Nondestructive Examination (NDE)

Introduction to Eddy Current Testing Examination

INTRODUCTION TO EDDY CUR-RENT In 1823 Michael Faraday discovered electro-
TESTING EXAMINATION magnetic induction (Faraday’s Law), the basic
principle of eddy currents: relative motion be-
Learning Objectives: tween a magnetic field and conductor causes a
voltage to be induced in that conductor. During
To enable the student to: an ET examination, alternating magnetic fields
indirectly develop circulating electrical currents
1. Understand the theory and principles upon in an electrically conductive object. The manner
which eddy current testing (ET) examination in which these currents flow provides data that
is based. can be displayed and interpreted.

2. Recognize the variables associated with ET. Eddy currents were identified by James
Maxwell in 1864. The term “eddy currents”
3. Become familiar with basic instrument types resulted from the similarity in movement of these
used. circulating electrical currents to the whirlpool
activity of so-called “eddies” in liquids. Eddy
4. Understand the principles of the presentation currents are defined as circulating electrical
of ET data on impedance plane displays. currents indirectly induced in an isolated
conductor by an alternating magnetic field. The
5. Become familiar with the basics of heat alternating magnetic field is developed through
exchanger tubing examination using ET. and around a coil connected to the AC generator
output of an eddy current instrument. When the
6. Understand typical reference standards used. alternating magnetic field is brought near a
metallic material, its flux lines affect the atoms of
7. Become familiar with code requirements. the material in such a way that electrons are
passed from one atom to the next. However, in
8. Recognize the advantages and limitations of contrast to electricity conducted along the length
ET. of a wire, the electricity generated by the test
coil’s lines of force has a circular eddy-like
History pattern.

Evolution of the ET method resulted from The extensive use of ET results from the
various discoveries about the relationship method’s sensitivity to the following variables:
between electricity and magnetism. In 1820 Hans
Oerstead discovered electromagnetism resulting • Conductivity variations,
from electrical current flow through a conductor • Presence of surface and subsurface
creating a magnetic field around that conductor. discontinuities,
• Spacing between coil and specimen (lift-off
distance), • In-service examination of tubing at nuclear and
• Material thickness, fossil fuel power utilities, at petrochemi-cal plants,
on nuclear submarines, and in air conditioning
• Thickness of plating or cladding on a base
systems;
metal,
• Aircraft structures and engines;
• Spacing between conductive layers, and
• Production examination of tubing, pipe, wire, rod
• Permeability variations.
and bar stock; and
• Rapid sorting for a wide range of parts.
Major application areas include the following:
Principles
In ET examination, the instrument and coil
assembly function together. The instrument’s AC
generator applies an alternating voltage of a
certain frequency to the coil, which causes an
alternating current to flowthrough the coil.

Electromagnetic Induction

The current in the coil develops a magnetic

field, called the primary field, around the coil.
This field becomes the source of two induction
processes induced by the
 coil’s flux: (1) back voltage into the coil that depends upon the orientation of coil flux to the
causes inductive reactance voltage into the specimen, which in turn depends on the
specimen that causes eddy currents to circulate. orientation of the turns of the coil to the
The eddy currents cause friction when they specimen. Orientation of the coil’s turns and,
circulate, resulting in generation of heat in the thus eddy current distribution, are determined by
test material. Thus, there is a conversion of the coil’s configuration. Basic configurations
electrical energy into thermal energy causing an include surface coils, encircling coils, and
effective resistive load on the test coil. Bothtypes internal coils.
of induction show on the display.
Eddy current flow is virtually undisturbed by
The eddy currents generate a magnetic field discontinuities oriented parallel to their flow
of their own, called the secondary field, which paths and greatly disturbed by discontinuities
reacts with the primary field that the coil is oriented perpendicular to their flow paths. Since
generating. eddy currents attempt to flow in unbroken loops,
they follow the path of least resistance around
Eddy Current Characteristics non-conducting obstacles, thereby increasing
their resistive path and reducing their amplitude.
Various material conditions such as the pres-
ence of discontinuities, changes in material The flow of eddy currents is analogous to the
properties, or changes in material thickness, flow of compressible fluids. While the flow paths
affect the flow of eddy currents in the material. are circular when eddy currents are undisturbed
Changes in the flow of eddy currents cause by non-conducting material boundaries and
changes in the magnetic field that the eddy discontinuities, the flow paths distort and
currents return to the test coil. Changes in this compress to accommodate intrusion of their
magnetic field cause changes in the inductive flow, illustrating edge effect.
reactance and effective resistance of the coil that
result in changes in the flow of electrical current The direction of eddy current travel continu-
through the coil. Changes in electrical current ally alternates between clockwise and counter-
flowing through the coil produce a change in the clockwise movement and in the direction
impedance indication on the instrument’s opposite to the flow of the primarycurrent.
display.
ET performance is generally described by
Eddy currents flow in closed loops three criteria:
(concentric circular paths) parallel to the turns of
the coil and perpendicular to the coil’s flux.
Therefore, theorientation of eddy current flow in
the specimen
 Sensitivity - This is the minimum size of material. In high conductivity materials, a
discontinuity that can be displayed from a given considerable eddy current flow (and thus a strong
depth distance in the material, secondary flux field) is developed at the surface.
Penetration - Penetration is the maximum This results in a substantial cancellation of
depth from which a useful signal can bedisplayed primary flux. Because the primary flux has been
for a particular application, and greatly weakened, less primary flux is available
to develop eddy currents at greater depth.
Resolution - Resolution is the degree to
which separation between signals can be The following factors can cause changes in
displayed. conductivity within a material:

