides with Dilute Acid
Group 2 hydroxides react with dilute acid to form ​a salt ​and ​water. ​This is a type of
neutralisation ​reaction. The salt formed depends on the acid used:

● Hydrochloric ​acid forms ​chloride ​salts.

● Sulfuric ​acid forms ​sulfate ​salts.
● Nitric ​acid forms ​nitrate ​salts.

Example: Calcium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid

Solubility of Group 2 Compounds

Solubility of Group 2 Hydroxides

The solubility of Group 2 hydroxides varies, allowing the compounds to have different uses.
Solubility ​increases down the group​ meaning magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)​2​) is the least
soluble and barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)​2​) the most soluble.

As a result, magnesium hydroxide is used in medicine as an ​antacid​ as it is alkaline and can

neutralise acids. It is used in a similar way in agriculture to neutralise acidic soils.

Solubility of Group 2 Sulfates

Group 2 sulfates ​decrease in solubility down the group​ meaning magnesium sulfate (MgSO​4​)
is the most soluble and barium sulfate (BaSO​4​) is the least soluble.

The insolubility of ​barium sulfate​ means it is very useful in medicine as ​barium meals​. These
are a form of medical tracer that allow internal tissues and organs to be imaged. Barium sulfate
is toxic if it enters the bloodstream, however because it is insoluble, it ​cannot be absorbed​ into
the blood. Therefore it is safe to use in this way.

Barium chloride is used as a ​test for sulfate ions​ as it reacts to form barium sulfate which
forms as a ​white precipitate​ when sulfate ions are present.

Example:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Thermal Decomposition

Thermal Decomposition of Group 2 Metals

Group 2 carbonates and nitrates undergo ​thermal decomposition​ to produce solid metal
oxides and a variety of gases. This is done by simply ​heating​ the substance in ​aerobic
conditions (plenty of oxygen).

Group 2 ​carbonates​ produce ​carbon dioxide​ along with the ​metal oxide​ which forms as a
white powder.

Example:

As you go down Group 2, ​more heat ​is required for this reaction as the ions increase in size
and the carbonates increase in thermal stability.

The Group 2 ​nitrates​ produce ​nitrogen dioxide and oxygen​ along with the white powdered
metal oxide​.

Example:

Again, as you go down Group 2, ​more heat​ is required for this reaction as the ions increase in
size and the nitrates increase in thermal stability.

Thermal Decomposition of Group 1 Metals

Group 1 carbonates and nitrates also undergo ​thermal decomposition​ upon heating in
aerobic ​conditions. In these reactions, ​lithium​ acts in a similar way to the Group 2 elements,
with lithium nitrate producing lithium oxide, nitrogen oxide and oxygen and lithium carbonate
producing lithium oxide and carbon dioxide.

Example:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
The rest of the Group 1 metals don’t react in this same way as the reactions ​rarely go to
completion​. The remaining Group 1 nitrates produce a ​metal nitrite and oxygen​ whereas the
remaining Group 1 carbonates simply ​won’t decompose​ upon heating in a lab as they require
extremely high temperatures​ to do so.

Example:

Explanation of the Thermal Stability Trend

The elements of Group 1 and Group 2 form more ​stable ​carbonates and nitrates as you go
down their groups, and so require more heat energy to undergo​ thermal decomposition​.

In Groups 1 and 2, as you go down the group, the ionic radius increases for the same overall
charge. This means smaller ions have a ​higher charge density.

The smaller ions are able to ​polarise ​the negative carbonate and nitrate ions more and the
more this negative ion is polarised, the less heat is required to separate the two ions. Therefore
smaller ions form ​less stable​ carbonates and nitrates, and larger cations form more stable
carbonates and nitrates.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Flame Tests

Group 1 and Group 2 elements can be identified using flame tests as each metal has a ​unique
flame colour​.

Procedure
1. Take a ​nichrome wire​ and clean it by placing it into a solution of concentrated
hydrochloric acid and then into a blue bunsen burner flame.
2. Repeat this ​cleaning​ until there is no colour produced in the flame.
3. Dip the wire into the unknown metal compound and place it into the flame. ​Observe​ the
flame colour produced.

The colours observed in the flame tests of Group 1 and Group 2 metal compounds:

Group 1 Colour

Lithium Red

Sodium Orange/Yellow

Potassium Lilac

Group 2 Colour

Magnesium No colour

Calcium Brick red

Strontium Crimson red

Barium Pale green

The formation of these colours in the flame test can be explained by​ electron transitions.

