The Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxons ruled for a long time and had three notable kings:

• Alfred (847–901)
• Edward the Confessor (1042–1066)
• Harold (1066)

In ancient times, Britain was known as an island rich in pearls, gold, tin, fertile soil, mild
climate (thanks to the Gulf Stream in the Channel), dense forests, water, birds, and fish.
Thanks to its rivers, it was easy to transport goods across the island. The land provided easy
access from the south, while access from the north was much more difficult, which is why the
Romans never managed to conquer the northern regions.

The Iberians, the early inhabitants of Britain, were already skilled in making weapons from
metal, building wooden huts, practicing agriculture, and creating trade routes, which made
them a very civilized people. They even had their own gods and built a temple called
Stonehenge on the Salisbury Plain, where they prayed and made sacrifices. Stonehenge is
composed of massive stone columns arranged in an elliptical shape. The Iberians
worshipped nature gods and used the Sun’s position at Stonehenge to guide their beliefs.
Archaeologists have discovered that the site was considered sacred as early as 3000 BC.

In the 6th–7th centuries BC, Celtic tribes defeated the Iberians. The Gaels lived in the north,
and the Brythons lived in the southwest. When the Romans came from Europe, the Britons
tried to help the Gaels. This made Julius Caesar attack Britain in 55 BC, but he failed. The
Romans came back with a bigger army in 54 BC. However, Caesar mainly wanted money
and slaves, so Britain stayed mostly independent.

Even so, the tribes were strongly influenced by Latin culture and the Roman system. The
Romans fully conquered the island in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius. Taking the southern
part was easy, but the Welsh fought hard before being defeated. In 121 AD, Emperor
Hadrian decided to build a wall to keep the northern tribes away from southern Britain. The
building of Hadrian’s Wall started in 122 AD.

By the 5th century, Rome chose to take its army out of England. This left the island open to
attacks from the north. Most of Roman civilization disappeared, but three important things
remained:

1. The commercial center of London.

2. Roman roads (which were used until the
Middle Ages).
3. Welsh Christianity.

Cities like Bath, Canterbury, Chester, and London (then called Londinium) were abandoned.
However, the Roman baths in Bath, built under Emperor Vespasian, are the only thermal
baths still standing in Britain. Their excellent preservation is partly due to their rediscovery
during the Victorian era.
The Welsh fought hard to resist the invaders. In 597 AD, the Saxons came, following orders
from Pope Gregory the Great, and settled in Scotland. At that time, England was divided into
seven kingdoms: Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Wessex, East Anglia, and Mercia.

In the 9th century, the Danes tried to conquer England but were stopped in 878 AD by King
Alfred of Wessex, who brought back order and strengthened civilization. After Alfred’s death,
the Danes came back and ruled until 1042, when Edward the Confessor became king. He
brought French culture and language to the nobility, while Latin became the language of
priests.

The Anglo-Saxons were primarily farmers and fishermen. They were physically strong and
lived in a hierarchical society led by a chief to who they were loyal and brave. They lived in
huts and organized themselves into small communities, with each family living in its own
home. Because of their strength, they were skilled warriors and could transform into pirates
when necessary, building warships and attacking their enemies with great success. They
also knew how to navigate storms.

In their free time, they enjoyed drinking, gambling, and betting on games like bear baiting
and mice racing. They had a deep sense of respect and held women in high regard. They
tried to produce wine when possible and loved music, playing, dancing, or singing during
evenings. At night, a scop (storyteller) would recount tales of heroic adventures. The
storytelling was often accompanied by music, and people would dance and celebrate. This
tradition laid the foundation for English literature, which was originally oral and passed down
from generation to generation by word of mouth.

Anglo-Saxon literature was born in the 7th century and lasted until 1066. It is mainly
composed of epic poems. There are two groups of production: the pagan and the Christian.
The pagan group can’t be properly considered Anglo-Saxon because it is influenced by
Germanic tribes and includes sagas, legends, and tales. The Christian group wrote works
based on the Bible or on the lives of saints for teaching and moral purposes. After the
Norman Conquest, the Christian group kept writing, influenced by Mediterranean
populations. The pagan group disappeared, but its works were still told orally, so today we
have a lot of information about how they lived.