ET performance depends primarily on test Material Hardness - Variations in material

material properties, test frequency, and coil hardness affect conductivity. As hardness in-
design. Because only frequency and coil design creases, conductivity decreases and penetration
are selectable, they are the primary controls over increases. As a matter of interest, greatest
performance. The following sections discuss in conductivity is apparent in the annealed state of
more detail the important variables and their nonferrous alloys.
effect on ET performance.
Chemical Composition - Variations in
9.3.1.1 Material Properties chemical composition within an alloy affect
conductivity.
9.3.1.1.1 Conductivity
Mechanical Processing - Material
Conductivity is a material characteristic that processing, such as cold working, affects lattice
describes the ease with which electrons pass structure, which causes minor conductivity
through a given material. Each metal isassigned changes.
a conductivity value on a scale called the
International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS). Thermal Processing - Thermal processing,
According to the IACS, conductivity values are such as heat treatment, causes hardness changes
rated in percent, with the conductivity of pure that are detectable as conductivity changes.
copper being 100 percent.
Residual Stresses - Residual stress in a
An increase in conductivity of the test material causes unpredictable conductivity
material causes an increase in sensitivity to changes. This is an undesirable condition.
discontinuities, but a decrease in penetration of
eddy currents into the material. As the coil’s flux Temperature - Variations in material
field expands, voltage is induced first on the temperature causes conductivity to change. As
surface and then at increasing depths in the material temperature increases, conductivity
 decreases. This is an undesirable condition. As material variable is displayed. However, with
a result, care must be taken that material impedance plane display cathode ray tube (CRT)
temperature does not vary during an examination instruments, each type of material condition
and that reference standards are the same presents data in a characteristic manner, which
temperature as the test specimen. results in the separation of variables and
facilitates the interpretation of signals.
Permeability
Frequency
Permeability is the relative ability of a mate-
rial to become magnetized when subjected to a As test frequency is increased, the density of
magnetizing force, that is, when placed in a eddy currents on the surface increases and sensi-
magnetic field. Ferromagnetic metals (including tivity to surface discontinuities also increases,
iron, carbon steels, 400-series stainless steel, permitting increasingly smaller surface disconti-
nickel, and cobalt) have high permeability. The nuities to be detected. As frequency is decreased,
alternating magnetic field of an eddy current coil material penetration depth increases, and the
becomes highly concentrated in such materials eddy current density decreases on the surface.
and overpowers the eddy current response, caus-
ing the system to display permeability rather than Eddy currents are subject to “skin effect”, in
conductivity variations. However, since essen- which current density is maximum at thematerial
tially the same factors that influence conductivity surface and decreases rapidly (exponentially)
also influence permeability, the permeability with depth. The material depth at which current
signals can provide useful information. density decreases to 36.8 percent of surface
current density is called the standard depth of
As material permeability increases, signals penetration.
resulting from permeability variations
increasingly mask eddy current signal variations.
In addition, eddy currents experience a linear
This effect becomes more pronounced with
phase lag with depth. As depth increases, eddy
increased depth. Permeability thus limits the
current activity is progressively delayed. Phase
effective penetration of eddy currents.
lag in the specimen proceeds at the rate of one
radian (57.3 percent) per standard depth of
Test Display of Material PropertyVariations
penetration. However, phase lag is displayed at
approximately twice that amount.
Care must be taken during examination to
ensure separation of variables on the display.
Test Specimen Geometry
Since meter instruments can display only up-
scale or down-scale deflections, the instruments
must be operated so that only one
 Test specimen geometry restricts eddy penetration is limited to coil diameter. However,
current flow due to physical differences such as since a small surface discontinuity causes a
size or thickness. proportionally greater disturbance in the field of
a smaller coil, smaller coils are preferred for
Material Thickness - Thickness can be detection and localization of small surface
measured because changes in thickness affect discontinuities.
eddy current flow in the test material. As the
material becomes thinner, eddy current flow Coil Coupling (Lift-Off)
becomes restricted.
When distance between the coil and
Material Discontinuities - These specimen varies, the intensity of the induced flux