Electrons exist in orbitals and when energy (such as that supplied by a bunsen burner flame) is
absorbed by the species, some ​electrons ​will be ​promoted ​to ​orbitals ​which have a​ higher
energy.​ The electrons will then drop back down to the original orbital they were in and during
this process they​ release energy​, some of which is in the form of ​light​.

The colour produced depends on the ​wavelength ​of the light energy emitted. When some
electrons drop back down to their original orbital, the energy emitted may not have a wavelength
in the visible light part of the ​electromagnetic spectrum​, which explains why not all atoms and
ions produce a colour in the flame test.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Topic 4B: The Elements of Group 7 (Halogens)

Trends in Halogen Properties

The Group 7 elements are ​highly reactive non-metals. ​In order to achieve a full outer shell,
the halogens gain an electron and form a ​1- ion.

Atomic Radius
Atomic radius of Group 7 elements​ increases down the group​ due to additional electron
shells.

Electronegativity
As you go down Group 7, ​atomic radius and electron shielding increases​. This means
electrons in the outer shells are less strongly attracted to the nucleus, and so are more easily
removed. Therefore, electronegativity decreases down Group 7.

Melting and Boiling Point

The Group 7 elements are ​simple covalent molecules,​ held together with ​van der waals
forces. The strength of these intermolecular forces increases as the relative atomic mass of the
molecule increases. Therefore, the strength of the van der waals forces ​increases down the
group​. This means more energy is required to overcome them, resulting in higher melting and
boiling points. This is why fluorine is a gas at room temperature, whereas iodine is a solid.

Reactivity
The Group 7 elements need to gain an electron in order to react. As atomic radius increases,
this becomes harder as the positive attraction of the nucleus is weakened by additional
shielding​. Therefore, down Group 7 it is harder to attract an electron so ​reactivity decreases​.

Oxidising Power of the Halogens

The halogens act as good​ oxidising agents​ as they accept electrons from the species being
oxidised and are reduced. This oxidising power ​decreases down the group​ as their ability to
attract electrons decreases due to shielding and a greater atomic radius.

The relative oxidising strengths mean a halogen will ​displace any halide beneath it ​in the
​ hus, ​Cl​2​ will displace Br​-​ and I​-​ ions, ​Br​2​ will displace I​-​ ions and ​I​2​ will not
Periodic Table.​ T
displace any halide ions.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Halide Ions
The negative ions of halogens are known as ​halide ions​. These ions are ​good reducing
agents​ as they donate electrons to the species being reduced and are themselves oxidised.
This reducing power​ increases down the group​ as electrons are easier to lose from larger ions
due to shielding and a larger atomic radius.

Reactions of Group 7 Elements and Ions

Redox Reactions
The redox reactions between Group 7 halides and H​2​SO​4​ vary depending on the reducing
ability​ of the halide. The reducing ability of the halide can be observed by the relative reactions
of the halides with sulfuric acid:

Example:

1. Fluoride and Chloride ions

No further reactions​ take place since HF and HCl are not strong enough reducing agents to
reduce H​2​SO​4​. HF and HCl will both be observed as ​misty fumes​.

2. Bromide ions

HBr will be observed as ​misty fumes​ from the first reaction. ​Orange fumes​ of Br​2​ and ​choking
fumes​ of SO​2​ will be observed in the second reaction, where HBr reduces H​2​SO​4​.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 3. Iodide ions

HI will be observed as ​misty fumes​ from the first reaction. Similarly to above, HI then reduces
H​2​SO​4​ to ​solid iodine​ and ​choking fumes​ of SO​2​. The HI will then further reduce the SO​2​ to
toxic gas​ H​2​S (which smells of bad eggs).

The ​greater​ the reducing power, the ​further ​the reaction will proceed as the halide is powerful
enough to reduce more species. These reactions therefore represent the trend in reducing
power in halide ions. Clearly, ​reducing power increases​ down Group 7.

Disproportionation Reactions
Chlorine reacts with cold water to produce ​chlorate(I) ions (ClO​-​)​ and ​chloride ions​ via a
disproportionation reaction,​ as the chlorine is both oxidised and reduced. The oxidation state
goes from zero to both ​+1 and -1​.