Christian monks are said to have changed the stories to make them more Christian over the
centuries. They composed both epic and lyric poems. Today we have Beowulf, which dates
back to the early 8th century. The composer is anonymous. It is part of a Scandinavian saga
and talks about a hero. It is made up of folk tales, chronicles, historical events, and legends.
Beowulf is the name of the hero.

Part 1: Beowulf decides to go to the king of the Danes, Heorot, because his palace has been
attacked by a terrible monster, Grendel. Beowulf arrives, fights the monster, tears off one of
its arms, and kills it. However, Grendel’s mother wants to avenge her son, but Beowulf kills
her in a cave as well. He is able to do this thanks to a magic sword.
Part 2: Beowulf is old and has been the king of the Geats (his people) for 50 years until he
has to fight a fire-breathing dragon that is threatening to destroy his country. The dragon
attacks the people of Beowulf because the treasure it hides in a cave has been stolen.
Despite being old, Beowulf decides to confront the monster with the help of Wiglaf, his best
warrior.

Beowulf is a very long poem, entirely written in the West Saxon dialect, which is totally
incomprehensible to us. The lines are very long, and there is heavy use of alliteration,
inflections, and metaphors to convey hidden meanings.

The poem is set in regions of Northern Europe, described as having dark forests, dangerous
animals, and a sense of constant darkness. The atmosphere is mysterious, grim, and sad,
with gray being the predominant color. The nature of these places is portrayed as hostile, but
thanks to what we find in the poem, we can understand how people lived during the
Anglo-Saxon period.

Beowulf was written to teach moral lessons to its readers. It carries Christian morality, likely
added by the monks, who saw Beowulf as a Christ-like figure, willing to die for his people.
Just as Jesus Christ was helped by God, Beowulf is supported by a higher power to defeat
the monsters.

The Middle Ages is a historical period encompassing history, society, and culture. It spans
from 1066 to 1485 and is divided into three phases:

1. From Anglo-Norman to Middle English

2. The Age of Geoffrey Chaucer
3. From Chaucer to the Renaissance

The Norman Conquest and the Feudal System

In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the throne of England, asserting that Edward
the Confessor had promised it to him. William arrived in England by sea with a fleet of large,
powerful ships, whereas the English fleet consisted of long, slim, and light vessels. The
Normans were skilled strategists and overcame the English forces. On Christmas Day 1066,
William was crowned King of England and was invited to enter London as its ruler.

William I, also known as William the Conqueror, introduced the feudal system to England.
This system, based on a strict hierarchy, was his most significant innovation. The king was at
the top, followed by barons, who were granted lands in exchange for loyalty and military
service. The barons, in turn, provided knights for the king’s army and governed peasants
working on their lands. The feudal relationship was hereditary, passing from father to son.

William also implemented administrative reforms, such as the Domesday Book, a

comprehensive survey of all lands in England. He restructured the Church, appointing
bishops and abbots loyal to him, and introduced celibacy for clergy. He fortified the kingdom
by building castles and established a balance of power between the monarchy and the
Church.
Henry II and Legal Reforms

Henry II, a Plantagenet king and the son of Matilda and Geoffrey, strengthened royal
authority. He reformed the feudal system by allowing barons to pay a fee (known as
“scutage”) instead of sending knights to serve in the king’s army. This money was used to
finance professional armies.

Henry also introduced significant legal reforms. He established the Constitutions of

Clarendon, which limited the Church’s judicial authority. Clergy accused of crimes were to be
tried by royal courts, not just Church courts. This led to a conflict with Thomas Becket, the
Archbishop of Canterbury and once a close friend of Henry. Becket opposed the king’s
reforms, leading to his murder in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170. Becket’s death shocked
Christendom, and he was later canonized as a martyr.

Henry II also introduced the common law, which applied uniform legal principles across the
kingdom. Unlike Roman law, which relied on a judge’s discretion, common law was based on
precedent and trial by jury, ensuring fairer judgments.

Richard the Lionheart and King John

After Henry II’s death in 1189, his son Richard the Lionheart became king. Richard focused
on his personal glory, participating in the Third Crusade, where he gained fame as a military
leader. He died in 1199, and his brother, John Lackland, succeeded him.

John’s reign was marked by heavy taxation and disputes with the barons. These tensions
culminated in the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215, a document that limited the king’s
power and established the principle that the monarch could not impose taxes without the
consent of his council.