discontinuities cause indications relative to the field likewise varies. The spacing between a
extent that the size and depth of the surface coil and the specimen is called “lift-off”.
discontinuities disturb eddy current flow. Thus,
discontinuities whose major dimensions are The spacing between either an internal coil or
perpendicular to eddy current flow paths and encircling coil and concentrically positioned
which are located near the test surface provide specimen is called “fill factor”. Sensitivity tolift-
the strongest indications. Additionally, since off and fill factor depends on flux density andthus
eddy currents attain peak amplitude decreases as distance between coil and specimen
progressively later as depth increases, display of increases.
this “phase lag” information can indicate
discontinuity depth. The decrease in sensitivity is nonlinear due to
the decrease in flux density according to the
Material Boundaries - Restriction of eddy Inverse Square Law. Lift-off is useful for
current flow called “edge effect” occurs when a measuring the thickness of paint or other
surface coil approaches the edge of a plate. nonconductive coatings on the surface of a metal.
Similarly, a current flow restriction called “end It can also be used to measure the thickness of
effect” occurs when an encircling or internal coil nonconductive materials, as long as such
approaches the end of a tube or pipe. Both materials are placed on a conductive object. Fill
conditions produce strong signals. The effects are factor deflections can indicate material variations
intensified by the wider eddy current fields such as wall thickness changes or ovality
developed by large diameter coils and lower test conditions.
frequencies.
Edge Effect
Coil Design
Restriction of current flow called “edge
Penetration and sensitivity are affected by effect” occurs when an eddy current surface coil
coil geometry. As a rule of thumb, eddy current
 approaches the edge of a geometric change. additional frequency enables an additional
Similarly, as mentioned above, a current flow variable to be isolated.
restriction called “end effect” occurs when an • Use of multiple frequencies allows more than
encircling or internal coil approaches the end of one frequency to be used simultaneously. For
a tube or pipe. Both effects produce strong example, during in-service tube examination,
signals. The effects are intensified by the wide a higher frequency provides sensitivity to
eddy current fields developed by large diameter inner diameter discontinuities and a lower
coils and lower testfrequencies. frequency provides sensitivity for responding
to outer diameter discontinuities.
Edge effect can be eliminated by scanning the • Use of multiple frequencies aids signal
coil parallel to the material edge at a constant analysis. The various conditions that can be
distance from the edge; simple fixtures to detected by ET exhibit different responses as
accomplish this can be easily fabricated. This frequency is varied.
technique maintains edge effect at a constant
value. Interception of a discontinuity then causes System Components
a signal change. The use of smaller diameter coils
reduces edge effect and the use of shielded coils All ET instruments require at least three
virtually eliminates it. circuit components: alternating current
generator, coil, and processing/display circuitry.
Equipment The level of flexibility designed into each ofthese
elements generally determines how ET
A variety of ET instruments are available for instruments differ from each other. ET coils can
use, from simple to complex. Although these be classified according to both basic
instruments vary greatly in applications configuration and mode of operation. Coildesign,
flexibility as well as size, most of them operate as well as magnitude and frequency of the applied
on similar principles. current, all affect the electromagnetic field
developed by the coil.
Multifrequency instruments offer potential
for substantial enhancement of performance. Use Basic ET equipment consists of an
of more than one test frequency has three advan- alternating current source (oscillator), voltmeter,
tages: and probe. When the probe is brought close to a
conductor or moved past a discontinuity, the
• Signals generated by the various frequencies voltage across the coil changes and this is read
can be “mixed” to prevent display of off the voltmeter. The oscillator sets the test
undesirable signals; suppression of signals frequency and the probe governs coupling and
from steel supports during examination of sensitivity to discontinuities.
nonferro-magnetic tubes is an example. Each
 Most ET instruments use an alternating cur- control or in discrete steps from about 1 kHz to 2
rent bridge for balancing but use various methods MHz.
for lift-off compensation. Send-receive
instruments should be used for accurate absolute The balancing controls, labeled X and R are
measurements in the presence of temperature potentiometers. They match coil impedance to
fluctuations. Multi-frequency instruments can be achieve a null when the probe is in a
used to simplify discontinuity signals in the discontinuity free location on the test sample.
presence of extraneous signals. Most instruments have automatic balancing.