Example:

This reaction is used in ​water treatment systems​ where chlorine is used in small quantities to
kill bacteria. This poses some risks as chlorine can be ​toxic​; however the benefits of clean,
treated water outweigh the risks.

A similar reaction of chlorine with cold dilute sodium hydroxide is used in bleach production.
Sodium chlorate(I)​, a key ingredient in the production of bleach, is produced via this
disproportionation reaction.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
If chlorine is reacted with ​hot, concentrated alkali,​ chlorine is disproportionated even further to
form one species with an oxidation number of -1 and another with an oxidation number of +5.

Oxidation Reactions with Group 1 and Group 2 Metals

Group 1 and Group 2 metals react with chlorine gas to form ​metal chlorides, ​which are all
white precipitates​. During these reactions​ chlorine is reduced​ and the ​metal is oxidised.

Example:

Precipitation Reactions of Halides

When combined with ​acidified silver nitrate​, halide ions react to form different ​coloured
precipitates ​depending on the ion present. The precipitates formed can be used to identify
which halide is present in a solution. It may not always be clear to distinguish the colour of the
precipitate so they can be tested further using ​ammonia​.

Example:

Cl​- Br​- I​-

+ AgNO​3 White precipitate Cream precipitate Yellow Precipitate

(AgCl) (AgBr) (AgI)

+ dilute NH​3 Precipitate dissolves No Change No Change

+ conc. NH​3 Precipitate dissolves Precipitate dissolves No Change

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Reactions of Hydrogen Halides
Hydrogen halides react with ammonia gas to form ​ammonium salts​. The hydrogen halides
(hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide and hydrogen iodide) are strong acids in solution and
react with ammonia in an​ acid-base reaction​ to form a salt.

Example:

Hydrogen halides react with water to form ​dilute acids​. In solution, these strong acids
dissociate ​to release their halide ions and hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions form a
hydroxonium ion ​with water molecules in solution. The resulting solution is ​acidic​.

Example:

Predictive Chemistry

Using the ​trends ​in physical properties, chemical properties and reactions described for
chlorine, bromine and iodine, ​predictions​ can be made for other halogens, including ​fluorine
and ​astatine​.

Example:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Topic 4C: Analysis of Inorganic Compounds

Tests for Anions

Sulfate (SO​4​2-​)
Sulfate ions are tested for using ​acidified BaCl​2​ which reacts to form a ​white precipitate​ of
barium sulfate.

Example:

Carbonate (CO​3​2-​) and Hydrogencarbonate (HCO​3​-​)

When an acid such as HCl is added, the substance containing the carbonate ions will ​fizz and
CO​2​ gas is given off​. This gas can be collected and bubbled through ​limewater​ which will turn
cloudy​, confirming its identity as carbon dioxide.

Example:

Tests for Cations

Ammonium (NH​4​+​)
If ammonium ions are present, adding NaOH and gently warming results in the formation of
ammonia gas​, which is ​basic​. Therefore, the presence of ammonium ions can be tested by
holding​ damp red litmus paper ​over a petri dish of the substance being tested. It will ​turn blue
if ammonium ions are present.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
 Edexcel Chemistry A-level

Topic 5: Formulae, Equations and

Amounts of Substance
Detailed Notes

This work by PMT Education is licensed under https://bit.ly/pmt-cc

https://bit.ly/pmt-edu-cc CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Moles and the Avogadro Constant

The mole is a unit of measurement for substances. It always contains the same number of
particles.

This number is the Avogadro Constant (L) and allows the number of particles present in a
sample of a substance with known mass to be found:

(n = moles) (L = Avogadro constant)

The mole is a very important unit of measurement in many calculations:

(where concentration is in mol dm-3 and volume is in cm3)

The molar mass of a substance is its mass in grams per mole and has the units g mol-1.

Mr and Ar

Relative atomic mass (Ar) is defined as:

The mean mass of an atom of an element, divided by one twelfth

of the mean mass of an atom of the carbon-12 isotope.

Relative molecular mass (Mr) is defined as:

The mean mass of a molecule of a compound, divided by one twelfth

of the mean mass of an atom of the carbon-12 isotope.

For ionic compounds, relative molecular mass is known as relative formula mass.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Empirical and Molecular Formula

Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a
compound. It is found using molar ratios of each element.

Molecular formula is the actual number of each atom in the molecule. It can be determined
using the Mr of the empirical formula and the true Mr of the molecule. This gives a multiplier
value which can be used to scale up the empirical formula.