The Creation of Parliament

Henry III (1216–1272), John’s son, was deeply loyal to the Pope, which alienated many of
his subjects. Simon de Montfort led a rebellion against Henry, briefly imprisoning him in
1265. This rebellion paved the way for the creation of Parliament, initially composed of
nobles and clergy but later including commoners.

Edward I (1272–1307), known as “The English Justinian,” further developed the legal system
and established the Model Parliament in 1295, which included representatives from each
shire and borough. This institution laid the foundation for the modern House of Commons.

The Hundred Years’ War and the Black Death

Edward III (1327–1377) initiated the Hundred Years’ War to defend English territories in
France and secure the wool trade with Flanders. Early victories at Crécy (1346) and Poitiers
(1356) were followed by losses, and by 1453, England retained only Calais.

During Edward III’s reign, the Black Death (1348) devastated Europe. The Black Death of
1348 was caused by a bacterium, not a virus, and it could be contracted in two ways:
 1. Through the bite of a rat that lived in close proximity to humans. This was the
first form of infection, as the rats were contaminated by fleas.
2. If an infected rat attacked you, the disease could then be transmitted to others
simply through breathing.

It was called “black” also because it caused a massive number of deaths and was marked by
the appearance of buboes on the skin that changed color. Among the symptoms were dark,
livid spots of hemorrhagic origin that appeared on the skin and mucous membranes of the
infected.

This infection arrived in Europe through Italy (Sicily) and spread rapidly via trade and ships
full of rats. Two hundred million people died.

During this time, the wealth and corruption of the high clergy were heavily criticized. In
England, one of the greatest opponents of the Christian organization was John Wycliffe
(1328–1384). While he did not attack the Church’s doctrine, he held views that were
considered heretical. He criticized the Pope, the worship of relics, and the payment for
masses.

Many people during the plague believed it to be a punishment from God. This led many to
turn to heresy. One form of heresy was the “Lollardy” movement, whose followers were
known as “poor priests.”

When Edward III died, his successor was Richard II (1377–1399). His reign was marked by
misgovernment. Peasants were oppressed by taxes: every family member over the age of
15 had to pay a “poll tax” of 15 shillings. In 1381, the Peasants’ Revolt began.

After Richard II, his successor was Henry Bolingbroke from the House of Lancaster, who
became Henry IV. This led to civil war between the Houses of Lancaster and York. Under
Henry IV, the monarchy strengthened its position through victories over Scotland and Wales.

Henry IV died, and his successor was Henry V (1413–1422). Henry V was very young when
he came to the throne, but he restarted the Hundred Years’ War with France. In 1415, he
captured Harfleur and marched on Calais, achieving victory at the Battle of Agincourt on
Saint Crispin’s Day.

In 1420, a treaty was signed under heavy terms, and Henry V married Catherine, the Queen
of France. The English captured Normandy, and Henry V became the heir to the French
throne. However, in 1422, Henry V died, and his infant son, Henry VI, became king. A lord
protector, the Duke of Gloucester, governed on his behalf.

During Henry VI’s reign, a peasant girl, Joan of Arc, led the French army and became a
significant threat. She was captured and handed over to the English, who tried her and
condemned her to be burned at the stake in 1432. She was seen as a danger in the eyes of
the king.
By 1453, the English had lost all their French territories except for Calais. Henry VI proved
unable to stop the civil war among the nobles, who seized power due to his
mismanagement.

The Wars of the Roses began as a struggle between the House of Lancaster and the House
of York. Richard of York, a descendant of Edward III, led the Yorkist faction.

In 1461, Edward IV of York conquered the throne and became king, but the war continued. In
1483, Edward IV died, leaving the throne to Edward V, who was only 13 years old. His lord
protector, Richard, Duke of York, represented the Yorkist cause but was defeated in 1485 at
the Battle of Bosworth by Henry Tudor (Henry VII) of Lancaster.

Henry VII married Elizabeth of York, uniting the two houses and founding the Tudor dynasty.
The Lancastrians ultimately emerged victorious.

Edward V’s brother, Richard III, was portrayed as a villain by Shakespeare, who described
him as vengeful and responsible for killing his brothers to secure the throne.