ET instruments and recording equipment The bridge output signal amplitude is con-
have a finite frequency response which limits the trolled by the GAIN control. In some instruments
examination speed. it is labeled as sensitivity. GAIN controls the
amplifier of the bridge output signal and does not
The main functions of an ET, A sine wave affect current going through the probe.
oscillator generates sinusoidal current, at a
specified frequency, that passes through the test Following amplification of the bridge unbal-
coils. Since the impedance of two coils is never ance signal, the signal is converted to direct
exactly equal, balancing is required to eliminate current signals. Since the alternating current’s
the voltage difference between them. Most ET signal has both amplitude and phase, it is con-
instruments achieve this through an alternating verted into quadrature X and Y components.ET
current bridge or by subtracting a voltage equal instruments do not have a phase reference. To
to the unbalance voltage. In general they can compensate for this they have a phase shift.
tolerate an impedance mismatch of 5 percent.
Once balanced, the presence of a discontinuity in Crack Detection Instruments - Crack
the vicinity of one coil creates a small unbalanced detector instruments contain only one coil, with a
signal, which is then amplified. fixed value capacitor in parallel with the coil to
form a resonant circuit. At this condition the
The most troublesome parameter in ET is lift- output voltage for a given change in coil
off (probe-to-specimen spacing). A small change impedance is maximum. The coil’s inductive
in lift-off creates a large output signal. reactance, XL, must be close to the capacitive
reactance, XC.
The frequency selector sets the desired test
frequency. Frequency is selected by continuous Crack detectors that operate at or close to
resonance do not have selectable test frequencies.
Crack detectors for non-ferromagnetic, high
electrical resistivity materials such as Type 304
stainless steel typically operate between 1 and 3
MHz; those for
low resistivity materials (aluminum alloys, examine ferromagnetic materials, such as carbonsteel, for
brasses) operate at a lower frequency, normally in surface discontinuities. Normally a different probe is
the 10 to 100 kHz range. Some crack detectorsfor required; however, coil impedance and test frequency
high resistivity materials can also be used to change very little.
 display dot on a CRT screen while the coil inter-
Crack detectors have a meter output and three acts with the specimen. Each type of condition
basic controls: balance, lift-off, and sensitivity. that ET can detect is characterized by a certain
Balancing is performed by adjusting the pattern of display dot movement. Variables are,
potentiometer on the adjacent bridge arm, until in fact, arranged along curves or “loci” on the im-
bridge output is zero (or close to zero). GAIN pedance plane. Generally there are separate
(sensitivity) adjustment occurs at the bridge curves for each variable. Distribution of
output. The signal is then rectified and displayed information on the impedance plane can be
on a meter. Because the signal is filtered, in altered by changing frequency. Redistribution of
addition to the mechanical inertia of the pointer, information on the impedance plane by
the frequency response of a meter is very low adjustment of frequency is a key technique in
(less than 10 Hz). LIFT-OFF control adjusts the optimizing performance.
test frequency (by less than 25 percent) to operate
slightly off resonance. In crack detectors the test
frequency is chosen to minimize the effect of Lift-Off Curves
probe wobble (lift-off), not to change the skin
depth or phase lag. The zero conductivity point, also called the
coil in air or empty coil point, is typically located
Data/Displays at a position of low resistance, but of moderately
high inductive reactance. This is the impedance
Since the impedance plane is a graphic plot point for a coil whose flux is not near any
of ET information, resistance values are shown conductive material. However, as a coil is moved
on the X axis; inductive reactance values, on the toward a conductor, secondary flux changes the
Y axis. Impedance plane display instruments thus coil’s impedance and the display dot moves. The
present both impedance amplitude and position where movement terminates depends on
impedance phase angle simultaneously on a CRT the conductivity of the test material. The more
screen. conductive the test material, the greater the
cancellation of primary flux, which causes a
Data on an impedance plane instrument is greater drop in inductive reactance andmovement
interpreted by observing the movement of the further downward by the dot. Becausethe coil and
specimen are coupled, the specimenacts as a load
on the coil and the effective resistance of the coil
also changes. The movement of the display dot
is, therefore, a combination of variations in both
inductive reactance and effective resistance.
 frequencies, lift-off curves for low conductivity
Conductivity Curve materials are almost parallel to the conductivity
curve.
Originating at the zero conductivity point is