Example

The Ideal Gas Equation

When under standard conditions, gases and volatile liquids follow certain trends:

Pressure is proportional to Temperature

Volume is proportional to Temperature
Pressure and Volume are inversely proportional

These relationships can be combined to give the ideal gas equation:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
In order to use this equation, the variables must be in the correct standard units:

p = pressure in Pascals
V = volume in m3
T = temperature in Kelvin
n = moles
m = mass in grams

R is the ideal gas constant, equal to 8.31 J K-1mol-1.

Equations and Calculations

Full or ionic chemical equations must be balanced before they can be used in calculations. This
is because the reacting ratios must be correct. For a chemical equation to be balanced, it must
have the same number and type of each atom present on both sides of the equation.

It can be useful to also include state symbols so it is clear what might be observed during the
reaction, for example, bubbles of gas, a precipitate forming, or a colour change that may infer
a displacement reaction.

There are four state symbols:

● (s) - solid
● (l) - liquid
● (g) - gas
● (aq) - aqueous (dissolved in water)

These balanced equations can then be used to calculate reacting masses, percentage yield
and atom economy.

Ionic equations
Ionic equations show just the reacting particles that undergo a change during the reaction and
not the spectator species. As with normal chemical equations, it must be balanced. The
reacting species are shown as dissociated ions.

Examples:
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl (s)

Cl2(aq) + 2Br-(aq) →Br2(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Percentage Yield
The percentage yield indicates how much of the maximum amount of product you obtained
during an experiment. A low percentage yield could indicate an incomplete reaction, or the
loss of product during purification.

Atom Economy
The atom economy is a measure of efficiency since it measures the proportion of reactant
atoms which are converted into the desired product.

In industrial chemical processes, it is desirable to have a high atom economy for a reaction.
This means there is little or no waste product, only the desired product. Therefore it means
the process is more economically viable for industrial scale manufacture.

Experimental data
Experimental data can be used to work out empirical and molecular formulas and reaction
stoichiometries. These calculations require use of the equations given in this section, along
with some others. To summarise, these include:

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Acid-Base Titrations

A titration is a practical method where a standard solution of known concentration is reacted

with a solution of unknown concentration in order to determine its concentration. For this,
there is a standard method to make up the standard solution and carry out the titration.

Volumetric Solution - Simple Method

1. Weigh the sample bottle containing the solid on a (2 dp) balance.

2. Transfer solid to beaker and reweigh sample bottle.
3. Record the difference in mass.
4. Add distilled water and stir with a glass rod until all the solid has dissolved.
5. Transfer to a volumetric flask with washings.
6. Make up to the 250cm3 mark with distilled water.
7. Shake flask.

Common errors in this method include systematic errors on the balance, lost substance in
transfer processes and overfilling of the volumetric flask. These can be reduced using
washing methods and by reading volumes from the bottom of the meniscus.

Titration - Simple Method

1. Fill the burette with the standard solution of known concentration, ensuring the jet space
in the burette is filled and doesn’t contain air bubbles.
2. Using a pipette filler and pipette to transfer 25cm3 of the solution with unknown
concentration into a conical flask.
3. Add two to three drops of indicator.
4. Record the initial burette reading.
5. Titrate the contents of the conical flask by adding solution to it from the burette until the
indicator undergoes a definite, permanent colour change.
6. Record the final burette reading and calculate the titre volume.
7. Repeat until at least two concordant results are obtained (within 0.1cm3 of each other).

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
Uncertainty

The equipment used in a titration all comes with their own uncertainty values. These must be
combined to find the overall uncertainty in the final answer.
The percentage uncertainty of a measurement can be calculated if the uncertainty of the
instrument is known.

Example:

Calculate the percentage uncertainty when a 25 cm3 volume was recorded using a burette
which has a 0.5 cm3 uncertainty.

The best way of reducing uncertainties in a titration is to increase the titre volume needed for
the reaction. This can be done by increasing the volume and concentration of the substance in
the conical flask or by decreasing the concentration of the substance in the burette.

It is also important to carry out a risk assessment before undertaking any practical work. This
should analyse equipment, the lab environment and the chemicals being used and suggest
methods for reducing the risk and what should be done if an accident occurs.

https://bit.ly/pmt-cc
https://bit.ly/pmt- d https://bit.ly/pmt-cc