the conductivity curve, sometimes called the As frequency is increased, the operating point
comma curve, because of its shape. Different moves clockwise along the conductivity curve,
positions along this curve represent non- increasing the angle between the lift-off curve
ferromagnetic materials of different and conductivity curve. Maximum separation is
conductivities, whose thicknesses are infinite achieved at the so called “knee” of conductivity
relative to electromagnetic penetration. That is, curve, where the lift-off curve approaches it
the flux lines entering the material, as well as the almost perpendicularly.
eddy currents that they generate, are not
perceptibly affected by the bottom surface of the Thickness Curves
material. The counterclockwise extreme of the
conductivity curve represents zero conductivity, As previously stated, the conductivity curve
whereas the clockwise extreme of the curve consists of impedance points for materials whose
represents infinite conductivity. thicknesses are infinite, relative to electromag-
netic penetration. At lesser thicknesses, eddy
As the frequency is increased, the impedance current flow in the material becomes restricted
points for the various conductivities move and the impedance point moves
clockwise along the curve; the lower counterclockwise, spiraling away from the
conductivity materials spread apart along the conductivity curve. As thickness approaches
curve while the higher conductivity materials zero, the impedance point necessarily approaches
become compressed at the bottom end of the the zero conductivity point.
curve. Higher frequencies provide greater
separation for conductivity tests on lower A standard depth of penetration is indicated
conductivity materials. As the frequency is by the δ symbol. It is approximately located on
decreased, the impedance points for the various thickness curve at a point slightly to the right of
conductivities move counterclockwise along the the intersection with the conductivity curve.
curve; the higher conductivity materials spread Again, frequency adjustment optimizes perfor-
apart while the lower conductivity materials mance. As frequency is decreased, material
become compressed at the top end of the curve. penetration increases, but thickness resolution on
Lower frequencies provide greater separation for thinner materials decreases. As frequency is
conductivity tests for high conductivity materials. increased, material penetration decreases, but
Frequency adjustment also helps separate the thickness resolution on thinner materials in-
lift-off and conductivity variables during creases.
conductivity tests. At low
Discontinuity Signal Display
 along material surfaces. Conversely, narrow coils
In an ET examination, a discontinuity is an are preferred for detecting and pinpointing the
interruption of conductivity. The magnitude of an location of small surface discontinuities. Because
ET discontinuity signal depends on the quantity of their smaller diameterelectromagnetic fields,
of interrupted current flow. Length, width, and narrow coils are less susceptible to edge effect.
depth of a discontinuity all affect signal
magnitude to the extent that discontinuity, Encircling Coils
volume, and shape obstruct the greatest amount
of electron flow. Because ET density decreases Encircling coils completelysurround the
exponentially with depth, a given discontinuity specimen, thus they are normally used for
volume disturbs increasingly fewer electrons production examination of rods, wire,bar
with depth. The depth of the disturbance, stock, pipes, and tubing. Because of “center
however, causes a linear phase lag of the signal. effect”, eddy currents oppose and therefore
cancel themselves at the center of solid
cylindrical materials examined with encircling
coils. Thus, discontinuities located at the center
of rods and bar stock cannot be detected with
Basic Coils encircling coils. Encircling coils examine the
entire circumference of the specimen; however,
The basic coil configuration determines how they cannot pinpoint the exact location of a
the coil is packaged to “fit” the object being discontinuity along the circumference.
examined.
Internal Coils
Surface Coils
Internal coils pass though the cores of pipes
Surface coils are built into probe type hous- and tubes; thus, they are normally employed for
ings for scanning material surfaces. The coil axis in-service examinations. Like encircling coils,
is usually perpendicular to the specimen’s standard bobbin-wound internal coils examine
surface. Surface coils are available in different the entire circumference of the specimen at one
shapes and sizes to meet different application time but cannot pinpoint the exact location of a
needs. Larger surface probes permit faster discontinuity along the circumference.
scanning and deeper penetration, but cannot
pinpoint the location of small discontinuities. Both manual and automatic means are used
They are useful for conductivity examination to propel internal coils down the length of a long
because they tend to average out localized tube. Flexible “u-bend” assemblies are available
conductivity variations for navigating extreme curvature of tubing.
 Impedance Plane Response to
Techniques Conductivity Variations

During examination, ET instruments and Presentation of conductivity changes on the

recording equipment are typically connected. impedance plane. The point where the probe is
The eddy current signal is monitored on a storage balanced (nulled) is known as the operating point.
CRT and recorded on X-Y and two-channel It is from this point that all movement of the
recorders. Recording on a magnetic tape recorder “spot” is originated.
for subsequent playback is also common.
Measurement of conductivity can be made:
Impedance Plane Fundamentals
• By setting an intermediate operating
The essential features of impedance plane frequency that will not exceed 30 percent
analysis are: thickness of the test material for one standard
depth of penetration.
• The separation of the voltage drop across the • By balancing (nulling) the equipment and
eddy current probe coil(s) into voltage drop calibrating the CRT display to display two
due to pure resistance and the voltage drop known conductivities bracketing the
due to inductive reactance. unknownconductivity.
• The presentation of the impedance vector due
to resistance changes and inductive reactance NOTE: The use of reference calibration
changes as a “spot” on an oscilloscope. samples is essential for this task. Reference
• The movement of the impedance spot in calibration samples should both bracket and
different directions is caused by the approximate the unknown conductivity for
following different factors: higher accuracy.

- A change in conductivity (or resistivity), Sorting

- A change in lift-off (separation of the
probe from the test surface), In the same way that conductivity can be
- A change in probe frequency, measured, materials can be sorted. Different heat
- A change in geometry, treatments or different alloys, even different
- A change in probe, or permeabilities, are easily discriminated
- A change in permeability (or reluctance). permitting material sorting.

Discontinuities
 Location of surface breaking discontinuities provided when required by the referencing Code
is dependent on frequency. Section.

Calibration is formally defined as Electronic instrumentation of the ET system

comparison of the instrument to a reference should be calibrated at least once a year or
standard. During an actual ET examination, whenever the equipment has been overhauled or
calibration is the process of adjusting the repaired as a result of malfunction or damage.
instrument display to represent a known
reference standard so that the examination can be Single frequency or multiple frequency tech-
a comparison between the specimen and the niques are permitted for this examination. Upon
reference standard. The validity of the selection of the test frequency(s) and after com-
examination thus depends upon the validity of pletion of calibration, the probe should be
the reference standard. inserted into the tube where it is extended or
positioned to the region of interest. Resulting ET
Since there is an infinite variety of a signals at each of the individual frequencies
discontinuity condition, it is neither possible nor should be recorded for review, analysis, and final
practical to have a set of reference standards so disposition.
complete as to replicate every possible condition
that could be detected during an examination. The calibration tube standard should be
Therefore, it is not practical to match each signal manufactured from a length of tubing of the same
with an identical reference signal. Instead, one nominal size and material type (chemical
obtains practical reference standards that contain composition and product form) as that to be
a manageable number of representative examined in the steam generator. The intent of
discontinuity conditions. Signals that vary from this reference standard is to establish and verify
these must then be interpreted through system response. The standard should contain
techniques such as impedance plane analysis. calibration discontinuities as follows:

Discontinuity Location in Installed • A single hole drilled 100 percent through the
Nonferrous Steam Generator Heat wall;
Exchanger Tubing • A flat bottom hole 0.109” in diameter and
60%throuigh the tube wall from the outer
ET equipment capable of operation in the surface.
differential mode or the absolute mode, or both, • Four flat bottom holes, 3/16 inch diameter,
should be used for this examination. A device for spaced 90 around the circumference at 20%
recording data, real time, in a format suitablefor through wall from the outside surface;
evaluation and for archival storage, should be
• A 1/16-inch wide, 360 circumferential followed by a downward motion returning to
groove, 10 percent through from the inner the point of origin.
tube surface (optional); 3. The sensitivity should be adjusted to produce
a minimum peak-to-peak signal from the four
Other requirements for the standard include: 20 percent flat bottom holes of 30 percent of
the full scale horizontal presentation with the
• All calibration discontinuities should be oscilloscope sensitivity set at 1 volt per divi-
spaced so that they can be identified from sion.
each other and from the end of the tube. 4. It is common to then adjust the phase or
• Each standard should be identified by a serial rotation control so that the signal response
number. due to probe motion, or the 10 percent deep
• The dimensions of the calibration circumferential inside diameter groove, or
discontinuities and the applicable ET both, is positioned along the horizontal axis
response should become part of the of the display.
permanent record of the standard.

Calibration Procedure Calibration Using Absolute Bobbin Coil

Technique:
The examination system should be calibrated
utilizing the standard. A summary of the 1. The ET instrument should be adjusted for a
calibration steps follows: frequency so that the phase angle between a
line drawn from the origin to the tip of the
Calibration Using Differential Bobbin response from the through-the-wall hole and
Coil Technique : the horizontal axis is approximately 40. The
phase angle formed by a line drawn fromthe
1. The ET instrument is adjusted for the fre- origin to the tip of the response of the four
quency chosen so that the phase angle of a 20 percent flat bottom holes and the through-
signal from the four 20 percent flat bottom the-wall response line is between 50 and
holes is between 50 and 120 rotated clock- 120.
wise from the signal of the through-the-wall 2. The sensitivity should be adjusted to produce
hole. a minimum origin-to-peak signal from the
2. The trace display for the four 20 percent flat four 20 percent flat bottom holes of 30
bottom holes should be generated, when percent of the full scale horizontal
pulling the probe, down and to the left first, presentation with the oscilloscope sensitivity
followed by an upward motion to the right, set at 1 volt per division.
3. It is common to adjust the phase or rotation
control so that the signal response due to
probe rotation, or the 10 percent deep cir-
 cumferential inside diameter groove, or both, same phase change occurs again when sensed by
is positioned along the horizontal axis of the a probe on the surface (sensed at 114 total indi-
display 5. cated phase change). This phenomenon can be
4. The response may be rotated to the upper proven. A discontinuity at exactly one standard
quadrants of the display at the option and depth of penetration will give an indication of 2 x
convenience of the operator. 57 = 114 out of phase with lift-off.
5. Withdrawing the probe through the
calibration tube standard at the probe speed Location of Secondary Layer Cor-
selected for the examination should be rosion or Cracking
repeated. The responses should be recorded
for the applicable calibration discontinuities The frequency should be selected to give 90
and verified that they are clearly indicated by phase separation between lift-off and material
the instrument and are distinguishable from loss. As one standard depth of penetration gives
each other, as well as from probe motion 114 phase angle, if multiplied by 0.7895, the
signals. answer will be 90. So, for 90 phase separation
of subsurface discontinuities, the standard depth
Probe Speed of penetration frequency should be multiplied by
approximately 0.80.
The typical probe speed during examination
should not exceed 14 inch/second. Higher probe The equipment should be balanced (nulled),
speeds may be used if system frequency response and the lift-off set horizontally from the operat-
and sensitivity to the applicable calibration stan- ing point which should be to the lower right hand
dards. quadrant of the CRT.

Thickness Thinning is represented by a move of the spot

up the calibrated thinning line. Similar results
The effects of edge effect have already been will be seen for subsurface cracks except the
described and edge effect should be clearly dis- move of the spot from the operating point on the
cernible from other factors effecting eddy cur- conductivity curve will be quicker, and include
rents. Geometry is different from edge effect and an integration of the phase change through the
can also be described by reduction in thickness. depth of the crack. If the material thickens from
the balance point, the spot will move down the
Phase indications on CRTs are related to the CRT from the lift-off.
phase change as the eddy currents penetrate the
material under test. As the phase change occurs
into the material by 57 per standard depth of
penetration, it should be quite acceptable that the
 Note the small “comma” shaped curve is the Interpretation and Code
material thickening from the balance (operating) Requirements
point.
Written Procedure
Coatings
All ET examinations should be performed to
Variations in Thickness of Platingor detailed written procedures, unless otherwise
Cladding stated in the reference code.

These variations combine both conductivity Description of Method

and dimensional variables.
The procedure for eddy current should
Presentation of lift-off changes on the provide a sensitivity which will consistently
impedance plane. The point where the probe is in detect discontinuity indications equal to or
the balanced condi- tion (nulled) is known as the greater than those conditions in the reference
operating point. It is from this point that all specimen. Parts with discontinuities that produce
movement of the spot isoriginated. indications in excess of the reference standards
should be evaluated in accordance with the
Measurement of non-conducting coating procedure that meets code requirements.
thickness (lift-off) can be made using the
following procedure: Reference Specimen
- The highest frequency should be chosen
to give maximum sensitivity to lift-off (andhence The reference specimen should be a part of
accuracy). The equipment should be balanced. and be processed in the same manner as the
This will bring the operating point to the bottom product being examined. It should be of the same
of the conductivity curve. dimensions and the same nominal composition as
- - The CRT display should be calibrated to the product being examined. Unless otherwise
display two known non-conducting thickness specified in the referencing Code, the reference
(plastic foil or shim calibration samples are used) discontinuities should be transverse notches,
bracketing the unknown coating thickness. drilled holes, or should simulate as near as
possible the conditions to be detected.
NOTE: The use of reference calibration
shims is essential to this task. Reference The reference specimen should be long or
calibration shims should approximate the large enough to simulate the handling of the
unknown for higher accuracy. product being examined through the examination
equipment. The separation between reference
discontinuities placed in the same reference
 specimen should be not less than twice the length extensive selection of equipment is available to
or diameter of the sensing unit of the examination fit the examination to the application. Frequency
equipment. adjustment and coil selection are the examiner’s
primary controls over performance.
Equipment Qualification Information is obtained by monitoring changes in
coil impedance caused by variations in the
The proper functioning of the examination specimen. However, because the process is
equipment should be checked and calibrated by complex, examiner skill is a critical variable
the use of the reference specimens as follows: especially for the examination of heat exchanger
tubing.
• At the beginning of each production run of
given dimensions of a given material, Advantages
• After each hour during the production run,
• At the end of the production run, and The following are advantages of ET:
• At any time that malfunctioning is suspected. • This method is sensitive to numerous
material variables. Consequently, any of
Acceptance requirements shall be as several material properties can be measured
specified in the referenced code. providing the other variables are either
separately identifiable or suppressed.
Procedure Requirements • Much of the equipment is portable, light-
weight, and battery powered.
The written procedure should include at least • This method is nondestructive. No couplant,
the following: powders, or other physical substances are
applied to the specimen. The only link be-
• Frequency, tween the probe and specimen is a magnetic
• Type of coil or probe (e.g., differential coil), field.
• Type of material and sizes to which applica- • Results are instantaneous. As soon as the test
ble, coil is applied to the specimen, a qualified
• Reference specimen notch or hole size, and examiner can interpret the results. An excep-
• Additional information as necessary to tion, however, is computer analysis of tape
permit retesting. recorded multichannel test data.
• ET testing is ideal for “go/no-go” examina-
Advantages and Limitations of ET tions. Audible and visual alarms, triggered by
Examinations threshold gates or box gates, are available for
high-speed examination.
ET can provide a variety of useful • There is no danger from radiation or other
information about an object. In addition, an such hazards.
Material preparation is usually
unnecessary; cleanup is not
required.

Limitations

ET also has several limitations:

The material must be electrically

conductive.It is possible to
measure the thickness of
nonconductive coating on
conductive materials.

ET normally cannot penetrate

ferromagnetic materials.
Consequently, examination of
ferromagnetic material is limited
to surface discontinuities only,
unless the material has been
magnetically saturated using
direct current field coils.
Magnetic saturation is limited to
certain geometries only. In
addition, magnetically saturated
objects mayhave to be
demagnetized after testing is
completed.
Even for non-ferromagnetic
materials, theET method has
limited penetration.